Fire today ManagementVolume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006

Prescribed Fire case studies, decision aids, and Planning guides

United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service Dedication This special issue of Fire Management Today devoted to prescribed fire is dedicated to all the individuals from around the world who have been killed or seriously injured while engaged in a prescribed burning operation. This would include fatality incidents in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Portugal, the United States, and no doubt other regions of the world.

It is our sincerest hope that this publication will in some way contribute to an enduring culture where concern for the safety of personnel involved in prescribed burning is an integral part of the planning and operational procedures in the future.

Martin E. Alexander and David A. Thomas Issue Coordinators

Editors’ note: This issue of Fire Management Today reprints articles from early editions of the journal, some of them decades old. Although the articles appear in today’s format, the text is reprinted largely verbatim and therefore reflects the style and usage of the time. We made minor wording changes for clarity, added intertitles and metric conversions where needed, and occasionally broke up paragraphs to improve readability. All illustrations are taken from the original articles.

Fire Management Today is published by the Forest Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC. The Secretary of Agriculture has determined that the publication of this periodical is necessary in the transaction of the public business required by law of this Department.

Fire Management Today is for sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, at: Internet: bookstore.gpo.gov Phone: 202-512-1800 Fax: 202-512-2250 Mail: Stop SSOP, Washington, DC 20402-0001

Fire Management Today is available on the World Wide Web at .

Mike Johanns, Secretary Melissa Frey U.S. Department of Agriculture General Manager

Dale Bosworth, Chief Robert H. “Hutch” Brown, Ph.D. Forest Service Managing Editor

Tom Harbour, Director Madelyn Dillon Fire and Aviation Management Editor

Paul Keller Editor

Carol LoSapio Contributing Editor

Martin E. Alexander, Ph.D., and David A. Thomas Issue Coordinators

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of race, color, national origin, age, disability, and, where applicable, sex, marital status, familial status, parental status, religion, sexual orientation, genetic information, political beliefs, reprisal, or because all or part of an individual’s income is derived from any public assistance program. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities who require alternative means for communication of program information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact USDA’s TARGET Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice and TDD). To file a complaint of discrimination, write to USDA, Director, Office of Civil Rights, 1400 Independence Avenue, S.W., Washington, DC 20250-9410, or call (800) 795-3272 (voice) or (202) 720-6382 (TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer.

Disclaimer: The use of trade, firm, or corporation names in this publication is for the information and convenience of the reader. Such use does not constitute an official endorsement of any product or service by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Individual authors are responsible for the technical accuracy of the material presented in Fire Management Today. Fire Management today Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006

On the Cover: contents Prescribed Fire Case Studies, Decision Aids, and Planning Guides ...... 5 M.E. Alexander and D. A. Thomas Prescribed Burning in the Florida Flatwoods ...... 21 C.A. Bickford and L.S. Newcomb Vegetation Temperature and Fire Damage in the Southern Pines ...... 26 George M. Byram Prescribed burning in southern Broadcast Slash Burning After a Rain ...... 28 pine in about 1970. The photo Robert Aufderheide and William G. Morris is from an article by Walter A. Prescribed Burning in the Northern Rocky Mountains . . . . .32 Hough (“Prescribed Burning in Charles T. Coston the South Surveyed, Analyzed” [Fire Control Notes 34(1): 4–5]), The Christmas Eve Prescribed Burn ...... 35 a research forester for the USDA Albert A. Thomas Forest Service, Southern Forest Prescribed Burning Techniques in Loblolly and Longleaf Fire Lab, Macon, GA. The article Pine on the Francis Marion National Forest ...... 38 describes the prescribed fire pro­ John T. Hills gram in the 13 Southern States Prescribed Burning in Shortleaf–Loblolly Pine on from 1964 to 1971, when more Rolling Uplands in East Texas ...... 39 than 2 million acres were pre­ E.R. Ferguson scribe-burned each year on aver­ age, mainly in an arc from South Use of Fire in Forest Management ...... 41 Carolina to Louisiana and mostly Robert D. McCulley for hazardous fuels reduction and Reduction of Fuel Accumulations With Fire ...... 43 site preparation. Photo: USDA Robert M. Romancier Forest Service. Time–Temperature Relationships of Test Headfires The USDA Forest Service’s Fire and and Backfires ...... 45 Aviation Management Staff has adopted a Lawrence S. Davis and Robert E. Martin logo reflecting three central principles of wildland fire management: Prescribed Burning for Hazard Reduction on the • Innovation: We will respect and value Chippewa National Forest ...... 47 thinking minds, voices, and thoughts Thomas A. Fulk and Robert Tyrrel of those that challenge the status quo while focusing on the greater good. Prescribed Burning Techniques on the • Execution: We will do what we say we National Forests in South Carolina ...... 49 will do. Achieving program objectives, Zeb Palmer and D.D. Devet improving diversity, and accomplishing A Field Trial for Regulating Prescribed Fire Intensities . . . . .52 targets are essential to our credibility. Stephen S. Sackett • Discipline: What we do, we will do well. Fiscal, managerial, and operational dis­ Prescribed Nighttime Burns Bring Benefits ...... 54 cipline are at the core of our ability to Stephen S. Sackett and Dale D. Wade fulfill our mission. Rx for Burning on the Apache National Forest ...... 56 Bill Buck Fire Is a Terror … But Also a Tool ...... 60 Richard E. Baldwin

Firefighter and public safety is our first priority. Continued on next page

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 3 Fire Management today

contents (continued) Stereo Photographs Aid Residue Management ...... 62 Kevin C. Ryan and R.E. Johnson Positive Effects of Prescribed Burning on Wildfire Intensities ...... 65 James A. Helms The Cole Broadcast Burn ...... 69 James B. Webb Stage Underburning in Ponderosa Pine ...... 71 John Maupin Preliminary Guidelines for Broadcast Burning Lodgepole Pine Slash in Colorado ...... 72 G. Thomas Zimmerman Underburning To Reduce Fire Hazard and Control Ips Beetles in Green Thinning Slash ...... 77 Dick Smith, Robert Mrowka, and John Maupin A Matrix Approach to Fire Prescription Writing ...... 79 Steven Raybould and Tom Roberts Underburning on White Fir Sites To Induce Natural Regeneration and Sanitation ...... 83 Gary J. Petersen and Francis R. Mohr Prescribed Burning of Chained Redberry Juniper Community With a Helitorch ...... 86 Fire activity following ground Guy R. McPherson, Robert A. Masters, and G. Allen Rasmussen and aerial ignition of the 1,300- Prescribed Fire in the Southeast—Five Steps to a acre (525-ha) “Diamond L” pre- Successful Burn ...... 90 scribed burn unit on the Buffalo James Lunsford Ranger District, Bridger–Teton How To Estimate Tree Mortality Resulting National Forest in northwest- From Underburning ...... 96 ern Wyoming, October 1, 2005. Elizabeth D. Reinhardt and Kevin C. Ryan Vegetation/fuel types consisted of trembling aspen, sagebrush, and Author Index—Volume 65 ...... 101 mixed-conifer stands. The pri- Subject Index—Volume 65 ...... 102 mary purpose of the burning was to enhance winter and transi­ tional ranges for elk by using fire to stimulate aspen regeneration. Photos: Chris Vero, USDA Forest short Features Service, Bridger–Teton National Summary of Steps in a Successful Prescribed Burn ...... 100 Forest, Jackson, WY, 2005. Guidelines for Contributors ...... 106 Thirteen Prescribed Fire Situations That Shout Watch Out! ...... InsideBackCover John Maupin Websites on Fire ...... InsideBackCover

Fire Management Today 4 Prescribed Fire case studies, decision aids, and Planning guides M.E. Alexander and D.A. Thomas

ire Management Today and its predecessors collectively have a The use of fire by humans has a long F 70-year record of publishing on and storied history, all aspects of wildland fire manage­ as has been chronicled globally by noted fire historian ment. While early on the emphasis Stephen Pyne. was placed on subjects related to fire protection and fire suppression, Internet at the journal’s website Incident Operations Standards it wasn’t too long before articles (http://www.fs.fed.us/fire/fmt/). Working Team 2005), they all dealing with prescribed fire began This action has greatly increased have a central theme. Merrill and to appear. Bunton (2000) has identi­ the exposure of the journal within Alexander (1987), for example, fied and subject-indexed all the pre­ the global wildland fire manage­ defined prescribed fire as “any fire scribed-fire-related articles ment community. The collection of deliberately utilized for prescribed published in Fire Control Notes, Fire downloadable issues now extends burning; usually set by qualified Management, and Fire Management back to 1991. In time, the entire fire management personnel accord­ Notes between 1970 and 1999. The collection of all issues will be avail­ ing to a predetermined burning articles published on the subject of able for downloading from the Fire prescription.” They in turn defined prescribed fire from 1936 to 1969 Management Today Website. This prescribed burning, following were not so handily cataloged, will be a very valuable resource to Muraro (1975), as “the knowledge­ although summary indexes were the wildland fire community. able application of fire to a specific published by Fire Control Notes in land area to accomplish prede­ 1942, 1955, 1963, and 1969. Meanwhile, seeing the need for a termined forest management and compendium of relevant articles other land use objectives.” Starting with Fire Management on prescribed fire, the authors Notes volume 57, number 1 prepared this special issue of Fire Although subtle variations do (Winter 1997), all issues have been Management Today, selecting exist in how the terms “prescribed posted for downloading from the 28 previously published articles fire” and “prescribed burning” are Dr. Marty Alexander is a senior fire behavior from past issues of Fire Control defined by different individuals and research officer with the Canadian Forest Notes, Fire Management, and Fire organizations, the most impor­ Service, Northern Forestry Centre, and Management Notes. We chose case tant points to remember are that, an adjunct professor of wildland fire sci­ studies as well as pertinent decision according to Wade and Lunsford ence and management in the Department of Renewable Resources, University of aids and planning guidelines; and, (1989), prescribed fire is the appli­ Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada (at because space limited our selection cation of prescribed burning: the time of this writing, he was on assign­ of articles, we sprinkled titles of ment as a senior researcher with the Wildland Fire Operations Research Group, others throughout the issue (begin­ • In a skilled manner, Forest Engineering Research Institute of ning in the sidebar on page 6). • Under exacting weather condi­ Canada, Hinton, Alberta, Canada); and Dave tions, Thomas recently retired as the regional fuels specialist for the USDA Forest Service, Prescribed Fire Defined • In a definite place, and Intermountain Region, Ogden, UT. The The term “prescribed fire” has also • To achieve specific results. authors also served as issue coordinators been referred to as “control burn” for a special three-part series of previously The definitions above refer to tradi­ published articles on the subject of wildland or “prescription fire.” Although fire behavior—Fire Management Today 63(3) many different definitions of pre­ tional, planned-ignition prescribed [Summer 2003], Fire Management Today scribed fire exist globally (e.g., fires versus chance- or random- 63(4) [Fall 2003], and Fire Management ignition prescribed fires (Alexander Today 64(1) [Winter 2004]. BCRC 2004; CIFFC 2003; NWCG

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 5 Additional References on Prescribed Fire The following articles related to Devet, D.D. 1975. Wildfire used to achieve Wilkes, L.E. 2000. Preservation of forests: prescribed fire, published in Fire land management objectives. Fire Judicious firing of debris in wet autumn Management. 36(1): 10–11. is urged. Fire Management Today. 60(4): Control Notes and its successors, Ferguson, J.P. 2005. Building a landscape- 27–28. could not be reprinted in this level prescribed fire program. Fire Williams, J. 2004. Managing fire-depen- issue of Fire Management Today Management Today. 65(3): 16–18. dent ecosystems: We need a public lands Franklin, S.E.; Riggan, P.J. 1989. Prescribed policy debate. Fire Management Today. due to space constraints. Similar fire in southern California: Managing 64(2): 6–11. lists are sprinkled throughout this conflicts of public safety and air quality. Wilson, R.L. 1987. Prescribed burning issue (see pages 34, 37, 40, 46, 53, Fire Management Notes. 50(4): 38–41. in Michigan. Fire Management Notes. Greeley, W.B. 2000. “Paiute Forestry” or the 48(4): 12–14. 59, 61, 68, 78, 82, 89, and 100). fallacy of light burning. Fire Management Today. 60(4): 21–26. References on Prescribed Fire Harvey, B.; Fitzgerald, S. 2004. Is Florida’s References on Native Uses of Fire Policies, Uses, and Strategies prescribed fire program something to Barrett, S.W.; Swetnam, T.W.; Baker, get choked up about? Fire Management W.L. Baker. 2005. Aboriginal burning: Aldrich, D.F.; Mutch, R.W. 1972. Today. 64(4): 16–18. Deflating the legend. Fire Management Wilderness fires allowed to burn more Hof, J. 2004. Diversifying fuels man- Today. 65(3):31–34. naturally. Fire Control Notes. 33(1): 3–5. agement to offset uncertainity. Fire Brauneis, K. 2004. Fire use during the Barrett, S.W. 1999. Why burn wilderness? Management Today. 64(2): 22–23. Great Sioux War. Fire Management Fire Management Notes. 59(4): 18–21. Hough, W.A. 1973. Prescribed burning in Today. 64(3): 4–9. Brown, H. 2000. To burn or not to burn: South surveyed, analyzed. Fire Control Brown, H. 2000. Wildland burning by Changes in blueberry management. Fire Notes. 34(1): 4–5. American Indians in Virginia. Fire Management Today. 60(1): 13. Ingalsbee, T. 2001. Wildland fire use in Management Today. 60(3): 29–39. Brown, H. 2004. Early voices for light roadless areas: Restoring ecosystems and Brown, H. 2004. Reports of American burning. Fire Management Today. 64(3): rewilding landscapes. Fire Management Indian fire use in the East. Fire 23–24. Today. 61(2): 29–32. Management Today. 64(3): 17–22. Brown, H. 2005. Ecological restoration: Kautz, E.W. 1987. Prescribed fire in blue- Mack, C.A. 2003. A burning issue: Two recent studies. Fire Management berry management. Fire Management American Indian fire use on the Today. 65(3): 11. Notes. 48(3): 9–12. Mt. Rainier Forest Reserve. Fire Brown, H. 2005. Ecological restora- Koehler, J.T. 1992–93. Prescribed burn- Management Today. 63(2): 20–24. tion in Montana’s western larch. Fire ing: A wildfire prevention tool? Fire Williams, G.W. 2000a. Introduction to Management Today. 65(4): 28–35. Management Notes. 53–54(4): 9–13. aboriginal fire use in North America. Brown, J.K. 1989. Could the 1988 fires Pauley, S. 1941. Uncontrolled blueberry Fire Management Today. 60(3): 8–12. Yellowstone have been avoided through burning is unjustified. Fire Control Williams, G.W. 2000b. Early fire use in prescribed burning? Fire Management Notes. 5(4): 214–215. Oregon. Fire Management Today. 60(3): Notes. 50(3): 7–13. Riley, D.J. 1985. DESCON: A proven meth- 13–20. Brown, J.K. 1992–93. A case for man­ od of reducing wildfire suppression costs. Williams, G.W. 2000c. Reintroducing agement ignitions in wilderness. Fire Fire Management Notes. 46(4): 3. Indian-type fire: Implications for land Management Notes. 53–54(4): 3–8. Roe, A.L. 1940. Cooperative meadow burn- managers. Fire Management Today. DellaSala, D.A.; Frost, E. 2001. An ecologi­ ing. Fire Control Notes. 4(1): 46. 60(3): 40–48. cally based strategy for fire and fuels Tomascak, W. 1991. Improving a prescribed Williams, G.W. 2004. American Indian fire management in National Forest roadless natural fire program: The Northern use in the arid West. Fire Management areas. Fire Management Today. 61(2): Region’s approach. Fire Management Today. 64(3): 10–14. 12–23. Notes. 52(4): 6–8. and Dube 1983). In some cases, Prescribed Fire Uses extent, full recognition of this point naturally ignited wildland fires is still lacking today. Wright and The use of fire by humans has a can produce beneficial results in Heinselman (1973), for example, long and storied history, as has terms of attaining land manage­ outlined the principles of fire as an been chronicled globally by noted ment objectives, and they are some­ ecosystem process in fire-depen­ fire historian Stephen Pyne (1982, times allowed to burn with limited dent northern conifer forests: 1991, 1995, 1997, 2001, 2004). intervention, provided they meet However, the fact that fire is both a predefined criteria (Parsons and • Fire influences the physical– management tool and a process was others 2003). In the United States, chemical environment (e.g., by generally unappreciated until about such events or incidents are called volatilizing some nutrients, direct­ 30 years ago; and, to a certain “wildland fire use” (NWCG Incident ly releasing mineral elements as * In keeping with the definition adopted by the National Operations Standards Working Wildfire Coordinating Group in the United States—and ash, and reducing plant cover and Team 2005).* therefore with usage required in Fire Management thereby increasing insolation and, Today—this article refers to planned-ignition prescribed fires simply as “prescribed fires.” in turn, soil temperatures);

Fire Management Today 6 A prescribed fire can, if properly executed, accomplish equipment operation, and suppres­ many beneficial purposes. sion crew organization. Mopup on prescribed fires is essentially the same as on wildfires, so new per­ • Fire regulates dry-matter accu­ America (e.g., Beaufait 1966; Green sonnel can be made familiar with mulation (i.e., in terms of fuel 1981; Martin and Dell 1978; Sando problems before their first wildfire consumption and production); and Dobbs 1970) and globally. To by using them on prescribed-burn­ • Fire controls plant species and this list we could add, for example, ing operations. Such training communities (at the individual increasing water yields (Green should probably be viewed as a sec­ and stand level as well as at the 1977; Pase and Granfelt 1977). ondary objective of all prescribed landscape scale); fires, but it might become the • Fire determines wildlife habitat Experimental outdoor or prescribed primary objective (Alexander 1999; patterns and populations (indirect­ fires have also been undertaken Cheney 1994). ly through vegetation as opposed exclusively for the purpose of gen­ to fire-induced mortality); erating fire behavior data in rela­ A prescribed fire can, if properly • Fire influences forest insects, tion to prevailing environmental executed, accomplish many ben­ parasites, fungi, etc. (directly by conditions in order to develop new eficial purposes (see the sidebar sanitization and indirectly by predictive models or guides (e.g., below). On the other hand, it can regulating vegetation); and Bruner and Klebenow 1979; Davis actually be damaging, depending • Fire controls major ecosystem and Dieterich 1976) and/or vali­ on the fire’s intensity and timing in processes and characteristics date existing ones (Alexander and terms of the season or time of year (e.g., nutrient cycles and energy Quintilio 1990). Such fires might (Robbins and Myers 1992). The key flow, succession, diversity, pro­ also be set to examine fire sup­ is to develop the right burning or ductivity, and stability). pression effectiveness (e.g., Crosby fire prescription during the plan­ and others 1963; Johansen 1965; ning process (Miller 2004). Several authors have applied this Murphy and others 1991). broad framework with specific Prescribed Fire examples to various ecosystems Prescribed burning can also serve Planning Process (e.g., Alexander and Euler 1981; as a valuable aid for training fire­ Figure 1 (from Kayll 1980) shows Wade and others 1980). fighting personnel. Many new a basic framework for employing firefighters are unfamiliar with fire prescribed fires in forest vegetation Wade and Lunsford (1989) consid­ control methods and need training management. The most important ered the following as the most com­ in fire suppression. Prescribed fires element in the flow process is the mon reasons for using prescribed can provide an excellent opportu­ explicit provision of “feedback fire in forest resource management nity to learn about fire behavior, loops” (i.e., mechanisms or proce­ in the Southern United States:

• Reducing hazardous fuels; Fire’s Dichotomous Role in Land Management* • Preparing sites for seeding and Prescribed fire can: Or it can: planting; • Reduce flammable fuels • Eventually increase fire hazards • Disposing of logging debris; • Remove organic matter • Contribute more organic matter • Improving wildlife habitat; • Expose mineral soil • Permit soil to erode • Managing competing vegetation; • Kill viable seeds in duff • Stimulate germination • Controlling insects and disease; • Kill understory species • Cause their roots to sprout • Improving forage for grazing; • Reduce insect numbers • Enhance the insect environment • Enhancing appearance; • Kill pathogens • Provide entry for soil fungi • Improving access; • Increase soil nutrient • Reduce soil water-holding • Perpetuating fire-dependent spe­ availability capacity cies (ecosystem restoration); • Open serotinous cones • Destroy other seed sources • Cycling nutrients; and • Thin overstocked stands • Promote overstocking • Managing endangered species. * From Beaufait (1962). These objectives are similar to those in other regions of North

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 7 dures whereby one can determine Figure why or why not managerial objec­ 1—Simple flowchart for tives have been met). The five-step employing process is as follows: prescribed fires in wildland vegetation Step 1: After making the decision management to use fire (fig. 2), the first and (from Kayll most important step is to set (and 1980). declare) the objectives relative to the site(s) and fuel type(s) you are attempting to manage.

For example, if the general objec­ tives are wildfire hazard abatement (Muraro 1968) and improved tree- planting performance (Vyse and tion for achieving them expressed It is worth noting that case studies Muraro 1973), then the specific in terms of fire danger ratings, fire undertaken in one country can be objectives of the prescribed burn weather conditions, season, time of applied to another, if fuel-type char­ would probably be stated in terms day, ignition pattern, etc. (see the acteristics are relevant, by inter­ of the quantity of down–dead woody sidebar on page 9, lower left) based preting burning conditions through fuel (by roundwood size class dis­ on the best possible information the other country’s fire danger tribution) and organic matter to available, such as operational case rating system (e.g., Alexander 1982, be consumed (Hawkes and others studies, research publications, deci­ 1984; Alexander and Sando 1989). 1990; Muraro 1975). sion aids and guides, expert opinion and past experience (fig. 3) or other Step 3: Is the “prescription” possi­ Step 2: Having defined the objec­ approaches (e.g., Reinhardt and ble? That is, are there enough suit­ tives, determine a burning prescrip- others 1992). able days in an average fire season

Organization Philosophy Guidelines, Goals

Land Use Plan

Objectives for given area and piece of land Reconnaissance

Treatment needed No

Yes General objectives of treatment

Measurements Tools

Manual Mechanical Fire Chemical Biological Specific objectives of treatment

Estimation tools

No Prescription within constraints

Yes Conduct burn

Evaluation

Figure 2—The mental and management steps leading to the use Figure 3—Flow of information in designing prescribed burning of prescribed burning (from Martin 1978). prescriptions (from Brown 1975).

Fire Management Today 8 and at the right time of the season the sidebar to the right); and, as ior during the actual burning opera­ to make it a reasonable prescrip­ appropriate, execute the plan (see tions will depend on ease of access tion (Bradshaw and Fischer 1981; the sidebar on page 10). and safety considerations, avail­ Martell 1978)? If not, then follow ability of personnel and equipment, the feedback loops to redefine the A plethora of prescribed-fire-plan­ size of the burning unit, and firing prescription and/or the objective. ning guidelines and guidebooks are pattern (McRae and others 1979; available, including manuals on NWCG Prescribed Fire and Fire This might involve several iterations costing (Manol and others 1996) Effects Working Group Team 1982; with slight changes in the range of and complexity rating (NFES 2004). Rothermel and Rinehart 1983). The the variables or parameters, includ­ See, for example, Allen and others documentation made prior to, dur­ ing enlarging the ranges, before (1968), Kiil (1969), Fischer (1978), ing, and immediately after the fire arriving at acceptable ranges that Martin and Dell (1978), NWCG (e.g., postburn sampling) should would still achieve the desired fire Prescribed Fire and Fire Effects directly link to the burning prescrip- behavior and impact (Martell 1978). Working Group Team (1986), Wade A common mistake is to include too and Lunsford (1989), and The many variables, because the prob­ Nature Conservancy (1991). Elements of a ability of their simultaneous occur­ Prescribed Fire Plan* rence is generally quite low. Step 5: Review performance to determine whether the stated 1. Required signatures/approv­ Step 4: If the prescription is possi­ objectives were achieved, and, most als ble, then proceed with the detailed importantly, why. If the stated 2. Burn unit description planning for the operational objectives were not achieved, it is 3. Vicinity map execution of the prescribed burn, equally important to determine 4. Project map including smoke management con­ why and thus close the loops. 5. Goals and objectives siderations (Gorski and Farnsworth The level of detail that can be 6. Source of funding and esti­ 2000; Hardy and others 2001); pre­ achieved in monitoring weather mated cost pare the prescribed fire plan (see conditions and aspects of fire behav- 7. Equipment and personnel 8. Fire prescription 9. Weather information Three Examples of Burning Prescriptions 10. Preparation work Based in Part on the Canadian Forest Fire 11. Protection of sensitive fea­ Weather Index System* tures 12. Smoke management Open, montane lodgepole pine Lowland black spruce stand fol­ 13. Preburn coordination and stand—ecosystem restoration lowing harvesting—seedbed prep­ public involvement (Dube 1977): aration (Chrosciewicz 1976): 14. Burn day notification • Dry-bulb temperature: 61–73 °F • FFMC: ~ 91 15. Public and personnel safety (16–23 °C) • DMC: 22–46 16. Communication • Relative humidity: 25–40 per­ • BUI: 21–45 17. Briefing guidelines and “Go/ cent • 10-m (33-ft) open windspeed: No Go” checklist • 10-m (33-ft) open windspeed: 5–10 miles per hour (8–16 km/ 18. Test fire 5–15 miles per hour (8–24 km/ h) 19. Firing, holding, and mopup/ h) patrol • ISI: 5–12 White and red pine stand—seed­ 20. Contingency • BUI: > 20 bed preparation and understory 21. Monitoring and evaluation • FWI: 10–12 vegetation control (Van Wagner 22. Rehabilitation and Methven 1978): 23. Management of multiple pre­ • FFMC: 90–95 scribed fires * The Fire Weather Index System components consist • ISI: 8–16 of three fuel moisture codes and three fire behavior 24. Necessary support documen­ indexes (Canadian Forestry Service 1984): the Fine • BUI: < 52 tation Fuel Moisture Code (FFMC); Duff Moisture Code • FWI: 12–24 (DMC); Drought Code (DC); Initial Spread Index (ISI); * From NWCG Prescribed Fire and Fire Effects Buildup Index (BUI); and Fire Weather Index (FWI). • Time of year: May–June (ideal) Working Team (1986).

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 9 tion relative to what was achieved or Prescribed Fire that offers a unique blend of formal accomplished versus the objective(s) Training classroom training and hands-on of burning. In other words, there are prescribed-burning field experience Three national prescribed-fire lots of things to potentially docu­ over the course of a 7-week period training course packages are now ment on a prescribed fire, but one (http://nationalfiretraining.net/sw/ available through the U.S. National should ensure that the basics are futa/). The National Interagency Wildfire Coordinating Group’s covered off first. Prescribed Fire Training Center National Fire Equipment System located in Tallahassee, FL, offers a based at the National Interagency Postburn monitoring can range similar program oriented towards Fire Center in Boise, ID (NFES from simple repeat photography the southeastern United States 2005): (Magill 1989) to more detailed stud­ (Fort and others 2000). University- ies (USDI Fish and Wildlife Service level courses in fire ecology that • Prescribed Fire Burn Boss (Rx– 2004; USDI National Park Service include a prescribed-fire com­ 300), 2003). A pre- and postburn fuel ponent and orientation are even • Introduction to Fire Effects (Rx– photo series, especially if coupled available on the World Wide Web 340), and with quantitative measurements, (Walstad and others 2003). • Smoke Management Techniques is an invaluable tool for future Rx–450). prescribed-fire planning and burn- Prescribed-Fire-Related ing-prescription formulation (e.g., For a listing of course offerings, Information Sources Scholl and Waldrop 1999; Wade visit the Wildland Fire Training There is no shortage of technical and others 1993; Wearn and oth­ website (http://www.national­ information on prescribed fire and ers 1982). Detailed, research-level firetraining.net). The National prescribed burning. Several books documentation and monitoring are Advanced Fire and Resource (e.g., Agee 1993; Biswell 1989; probably justified when burning in a Institute in Tucson, AZ (http://www. DeBano and others 1998; Kozlowski new fuel or vegetation type (Gilmore nafri.gov/index.htm) also offers and Ahlgren 1974; Pyne and oth­ and others 2003). Occasionally, pre­ the “Applied Fire Effects” course ers 1996; Walstad and others 1990; scribed fires attract the attention (Rx–510) on an annual basis. Whelan 1995; Wright and Bailey of wildland fire researchers who 1982) and bibliographies (e.g., are able to “piggyback” their activi­ Two prescribed-fire training cen­ Crow 1982; Cushwa 1968; Greenlee ties onto the operational burning ters have been in operation in 1995; Kumagai and Daniels 2002) without causing undue interference the United States since 1998. exist, plus online sources such as (e.g., Stocks and McRae 1991). The Southwest Fire Use Training the Encyclopedia of Southern Fire Academy located in Albuquerque, Science (http://forestencyclopedia. NM, is an interagency program net/Encyclopedia/Fire%20Science). Numerous conference and sym­ posium proceedings devoted to a wide range of prescribed-fire The Fourteenth Prescribed Fire Situation that topics have also been published Shouts, “Watch out!” (e.g., Baumgartner and others Maupin’s (1981) thirteen prescribed fire situations that shout watch 1989; Bidwell and Burke 1993; out! are listed on the back inside cover of this issue. Based on past Bryan 1997; Hardy and Arno 1996; experiences (e.g., USDA Forest Service 2003), we would add a four­ Koonce 1986; Lotan and Brown teenth situation to this list: 1985; Sanders and Durham 1985; Trowbridge and Macadam 1983; Conducting a prescribed fire without having a temporary onsite or USDA Forest Service 1971, 1977; nearby fire weather station. Wade 1985; Wood 1981). Other excellent sources of information This applies to some specified time prior (depending on the fuel include fuel- or vegetation-type-spe­ type and representativeness of the permanent, “offsite” fire weather cific prescribed-fire guidelines (e.g., station(s) for startup values), during, and immediately following the Archibald and others 1994; Bunting prescribed fire. and others 1987; Cheney 1978; De Ronde and others 1990; Green 1977;

Fire Management Today 10 There are lots of things to potentially document on a a field setting under quickly chang­ prescribed fire, but one should ensure that the basics are ing environmental conditions. Many covered off first. fire managers feel out of control and anxious over the sheer amount of information and data they are sup­ Gruell and others 1986; Kilgore and Several prescribed-fire-related posed to deal with. They may suffer Curtis 1987; Norum 1977; Wright models exist. For example, FOFEM, from “information anxiety,” defined and others 1979). a national fire effects model, pre­ by Wurman (1989) as the feeling of dicts tree mortality, fuel consump­ being overwhelmed by the amount One of the most notable sources on tion, smoke production, and soil of information available on a given prescribed fire is the proceedings heating (Reinhardt and others topic. Wurman notes that even if we of the Tall Timbers Fire Ecology 1997). CONSUME also predicts find the information we think we Conference series organized by the amount of fuel consumption need, we might not be able to under­ the Tall Timbers Research Station and emissions from the burning of stand or evaluate it. (Fischer 1980); the 23rd event, logged units, piled debris, and nat­ devoted to “fire in grasslands & ural fuels for most vegetation types Inherent Risks in Using shrubland ecosystems,” took place in North America (Ottmar and oth­ Prescribed Fire in October 2005 in Bartlesville, ers 1993). With respect to model­ The biggest challenge for fire man­ OK. The Tall Timbers Research ing fire behavior, a few empirically agers faced with a steadily rising Station has also published other based, fuel-type-specific models prescribed-burn targets is lack of prescribed-fire-related monographs exist (e.g., Bruner and Klebenow practical experience within their fire (e.g., Biswell and others 1973; 1979; Cheney and others 1992; organizations. Interestingly enough, Robbins and Myers 1992) and Davis and Dieterich 1976; Muraro this is not a new issue (Beaufait has created a computerized Fire 1975; Sneeuwjagt and Peet 1985). 1966). Given the decline in com­ Ecology Database on its Website BEHAVE, a semiphysically based mercial harvesting, the generation (http://www.talltimbers.org/info/ fire behavior model applicable to of burn bosses that grew up igniting fedbintro.htm). surface fuelbeds (Andrews and hundreds of logging slash units in Bradshaw 1990), has been format­ an individual career has been lost Several fire effects summaries have ted for prescribed-fire applications to retirement, resulting in a huge been prepared (e.g., Miller 1995). (e.g., Grabner and others 2001). prescribed-fire experience gap. It Perhaps one of the most up-to­ Even decision support aids intend­ is common, for example, on many date information sources on fire ed for assessing wildlfire potential, national forests in the Western effects is the USDA Forest Service’s such as the Canadian Forest Fire United States to have staff that are “Rainbow Series,” which covers the Behavior Prediction System (Taylor involved in only one or two pre­ effects of fire on flora, fauna, air, soil and others 1997), have value in scribed burns per year. Obviously, and water, cultural resources and escaped-fire assessments and con­ developing prescribed-burning technology, and nonnative invasive tingency planning. expertise in this manner is slow. plants. Four of the six planned pub­ Perhaps recent retirees should be lications in the series are currently One of the immense challenges fac­ brought back on contracts as coach­ available (Brown and Smith 2000; ing prescribed burners of the future es or mentors. Neary and others 2005; Sandberg will be acquiring the skills needed to and others 2002; Smith 2000). The professionally sort out the stagger­ Even though prescribed fire is Fire Effects Information System ing amount of “information” avail­ one of the most important tools (Fischer and others 1996) also devel­ able in all the areas they are sup­ for managing fire-dependent eco­ oped by the USDA Forest Service posed to have expertise in—distur­ systems, little attention has been is a computerized system that pro­ bance ecology, fire meteorology and given, until recently, to under­ vides up-to-date information about climatology, fire behavior modeling, standing the lessons to be learned fire effects on plants and animals and decisionmaking, just to name a from past prescribed burns or the (http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/). few. They are supposed to have not organizational psychology of the In addition, a Fire Effects Planning only a working knowledge of these prescribed-burn team responsible Framework has recently been devel­ academic disciplines, but also the for safely igniting a block of flam­ oped (Black and Opperman 2005).­ ability to readily carry them out in mable vegetation. This lack of

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 11 attention to burning operations is ciated with the Upper Frijoles angles in a culture that supports somewhat surprising, because the Prescribed Fire on Bandelier robust conversations. decision to “light the match” is National Monument in northern • Sensitivity to operations: In always inherently risky, from both New Mexico during May 2000. The prescribed-burning operations, a personal and a social standpoint. resulting Cerro Grande Fire even­ a high-reliability work culture (Ask any burn boss who regularly tually burned some 47,650 acres would be extremely sensitive ignites prescribed fires or has (19,284 hectares), including 235 to the people in the field who been involved with an escaped homes in and around the commu­ “light the match” and control fire that has resulted in a national nity of Los Alamos (Paxon 2000; the ensuing fire. They would not review team looking at every USDI National Park Service 2000). drown out what is going on at the judgment and decision made in ground level with an overempha­ the planning and execution of the At a recent workshop on high- sis, for example, on national or prescribed fire.) reliability organizations (HROs) regional policy. regarding wildland fire use and • A commitment to resilience: A Escaped fires are a very real possi­ prescribed fires (Keller 2004), par­ prescribed fire organization that bility in prescribed burning (Stock ticipants completed a staff ride of is highly reliable creates a work and others 1996), as a number of environment where personnel incidents have shown in recent can easily talk about their “mis­ years. For example: One of the most notable takes” and, after larger mistakes sources on prescribed fire have occurred, can quickly • In May 1980, the Mack Lake Fire is the proceedings of the adjust and get back to work in a in northern Lower Michigan timely fashion. burned 29,000 acres (9,300 Tall Timbers Fire Ecology • A deference to expertise: A ha) and 39 homes (Borie 1981; Conference series. highly reliable burn organization Simard and others 1983); pays keen attention to those who • In August 1995, the Carmody make critical decisions, regard­ the Cerro Grande Fire. Under the Township Fire in north-central less of their position on an orga­ tutelage of Drs. Karl Weick and Ontario burned 19,296 acres nization chart. Kathleen Sutcliffe, two experts (7,810 ha), with no structural on HROs from the University of losses (OMNR 1995); The attentive prescribed-fire man­ Michigan Business School, staff • In July 1999, the Lowden Ranch ager will hopefully use each of ride participants used the concepts Fire in central California burned these five principles of HROs in of HROs to analyze the prescribed 2,000 acres (800 ha) and 23 order to safely and effectively con­ burn and associated wildfire. homes (USDI Bureau of Land duct prescribed fires in the future According to Weick and Sutcliffe Management 1999); (see the sidebar above). However, as (2001), five key processes, or orga­ • In July 2001, the North Shore Lepine and others (2003) duly note, nizational principles, govern orga­ Kenai Lake Fire in southeastern “Regardless of how many precau­ nizations that actively promote an Alaska burned 2,220 acres (899 tions are taken, it is impossible to HRO environment: ha), with no structural losses eliminate the risk of fires escaping (USDA Forest Service 2002); from prescribed burning.” • Preoccupation with mistakes/fail­ • In September 2003, the Cascade ures: Take every opportunity to II Fire in north-central Utah use near-misses, even so-called Prescribed Fire Safety burned 7,828 acres (3168 ha), “minor mistakes,” to see if they It would be fairly easy to conclude with no structural losses (USDA might indicate the beginnings of that prescribed-fire operations are Forest Service 2003); and a major breakdown in prescribed not inherently dangerous. After all, • In March 2004, the Impassible 1 burn operations. major activities on a prescribed burn Fire in northern Florida burned • A reluctance to simplify: A are completely preplanned, with all 34,660 acres (14,028 ha), with no prescribed burn crew should be contingencies carefully thought out. structural losses. constantly vigilant to simplify­ In other words, every task involved ing mistakes into cause-effect with a prescribed-fire operation is However, probably the best known relationships. They should strive “under control.” Unlike a wildfire example of an escaped fire is asso­ to view mistakes from multiple event, the prescribed burner is not at

Fire Management Today 12 The “Art and Science” of Prescribed Burning* National Park Service 2004). Thus, the realization that fatalities can A successful prescribed fire is one and what he hopes to accomplish. occur on prescribed fires should not that safely and effectively achieves He must also describe the physi­ be overlooked, especially in light the land and resource manage- cal and biological characteristics of an escalating use of prescribed ment objectives for which it was of the site to be treated. He must burning in many regions of North conducted. Such fires do not then blend this information with America and elsewhere (Alexander happen by accident: they are the an understanding of the rela­ 2003). It is worth emphasizing that result of careful and intelligent tionships between fuel, weather, members of the general public have planning. topography, fire behavior, fire also been killed while engaged in effects, and burning techniques. using fire as a land management To plan a successful prescribed Finally, the actual fire must be tool on their private properties fire the planner must clearly evaluated in order to improve the (Millman 1993; Viegas 2004). define why he wants to burn a site performance of subsequent plans. * Quoted from Fischer (1978). The ability to predict fire behavior is essential to the safe and effective control of wildfires as well as the the mercy of an unexpected weather • June 2000—four fatalities in Kur­ use of fire (Countryman 1972). In event, for he can ignite his burn when ring-gai Chase National Park, this regard, one shouldn’t overlook the weather is favorable—or, at least, New South Wales, Australia (New the importance that human fac­ when it is expected to be favorable. South Wales National Parks and tors have played in past wildland But even with all this preburn control Wildlife Service 2001); and firefighter fatalities (Butler and and expert weather forecasting, fatali­ • May 2003—one fatality on the Alexander 2005). Some of the same ties have resulted from burnovers and Fort Apache Indian Reservation principles associated with wildfire entrapments on escaped prescribed in northern Arizona (USDI situations could equally apply to fires (Thomas 1998). The better Bureau of Indian Affairs 2003). prescribed fires (e.g., complacency). known examples include: Furthermore, aviation-related When one couples a general lack • August 1979—seven fatalities on fatalities are not limited to wild­ of burning experience with the the Geraldton PB-3/79 Prescribed fires. On March 10, 2005, two fire organizational pressure to pre­ Fire in north-central Ontario, managers and a pilot died when a scribe-burn more area each year, Canada (McCormack and others Bell 206B-III helicopter they were often under more severe burning 1979) (see the sidebar on page 14); in crashed while conducting a conditions and on a landscape • February 1980—two fatalities prescribed burning operation on scale, a future scenario begins to on the Willow Flat Prescribed the Sabine National Forest in East unfold of increased risk of escape Fire, North Island, New Zealand Texas (NTSB 2005). and potential safety problems. Even (Millman 1993); though prescribed-fire fatalities are • May 1980—one fatality on the The reality is that individuals relatively rare, deaths directly asso­ Mack Lake Fire resulting from an involved in prescribed burning are ciated with prescribed burning have escaped prescribed fire in north­ exposed to the same natural and occurred, as outlined here. ern Lower Michigan (Borie 1981; manmade hazards as those involved One of the cardinal principles of Simard and others 1983); in fire suppression operations. For HROs is “mindfulness” (Putnam • April 1993—one fatality on the example, an interagency hotshot 2005). Applied to prescribed burn­ Buchanan Prescribed Fire in crew member was killed in 2004 ing, mindfulness involves a con­ north-central New Mexico (USDA when he was hit in the head by scious effort by the burn boss to Forest Service 1993); the top of a burning snag (USDI stop concentrating on things in the fire environment that confirm his hunches or make him feel good The biggest challenge for fire managers faced with a steadily about what the fire is doing and to rising prescribed-burn targets is lack of practical experience start concentrating on things that within their fire organizations discount or contest his feelings. It is fairly easy to start a short list

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 13 Application of Barry Turner’s Disaster Model to a Prescribed Fire Fatality Case Study On August 22, 1979, seven sea- • Stage I—Predisaster Starting sonal employees (three females Point: The social, political, and and four males; six of the indi- environmental framework in viduals were only 16–17 years old) which the prescribed-burn organi­ of the Ontario Ministry of Natural zation is working help set up the Resources (OMNR) were killed on disaster. a prescribed fire (PB–3/79) that • Stage II—Incubation Period: took place in logging slash near For a period of time, often years, the community of Geraldton in small mistakes occurring in the north-central Ontario, Canada. prescribed-fire work environment An OMNR fire technician was also become large and dangerous. Aerial view of the Esnagami memorial severely burned. • Stage III—Precipitating near the fatality site honoring the seven Undesirable Event: Small mis- individuals associated with the Geraldton An accident is generally regarded takes accumulate during the PB–3/79 prescribed fire. Photos: Terry as occuring when existing or incubation period until a major Popowich, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Dryden, Ontario, 2004. known safety precautions haven’t collapse occurs. In prescribed-burn been followed (Whitlock and Wolf operations, a “precipitating unde­

2005). The chain of events leading sirable event” is often an escaped go largely unnoticed by fire per­ to a disaster, on the other hand, fire. sonnel. Small errors are seen as is more ambiguous and less eas- • Stage IV—Onset: The prescribed normal. When these events accu­ ily reconstructed. In its simplest burn escapes and causes major mulate to a critical level, an “unde­ form, a disaster occurs when the damage to property and/or human sirable event” (such as a major precautions that had previously life. prescribed fire escape) can occur. been thought to be satisfactorily • Stage V—Suppression, Rescue, It causes a major cultural shift in adequate turn out to be inadequate. and Salvage: Control of the the way an organization completes

A disaster nearly always catches an escaped prescribed fire begins, future prescribed burns. organization by surprise. with primary emphasis on pro-

tecting human life and property. Based on the board of review

Fire managers in the United Towns might be evacuated and report for the Geraldton PB–

States have used British soci- structural firefighters suppress 3/79 prescribed fire incident ologist Barry Turner’s manmade house fires. (McCormack and others 1979), disaster model to analyze pre- • Stage VI—Full Cultural Mutch (1982) suggested that the scribed-fire fatalities, including Readjustment: After the escaped associated fatalities constituted a the Geraldton PB–3/79 incident prescribed fire, new procedures “disaster” in Turner’s terminol­

(Mutch 1982). Turner’s (1976) six and policies to prevent future ogy. Mutch (1982) described five stages to a disaster applied to pre- escapes are adopted. If fatalities major factors that might have scribed fire are as follows: have occurred, it takes time for played a role in the incident,

the burn crew and the community including target accomplish-

surrounding the escaped fire to ment, haste, overconfidence, span

come to terms with what has hap- of control, and deviation from

pened. Often, this is a period of plans. For more information

grieving and healing, and it can on Turner’s disaster model, see

take decades to complete. Turner and Pidgeon (1997).*

* Terry Popowich (2005) indicates that the OMNR Of the six stages of a disaster, the “has taken many different visitors to the site of the Geraldton PB-3-79 incident in recent years to discuss incubation stage is the most inter- and understand the true tragedy and how lapses in esting for prescribed-fire managers. standard operating procedures will cascade and expo­ nentially bring safety to the brink, and then of course High-intensity fire behavior associated During this stage, which may go on fatalities.” At the time of the incident, Popowich was with the Geraldton PB–3/79 prescribed for years, small “discrepant events” a senior fire technician in the Geraldton District and fire in north-central Ontario on the the fire duty officer on the day of the PB-3-79 burning afternoon of August 22, 1979. Photo: begin taking place in the prescribed- operation. McCormack and others (1979). burn work environment, and they

Fire Management Today 14 of items that might lead to things given annual fuel management blame regulatory constraints, such going wrong on a prescribed fire. work goals to treat from 2 to 3 mil­ as those associated with smoke For example: lion acres (0.8–1.2 million ha) of management, for not allowing Federal land per year. These annual them to prescribe-burn more land. • Burning aluma-gel from helitorch acreage treatment targets are We believe that the biggest obstacle operations splashing on hunters expected to grow. (and challenge) for the future will within the ignition zone of a land- be to effectively communicate to scape-scale prescribed fire; Near the wildland/urban interface our local constituencies the risk • Continuing to use the excuse of (WUI), some prescribed burning and long-term consequences of not an “unexplained” wind event as will be undertaken but machine burning an area. There is no short­ the primary cause of prescribed work (e.g., thinning, chipping, or age of difficult fuel situations to fires escaping; dozer-piling) will continue to be the tackle (Leuschen and others 2000). • A burn boss covering up his lack standard method of fuel treatment. That said, we must also be realistic of experience because of pride; WUI treatments will generally have about the limitations of using pre­ • Unrealistic burning targets placed higher costs (Berry and Hesseln scribed fire for fire hazard reduc­ on field organizations; or 2004). Outside the WUI, prescribed tion (see the sidebar on page 16). • Allowing the prescribed-fire plan fire will be the most common Prescribed burning is not a substi­ to become so thick that it is method used to treat large fire- tute for effective fire suppression nearly useless as a field guide to prone landscapes. Generally speak­ (Brackebusch 1973). its execution. ing, on a per-acre basis, prescribed fire is less expensive than machine We can neither take all of the risk It is interesting to note that even work (Gonzalez-Caban 1997). In out of prescribed burning nor elim­ technological advances in pre­ the Western United States, for inate the smoke, for risk is inherent scribed fire have been a “double­ example, average per-acre cost for in the very nature of the burning edged sword” when it comes to prescribed fires ranges from $25 job and, unfortunately, smoke is a safety. Take, for example, ignition to 125 ($62–309/ha), whereas for byproduct of the activity. What we devices. A vehicle-mounted terra machine work it reaches about can do, however, is become bet­ torch requires far more vigilance $450 ($1,112/ha), with some areas ter at cooperating with our local that a conventional handheld drip reporting costs as high as $2,700 communities and understanding torch (Bradshaw and Tour 1993). per acre ($6,669/ha). the social dimension of prescribed The introduction of the aerial drip burning while constantly work­ torch or helitorch, originally con­ Although additional research is ing to collaboratively design risk ceived by Muraro (1976), has cer­ needed (Hesslen 2000), fire man­ scenarios that are supported or tainly increased the prescribed fire agers must hone their skills to at least understood by our stake­ manager’s firing capability (McRae efficiently and economically accom­ holders (Brunson and Evans 1997). Safety one was of the prime plish ever-increasing restoration/ 2005; Loomis and others 2001; considerations in developing the fire hazard abatement targets. They Schindler and Toman 2003; Wade helitorch, because it eliminated the must constantly strive to become 1993; Weisshaupt and others 2005; need to expose ground personnel to more professional at regularly Winter and others 2002, 2004). hazardous situations such as steep igniting, holding, and monitoring Successful prescribed burning pro­ terrain and/or heavy fuel concen­ prescribed fires. grams generally have few conflict­ trations (Muraro 1977). However, as ing resource values, strong public noted above and elsewhere (Mutch Parting Thoughts education programs, and/or the 1985; Thomas 1998), the helitorch Deep collaboration at the commu­ support of the communities with has also introduced a whole new set nity level is absolutely essential to a close ties to and an understanding of safety problems and concerns. successful prescribed-burning pro­ of the land (Taylor 1997). gram. Collaboration is sometimes Prescribed Fire humorously referred to as the “C” Acknowledgments Economics word, because it is now used so The authors wish to thank Hutch Under the impetus of the Healthy often that its original meaning of Brown, managing editor of Fire Forests Initiative and the National working together to solve common Management Today, and Editors Fire Plan, Federal natural resource natural resource problems has been Madelyn Dillon, Paul Keller, and management agencies have been lost. Prescribed-fire managers often Carol LoSapio for their obvious

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 15 contributions to this special issue Alexander, M.E. 2003. Fire behavior as it Allen, M.H.; Berry, R.W.; Gill, D.; Hayes, relates to firefighter safety: Seven key G.L.; Truesdell, P.S.; Zwolinksi, M.; on prescribed fire. We are also points for discussion. Revised paper at Perovich, J.M. 1968. Guide to prescribed grateful to April Baily, the journal’s conference: 7th International Wildland fire in the Southwest. Tucson, AZ: former general manager, for sup­ Fire Safety Summit; 18–20 November Southwest Interagency Fire Council. 2003; Toronto, Ontario, Canada. (http:// Andrews, P.L.; Bradshaw, L.S. 1990. porting the original concept. www.wildlandfire.com/docs/2003_n_ RXWINDOW: Defining windows of accept­ before/alexander.htm) able burning conditions based on desired Alexander, M.E.; Dube, D.E. 1983. Fire fire behavior. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT–273. References management in wilderness areas, parks Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Agee, J.K. 1993. Fire ecology of Pacific and other nature reserves. In: Wein, Intermountain Research Station. Northwest forests. Washington, DC: R.W.; MacLean, D.A., eds. The role of fire Archibald, D.J.; Luke, A.B.; Coneybeare, Island Press. in northern circumpolar ecosystems. W.C. 1994. Early summer prescribed fire Alexander, M.E. 1982. Fire behavior Chichester, England: John Wiley & Sons, in northern Ontario. Tech. Note TN–010. in aspen slash fuels as related to the Inc. SCOPE 18: 273–297. Timmins, Ontario: Ontario Ministry of Canadian Fire Weather Index. Canadian Alexander, M.E.; Euler, D.L. 1981. Natural Resources, Northeast Science & Journal of Forest Research. 12: 1028– Ecological role of fire in the uncut boreal Technology. 1029. mixedwood forest. In: Proceedings of Baumgartner, D.M.; Breuer, D.W.; Zamora, Alexander, M.E. 1984. Prescribed fire behav­ Boreal Mixedwood Symposium. Symp. B.A.; Neuenschwander, L.F.; Wakimoto, ior and impact in an eastern spruce–fir Proc. O–P–9. Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario: R.H., comps. and eds. 1989. Prescribed slash fuel complex. Canadian Forestry Canadian Forestry Service, Great Lakes fire in the Intermountain Region sym­ Service Research Notes. 4(1 and 2): 3–7, Forest Research Centre: 42–64. posium proceedings. Pullman, WA: 25. Alexander, M.E.; Quintilio, D. 1990. Washington State University. Alexander, M.E. 1999. A new approach to live Perspectives on experimental fires in BCRC (Bushfire Cooperative Research wildland fire training: A case study from Canadian forestry research. Mathematical Centre). 2004. Bushfire Cooperative New Zealand. In: United by Fire: Working and Computer Modelling. 13(12): 17–26. Research Centre handbook: An introduc­ Beyond Boundaries—Program of the 1999 Alexander, M.E.; Sando, R.W. 1989. Fire tion and guide. East Melbourne, Victoria: Interior West Fire Council Annual Meeting behavior and effects in aspen–northern BCRC. [http://www.bushfirecrc.com/pub­ and Workshop; 25–28 October 1999; Estes hardwood stands. In: MacIver, D.C.; Auld, lications/general/index.html] Park, CO. Fort Collins, CO: Colorado State H.; Whitewood, R., eds. Proceedings of 10th Beaufait, W.R. 1962. Problem analysis: The Forest Service: 25. Conference on Fire and Forest Meteorology. prescribed use of fire as a management Ottawa, Ontario: Environment Canada and tool in the Intermountain West. Missoula, Forestry Canada: 263–274. MT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Northern Forest Fire Laboratory. Beaufait, W.R. 1966. Prescribed fire plan­ Effectiveness of Prescribed Burning on Fire ning in the Intermountain West. Res. Hazard Reduction* Pap. INT–26. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Wildfire hazard abatement is (2-4 years). Optimisation of the Experiment Station. Berry, A.H.; Hesseln, H. 2004. The effect one of the major reasons to use spatial pattern of fire application of the wildland–urban interface on prescribed burning. Computer is critical but has been poorly prescribed burning costs in the Pacific simulation, case studies, and addressed in research, and prac­ Northwestern United States. Journal of Foresty. 102(6): 33–37. analysis of the fire regime in the tical application management Bidwell, P.K.; Burke, R., comp. 1993. presence of active prescribed guidelines are lacking to initi­ Prescribed burn workshop proceed­ burning programs in forest and ate this. Furthermore, adequate ings. NEST Workshop Proc. WP–001. Timmins, Ontario, Ontario Ministry of shrubland generally indicate that treatment efforts in terms of fire Natural Resources, Northeast Science & this fuel management tool facili­ protection are constrained by Technology. Biswell, H.H. 1989. Prescribed burning tates fire suppression efforts by operational, social, and ecological in California wildlands vegetation man­ reducing the intensity, size, and issues. The best results of pre­ agement. Berkeley, CA: University of damage of wildfires. However, the scribed fire application were likely California Press. Biswell, H.H.; Kallander, H.R.; Komarek, conclusions that can be drawn to be attained in heterogeneous R.; Vogl, R.J.; Weaver, H. 1973. Ponderosa from the above approaches are landscapes and in climates where fire management, a task force evaluation limited, highlighting the need for the likelihood of extreme weather of controlled burning in ponderosa pine forests of central Arizona. Misc. Pub. No. more properly designed experi­ conditions is low. Conclusive 2. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research ments addressing this question. statements concerning the haz­ Station. Black, A.; Opperman, T. 2005. Fire Effects Fuel accumulation rate frequently ard-reduction potential of pre­ Planning Framework: A user’s guide. limits prescribed fire effectiveness scribed fire are not easily general­ Gen. Tech. Rep. GTR–RMRS–163WWW. to a short post-treatment period ized, and will ultimately depend Fort Colins, CO: USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. on the overall efficiency of the fire Borie, J. 1981. Tragedy of the Mack Lake Fire. * Quoted from Fernandes and Botelho (2003). management process. American Forests. 87(7): 15–19, 51, 52, 54.

Fire Management Today 16 The reality is that individuals involved in prescribed burning Fernandes, P.M.; Botelho, H.S. 2003. A review of prescribed burning effectiveness are exposed to the same natural and manmade hazards as in fire hazard reduction. International those involved in fire suppression operations. Journal of Wildland Fire. 12: 117–128. Fort, J.; Dickson, B.; Zorn, T.; Resch, F.; Page, H. 2000. Prescribed fire training in Florida—the National Interagency Prescribed Fire Training Center (PFTC). Brackebusch, A.P. 1973. Fuel management: Cheney, N.P. 1978. Guidelines for fire International Forest Fire News. 23: A prerequisite not an alternative to fire management on forested watersheds, 87–91. control. Journal of Forestry. 71: 637–639. based on Australian experience. In: Fisher, W.C. 1978. Planning and evaluating Bradshaw, L.S.; Fischer, W.C. 1981. A Special Readings in Conservation. FAO prescribed fires—a standard procedure. computer system for scheduling fire Conserv. 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Burning for black Fischer, W.C.; Miller, M.; Johnston, C.M.; Development Center. spruce regeneration on a lowland site in Smith, J.K.; Simmerman, D.G.; Brown, Brown, J.K. 1985. A process for designing southeastern Manitoba. Canadian Journal J.K. 1996. Fire effects information fire prescriptions. In: Mutch, R.W., tech. of Forest Research. 6: 179–186. system: User’s guide. Gen. Tech. Rep. coord. Prescribed Fire by Aerial Ignition, CIFFC (Canadian Interagency Fire Centre). INT–GTR–327, Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Proceedings of a Workshop. Missoula, MT: 2003. Glossary of forest fire management Service, Intermountain Research Station. Intermountain Fire Council: 17–30. terms. Winnipeg, Manitoba: CIFFC. Gilmore, D.W.; Kastendick, D.N.; Zasada, Brown, J.K.; Smith, J.K., eds. 2000. Countryman, C.M. 1972. The fire environ­ J.C.; Anderson, P.J. 2003. Alternative fuel Wildland fire in ecosystems: Effects of fire ment concept. Berkeley, CA: USDA Forest reduction treatments in the Gunflint on flora. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS–GTR–42– Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Corridor of the Superior National Forest: vol. 2. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Range Experiment Station. [reprinted Second-year results and sampling recom­ Rocky Mountain Research Station. as: National Fire Equipment System mendations. Res. Note NC–381. St. Paul, Bruner, A.D.; Klebenow, D.A. 1979. Pub. NFES 2166. National Wildfire MN: USDA Forest Service, North Central Predicting success of prescribed fires in Coordinating Group, Boise, ID.) Research Station. pinyon–juniper woodland in Nevada. Res. Crosby, J.S.; Johansen, R.W.; Cooper, R.W. Gonzalez-Caban, A. 1997. Managerial and Pap. INT–219. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest 1963. The model II Michigan sand caster. institutional factors affect prescribed burn­ Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Res. Pap. CS–2. Columbus, OH: USDA ing costs. Forest Science. 43: 535–543. Experiment Station. Forest Service, Central States Forest Gorski, C.J.; Farnsworth, A. 2000. Fire Brunson, M.W.; Evans, J. 2005. Badly Experiment Station. weather and smoke management. In: burned? Effects of an escaped burn on Crow, AB. 1982. Fire ecology and fire use in Whiteman, C.D., Mountain meteorol­ social acceptability of wildland fuels pine forest of the South: A chronological ogy: Fundamentals and applications. treatments. Journal of Forestry. 103(3): bibliography. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana New York, NY: Oxford University Press: 134–138. State University, School of Forestry and 237–272. Bryan, D.C., ed. 1997. Conference proceed­ Wildlife Management. Grabner, K.W.; Dwyer, J.P.; Cutter, B.E. ings, environmental regulation and pre­ Cushwa, C.T. 1968. Fire: A summary of 2001. Fuel model selection for BEHAVE scribed fire: Legal and social challenges. literature in the United States from the in Midwestern oak savannas. Northern Tallahassee, FL: Florida State University, mid-1920’s to 1966. Asheville, NC: USDA Journal of Applied Forestry. 18: 74–80. Center for Professional Development. Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Green, L.R. 1977. Burning by prescription Bunting, S.C.; Kilgore, B.M.; Bushey, C.L. Experiment Station. in chaparral. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW–51. 1987. Guidelines for prescribed burning Davis, J.R.; Dieterich, J.H. 1976. Predicting Berkeley, CA: USDA Forest Service, sagebrush–grass rangelands in the north­ rate of fire spread (ROS) in Arizona oak Pacific Southwest Forest and Range ern Great Basin. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT– chaparral: Field workbook. Gen. Tech. Experiment Station. 231. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Rep. INT–24. Fort Collins, CO: USDA Greenlee, J., ed. 1995. The International Intermountain Research Station. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest bibliography of wildland fire: Volumes 1 Bunton, D.R. 2000. Subject index—Volumes and Range Experiment Station. and 2 (citations up to 1992) and volume 3 31–59. Fire Management Today. 60(1): 32–94. DeBano, L.F.; Neary, D.G.; Ffolliott, P.F. (citations 1992–1994). Fire Man. Ser. No. Butler, B.W.; Alexander, M.E. 2005, eds. 1998. Fire’s effects on ecosystems. New 3. Fairfield, WA: International Association Proceedings of Eighth International York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. of Wildland Fire. Wildland Fire Safety Summit. Hot De Ronde, C; Goldammer, J.G.; Wade, Gruell, G.E.; Brown , J.K.; Bushey, C.L. Springs, SD: International Association of D.D.; Soares, R.V. 1990. Prescribed 1986. Prescribed fire opportunities Wildland Fire. CD–ROM. fire in industrial plantations. In: in grasslands invaded by Douglas-fir: Canadian Forestry Service. 1984. Tables Goldammer, J.G., ed. Fire in the Tropical State-of-the-art guidelines. Gen. Tech. for the Canadian Forest Fire Weather Biota: Ecosystem Processes and Global Rep. INT–198. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Index System. Fourth edition. For. Tech. Challenges. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. Ecol. Service, Intermountain Research Station. Rep. 25. Ottawa, Ontario: Canadian Stud. 84: 216–272. 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Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 17 Hardy, C.C.; Ottmar, R.D.; Peterson, J.L.; Fire managers must hone their skills to efficiently and Core, J.E.; Seamon, P., eds. 2001. Smoke management guide for prescribed and economically accomplish ever-increasing restoration/fire wildland fire. Pub. NFES 1279. Boise, ID: National Wildfire Coordinating Group, hazard abatement targets. National Fire Equipment System Hawkes, B.C.; Feller, M.C.; Meehan, D. 1990. Site preparation: Fire. In: Loomis, J.B.; Bair, L.S.; Gonzalez-Caban, A. Miller, M., ed. 1995. Fire effects guide. Lavender, D.P.; Parish, R.; Johnson, C.M.; 2001. Prescribed fire and public support: NFES Pub. 2394. Boise, ID: National Montgomery, G.; Vyse, A.; Willis, R.A.; Knowledge gained, attitudes changed Wildfire Coordinating Group. Winston, D., eds. Regenerating British in Florida. Journal of Forestry. 99(11): Miller, M. 2004. Fuels planning: science Columbia’s Forests. Vancouver, British 18–22. synthesis and integration; environmental Columbia: University of British Columbia Lotan, J.E.; Brown, J.K., eds. 1985. Fire consequences fact sheet 5: Prescriptions Press: 131–149 effects on wildlife habitat—Symposium and fire effects. Res. Note RMRS–RN– Hesseln, H. 2000. The economics of pre­ proceedings. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT–186. 23–5–WWW. Fort Collins, CO: USDA scribed burning: A research review. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Forest Science. 46: 22–334. Intermountain Forest and Range Station. Johansen, R.W. 1965. Aerial attacks on sand Experiment Station. Millman R.I. 1993. Firefighting tragedies pine crown fires. Southern Lumberman. Magill, A.W. 1989. Monitoring environ­ and near misses. In: Proceedings of 21(2732): 105–106. mental change with color slides. Gen. Forest and Rural Fire Association of Kayll, A.J. 1980. Prescribed burning in New Tech. Rep. PSW–117. Berkeley, CA: USDA New Zealand Third Annual Conference. Brunswick—Where do we go from here? Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest Rotorua, New Zealand: Forest and Rural For. Focus 5(2): 1–4. Fredericton, New and Range Experiment Station. Fire Association of New Zealand: 84–101. Brunswick: University of New Brunswick, Manol, D.; Kingsburgh, C.; Duncan, J. 1996. Muraro, S.J. 1968. Prescribed fire— Faculty of Forestry. Costing a prescribed burn: An illustra­ Evaluation of hazard abatement. Dep. Keller, P., tech. ed. 2004. Managing the tive example using the fire management Pub. 1231. Ottawa, Ontario: Canada unexpected in prescribed fire and fire prescribed burning costing form. NEST Department of Forestry and Rural use operations: A workshop on the High Tech. Manual TM–007. Timmins, Ontario: Development, Forestry Branch. Reliability Organization. Gen. Tech. Rep. Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Muraro, S.J. 1975. The Prescribed Fire RMRS–GTR–137. Fort Collins, CO: USDA Northeast Science and Technology. Predictor. Slide-rule with text. Victoria, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Martell, D.L. 1978. The use of historical British Columbia. Canadian Forestry Station. weather data in prescribed burn planning. Service, Pacific Forest Research Centre. Kiil, A.D. 1969. Basic considerations in Forestry Chronicle. 54: 96–98. [Reprinted 1980.] the planning and use of prescribed fire. Martin, R.E. 1978. Prescribed burning: Muraro, S.J. 1976. Improved ignition sys­ Inf. Rep. A–X–21. Edmonton, Alberta. Decisions, prescriptions, strategies. In: tems. In: Global Forestry and the Western Canadian Forestry Service, Forest Preprints, 5th National Conference on Role. Permanent Association Committee, Research Laboratory. Fire and Forest Meteorology. Boston, MA: Proceedings, Western Forest Fire Kilgore, B.M.; Curtis, G.A. 1987. Guide to American Meteorological Society: 94–99. Committee Annual Meeting; 2 December understory burning in ponderosa pine– Martin, R.E.; Dell, J.D. 1978. Planning 1975; Vancouver, British Columbia. larch–fir forests in the Intermountain for prescribed burning in the Inland Portland, OR: Western Forestry and West. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT–233. Ogden, Northwest. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW–76. Conservation Association: 22–26. UT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Portland, OR: USDA Forest Service, Muraro, S.J. 1977. Personal oral communi­ Research Station. Pacific Northwest Forest and Range cation with M.E. Alexander. Fire research Koonce, A.L., ed. 1986. Prescribed burn­ Experiment Station. scientist, Canadian Forestry Service, ing in the Midwest: State-of-the-art. Maupin, J. 1981. Thirteen prescribed fire Pacific Forest Research Centre, Victoria, Proceedings of a Symposium; 3–6 March situations that shout watch out! Fire British Columbia. 1986; Stevens Point, WI. Stevens Point, Management Notes. 42(4): 10. Murphy, P.J.; Woodard, P.M.; Quintilio, D.; WI: University of Wisconsin–Stevens McCormack, G.A.; Elliott, R.G.; Macquarrie, Titus, S.J. 1991. Exploratory analysis Point. M.W.; Minor, J.G.; Roswalka, C.J.; of the variables affecting initial attack Kozlowski, T.T.; Ahlgren, C.E. 1974. Fire Stocks, B.J.; Van Wagner, C.E.; Wood, hot-spotting containment rate. Canadian and ecosystems. New York, NY: Academic C.W. 1979. Geraldton PB–3/79 board of Journal of Forest Research. 21: 540–544. Press. review report. Toronto, Ontario: Ontario Mutch, R.W. 1982. Lesson plan: The safety Kumagai, Y.; Daniels, S.E. 2002. Social sci­ Ministry of Natural Resources. element of a prescribed burn plan. In: ence in fuel management: An annotated McRae, D.J. 1997. Prescribed fire aerial Prescribed Fire Management Training bibliography on prescribed fire. Res. ignition strategies. NODA/NFP Tech. Course. Marana, AZ: USDA Forest Contrib. 36. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State Rep. TR–33. Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario: Service, National Advanced Resource University, College of Forestry. Canadian Forestry Service, Great Lakes Technology Center. Lepine, F; Opio, C; Ayers, D. 2003. An Forestry Centre. Neary, D.G.; Ryan, K.C.; DeBano, L.F., eds. analysis of escaped fires from broadcast McRae, D.J.; Alexander, M.E.; Stocks, 2005. Wildland fire in ecosystems: Effects burning in the Prince George Forest B.J. 1979. Measurement of fuels and of fire on soils and water. Gen. Tech. Rep. Region of British Columbia. BC Journal fire behavior on prescribed burns: A RMRS–GTR–42–vol.4. Fort Collins, CO: of Ecosystems and Management. 3(2): handbook. Inf. Rep. O–X– 287. Sault USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain 1–9. Ste. Marie, Ontario: Canadian Forestry Research Station. Leuschen, T.; Wordell, T.; Finney, M.; Service, Great Lakes Forestry Research New South Wales National Parks and Anderson, D.; Aunan, T.; Tine, P. 2000. Centre. Wildlife Service. 2001. 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Fire Management Today 18 NFES (National Fire Equipment System). Putnam, T. 2005. Deep psychology: The Scholl, E.R.; Waldrop, T.A. 1999. Photos for 2005. NWCG National Fire Equipment quiet way to wisdom. In: Butler, B.W.; estimating fuel loadings before and after System catalog, part 2: Publications. Pub. Alexander, M.E., eds. Proceedings of prescribed burning in the Upper Coastal NFES 3362. Boise, ID: National Wildfire Eighth International Wildland Fire Plain of the Southeast. Gen. Tech. Rep. Coordinating Group. Safety Summit. Hot Springs, SD: SRS–26. Asheville, NC: USDA Forest Norum, R.A. 1977. Preliminary guidelines International Association of Wildland Service, Southern Research Station. for prescribed burning under stand­ Fire. CD-ROM. Simard, A.J.; Haines, D.A.; Blank, R.W.; ing timber in western larch/Douglas-fir Pyne, S.J. 1982. Fire in America: A cul­ Frost, J.S. 1983. The Mack Lake Fire. forests. Res. Note INT–229. Ogden, UT: tural history of wildland and rural fire. Gen. 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Group) Prescribed Fire and Fire Effects mental history, told through fire, of Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Rocky Working Team. 1982. Prescribed fire Europe and Europe’s encounter with Mountain Research Station. monitoring and evaluation guide. Pub. the world. Seattle, WA: University of Sneeuwjagt, R.J.; Peet, G.B. 1985. Forest NFES1820. Boise, ID: NWCG. [Out-of­ Washington Press. fire behaviour tables for Western print.] Pyne S.J. 2001. Fire: A brief history. Seattle, Australia. 3rd ed. Perth, Western NWCG (National Wildfire Coordinating WA: University of Washington Press. Australia. Department of Conservation Group) Prescribed Fire and Fire Effects Pyne, S.J. 2004. Tending fire: Coping with and Land Management. [Reprinted in Working Team. 1986. Prescribed fire America’s wildland fires. Washington, DC: 1998.] plan guide. Pub. NFES 1839. Boise, ID: Island Press. Stock, M.; Williams, J.; Cleaves, D.A. 1996. NWCG. Pyne, S.J.; Andrews, P.L.; Laven, R.D. 1996. Estimating the risk of escapes of pre­ NWCG (National Wildfire Coordinating Introduction to wildland fire. 2nd ed. scribed fires: An expert system approach. Group) Incident Operations Standards New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. AI Applications. 10(2): 63–73. Working Team. 2005. Glossary of wild- Reinhardt, E.D.; Keane, R.E.; Brown, J.K. Stocks, B.J.; McRae, D.J. 1991. The land fire terminology. Nat. Fire Equip. 1997. First Order Fire Effects Model: Canada/United States cooperative mass Syst. Pub. PMS 205. Boise, ID: NWCG. FOFEM 4.0, user’s guide. Gen. Tech. Rep. fire behaviour and atmospheric envi­ [http://www.nwcg.gov/pms/pubs/glossary/ INT–GTR–344. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest ronmental impact study. In: Andrews, PMS205.pdf] Service, Intermountain Research Station. P.L.; Potts, D.F., eds. Proceedings of the Omi, P.N.; Laven, R.D. 1982. Prescribed Reinhardt, E.D.; Wright, A.H.; Jackson, 11th Conference on Fire and Forest fire impacts on recreational wildlands: D.H. 1992. Development and validation of Meteorology. SAF Pub. 91–04. Bethesda, A status review and assessment of a knowledge-based system to design fire MD: Society of American Foresters: research needs. Eisenhower Consortium prescriptions. AI Applications. 6(4): 3–14. 478–487. for Western Environmental Forestry Robbins, L.E.; Myers, R.L. 1992. Seasonal Taylor, S. 1997. Prescribed fire in Canada... Research. Bulletin 11. effects of prescribed burning in Florida: A a time of transition. Wildfire. 7(11): OMNR (Ontario Ministry of Natural review. Misc. Pub. No. 8. Tallahassee, FL. 34–37. Resources). 1995. Prescribed burn program Tall Timbers Research Station. The Nature Conservancy. 1991. Fire man­ review. Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario: OMNR. Rothermel, R.C.; Rinehart, G.C. 1983. Field agement manual. Arlington, VA: The Ottmar, R.D.; Burns, M.F.; Hall, J.N.; procedures for verification and adjust­ Nature Conservancy, Fire Management Hanson, A.D. 1993. CONSUME users ment of fire behavior predictions. Gen. and Research Program. guide. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW–GTR–304. Tech. Rep. INT–142. Ogden, UT: USDA Thomas, D. 1998. Emerging safety issues Portland, OR: USDA Forest Service, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and in ecosystem burning. In: Close, K; Pacific Northwest Research Station. Range Experiment Station. [Reprinted Bartlette, R.A., eds. Fire Management Parsons, D.J.; Landres, P.B.; Miller, C. 2003. as: National Fire Equipment System Under Fire (Adapting to Change), Wildland fire use: The dilemma of man­ Publication NFES 2183 by the National Proceedings of the 1994 Interior West aging and restoring natural fire and fuels Wildfire Coordinating Group, Boise, ID.] Fire Council Meeting and Program; in United States wilderness. In: Galley, Sandberg, D.V.; Ottmar, R.D.; Peterson, 1–4 November 1994; Coeur d’Alene, ID. K.E.M.; Klinger, R.C.; Sugihara, N.G., eds. J.L.; Core, J. 2002. Wildland fire on eco­ Fairfield, WA: International Association of Proceedings of Fire Conference 2000: The systems: Effects of fire on air. Gen. Tech. Wildland Fire: 107–113. First National Congress on Fire Ecology, Rep. RMRS–GTR–42–vol. 5. Ogden, UT: Trowbridge, R.L.; Macadam, A., comps. and Prevention, and Management. Misc. Pub. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain eds. 1983. Prescribed fire—Forest soils No. 13. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station. symposium proceedings. Land Manage. Research Station: 19–26. Sanders, K.; Durham, J. eds. 1985. Rep.16. Victoria, British Columbia. Pase, C.P.; Granfelt, C.E., tech. cords. 1977. Proceedings of rangeland fire effects—A British Columbia Ministry of Forests, The use of fire on Arizona rangelands. AZ symposium; 27–29 November 1984; Information Services Branch. Interagency Range Comm. Pub. No. 4. Boise, ID. Boise, ID: USDI Bureau of Land Turner, B.A. 1976. The development of Fort Collins, CO: USDA Forest Service, Management, Idaho State Office. disasters—A sequence model for the Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Sando, R.W.; Dobbs, R.C. 1970. Planning analysis of the origins of disasters. Experiment Station. for prescribed burning in Manitoba & Sociological Review. 24: 753–774. Paxton, J. 2000. “Remember Los Alamos”: Saskatchewan. Liaison & Serv. Note Turner, B.A.; Pidgeon, N.F. 1997. Man- The Cerro Grande Fire. Fire Management MS–L–9. Winnipeg, Manitoba: Canada made disasters. 2nd ed. Oxford, England: Today. 60(4): 9–14. Department of Fisheries and Forestry, Butterworth-Heinemann. Popowich, T. 2005. Personal written com­ Forest Research Laboratory. USDA Forest Service. 1971. Proceedings, munication with M.E. Alexander. Fire Schindler, B; Toman, E. 2003. Fuel reduc­ Prescribed Burning Symposium; 14–16 program manager. Ontario Ministry of tion strategies in forest communities: A April 1971; Charleston, SC. 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Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 19 USDA Forest Service. 1977. Proceedings, Wade, D. 1993. Societal influences on Weick, K.E.; Sutcliffe, K.M. 2001. Managing Fire by Prescription Symposium; 13–15 prescribed burning. In: Herman, S.M., the unexpected: Assuring high perfor­ October 1976; Atlanta, GA. Washington, ed. Proceedings of the Tall Timbers Fire mance in an age of complexity. San DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Ecology Conference No. 18, The Longleaf Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, A Wiley USDA Forest Service. 1993. Accident Pine Ecosystem: Ecology, Restoration Company. investigation report, Buchanan pre­ and Management. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Weisshaupt, B.R.; Carroll, M.S.; Blatner, scribed burn, June 19, 1993, firefighter Timbers Research Station: 351–355. K.A.; Robinson, W.D.; Jakes, P.J. 2005. fatality and fire shelter deployments. Wade, D.D.; Forbus, J.K.; Saveland, J.M. Acceptability of smoke from prescribed Albuquerque, NM: USDA Forest Service, 1993. Photo series for estimating post- forest burning in the northern Inland Southwest Region. hurricane residues and fire behavior in West: A focus group approach. Journal of USDA Forest Service. 2002. North Shore southern pine. Gen. Tech. Rep. SE–82. Forestry. 103(4): 189–193. Kenai Lake prescribed fire review [final Asheville, NC: USDA Forest Service, Whelan, R.J. 1995. The ecology of fire. 5/10/02]. Anchorage, AK: USDA Forest Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. Cambridge, England: Cambridge Service, Chugach National Forest. Wade, D.D.; Lunsford, J.D. 1989. A guide University Press. USDA Forest Service. 2003. The Cascade to prescribed fire in Southern forests. Whitlock, C.; Wolf, J.T. 2005. Accident II prescribed fire review report. Salt Tech. Pub. R8– TP 11. Atlanta, GA: investigation guide: 2005 edition. Tech. Lake City, UT: USDA Forest Service, USDA Forest Service, Southern Region. Rep. 0567–2806–MTDC. Missoula, Intermountain Region, Uinta National [Reprinted as: National Fire Equipment MT: USDA Forest Service, Missoula Forest. System Publication NFES 2108 by the Technology and Development Center. USDI Bureau of Indian Affairs. 2003. National Wildfire Coordinating Group, Winter, G.J.; Vogt, C; Fried, J.S. 2002. Fuel Sawtooth Mountain prescribed fire burn- Boise, ID.] treatments at the wildland-urban inter­ over fatality. AZ: USDI Bureau of Indian face: common concern in diverse regions. Affairs, Fort Apache Agency. Journal of Forestry. 100(1): 15–21. USDI Bureau of Land Management. 1999. Winter, G.J.; Vogt, C.A.; McCaffrey, S. 2004. Lowden Ranch prescribed fire review. The biggest challenge for the Examining social trust in fuel manage­ Lewiston, CA: USDI Bureau of Land ment strategies. Journal of Forestry. Management. future will be to effectively 102(6): 8–15. USDI Fish and Wildlife Service. 2004. Fuel communicate to our local Wright, H.A.; Bailey, A.W. 1982. Fire ecolo­ and fire effects monitoring guide. [http:// gy, United States and Canada. John Wiley www.fws.gov/fire/ifcc/monitor/RefGuide/ constituencies the risk of not and Sons, Inc., New York, NY. default.htm] Wright, H.A.; Neuenschwander, L.F.; USDI National Park Service. 2000. burning an area. Britton, C.M. 1979. The role and use of Bandelier National Monument Cerro fire in sagebrush–grass and pinyon–juni­ Grande prescribed fire investigation per plant communities. Gen. Tech. report. Washington, DC: USDI National Walstad, J.D.; Radosevich, S.R., Sandberg, Rep. INT–58. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Park Service. D.V. 1990. Natural and prescribed fire in Service, Intermountain Forest and Range USDI National Park Service. 2003. Pacific Northwest forests. Corvallis, OR: Experiment Station. Fire monitoring handbook. Boise, Oregon State University Press. Wood, G.E., ed. 1981. Proceedings of a sym­ ID: USDI National Park Service, Walstad, J.D.; Reed, M.D.; Doescher, P.S.; posium: Prescribed Fire and Wildlife in National Interagency Fire Centre, Fire Kauffman, J.B.; Miller, R.F.; Shindler, Southern Forests; 6–8 April 1981; Myrtle Management Program Center. B.A.; Tappeiner, J.C. 2003. Distance edu­ Beach, SC. Charleston, SC: Clemson USDI National Park Service. 2004. Report cation: A new course in wildland fire ecol­ University, Belle W. Baruch Forest of the Daniel Holmes serious accident ogy. Journal of Forestry. 101(7):16–20. Science Institute. investigation team. Three Rivers, CA: Wearn, V.H.; Springer, E.A.; Lesage, A.J. Wurman, R.S. 1989. Information anxiety. ■ USDI National Park Service, Sequoia and 1982. Forest managers photo guide to New York, NY: Doubleday. Kings Canyon National Parks. prescribed burn planning. Kapuskasing, Utah State University. 1976. Use of Ontario: Ontario Ministry of Natural Prescribed Burning in Western Woodland Resources, Kapuskasing District. and Range Ecosystems—A Symposium; 18–19 March 1976; Logan, UT. Logan, UT: Utah Agricultural Experiment Station. Van Wagner, C.E.; Methven, I.R. 1978. Prescribed fire for site preparation in white and red pine. In: Proceedings of White and Red Pine Symposium. Symp. Proc. O–P–6. Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario: Canadian Forestry Service, Great Lakes Forest Research Centre: 95–100. Viegas, D.X. 2004. High mortality. Wildfire. 13(5): 22–26. Vyse, A.H.; Muraro, S.J. 1973. Reduced planting cost: A prescribed fire benefit. Inf. Rep. BC–X–84. Victoria, British Columbia: Canadian Forestry Service, Pacific Forest Research Centre. Wade, D.D., comp. 1985. Conference Proceedings: Prescribed Fire and Smoke Management in the South; 12–14 September 1984; Atlanta, GA. Asheville, NC: USDA Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station.

Fire Management Today 20 Prescribed burning in the Florida Flatwoods* C.A. Bickford and L.S. Newcomb

his discussion of prescribed burning is based on experience Fire protection has changed many open longleaf pine forests T and studies of the use of fire as into more dense forests dominated by slash pine—and with a tool in the elimination of hazard­ higher fuel hazards. ous fuels in the longleaf pine–slash pine forests of the flatwoods section of Georgia and Florida. It does not efforts to burn are almost certain to of longleaf pine. The stand is thus cover other uses of fire in the silvi­ produce disastrous results. converted from nearly pure longleaf cultural control of diseases in pure pine to one in which slash pine longleaf pine and other southern Hazardous Fuel predominates. This change in com­ forest types. Most of the practices Buildups position is sought and welcomed by described will, however, be found Successful fire protection in the most owners and operators of forest applicable to other types of pre­ land because of the rapid growth scribed burning. longleaf pine–slash pine forests of the southeastern flatwoods mark­ of slash pine and its high value for naval stores and other products. By definition, prescribed burning edly changes the composition of is a distinctly technical measure the stand. Under protection, slash pine, instead of remaining con­ Unfortunately, increase in fire and a potentially dangerous tool. hazard accompanies this ben­ Mr. Arthur W. Hartman, Chief fined to ponds and swamp margins, reproduces vigorously and invades eficial conversion to slash pine. of Fire Control in the Southern Under fire exclusion the grass Region, sounds a note of caution drier sites formerly occupied almost exclusively by open stands roughs become heavy. Needles when he says this employment of and twigs add to the inflamma- burning is “the application of fire to land under such conditions of weather, soil moisture, time of day, and other factors as presumably will result in the intensity of heat and spread required to accomplish specific silvicultural, wildlife, graz­ ing, or fire hazard reduction pur­ poses.” Consequently, fires set for any other purposes or set without expert knowledge of fire behavior under existing conditions of weath­ er, soil moisture, time of day, prob­ able wind, etc., are definitely to be avoided. Uninformed and misguided

When this article was originally published in 1947, C.A. Bickford was a forester for the USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station; and L.S. Newcomb was a forester for the USDA Forest Service, Naval Stores Conservation Program. Dense slash pine 15 years of age on the Osceola National Forest, FL. Note dead needles * The article is reprinted from Fire Control Notes 8(1) drapted over gallberry undergrowth and dead lower limbs. Wildfire in such a stand almost [January 1947]: 17–23. always results in a complete kill.

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 21 bility, while the gallberry and To decrease the threat of large fires in slash pine, many palmetto undergrowth increases foresters and landowners have resorted to prescribed in size and density. Conditions burning of accumulated fuels. often become particularly hazard­ ous in dense stands of slash pine 10 to 15 years of age, where dead tract of 168,000 acres (68,000 ha) Forest managers throughout the needles may be draped over the typical of managed forests in the South, who, after careful analysis, high gallberry undergrowth and southeastern flatwoods. On this determine that the use of fire for the lower dead branches in an area, fuel accumulated in danger­ some specific purpose is desirable, almost continuous screen from ous quantities for 15 years, during will find the methods used on the the ground to the living crown 15 which time the presence of small Osceola National Forest helpful in to 20 feet (5–6 m) above. slash pine throughout the forest planning and organizing their pre­ made fire treatments impractical. scribed burning. When a fire starts in stands As the slash pine began to reach a unburned 10 or more years, it size where damage from slow-burn­ Methods Used spreads rapidly and is hard to con­ ing fire would be minor, trial burns trol. Such fires often cause extensive Prescribed burning, to give maxi­ were made. On the basis of these mum benefits at the least cost and and severe damage and become so trials and other observations, plans much of a threat to landowners that damage, involves the following were laid in 1943 to prescribe- steps: analysis, planning, prepara­ they give up the idea of growing burn approximately 100,000 acres timber on their land. tion, burning, and appraisal. Each (40,000 ha) of longleaf pine–slash step is important and necessary. pine in the following 3 years. Managing Fuels Analysis. To arrive at a satisfactory To decrease the threat of such fires, In the first year, 39,130 acres decision whether to use fire, an many foresters and landowners in (15,835 ha) were treated at a cost analysis of forest conditions must this section have resorted to pre­ of 7.9 cents per acre, of which 0.7 be made, permitting a sound com­ scribed burning of accumulated cent was for planning, 3.2 cents parison between the probable costs fuels at intervals under carefully for preparations (chiefly plowing and damage and the expected ben­ selected weather conditions. Slash firelines), and 4.0 cents were direct efits. Direct costs can be satisfacto­ pine about 6 feet (1.8 m) in height costs of burning. Costs the second rily determined from data such as and longleaf over 1 year in age year for 33,100 acres (13,395 ha) those given above and from similar can stand slow-burning prescribed were 6.6 cents per acre treated; operations in the same forest type. fires during the dormant season. planning 0.7 cent, plowing 3.7 Experience demonstrates that cents, and direct cost 2.2 cents. In the flatwoods, benefits are burns carefully planned and execut­ mainly in the reduction of hazards ed in this season may temporarily Damage from the first year’s opera­ and the consequent reduction in eliminate the hazard of accumu­ tions was estimated at 31.4 cents the possibility of large and destruc­ lated fuels without serious injury to per acre treated, and in the second tive fires. Damage will depend to the timber stand. year at 8.7 cents. Because of general some extent on the weather during drought and few periods of ideal the burning season, but most of all Prescribed burning to reduce fire burning weather, the damages sus­ on the training, skill, and experi­ hazards affects fire prevention, tained during the first year were ence of the personnel. Although detection, suppression, and other greater than anticipated. Damages prescribed burning in this section fire control activities. Its justifica­ during the second year were reduced will be most important to fire pro­ tion depends on reducing the total somewhat by the added skill and tection, its influence on grazing, costs of fire control, in which inci­ experience of the men conducting silviculture, logging, game, tur­ dental damage caused by the burn­ the work, but primarily by the more pentining, and other forms of land ing is considered an item of cost. favorable ground water and weather use must be carefully considered. conditions prevailing. By treating a The advantages and disadvantages This paper describes methods of maximum area during good burning of the practice vary widely from prescribed burning developed years and a minimum during unfa­ property to property, and no sim­ and used on the Osceola National vorable years, future damage should ple and precise method of evalua- Forest in northeast Florida, a be held to 8 cents per acre or less. Fire Management Today 22 tion can be suggested. The practice should be undertaken, however, only after a careful analysis has convinced the owner of the need or desirability of the practice on all or part of his holdings.

After analyzing a property and decided to burn, the owner must determine which areas to treat. Areas burned should ordinarily be distributed so as to serve as tem­ porary firebreaks. Prescribed burn­ ing of areas of high fire incidence is a double gain, for the areas not only become safe themselves but also act as firebreaks. The detailed location of burning units should be decided only after field exami­ nation, as described in the follow­ Slash pines gradually seeding in a former longleaf pine “ridge” on the Osceola National ing section. Forest, FL. Such stands cannot be treated successfully under prescribed burning because of excessive mortality in the crop trees below 6 feet (1.8 m) in height. Planning. The prescription or plan is a most important phase of season under proper weather condi­ prescribed burning, distinguish­ Forest managers throughout tions may be safely used. ing it from the unorganized and the South will find the often destructive use of fire. The methods used on the With crop trees 4 inches (10.2 cm) prescription is prepared in the field in diameter at breast height, or at the time of examination. It speci­ Osceola National Forest more, a flankfire is safe. A flank­ fies when and how to spread fire to helpful in planning and fire—set to burn at right angles to achieve the greatest benefit. organizing their prescribed the wind—spreads faster and burns burning. hotter than a backfire. Flankfires in The first step in planning is to such stands are cheaper to use and make a field examination to secure generally cause less damage than the necessary data. On the Osceola backfires. In the Florida/Georgia The size, abundance, and distribu­ National Forest, experienced and flatwoods, where young slash pine tion of crop trees* determine where responsible forest guards made the is common, a backfire is the usual and how fire can be used. Small examinations under the direction of prescription. On the Osceola, many slash pine is easily fire-killed, and the district ranger. In planning the stands otherwise suited for a flank- extensive areas of slash pine crop use of fire in extensive areas, maps fire contain scattered groups of trees less than 6 feet (1.8 m) high are prepared to show natural fire slash pine crop trees 1 to 3 inches should not be burned. When the barriers, fireline locations, burn­ (2.5–7.5 cm) in diameter at breast crop trees are slash pine 1 to 3 ing direction, areas to be excluded, height, usually making it necessary inches (2.5–7.5 cm) in diameter usable roads and trails, and other to prescribe a backfire. useful information. The examiners at breast height, or longleaf pine from 1 to 3 inches (2.5–7.5 cm) in on the Osceola used aerial photo­ Small patches of slash pine crop diameter at breast height, a back- graphs for base maps on which to trees less than 6 feet (1.8 m) high fire—that is, fire set to spread only record such information. On small are often found in stands otherwise against the wind—in the dormant properties, detailed examination suited for burning. Whether to burn and mapping may be unnecessary. * In this work, the best trees at an average spacing of them with the rest of the stand or 10 feet (3 m) were considered crop trees, and smaller intermediate or suppressed trees were disregarded in plow around them and exclude fire planning the burning and in evaluating the results.

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 23 depends on the size of the patch, Any decision to use fire should be based on a sound the number of small slash pine crop comparison between the probable costs and damage and trees it contains, and its nearness to the firelines needed to burn the the expected benefits. rest of the stand. Table 1 shows the smallest size patch found worth November 15) and before the pression tools should be available excluding on the Osceola National beginning of needle growth in the in case of breakovers. Forest. Smaller areas were often spring. Prescribed burning should excluded when only a slight change be completed before the start of Crew size is influenced princi­ was needed in the location of a the spring fire season, about March pally by considerations of cost and plowed line. 1. It is desirable to burn as much safety. It is seldom safe to attempt as possible in wet years when the prescribed burning with fewer The prescription first specifies type ponds are full of water. Day burning than 3 men. Reasonable cost in of fire, for all other steps depend is easy to supervise and to do cor­ relation to benefits requires that on it. It then recommends prepa­ rectly, but night burning is neces­ at least 10 acres (4 ha) be treated ratory work, mainly plowed lines sary when minimum fire intensity per man-hour; thus, a crew of five, to control the spread of the fire. is required. including the leader, should treat Exterior barriers must be provided at least 400 acres (160 ha) in an for all burning units; roads and Plan to burn only when constant 8-hour day. Such a crew on the streams should be used where wind direction is forecast. As wind Osceola National Forest burned possible to reduce plowing cost. A shifts and breakovers are the great­ 500 to 1,000 acres (200–400 ha) flankfire requires interior parallel est source of damage, good burning per day—12.5 to 25 acres (5–10 ha) lines about one-half mile (0.8 km) conditions are found when there is a per man-hour—setting as much as apart to avoid too long a flank. A 3- to 10-mile (4.8–16 km) northerly 10 miles (16 km) of backfire and backfire requires a similar series of wind in clear weather immediately providing the needed mop-up and parallel lines close enough togeth­ after rain. Wind direction is com­ patrol. This crew was large enough er that the area between them will monly variable in the unsettled to vary duties to meet particular burn out in the burning period. A weather previous to rainfall. Wind fuel and weather conditions. backfire spreads about 1 foot (0.3 shifts are also likely around noon and m) per minute, and so 600 feet sunset. On the Osceola, the northerly At night, with no patrol, smaller (180 m) is the maximum distance winds that prevailed 1 to 3 days after crews may be superior, while if between such lines unless more rains were the most reliable. mop-up is needed, it is better to than 8 to 10 hours of burning are have extra men than to take some planned. Since northerly winds are The prescription should also cover away from the work of spreading least variable, these interior lines the size of crew and equipment fire. Continuous day and night are usually plowed in an east/west needed. Motor equipment is used burning can be used, if relief direction. mainly to plow lines and to trans­ crews are available, to lower costs port men and tools. Spreading and under exceptionally favorable con­ For most purposes, the season mop-up tools are needed for the ditions of weather, fuel, and stand. for using fire is the late fall and burning job, and ample fire sup- Good prescribed burning requires winter after the first frost (about that crews be relieved after 8 hours of work. Table 1—Patch sizes worth excluding from prescribed burning. Number of slash pine crop trees All preliminaries and plans for under 6 feet (1.8 m) tall burning should be completed by Maximum area to exclude per acre per hectare early fall to eliminate haste and consequent poor results. 6 acres (2.4 ha) 50 124 Preparation. Preparation for burn­ 5 acres (2 ha) 70 173 ing consists mainly in plowing 4 acres (1.6 ha) 95 235 the lines provided for in the plan. 3 acres (1.2 ha) 135 333

Fire Management Today 24 Enough lines are plowed in advance should be received by 8 a.m., before Recommendations to permit choosing one of several departure of the work crews, and Prescribed burning methods used units on the burning day; yet, to the second before the usual quit­ on the Osceola National Forest have prevent fallen needles and leaves ting time. been briefly described; the most from weakening the lines, plowing important suggestions follow: ordinarily should precede burning Burning. Each day during the by not more than two weeks. burning season, the manager, 1. Use fire only when analysis guided by weather forecasts and reveals benefits should clearly Lines should be carefully located to experience, decides whether or not exceed cost and damage. minimize breakovers from hazard­ to burn and selects the best unit for 2. Correlate prescribed burning ous fuels such as snags and thickets conditions expected. With favorable with silviculture, grazing, game, of gallberry. A two-disk plow, drawn weather, low costs are achieved by crops, logging, turpentining, etc. by a light tractor, will prepare a line spreading fire rapidly to increase 3. Prepare in advance (examine, about 6 feet wide (2 m) at a cost area burned per man-hour. map, plan, plow, etc.) so as to be of about $3.25 per mile. With sev­ ready when burning conditions eral hundred miles of line to plow, are right. such equipment is indispensable. The prescription or plan is 4. Arrange for weather forecasts, Plowing and burning in one opera­ especially of wind direction. A tion is inefficient, since a line can a most important phase steady wind during the 8 to 10 be fired three times as fast as it can of prescribed burning, hours required to burn a unit is be plowed. distinguishing it from the of first importance in minimiz­ unorganized and often ing cost and damage; burn only Burning crews should be selected when a constant direction is and trained well before the start destructive use of fire. forecast for at least 12 hours. of operations. The plow operator 5. Reduce costs when burning con­ needs to know how to read maps ditions are especially favorable and aerial photographs and where To complete the burning job, the by (1) spreading backfire rapidly lines should be located as well as area should be mopped up to pre­ to have 10 miles or more (16+ how to operate and service his vent breakovers. The extent of km) burning at one time, and plow and tractor. Crewmen must mop-up will depend on the amount (2) using relief crews to take full be taught how to fire in relation of dangerous fuels and on weather advantage of favorable burning to plowed line and hazardous conditions. weather. fuels. Mop-up standards, changes 6. A competent crew is essential; it to meet wind shifts, provisions Appraisal. Appraisal following should be small and composed of in emergencies, etc., should be burning may consist simply of field reliable local men experienced in clearly understood by all. This checks, or it may be a careful evalu­ fire behavior and control. training should be continued as ation of both injury and benefits 7. The forester, to achieve effi­ long as necessary after burning for the whole area. When crowns cient and successful prescribed starts. The continuity afforded by are not scorched above half their burning, must use intelligence, having the crew foreman examine, height, damage is minor: a few courage, patience, and determi­ map, plan, and plow is desirable small trees are killed and growth nation. ■ but seldom possible. on others is slightly reduced for a year or two. Scorching more than Reliable weather forecasts improve four-fifths of the crown results in the quality of burning, and arrange­ excessive mortality and a sharp ments should be made to receive temporary reduction in growth rate daily forecasts of wind direction of the survivors. and velocity, relative humidity, pre­ cipitation, and general state of the weather. Forecasts twice daily at 12-hour periods are best; the first

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 25 Vegetation temPerature and Fire damage in the southern Pines* George M. Byram

t has long been known that pine which directly or indirectly affect these conditions, considerable stands in the South are more the temperature of the susceptible heat would be required to raise the I severely damaged by late spring parts of a tree. temperature up to the lethal value or summer fires than by winter of 140 °F (60 °C). A fairly intense fires. The usual explanation is that Of these, the initial vegetation tem­ fire during cold winter weather a stand is most susceptible to fire perature may be one of the most might therefore do no more dam­ injury during the growing season, important. The temperature of age than a low-intensity fire in hot or that dormant trees during the the foliage of a pine in bright sun­ summer weather. The same com­ winter season are least susceptible. light may exceed 105 °F (40.5 °C). parison might be made between It is also thought that summer fires Therefore, an increase of only 35 hot and cold spells both occurring are hotter than winter fires. °F (19.4 °C) would be required to in the winter, or both occurring in reach the lethal temperature, and the spring. Summer fires probably do have a the absorption of a relatively small somewhat higher intensity than amount of heat by the foliage would Theoretical curves in figure 1 show winter fires. It is also likely that accomplish this. the relative fire intensities that pines may be slightly more sus­ longleaf, slash, and loblolly pine ceptible to injury during certain On the other hand, the foliage should tolerate at different tem­ periods of the growing season. temperature might be only 35 °F peratures. At a temperature just However, a theoretical analysis (2.7 °C) or 40 °F (4.4 °C) during above freezing, any one of these of the factors contributing to fire a cold period in winter. Under pines should tolerate a fire more damage has shown that other fac­ tors may be considerably more important than the two just men­ tioned. The details of the analysis are outside the scope of this discus­ sion, which will concern the results of the analysis rather than the tech­ nical aspects of its development. Lethal Temperature The lethal temperature for plant tissue is in the neighborhood of 140 °F (60 °C). It may be assumed that the buds, needles, and branch endings of a pine will die if heated to a temperature exceeding 140 °F (60 °C). An analysis of the lethal effects of fire, therefore, reduces to an analysis of those factors

When this article was originally published in 1948, George Byram was a physicist for the USDA Forest Service, Fire Research, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. Figure 1—The theoretical relation between vegetation temperature and a tree’s heat * The article is reprinted from Fire Control Notes 9(4) tolerance. Heights of these curves represent the relative fire intensity that slash, longleaf, [October 1948]: 34–36. and loblolly pine will tolerate at different vegetation temperatures. The three species of trees are assumed to be of the same size.

Fire Management Today 26 than twice as intense as it would This may explain why suppressed headfire in a few minutes. on a warm day when the vegetation trees, the susceptible parts of Some of the effects of wind are not temperature is 95 °F (35 °C). which are dwarfed and of small yet well understood. It is known volume, are more easily killed that scorching is severe when a fire One of the most noticeable fea­ by fire than vigorous trees of the burns in calm air. In this case, lack tures about the curves is the sud­ same size. It may also explain why of turbulence permits the hot gases den increase in a pine’s heat tol­ longleaf pine is less susceptible to pass straight upward in a more erance at temperatures below 29 to fire than other species of pine. or less streamline flow. °F (1.7 °C). At this temperature, Also, the terminal buds of longleaf since most of the water in the are surrounded by a protective However, recent thermocouple needles and buds would be frozen, sheaf of needles that retards a tem­ measurements indicate that there large quantities of heat would be perature rise in the bud. may be additional reasons for the required to convert the ice back scorching in calm air. When a line to water. At a temperature of 29 Table 1 shows the diameter of the of fire passes under a tree, the foli­ °F (1.7 °C), pine foliage should terminal buds on longleaf, slash, age is subjected to two peaks of tolerate a fire about four times as and loblolly pine. Susceptibility rat­ intensity. One peak is the result of intense as at a temperature of 95 ings are given in the third column. radiant energy from the approach­ °F (35 °C). Some field men have These ratings are found by taking ing fireline; the other is caused by noticed that cold-weather fires the reciprocals of the values in the convective heat from the burning have resulted in much less damage bud diameter column. gases. For a backfire, the peak for than might be expected. radiant heat comes first, and for a The relative positions of the three headfire the peaks occur in reverse Curves for hardwoods should be curves in figure 1 were determined order. In calm air they occur simul­ very similar to those for pine, by the diameters of the terminal taneously. except that their heat tolerance buds in the three species. would be lower. In stands managed Interrelated Effects for the perpetuation of pine, hard­ Wind Factor It is difficult to compare the rela­ wood sprouts could probably be Wind is another important factor tive importance of wind and tem­ girdled most effectively by burning affecting the temperature of veg­ perature because their effects are in hot, sunny weather. etation exposed to radiant heat. interrelated. In a headfire, wind Wind has a conductive cooling increases the fire intensity by Morphological Factor action on buds and needles, which speeding up the combustion pro­ Another important factor associ­ reduces the rate of temperature cess. This is partially offset by tur­ ated with temperature changes in rise. Men who have done much bulence, which retards the upward the crown of a tree concern the work with prescribed burning flow of heat. In addition, wind morphological characteristics or usually consider wind the most exerts a conductive cooling effect “geometry” of the needles, buds, important factor in the amount on buds and needles. and branch endings. The rate of of scorch they are likely to get. temperature rise in these suscep­ Unlike temperature, many of the Basic studies are now in progress tible parts is inversely proportional effects of wind can be readily on the Francis Marion National to their size. When they are mas­ observed. A sudden shift in the Forest to obtain experimen­ sive and heavy, they will not reach wind can convert a low-intensity tal checks on the results of the as high a temperature as when they backfire into a high-intensity theoretical work discussed in this are thin and light. paper. In addition, these studies should yield information for deter­ Table 1—Terminal bud diameter and fire susceptibility for three spe­ mining the proper place of fire in cies of pine. the management and protection Species Bud diameter Fire susceptibility of loblolly pine. This information Longleaf pine 0.46 inches (1.16 cm) 0.88 should also be applicable in large part to other species of pine, such Slash pine 0.28 inches (0.72 cm) 1.39 as slash, longleaf, and possibly Loblolly pine 0.13 inches (0.33 cm) 3.00 even shortleaf. ■

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 27 broadcast slash burning aFter a rain* Robert Aufderheide and William G. Morris

Original editor’s note: Slash burning after clearcut- have not closely studied the methods of slash burn­ ting in the Douglas-fir region has been previously ing used in different parts of the Douglas-fir region. discussed in pamphlets published by the Oregon The origin and adoption of the policy to burn slash State Board of Forestry, Washington Forest Fire as soon as it becomes inflammable during the clear­ Association, West Coast Lumbermen’s Association, ing weather immediately after a rain instead of Western Forestry and Conservation Association, and waiting until just before the next rain is expected the United States Forest Service and in several trade has not yet been definitely dated. The State Forester journal articles. The authors claim no originality for of Oregon states that his organization has followed the material in the following article but believe the it in the Douglas-fir region for a number of years. points discussed are worth reconsideration. Some of Several of the national forests in the Douglas-fir the suggestions will probably be new to readers who region have followed this policy in recent years.

roadcast burning of slash in the Douglas-fir region is often Burning after a fall rain should not be attempted until about B done just before an expected 3 inches of rain have occurred. heavy fall rain. If the rain occurs in sufficient quantity at the right time, no work is necessary to con­ • To burn apart crossed and closely ate; it is an important part of the fine the fire to the slash area. If the lying logs, separating them where cutting operation and, like other expected rain does not occur, it is great heat can be developed and phases, should be efficiently coor­ often difficult to confine the fire to thus make an accidental fire dinated. Plans for broadcast slash the slash area. Furthermore, burn­ more intense and difficult to con­ burning should be started long ing just before a rain is open to trol; before the burning season. Some other criticisms. In contrast, recent • To check the growth of brush of the greatest difficulties and risks experience shows that burning that sprouts from roots estab­ can often be eliminated if the slash- after a rain, as soon as slash is dry lished before logging and com­ burning job is carefully considered enough, has several advantages. petes with tree seedlings; in the cutting plans. • To remove excessive debris that The forestry objectives in burning would prevent tree seeds from Good planning will avoid the fol­ slash are: reaching a suitable seedbed; and lowing difficulties and risks: • To accomplish, as far as pos­ • To remove flashy small material sible, the foregoing aims without 1. Slash areas too big to be burned in which dry-weather fires spread scorching adjacent standing tim­ in 1 or 2 days by firing succes­ with such speed and heat that ber or causing undue heat injury sive narrow strips along the they can seldom be controlled to the soil and seed trees within contours, beginning at the top of inside of the slash area; the slash area. the slash area. A slash fire that runs unchecked a long distance When this article was originally published in 1949, Robert Aufderheide and William Advance Planning up a slope usually creates exces­ Morris were foresters for the USDA Forest With such objectives, slash burning sive heat. (Staggered settings of Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and 80 acres (32 ha) or less facilitate Range Experiment Station. helps keep forest lands productive. It is not just a clean-up job to be slash burning, especially when * The article is reprinted from Fire Control Notes done after the cutting under any periods of good burning weather 10(4) [October 1949]: 1–6. It was reprinted from the are short.) September 1948 issue of West Coast Lumberman. conditions the operation may cre­

Fire Management Today 28 nature of slash, the topography, adja­ cent timber conditions, and availabil­ ity of adequate manpower for mop- up. Bulldozer firelines, particularly on sidehills, have the disadvantage of mixing much dirt with the slash to be burned; this causes fire to smolder a long time on the edges of the slash area. If a bulldozer is used, the dirt and debris should be pushed away from the slash area to avoid a smol­ dering fire at the line. Choosing the Slash Moisture Conditions for A slash fire burning with moderate intensity when the ground is still moist from a Burning preceding rain leaves unburned beneficial humus in the topsoil. Since one objective of broadcast slash burning should be to avoid 2. Equipment and logs situated 5. Estimated length of time to set the undue heat injury to the soil, seed alongside considerable slash fire and to patrol and mop it up. trees, and adjacent timber, the with no firebreak to isolate 6. Number of torches, amount of soil should be moist in both the them at the time of the first oil, and other firing equipment. slash area and adjacent areas. Yet, burning season. 7. Placement of portable pumps and to allow economical fire setting, 3. Current slash joined with that of tank trucks for fire control use. the fine material should be dry another owned. 8. Hand tools and bulldozer (on the enough to carry fire and be eas­ 4. Tops felled into the adjoining job) for emergency use. ily kindled. In the light of these green timber. 9. Communication and arrange­ requirements, fall burning just 5. No firebreaks, such as ridges, ments for extra fire control help before an expected rain presents streams, rock outcroppings, or if needed. several disadvantages: roads, around the slash. Finally, two parts of the slash-burn­ 1. The soil, duff, and logs in the Advance work should also include ing job should be done, if possible, slash area will usually be dry. a detailed plan of the burning jobs, Such slash generally burns too outlined on paper well ahead of the intensely, and a hard burn is burning date. This should provide: In selecting the best day, the destructive to soil structure, soil humus content, and seed trees. 1. A description of the weather and dampness of the duff should 2. If the slash is very dry, the fuel moisture conditions desired. be determined at several adjacent areas also will be dry. 2. Desirable time of day to begin points by digging into the duff Under these conditions, numer­ setting fires. with the hands. ous spot fires and breakaways 3. A sketch of the area showing can be expected; this increases topographic features, boundaries the cost of control and causes of the area to be burned, and the loss of adjacent timber, equip­ order in which different parts of before the burning season. All ment, or other values. Even the fire will be set if the prevail­ snags inside the slash area and any though timbered areas may be ing wind direction for the local­ outside but near the area boundary fairly damp, the exposed edges ity occurs. An alternate order of should be felled. A fire trail should for several hundred feet inward setting for another wind direc­ be built along adjoining cut-over may be almost as dry as the tion may be desirable. areas, certain open types of stand­ slash area. Hemlock and spruce, 4. Number of men needed to do ing timber, and other critical edges. which are particularly suscep­ a good job, and their specific tible to fire damage, will die assignments. The decision on the need for advance firelines will depend largely upon the from the effects of a ground fire around their bases. Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 29 3. The timing and intensity of a rainstorm in a given small area are difficult to forecast. 4. Most storms are preceded by strong winds; this will increase the danger of breakaways and damage. 5. If the rain begins sooner than expected, there generally is an urge to fire the slash rapidly. When this happens, a hard burn is the usual result, and fre­ quently uncut timber around the edges is scorched. Sometimes the slash quickly becomes too wet for the set fires to spread. Instead, they smolder and burn When the weather begins to clear after a rain, slash in a clearcutting will become dry in the concentrations with­ enough to burn while the litter in the green timber is still moist. out completely dying out; real danger may occur later with a wet duff and damp litter in the In any broadcast slash burning, change to low humidities and timber will lessen the danger good judgment in picking the right increased wind velocities. from spotting and breakaways. time to burn is essential to success. 6. The expected rain may not occur. In many instances when slash The decision on whether to burn A serious fire problem may con­ is burned under these condi­ early or late in the season will be front the burner in this situa­ tions, advance firelines are determined by the general location tion, depending upon adjacent unnecessary. of the slash area and the burning timber conditions and subse­ 3. The first few clear days follow­ conditions in and adjacent to the quent weather. ing the rain are usually calm and slash area. offer ideal conditions for control­ Trend Since 1942 ling the burn. Wait Until 3 Inches Since about 1942 there has been a 4. The materials in which the fire of Rain trend toward doing fall slash burn­ spreads can be burned out before Burning after a fall rain should not ing immediately after a rain. This dangerous weather develops. be attempted until about 3 inches method has definite advantages in 5. Under this method, it is pos­ (8 cm) of rain have occurred. This avoiding heat injury and providing sible to do the slow burning that will usually be after two or more good conditions for burning: does the least damage to forest storms. There should be reasonable soils, seed trees, and surround­ certainty that timbered areas will 1. As fast as the fine slash and sur­ ing timber. More time is usually not again dry out that year. Fall face of the coarse slash become available for setting the fire in rains occur on varying dates and dry after the rain, the slash is successive contour strips down usually begin earlier in the north­ burned. Since the duff is still the hill. This avoids a sweeping ern part of the Douglas-fir region wet below the surface, it is and excessively hot fire. than in the southern. Coastal slopes completely burned only in the 6. Where one person or one crew also become wet earlier than inland spots beneath logs or piles of hot has responsibility for burning areas. Good burning conditions burning fuels. In the remaining a number of slash areas, this ordinarily occur in inland areas area, the fire destroys the light system offers a longer period between October 1 and 20, and and flashy fuels but dies out in which to do the job. In this along the coast between September before consuming the duff and way, experienced slash-burn­ 10 and October 1. humus in the soil. ing personnel can cover more 2. The fine slash will dry out first ground, and better burning A large slash area adjacent to other while the fuels in the adjacent results are probable. highly inflammable areas is more green timber are still wet. The dangerous to burn early in the

Fire Management Today 30 fall than a small slash area sur­ into the duff with the hands. The fuel are apt to produce an undesir­ rounded by green timber. Where inflammability of fine fuels can ably hot fire when burning condi­ high-risk burning chances occur, it be estimated by the brittleness of tions become more severe during is advisable to burn late. However, twigs. A better method is to burn the afternoon of the next day. To good slash-burning results cannot a small sample of fine slash. If the avoid this circumstance, it is also be expected consistently on such fire will not spread, burning should advisable to delay setting more chances regardless of the time of be discontinued until conditions fires until about noon the next day burning. By planning the logging improve. Best results are obtained or until such a time as they will operation well, however, many of when the fire spreads slowly and spread. Frequently, excellent results the risks can usually be eliminated many sets are required to ignite the can be obtained by burning south or minimized. The poor slash burn­ entire area. slopes and dry exposures during the ing results obtained in most dan­ early part of the night, and north gerous slash areas happen largely Even though the relative humidity slopes, creek bottoms, and other because management permits dif­ is low, the fire can be easily man­ damp areas during the heat of the ficult situations to occur. aged if the air is calm and the duff next day. is moist. Successful, controlled, In stream bottoms and on north nondestructive slash fires have Mop-Up slopes on the coast fog belt, where been observed burning under these The importance of mop-up to con­ dense brush grew before logging, conditions shortly after a rain tinuing success of slash burning slash should be burned fairly early when the relative humidity was after a rain cannot be overempha­ in the season after the first fall only 25 percent. sized. In burning immediately after rains occur and under fairly dry a rain, dryer weather can be expect­ burning conditions. This is done to Weather Bureau forecasts should be ed. After the slash fire has cooled, obtain the best possible regenera­ studied before burning and also after any live edges should be trailed and tion of conifers. One purpose of burning is under way. The Weather mopped up. such burning is temporarily to set Bureau wishes to assist with slash- back the brush in order to give nat­ burning projects and is glad to pro­ The proper time to do this mop-up ural regeneration or planted stock vide fire weather forecasts. is while weather and fuel condi­ a chance to become established. tions are still favorable for moder­ The coastal brush is more of an Setting the Fires ate burning. The objective should obstacle to adequate natural repro­ In setting the fires, the most dan­ be to have the edges of the burned duction than is commonly appreci­ gerous edges should be lit first, slash dead before dangerous weath­ ated. Unless burned with sufficient and a safety strip should be burned er conditions occur. If the slash heat to kill the tops and injure the around areas to be left unburned. has been properly burned under root crowns, this brush springs up Topography and condition of the the right conditions, a clean burn rapidly when exposed to full light slash should be considered in the will be obtained, and not much live following logging. It will then hold firing progression. In all cases, the edge will remain 24 to 36 hours the area it occupies and exclude uphill and leeward sides of the area after the slash has been fired. A conifer seedlings. should be fired first. It is best to pro­ clean burn properly mopped up ceed slowly at first, and edges should will not spread fire even though the The Day to Burn be well burned out before setting weather becomes dangerous. It is advisable to burn as promptly additional fires. Hot, destructive as possible after the rain, as soon as burning can result from setting off Those who have tried this method the small materials and log surfaces too much area at one time. for a number of years claim that the have dried enough to ignite easily results are achieving the objectives and while the lower duff layer in Once started, burning should be of good slash burning with less trou­ the slash and all fuels in adjacent continued until all fuels within the ble, loss, and expense than burning timber are still damp. In selecting slash area have been ignited, but before an expected rain. ■ the best day, the dampness of the burning should be discontinued duff should be determined at sev­ whenever set fires will no longer eral points in adjacent timber and spread. Smoldering fires scattered in the area to be burned by digging through a large area of unburned

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 31 Prescribed burning in the northern rocky mountains* Charles T. Coston

rescribed burning got its start percentage of infestation runs in the longleaf pine region of Fuel reduction rids the forest very high, often to as much as P the South, where silvicultur­ of dense, highly flammable 100 percent. The logging leaves ists discovered that controlled fuels and increases the a great deal of slash and tops as burning of the forest floor litter well as unmerchantable trees, all not only increased timber produc­ economic value of the land. of which contain a large number tivity, but also improved grazing of beetles. These areas are then and wildlife habitat, served as broadcast burned, the result being a fungus control measure, and the death of the beetles. reduced dangerous fuels. increase volume production to as much as 40,000 or 50,000 board Planning a Burn feet (94–118 m³) per 100 years Burning Objectives Generally speaking, the best time (Lyman 1945). Such fuel reduction is of major of year to prescribe-burn is in the importance here in the Northern fall. In the Northern Rockies, a Since the outbreak of the spruce Rocky Mountains, where the moderate rain usually comes dur­ bark beetle epidemic in Idaho dense stands of reproduction and ing early September, followed by a and Montana in 1951, prescribed fire-killed trees, steep slopes, and period of warm, dry weather. This burning has been used very suc­ extremely dry fire seasons create is the time when most burning is cessfully as a means of destroy­ optimum burning conditions. Fuel done. No attempt to burn should be ing these insects (fig. 1). Areas reduction is designed to rid the made when conditions are not good of infested Engelmann spruce forest of areas containing dense, enough to assure a clean burn. A are usually clearcut, because the highly flammable fuels, and to general guide for weather and fuel increase the economic value of the land. Both suppression and pre­ suppression costs are reduced by the resulting lower fire hazard.

Areas of dense fire-killed timber can produce only a scattering of green timber for the many years that nature is disposing of the dead trees, at most no more than 10,000 board feet (24 m³) per 100 years. The same type of area, however, when prescribe-burned, can produce at least 20,000 board feet (48 m³), and the best sites can

When this article was originally published in 1954, Charles Coston was a forestry aid for the USDA Forest Service, Lolo National Forest, and a student in the School of Forestry at Montana State University. Figure 1— Broadcast burning of slash on a logged-over area infested by spruce bark beetles on the Lolo National Forest in Montana. Standing trees are western larch, a fire- * The article is reprinted from Fire Control Notes 16(1) resistant species, which will serve as a seed source to regenerate the area. Photo: USDA [January 1954]: 43–46. Forest Service.

Fire Management Today 32 The project chief must know the air currents created by cold, heavy air draining back into fires, how to draw fires together, how to lead fires into the lower elevations. Highest wind different areas of the burn. velocities usually occur in midafter­ noon (Barrows 1951).

conditions needed to accomplish the should be felled in small areas and A knowledge of fire behavior is desired type of burn is as follows: in long narrow areas. necessary in prescribed burning. The project chief must know the 1. Relative humidity 25 to 50 per­ Dozer piling along critical sectors air currents created by fires, how cent; and the burning of these piled areas to draw fires together, how to lead 2. Wind 8 miles per hour (13 km/h) well in advance of broadcast burn­ fires into different areas of the or less; ing reduces risks. burn. He must know when to set 3. Fuel moisture 8 to 12 percent; fires in certain areas of the burn and Desirable Conditions so that all of the fires will draw together and assure a good burn. 4. Burning index 30 to 40. Lyman (1945) states that, “Experienced judgment is neces­ The element of timing cannot be Proper planning of a prescribed sary to size up fuel conditions and to burning project is of vital impor­ overstressed. Proper timing of sets determine the most desirable flam­ prevents spot fires, and it deter­ tance. The area to be burned mability conditions to wait for. The should be prepared well in advance mines the effectiveness of the burn. most desirable condition for heavy This is the main reason that pro­ of the planned date of burning. fuel types is a calm, quiet afternoon Then there should be a certain pane torches are preferred in firing. with overcast skies and relative They are fast and dependable. amount of leeway to allow the humidity between 20 and 34 percent. project manager to take advantage Fuel moistures of 6 to 9 percent are Methods of Burning of weather conditions. best, depending upon fuel type.” While the afternoon is generally the Preparing the Area The Weather Bureau* can predict best time to burn, under certain The preparation of an area usu­ suitable weather for burning. Ideal conditions night burning is more ally consists of constructing fire- conditions would be a period of advisable, especially when daytime lines around the proposed burn, calm weather followed by rain a day burning hazards are very high felling dangerous snags, and in or two later. This would lessen the and there is considerable danger some cases felling standing tim­ mop-up job, which is necessary on of spotting. Night burning also ber to assure fuel continuity. most burns. enables one to take advantage of Arrangements for an adequate con­ the downslope winds. The fire can trol force should be made. This will Since wind is the most variable be set along the upper edge of the depend upon the characteristics of adverse condition that threatens the burn, and the wind moves it down­ the area to be burned. success of a prescribed burning proj­ hill until the fire builds up its own ect, it is the condition that should updraft and reverses. Then another On moderate slopes, lines may be be watched most closely. In the row of sets is made below the line built most economically by bulldoz­ Northern Rockies, morning winds of fire and the lower fire draws the er. On slopes up to 60 percent and are generally from the east, since upper fire down to it. Under certain in light fuels, the hand trencher the sun warms the east slopes first. conditions, fires may thus be led may be used; but on steep slopes, Then the winds shift to the south down a slope. This method is not lines must be built by hand. and increase in velocity. During considered to be the best, because midmorning, upslope winds start there is considerable danger of los­ All snags that are likely to throw with the rising of heated air from ing on the uphill side as a result spots should be felled within 200 to lower elevations. The upslope winds of lack of heat inside. Fires have a 300 feet (60–90 m) inside the line. continue until late afternoon, when natural tendency to spread uphill. All rotten and shaggy-barked snags downslope winds start as a result of near the outside of the line should A better method of firing on the also be felled. All dangerous snags slopes is to set a triangle of fire well * Now the National Weather Service. inside the proposed burn and to allow heat to develop well downhill

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 33 and inside. Then the fire can be worked in a point uphill to the line and led out to the line on all sides by progressive firing. Buffer strips can be used to ease fire up to the line. Care should be taken to fire right up alongside the line in pro­ gressive firing, and to set hot fires well inside to draw the fire away from the line.

On level ground, the circular method of burning can be used with a high degree of success. Hot Figure 2—A jeep tanker being tested prior to the broadcast burning of an area of lodge­ fires are started in the center of the pole pine slash on the Deerlodge National Forest in Montana. Photo: USDA Forest Service. area to be burned, and they pull air in from all sides. Then fires are set around the outside of the circle and The key to success in controlled burning lies in a competent are drawn in to the center. control force. Control Force fuels, and weather, and each area The key to success in controlled References within a region has fire-affecting burning lies in a competent control Barrows, J.S. 1951. Fire behavior in peculiarities all its own. Before Northern Rocky Mountain forests. Sta. force. This enables the use of hot burning, therefore, each area must Pap. 29. Missoula, MT: USDA Forest fires without the constant danger Service, Northern Rocky Mountain Forest be studied carefully. Slope, wind, of their getting out of control. All and Range Experiment Station. fuels, and any other factor that Lyman, C.K. 1945. Principles of fuel reduc­ the equipment deemed necessary might possibly affect fire behav­ tion for the Northern Rocky Mountain should be on hand: tankers (fig. ior must be carefully noted, and Region. Prog. Rep. 1. Missoula, MT: USDA 2), dozers, and trenchers, any­ Forest Service, Northern Rocky Mountain a detailed plan of action must be ■ thing that makes the burn safer. Of Forest and Range Experiment Station. made to suit each specific pro­ course, there is a financial limit. posed burn. Therefore, it becomes necessary to use fires in such a manner as to Fire has taken its place along with never get more fire than the con­ the other tools of the silviculturist, trol force can handle. and it promises more uses and ben­ efits as we become more familiar In prescribed burning there can with its effects. be no set guides to be used on any particular area during any season. Each region has its own topography,

Helpful References on Site Preparation and Precautions for Prescribed Burning Baldwin, B.; Wilson, J.E. 1962. The trac- Devet, D.D.; Graves, E.E. 1978. Ground Orr, W.J.; Dell, J.D. 1967. Sprinkler sys­ tor-cable method of preparing areas tanker retardant application for pre- tem protects fireline perimeter in slash for burning. Fire Control Notes. 23(4): scribed burning line construction. Fire burning. Fire Control Notes. 28(4): 114–117. Management Notes. 39(3): 10–12. 11–12. Dell, J.D.; Schram, G.I. 1970. Oscillating Jolley, S.M. 2001. Fighting fire without Roberts, J.F. 1985. Protection of archaeo­ sprinklers backup for burnout. Fire fire: Biomass removal as a prelude to logical sites and special areas during Control Notes. 31(2): 8–10. prescribed fire. Fire Management Today. prescribed burning. Fire Management 61(3): 23–25. Notes. 46(3): 9–10.

Fire Management Today 34 the christmas eVe Prescribed burn* Albert A. Thomas

t was the morning before Christmas. Santa Claus was load­ I ing up and the holly and mistle­ toe were being hung. Gifts were being wrapped, and the weather was just right for prescribed burn­ ing on the Escambia Experimental Forest. The south Alabama woods were damp, the north wind was swaying the tree tops, and the air temperature was near freezing.

This was the weather the Escambia foresters had wanted for nearly 2 months. Brown-spot needle disease had invaded several large areas of longleaf reproduction on the forest. The only practical way to save the infected seedlings was to prescribe- burn, and this was the day for the job. Seven years of study and expe­ rience went into the planning and application of the Christmas Eve Figure 1— In the Christmas Eve prescribed burn, nearly 1,400 acres (560 ha) of longleaf pine seedlings were rid of brown-spot disease at a cost of 6 cents an acre by 4 men work­ burn (fig.1). ing 4 hours.

Prescribed burning is a calculated killing frost in early November, risk. The risk should be taken only Benefits from a prescribed the percent of brown-spot infec­ after careful planning and prepara­ fire must exceed all burning tion was estimated on a mini­ tion based on a thorough under­ cost plus fire damages. mum of 100 longleaf seedlings standing of fire and fire behavior. on each 10- to 40-acre (4–16-ha) The guiding principle for prescribed reproduction area. burning on the Escambia is the burning yardstick. The survey showed several hun­ treatment, and appraisal. When dred acres of grass-stage long-leaf properly followed, this procedure The yardstick is simple. Benefits reproduction infected with brown- removes most of the gamble, and from the fire must exceed all spot, with the degree of infection fire becomes a useful tool in the burning cost plus fire damages. ranging from a low of 15 percent longleaf forest. Application is more complex. A to a high of over 35 percent. Past five step procedure is used: diag­ experiments and experience have nosis, prescription, preparation, Diagnosis shown that areas with 25 percent First, exactly what areas on the or more infec-tion in November When this article was originally published forest contained heavy brown- should be prescribe-burned dur­ in 1956, Albert Thomas was with the East spot infection? What damages Gulfcoast Research Center, Southern ing the coming winter. To prevent Forest Experiment Station. could be expected from the use reinfection, the area surrounding of prescribed fire? To find out, a the seedlings should also be burned * The article is reprinted from Fire Control Notes 17(4) survey was made. After the first [October 1956]: 9–12 and first appeared in the March where possible. 1956 issue of American Forests.

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 35 Longleaf seedlings can generally be Weather is the most important factor burned safely if: in prescribed burning.

1. They are at least one-half inch (1.3 cm) in diameter at the root headfire would be safe and do a bet­ lic relations, and on the Christmas collar; ter job than a backfire. Eve Burn permission was needed 2. Very little root is exposed; and to burn two areas into natural fire­ 3. The seedlings are not in active Weather is the most important breaks outside the forest boundary. height growth. factor in prescribed burning. Cold This saved more than a half mile weather and plenty of ground (0.8 km) of firebreak construction The survey showed that if fire was moisture are essential. This means and eliminated two heavily infected applied properly, damage should burning in winter as soon as pos­ areas adjoining the forest. be confined to a few scattered seed­ sible after 1 inch (2.5 cm) or more lings 1 to 5 feet (0.3–1.5 m) high of rainfall. To get a fast-moving Since the prescription called for that were already nearly dead from headfire, a moderate, cold north headfire and a north wind, two brown-spot. wind is needed—north wind be­ lines about 100 feet (30 m) apart cause it is usually dependable and were plowed and burned on the The areas that needed burning steady in south Alabama. To insure south, east, and west boundaries to were mapped. Then, to plan for that all areas will be covered while control the fire where natural fire­ control of the fire, information was ideal weather lasts, fires should be breaks were not available. On the obtained on the condition of rough, started by 10:00 a.m. and be com­ north side of the area, only a single natural firebreaks, roads, and trails. pletely underway by noon. plowed line was necessary.

The diagnosis was that several large The prescription was a headfire on Next was to be sure a head fire areas were dangerously infected. a day when ground moisture was would be underway in all areas Fire was needed and could be plentiful and a moderate, steady, by noon of D-day, and that burn­ applied without excessive damage. cold north wind was blowing. The ing would be completed a few fire was to be underway before hours later. The map showed that Prescription noon and to cover the areas in a one line of fire along the north Next was to prescribe the fire treat­ few hours. boundary would have to travel ment for each area—the kind of more than a mile (1.6 km). This fire and the weather needed. Preparation is too far. Experience has shown Successful burning can only be that one-half mile (0.8 km) is If the areas had had a heavy rough done after thorough preparations for about the maximum for the and lots of draped fuel, a backfire applying and controlling the fire. time allowed in the prescription. would have been prescribed. Heavy Otherwise, the burn may not be roughs with draped fuel burn very In delineating each area to burn, completed before weather condi­ hot, and unnecessary overhead natural firebreaks such as roads tions change. Another east/west scorch to standing timber would and streams were used, wherever firing line was therefore put in. occur if a headfire were used. The possible, to save firebreak con­ Natural firebreaks could be used survey showed, however, that the struction. Nearby landowners were to fire the rest of the area. areas contained a light rough—a contacted. Letting neighbors know small accumulation of pine straw what’s going on is always good pub­ A total of 9 miles (14 km) of line and not much grass. A fast-running had to be fired. One torch man would be able to fire about 3 miles (5 km) in the allotted 2 hours between 10:00 a.m. and noon. The The benefits of several thousand dollars in brown-spot line was roughly divided into 3­ control far exceeded the burning cost plus the minor mile (5-km) sections and assigned damages of the fire. to men designated as Torches 1, 2, and 3. Since 1-gallon (3.8-L) fire

Fire Management Today 36 torches hold only enough fuel for get into their “burning” clothes. seedlings. The established seedlings about three-fourths of a mile (1.2 The Alabama and Florida for­ treated by the Christmas Eve Burn km) of line, refueling cans would be estry departments were notified to were worth at least $4,000. It is needed at intervals along the line. A expect a big smoke starting at 10 doubtful that half of these would small letter-size map was prepared o’clock. Torch fuel was distributed have survived and grown without to show each torch man: to the planned points along the the pre-scribed fire. At least $2,000 burning lines. worth of seedlings were saved. 1. The line to fire, 2. The direction of travel, At 9:30 a.m., the crew met on the What was the cost? The whole 3. Locations of refueling cans, and forest. A small test fire was set, and job, including diagnosis, prescrip­ 4. How to fire his part of the line. then each torch man was briefed tion, preparation, treatment, and and given his map. At exactly 10 appraisal, came to less than $100. A crew of three torch men and one o’clock all three torches started fir­ man supervising and patrolling the ing. A few minutes after 12 noon, What were the damages? A seedling burning area was required. all torches were through and well survey after the fire showed less than 1-percent loss in stocking—a By early November, everything was value of not more than $50. Most ready except the most important of the lost seedlings were stunted item, the weather. Successful burning can only and heavily infected with brown be done after thorough spot and probably would have died Treatment preparations for applying and anyway. Their value was more than It was the day before Christmas. controlling the fire. offset by many fringe benefits, such Santa Claus was busy with his myriad as hardwood brush control, seedbed preparations for his trip that night, preparation, hazard reduction, and but the weather was just what the over half of the area was burned. a large area burned to prevent rein­ doctor ordered for prescribed burn­ At 2 o’clock over 90 percent of the fection of the reproduction areas. ing. There had been almost 3 inches area was burned. By 3 o’clock, the (8 cm) of rainfall in the past 3 days. crew, tired but satisfied, was back The burning yardstick showed that Air temperature was down to 29 °F home helping Santa Claus. the benefits of several thousand (–1.6 °C). A cold front was overhead dollars in brown-spot control far and a moderate, steady north wind Appraisal exceeded the burning cost plus the ■ was blowing. The Weather Bureau What were the benefits? Longleaf minor damages of the fire. predicted that this condition would experts agree that a heavy infection last for 10 to 12 hours. of brown-spot can ruin a stand of Early morning telephone calls were made ordering the crew to

Additional References on Broadcast Slash and Pile Burning

Ash, L.W. 1951. Paper-covered piled slash. Johnson, V.J. 1984. How shape affects Stradt, G.H. 1950. Debris burning on the Fire Control Notes. 12(3): 18–19. the burning of slash piled debris. Fire Ouachita. Fire Control Notes. 11(4): Fahnestock, G.R. 1954. Roofing slash piles Management Notes. 45(3): 12–15. 4–5. can save—or lose—you dollars. Fire Morford, L. 1958. Slash disposal by burn- USDA Forest Service, Region 6, Division Control Notes. 15(3): 22–26. ing on the Klamath. Fire Control Notes. of Fire Control. 1952. Paper for cover- Gilmore, R.; Blaine, C. 1960. Box for 19(4): 141–143. ing piled slash. Fire Control Notes. paper used to cover slash piles. Fire Schimke, H.E.; Murphy, J.L. 1966. 13(3): 46. Control Notes. 21(1): 29–30. Protective coatings of asphalt and wax Williams, D.E. 1956. Fire hazard result- Johansen, R.W. 1981. Windrows vs. small emulsions for better slash burning. Fire ing from jack pine slash. Fire Control piles for forest debris disposal. Fire Control Notes. 27(2): 5–6. Notes. 17(4): 1–8. Management Notes. 42(2): 7–9.

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 37 Prescribed burning techniques in loblolly and longleaF Pine on the Francis marion national Forest* John T. Hills

he results obtained by the use of given set of conditions have proved to the baseline. This technique can prescribed fire are determined successful on the Francis Marion be used effectively to kill undesir­ T largely by the recognition of National Forest in South Carolina. able hardwood (summer or winter existing conditions and by the skill­ fire); reduce heavy rough (as soon ful application of fire. Much has Checkerboard or after rain as rough will burn); and been learned through the extensive Spot Firing control brown-spot, where flames use of fire under a combination of The checkerboard technique is best should reach needles 3 feet (1 m) or various conditions and methods of suited for use in stands 20 years and more from the ground. application. If consideration is given older, medium rough (2 to 3 years), to all factors influencing a fire, the wind 3 to 5 miles per hour (5–8 km/ The advantages are that the inten­ results of a prescribed burn always h), and temperature around 60 °F sity of the fire can be controlled by come closer to what is wanted (16 °C). After establishing a safe line varying the distance between lines than would otherwise be the case. of fire on the downwind side of the of fire in proportion to the amount Some of these factors are season of area to be burned, the method con­ of fuel and the size and density of year, amount of fuel, fuel moisture sists of setting a series of spot fires undesirable hardwoods to be killed. (upper and lower layer), tempera­ in checkerboard design parallel to The advantages mentioned under ture, wind direction and velocity, the baseline. The distance between the checkerboard technique are and days since one-half inch (1.3 the spots and their size can be var­ also obtained. cm) or more of rain. ied according to the factors at hand. Flanking Fire Several cardinal points should be The advantages to be gained by When the head of a wildfire is considered just before and during using this method follow: stopped, two flanking fires remain the use of fire: for a time. Fire fighters having 1. It is safe (as far as the use of experience in fire suppression in the 1. Get the latest weather report, fire goes). The fires compete for Coastal Plain region probably have 2. Remember that a constant wind space and fuel, and before any observed that such fires are very strong enough to direct the fire damage can be done both have effective in killing undesirable hard­ is necessary for control, been consumed. woods and removing heavy rough 3. Begin burning on the downwind 2. A clean and complete burn is with little or no damage to the pine. part of the area to be burned, and assured. 4. Remember that fire is best kept 3. A minimum amount of fireline This flanking type can also be used under control by fire itself— construction is necessary. in an area to be prescribe-burned offensive actions often eliminates 4. The number of men to be used is by building the fire in the shape of defensive ones. not limited. a right triangle, the base of which 5. Large areas can be burned quick- is downwind. It is similar to a Through trial and error, several ly—before weather conditions backing fire but burns much faster techniques in applying fire under a change. and cleaner. Strip Burning When this article was originally published Before selecting one of these in 1957, John Hill was a forester for the The method of burning in strips plans of action, the land manager USDA Forest Service, Francis Marion is very adaptable and can be used should consider the advantages National Forest. in all age classes large enough to of each method in relation to the * The article is reprinted from Fire Control Notes 18(3) be burned. It consists of setting a results expected. ■ [July 1957]: 112–113. series of solid lines of fire parallel

Fire Management Today 38 Prescribed burning in shortleaF– loblolly Pine on rolling uPlands in east texas* E.R. Ferguson

arge test burns on rolling (0.04-ha) plot and one 1/250-acre were located on the prevailing uplands in east Texas have (0.0016-ha) plot were established. soils, Boswell fine sandy loam and L proved quite variable and only Stems on these plots were inven­ Lakeland fine sand. These were moderately effective in controlling toried before and after the pre­ 4- by 20-foot (1-m × 6-m) runoff undesirable hardwood understory. scribed fires. plots with metal borders, located on This is in contrast to encouraging gentle (5 to 8 percent) and moder­ results achieved with prescribed Burns were made in November ate (11 to 16 percent) slopes. They fires on small plots in the same 1952, March 1953, and April 1953. provided weekly records of surface general type (Ferguson 1957). Burning on all units followed the runoff and a cumulative record of Runoff and surface soil movement same pattern. Lines were plowed soil loss. on two diverse soils were little and fire was set along the leeward affected by these single fires. boundaries, following which the Results flanks and finally the windward The prescribed burns were only The Study boundaries were fired. As time per­ moderately successful in con­ Twelve fairly uniform units were mitted, supplemental lines of fire trolling the undesirable hardwoods established on the Neches District were started through the interior of (fig. 1). The number of stems 1/2 of the Davy Crockett National the units. to 2 inches (1.3–5.1 cm) in diam­ Forest. The units, averaging about eter was reduced 1/3 to 1/2, but 190 acres (80 ha) each, were in a On selected units, burned and these reductions were largely off­ shortleaf–loblolly pine sawlog stand unburned, hydrological test areas set by an increase in sprouts and with a medium to heavy brush– hardwood understory.

The units were paired according to similarity of topography, overstory, and understory. This provided six pairs of units, two of which were randomly assigned to each of three seasons of burn. One unit of each pair was randomly selected for burning and the other was left unburned as a check.

Ten sampling points were system­ atically located within each unit, and at each point one 1/10-acre

When this article was originally published in 1957, E.R. Ferguson was a researcher for the USDA Forest Service, East Texas Research Center, Southern Forest Experiment Station.

* The article is reprinted from Fire Control Notes 18(3) Figure 1—Hardwood stems after treatment, shown as percent of number on plot [July 1957]: 130–132. before treatment.

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 39 root suckers. The result has been a Runoff and surface soil movement on two diverse soils were moderate, but probably temporary, little affected by these single fires. reduction in understory volume.

There were no differences in effec­ The single fires of the study had The possibility that more severe tiveness between burns made in little effect on surface water or repeated fires could have more the three seasons tested. Failure to runoff and soil movement from serious effects should not be over­ achieve greater reduction in small the hydrologic test plots. On the looked. The test plots still had 1/8 hardwoods was in part due to the Lakeland fine sand, the prescribed to 1/4 inch (0.3–0.6 cm) of lit­ light and variable nature of the burns had too little effect on ter after the fires. With complete prescribed burns. Only about 80 infiltration rate to be reflected exposure of the mineral soil, both percent of the area within the burn­ in runoff. On the Boswell fine runoff and erosion undoubtedly ing units was actually burned, and sandy loam, burning appeared to would have been much greater. less than half of that was covered by increase runoff slightly. There was a medium or severe fire. On limited little difference in runoff on slopes Reference areas with severe burns, there was ranging from 5 to 13 percent. Ferguson, E.R. 1957. Stem kill and sprout­ some loss of sawtimber pines. Such ing following prescribed fires in a divergent results reflect the widely pine–hardwood stand in Texas. Journal of Soil loss was light on all plots (table Forestry. 55: 426–429. ■ varied burning conditions that occur 1) and safely below the maximum on extensive areas of rough terrain. erosion rate permissible on water­ To approach the effectiveness dem­ shed lands. onstrated on small plots, prescribed burning will require much closer control with resultant higher labor Table 1—Soil loss per acre (0.4 ha) in 18 months. costs and equipment expense. Lakeland fine sand Boswell very fine sandy loam

Slope Soil loss Slope Soil loss Treatment (percent) tons tonnes (percent) tons tonnes The prescribed burns were only moderately successful Burned 8 0.14 0.13 5 0.73 0.66 in controlling the undesirable Burned 12 0.11 0.10 11 0.28 0.25 hardwoods. Unburned 8 0.15 0.14 6 0.17 0.15 Unburned 15 0.16 0.15 13 0.13 0.12

Additional References on Prescribed Fire Effects in Southern Forest Ecosystems Bruce, D. 1952. Fire pruning of slash pine Cain, M.D. 1986. Late-winter prescribed Mann, W.F., Jr.; Whitaker, L.B. 1955. doesn’t pay. Fire Control Notes. 13(2): burns to prepare seedbeds for natural Effects of prescribe-burning 4-year-old 17. loblolly-shortleaf pine regeneration—Are planted slash pine. Fire Control Notes. Bruce, D.; Nelson, R.M. 1957. Use and they prudent? Fire Management Notes. 16(3): 3–5. effects of fire in Southern forests: 47(2): 36–39. Riebold, R.J. 1955. Summer burns for Abstracts of publications by the Ferguson, E.R.; Stephenson, G.K. 1954. hardwood control in loblolly pine. Fire Southern and Southeastern Forest Fire effects studied in East Texas. Fire Control Notes. 16(1): 34–36. Experiment Stations, 1921–55. Fire Control Notes. 15(3): 30–32. Toole, E.R.; McKnight, J.S. 1956. Fire Control Notes. 18(2): 67–96. Huntley, J.C. 1981. Determining the role effects in Southern hardwoods. Fire of fire in young upland hardwood stands. Control Notes. 17(3): 1–4 Fire Management Notes. 42(4): 8.

Fire Management Today 40 use oF Fire in Forest management* Robert D. McCulley

ire is used in timber manage­ cover types that tend to lose out scription and use of fire for specif­ ment mainly to help establish in competition with those higher ic purposes is not necessarily very F new stands. Prescribed fire on the successional scale. They kill strong. The users must assure can improve the seedbed, clean up back the competitors and, if intense control within prescribed bound­ green and dead fuels from a plant­ enough, reduce their numbers. aries. And damage to residual ing site, or control undergrowth They remove litter accumulations trees must be held within toler­ during the life of a stand so that and expose mineral soil, the favored able limits. These limitations tend competition with seedlings can be seedbed for many forest trees. Also, to reduce the intensity of pre­ held to a minimum when reproduc­ in general, they provide the condi­ scribed fires and thus to curtail tion cuts finally are made. Its use tions of light, temperature, and their effectiveness for some pur­ for these purposes has been limited moisture relations that, temporarily poses. Fire intensity especially is to certain geographic locations and at least, favor the establishment and a problem where selective action to timber types where conditions is desired where unwanted vegeta­ of weather, fuel, and topography tion must be killed and valuable offered special reason to expect suc­ vegetation saved. cess. This has been mainly in the The main use of prescribed South and West. fire in this country has been Properly Prescribed for fire protection. Fire Does Not Natural Fires Influence Seriously Threaten Soil Forest Composition Productivity That fire has had a relationship to growth of the so-called fire types. Many foresters are apprehensive the kind of timber in the forest is Fire species tend to be light seeded about the long-term effects of fire long established. This seems obvi­ and aggressive in filling in denuded use on the soil. Generalizations on ous for jack pine, lodgepole pine, areas. They are intolerant of shade. this point pervade the literature. and other species that may require Yet there are few things less sub­ high temperatures to release their Prescribed and ject to generalization. The possible seed. It is equally true of those spe­ Uncontrolled Fires May variation in any fire situation is cies that lose out in competition tremendous. It is not enough to with their more tolerant neighbors Not Produce Same Effects assume that because organic litter if some disturbance such as fire is a valuable soil conditioner, and does not upset the trend of succes­ A forester’s first acquaintance because fire destroys litter, that fire sion. Douglas-fir is such a tree. So with fire was generally in trying necessarily is destructive of soil are white pine, loblolly pine, quak­ to control it. As a byproduct of its values. There is much more to the ing aspen, and many others. The destructiveness, he saw some of the story than that. list is long, and it tends to grow things it accomplished in selected longer as we glean more ecological areas—the freshening of forage for In some situations, fire certainly information from the forest. domestic livestock in the South, lowers soil productivity. I can out­ the fortuitous thinning of dense line a case where there can be little Fires favor certain tree species in young stands of ponderosa pine, the argument. South of Plymouth, NC, several ways, thus perpetuating sanitation removal of brown-spot is a stretch of country that can needle blight of long leaf pine, the only be described as desolate. To a When this article was originally published release of seed held in serotinous in 1960, Robert D. McCulley was chief forester it may resemble early pho­ of the division of forest management cones of jack pine, the improved tographs of the stumpland wastes research, USDA Forest Service, Lake States seedbed and generous establish­ left after removal of virgin white Forest Experiment Station. ment of numerous species in all pine and the subsequent fires in the * The article is reprinted from Fire Control Notes 21(1) sections of the country. Lake States. As far as the eye can [January 1960]: 24–26. However the link between the see stretches a swamp populated by action of wildfire and the pre­

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 41 cotton bullrushes and other aquatic We have some assurance more flammable through being vegetation. Stumps and snags poke that periodic use of fire mashed down with a bulldozer and up through it. This is the result of poses no serious threat to allowed to cure before burning. fire following logging on organic Areas treated in this manner can be soil. The soil itself has been burned soil productivity from the burned when the general fire haz­ away, making natural establishment nutrient standpoint. ard is relatively low. Area ignition, of trees impossible. the simultaneous firing of numer­ ous places in the burning unit, Another case is where fire removes some cases. Prescribed fires seldom has achieved somewhat the same the protective mantle of organic burn away all of the undecomposed results through providing a quick matter from the soil and destruc­ organic material, and may remove a buildup in temperature with result­ tive erosion results. The extreme negligible amount. ing intense and clean burns. These example is the southern California methods of increasing the intensity mountains, where flood has fol­ Many cases of a nutrient situation and uniformity of fires have been lowed fire on many an occasion. after burning have been shown by used in range improvement work. Less spectacular but no less serious chemical analysis, by compara­ They have possible application in destruction of the soil has occurred tive growth of annual plants, and replanting site preparation. in many other places. by comparative growth of pine seedlings on burned and unburned Effects of seedbed improvement with If we rule out places where peat will areas. There is no long-term history fire have been worked out for several burn and where erosion is a serious of soil nutrient relationships under of the soil conditions within the complicating factor, we come to an controlled conditions. However, loblolly pine type. In general, the area where there still is much room even though the story is incom­ improvement is substantial but not for difference of opinion. However, plete, it gives us some assurance as great as with mechanical scarifi­ the evidence from research on the that periodic use of fire poses no cation. However, fire has been less effects of fire on the soil can narrow serious threat to soil productivity expensive to apply. Results are good that area of possible disagreement. from the nutrient standpoint. where bird and rodent populations are low and where climatic extremes First of all, fire temperature seems On the other hand, the physical do not lead to heavy losses of ger­ to have very limited influence on condition of the soil is impaired by minated seedlings. Burning favors the mineral soil itself. Soil sam­ repeated clean burns. Where this successful establishment of longleaf ples from burned and unburned occurs it will accentuate runoff pine. Variable results from field tri­ areas were analyzed following the problems. A single, severe slash dis­ als have been reported for many severe fires of 1918 that destroyed posal fire in Douglas-fir, under cur­ other species, including jack pine. Cloquet, MN. They showed no loss rent slash-burning practices, has of nitrogen from the surface layers only a minor influence on physical To sum up the present status of of the mineral soil. Except where characteristics of the soil. fire use, we can point to relatively heavy fuels burn for long periods few places where it is included in of time, as may occur in slash dis­ Advantages to the routine of timber management. posal, the temperature effect down­ Using Fire Hardwood control in the South ward into the soil is limited to a The main use of prescribed fire in is the major one. There are many very thin layer. this country has been for protec­ examples of application on a small tion. However, in a few instances it scale. There are even more test Soils from which the organic man­ has become a standard tool in tim­ runs of an investigative character. tle has been burned away, time and ber management. Notable is its use Solution of problem situations again, have shown higher levels of for hardwood brush control in the through fuel modification or by some nutrients other than nitro­ South and Southeast. other means can be expected to gen than similar unburned soils. broaden general application where Even though nitrogen is driven off Some of the variability in fire some of the limited trials now are from the litter as one of the prod­ effects can be reduced by modify­ being made. ■ ucts of combustion, the loss is of ing the fuels. In the California questionable importance at least in foothills, brush has been made

Fire Management Today 42 reduction oF Fuel accumulations with Fire* Robert M. Romancier

rescribed burning has often is slightly more than 2 tons per been used to reduce fuel accu- The study measured acre (4.5 t/ha) (Metz 1952). P mulations, but only rarely has the effects of repeated specific information been gathered prescribed burns on the The stand was located on two soil to determine the effectiveness of a types: Fallsington very fine sandy burning program. A 4-year study depth and character of the loam and Othello very fine sandy on the Camp Experimental Forest forest floor. loam, about equally represented. in Sussex County, VA (main­ These soils have very poor drainage; tained in cooperation with Union water stands on the Othello most Bag-Camp Paper Corporation in feet (28 m²/ha) for the pine and of the year. Under such conditions, Franklin, VA) provides a measure 35 square feet (8 m²/ha) for the normal decomposition is greatly of the effects of repeated pre­ hardwoods. retarded, resulting in an exces­ scribed burns on the depth and sive buildup of litter and in the Initially, the very abundant shrub character of the forest floor. The development of an AO horizon. This objectives of the burning pro­ layer, composed mostly of Clethra horizon consists of partially decom­ gram were seedbed preparation, and Vaccinium, had an average posed organic matter and contains fuel reduction, and the control of height of about 2.5 feet (0.8 m). many small leaf pieces and roots. understory vegetation. It probably would have prevented adequate pine regeneration after The AO horizon or mat is usually very Stand Conditions harvest unless reduced by some moist and is not ignited by the ordi­ special treatment. The stand used in this study nary prescribed burn, except when a consisted mainly of 60-year-old stump or log catches fire, thus drying Below the dense shrub layer was loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) in out the mat around it. Then a slow, a heavy accumulation of litter. mixture with blackgum (Nyssa smoldering ground fire is started that Measurements of the litter depth sylvatica Marsh), red maple (Acer is very difficult to extinguish short of and shrub height were taken before rubrum L.), and a scattering of flooding or trenching to mineral soil. each fire (table 1). The average fuel various oaks. The average basal When exposed by fire or other distur­ accumulation was 4.8 inches (12.2 area per acre was 120 square bances, the residual mat forms a very cm) deep and consisted of normal good seedbed. When this article was originally published forest leaf and twig fall, along with in 1960, Robert Romancier was a forester larger pieces of wood, stumps, Treatments for the USDA Forest Service, Southeastern down trees, and other woody mate­ The study area was composed of Forest Experiment Station. rial. According to Metz, the average four 40-acre (16-ha) compartments. * The article is reprinted from Fire Control Notes 21(4) annual litter fall from such a stand [October 1960]: 121–123 One compartment was not burned and served as a control. The others

Table 1—Average litter depth and shrub height before each fire. Litter depth Shrub height Time of measurement inches cm inches cm Before the winter fire 4.8 ± 0.6 12.2 ± 1.6 29.3 ± 4.6 74.4 ± 11.7 Before first summer fire 3.0 ± 0.4 7.6 ± 1.0 14.8 ± 1.7 37.6 ± 4.3 Before second summer fire 2.5 ± 0.3 6.4 ± .8 8.3 ± 1.3 21.0 ± 3.3 Before third summer fire 1.8 ± 0.4 4.6 ± 1.0 6.0 ± 1.4 15.2 ± 3.6

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 43 received a winter burn, and then At the end of the burning program, Supplementary samples were taken one, two, and three summer burns samples of organic matter were col­ to determine the relative amounts respectively. lected, weighed, and separated into of the readily flammable upper their woody and litter components. layer of litter and of the less flam­ The winter fires served to create Subsamples of woody and litter mable lower layers. The first series more uniform conditions within fuel were oven dried and a conver­ of fires (one winter, one summer) each compartment, and were con­ sion factor obtained so that the dry caused considerable change in the sidered as a preparation for the weights could be expressed as tons composition of the fuel; subsequent summer burns to follow. These per acre of dry fuel. fires seem to have had little effect winter fires reduced the height and upon the relative amounts of the density of the low hardwoods and Results two fuel types (table 3). facilitated wind movement through The results revealed that each fire the stands. caused a considerable reduction in This study points out that on the depth of the litter and in the Fallsington and Othello very fine The summer fires, in June or July, average height of the shrub layer. sandy loam soils, fuel accretion did the heavy work of fuel reduc­ A fuel reduction of 9.1 tons per comes not just from leaf and twig tion, control of understory vegeta­ acre (20.4 t/ha) resulted following fall, but also from below. The dark tion, and seedbed preparation. Most a winter and one summer burn mat of partially decomposed organ­ of the study area was burned by (table 2). Two additional summer ic matter that develops under such headfires, although backfires were fires removed another 5 tons of conditions dries out and fluffs up frequently used to prevent break- fuel per acre (11.2 t/ha). The most following a fire in the litter above, overs into unburned areas. surprising fact revealed by this and is capable of sustaining a fire study was the very high initial fuel within a short time. The weather characteristics were weight of 36.1 tons per acre (80.9 very similar for all of the summer t/ha). This concentration can best Reference fires. The burning index (recorded be explained by the wet, poorly Metz, L.J. 1952. Calcium content of hard­ using a type 8-0 Fire Meter) was wood litter four times that from pine; drained site and heavy stand of nitrogen double. Res. Notes 14. Asheville, 4 or 5, the relative humidity was trees and lesser vegetation. NC: USDA Forest Service, Southeast close to 50 percent each time, and Forest Experiment Station. ■ the air temperature was between 84 °F and 92 °F (29–33 °C). The fuel Table 3—Proportion of fuel by litter layers following treatment. moisture ranged between 5.6 and 7.6 percent. Winds were westerly, Upper layer Lower layer with velocities usually close to 2 Treatment of litter of litter to 4 miles per hour (3 to 6 km/h) Unburned control 23.5% 76.5% measured at 8 feet (2.4 m) above One winter, one summer fire 13.1% 86.9% the ground. One winter, two summer fires 16.5% 83.5% One winter, three summer fires 14.6% 85.4%

Table 2—Fuel remaining following treatments. Litter Woody fuel Total fuel Treatment tons/acre t/ha tons/acre t/ha tons/acre t/ha Unburned control 32.8 73.5 3.3 7.4 36.1 80.9 One winter, one summer fire 24.4 54.7 2.6 5.8 27.0 60.5 One winter, two summer fires 21.8 48.9 1.7 3.8 23.5 52.7 One winter, three summer fires 20.5 45.9 1.6 3.6 22.1 49.5 Total reduction 12.3 27.6 1.7 3.8 14.0 31.4

Fire Management Today 44 time–temPerature relationshiPs oF test headFires and backFires* Lawrence S. Davis and Robert E. Martin

ime–temperature relations were measured during the A plot of temperature against time represents one of a fire’s T course of a preliminary inves­ most significant thermal characteristics. tigation of the thermal character­ istics of forest fires. Observations on five headfires and five backfires Chromel–alumel thermocouples, tures rose abruptly to a maximum in 8-year-old gallberry–palmetto when used with leads insulated of about 1,600 °F (870 °C). They roughs on the Alapaha Experi­ with fiberglass and stainless steel then fell off, at first sharply, and mental Range near Tifton, GA, are mesh, were very satisfactory in then at a decreasing rate. The the basis for this report. these tests. Milliameters were used slower moving backfires produced as measuring devices because they temperatures from 250 °F to 600 The Test are relatively cheap and are readily °F (120–315 °C) at the 1-foot All burning was done on July 22, wired and transported. Recording (0.3-m) level and maintained this 1959, between 10 a.m. and 2 p.m., potentiometers would serve the temperature range for several with air temperatures about 90 °F purpose better but are expensive minutes. The second temperature (32 °C). The moisture content of and more cumbersome to use in peak associated with backfires the upper layer of fuels, as mea­ the field. occurred when the line of fire had sured by fuel-moisture sticks, passed the thermocouple, but the decreased from 12 to 8 percent The Results flames were still directed at it as a during the burning period. Winds Composite time–temperature result of wind movement. varied from 1 to 4 miles per hour lines for these head and backfires (2–6 km/h) and the burning index are plotted on the accompanying At the 4-foot (1-m) level, headfire was 1. Fuels, including litter and chart (fig. 1). At the 1-foot (0.3­ temperature peaks barely exceeded lower vegetation, averaged 5 to 10 m) level, the headfire tempera- 500 °F (260 °C); backfire tempera- tons per acre (11–22 t/ha).

Backfires advanced at the rate of about 1 chain per hour (20 m/h) and headfires at the rate of 10 to 20 chains per hour (200–400 m/h). Temperature measurements were made at 3-second intervals as the fires—with about a 20-foot (6-m) run—passed thermocouples located at eight 1- and 4-foot (0.3–1-m) heights above ground.

When this article was originally pub­ lished in 1961, Lawrence Davis and Robert Martin were with the USDA Forest Service, Southern Forest Fire Laboratory, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station.

* The article is reprinted from Fire Control Notes 22(1) Figure 1—Temperatures developed by five headfires and five backfires in 8-year-old [January 1961]: 20–21. gallberry–palmetto roughs.

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 45 ture peaks at the same level barely A plot of temperature against time represents one of a fire’s exceeded 125 °F (52 °C). most significant thermal characteristics.

Lindenmuth and Byram (1948) made a comparison of heat factors Three-Dimensional Many more fires in different fuels associated with backfires and head- Analysis under different weather conditions fires in the longleaf pine type. In A plot of temperature against time must be measured before the ener­ this type, which was primarily grass gy release that takes place in wild­ mixed and overlain with longleaf represents one of a fire’s most sig­ nificant thermal characteristics. fires can be estimated. Detailed and needles, their measurements indi­ carefully documented studies are cated that headfires are cooler near By measuring these relationships at different heights above ground, now in progress at the Southern the ground—up to 18 inches (46 Forest Fire Laboratory. cm)—than backfires. Our measure­ a three-dimensional, quantitative analysis of a fire can be made, ments do not indicate such a rela­ Reference tionship for the gallberry–palmetto which in turn can be used to rate fuels according to heat yields. Lindenmuth, A.W., Jr.; Byram, G.M. roughs, at least at the 1- and 4-foot 1948. Head fires are cooler near the (0.3–1-m) levels. If there is a zone Vegetation damage should be ground than backfires. Fire Control in this type where headfires are closely related to a fire’s time– Notes. 9(4): 8–9. ■ cooler than backfires, it is probably temperature behavior if initial within a few inches of the ground. vegetation temperature is taken into account.

Additional References on … Prescribed Burning Ground- Melton, M.; Marsalis, R.L. 1982. Use of M–4 Blank, R.W.; Simard, A.J.; Eenigenburg, Based Ignition Devices fuel thickener in prescribed burning. Fire J.E. 1985. A tester for measuring the Management Notes. 43(4): 27–29. moisture content of dead fine fuels. Fire Britton, C.; Mitchell, R.; Racher, B.; Fish, Perkins, N.L. 1941. A portable flame throw­ Management Notes. 46(2): 8–12. E. 2001. Fire ignition from horseback. er. Fire Control Notes. 5(3): 144–146. Clark, B.; Roberts, F. 1982. A belt weather Fire Management Today. 61(3): 21–22. Randall, C.H.; Cech, G.O. 1962. Bag-in­ kit accessory for measuring woody fuel Carstarphen, M.M. 1946. North Carolina a-box milk containers for fire use. Fire moisture. Fire Management Notes. flame thrower. Fire Control Notes. 7(2): Control Notes. 23(4): 99. 43(3): 25–26. 31–32. Rustad, G.R. 1973. Safe, fast, cheap: Editor. 1975. Device may aid in fire con­ Dell, J.D.; Ward, F.R. 1967. Incendiary Plastic-bag bomb ignites wet fuels. Fire trol. Fire Management. 36(3): 19. projectile launcher tested for remote Management. 34(1): 13. Ogilvie, C.J.; Fitch, R. 1989. slash ignition. Fire Control Notes. Squires, J.W. 1946. The Florida drip torch. Computerized infrared system for 28(4): 10, 15. Fire Control Notes. 7(2): 39–40. observation of prescribed fires. Fire Editor. 1974. Hand grenades needed for Tveidt, T. 1989. After the terra torch, what’s Management Notes. 50(3): 4–6. control burns. Fire Management. 35(2): next? Fire Management Notes. 50(2): Potts, D.F.; Ryan, K.C.; Loveless, R.S., Jr. 15, 17. 34–36. 1984. A procedure for estimating duff Everts, A.B. 1949. Propane-diesel oil flame Wells, A.C. 1947. Combination tree marking depth. Fire Management Notes. 45(2): thrower. Fire Control Notes. 10(1): gun and backfiring torch. Fire Control 13–15. 30–33. Notes. 8(4): 21–23. Robichaurd, P.; Bilskie, J. 2004. A new Main, W.A.; Roussopoulos, P.J. 1972. Wertz, H., Jr.; May, C.V. 1946. A new tool for fire managers – An electronic Ignition of prescribed fires more reli­ mobile flame thrower. Fire Control Notes. duff moisture meter. Fire Management able: Electrical igniter tests circuits. 7(3): 36–38. Today. 64(2): 15–18. Fire Control Notes. 33(3): 14–15. Rudnicky, J.L.; Patterson, W.A., III. Maupin, J.; Elsbernd, V.; Russell, F. 1983. 1985. Estimating fuel moisture in the Weedburner—An effective prescribed Prescribed Fire Monitoring, Northeast: Fuel sticks vs. the TI–59. burning tool. Fire Management Notes. Documentation, and Technology Fire Management Notes. 46(4): 4–6. 44(2): 25–26. Apicello, M.G. 2000. Fire use manage­ Sackett, S.S. 1980. An instrument for McKee, R.R.; Ramberg, R. 1981. Gelled ment teams monitor wildland fires. Fire rapid, accurate determination of fuel fuel saves gasoline in slash burning. Management Today. 60(1): 16. moisture content. Fire Management Fire Management Notes. 42(1): 5–6. Notes. 41(2): 17–18.

Fire Management Today 46 Prescribed burning For hazard reduction on the chiPPewa national Forest* Thomas A. Fulk and Robert Tyrrel

n unusual combination of fuel In addition to the physical fea­ types on the Chippewa National Vast areas of marsh tures of the land, the sociological A Forest in northern Minnesota meadows constitute a aspects are also significant in fire has resulted in annual prescribed high-hazard fuel when prevention. Public education in fire burning in marsh meadows as a fire in the cured stage. prevention is an important part of prevention technique. Vast areas of fire control activity. The problem of marsh meadows constitute a high- public education in fire prevention hazard fuel when in the cured stage. is similar to that in the Southern reach 25 miles (40 km) of perim­ These meadows contain primarily States. In northern Minnesota, a eter in 5 hours. Inaccessibility and grasses, rushes, and sedges. Woody long tradition of meadow burning difficulty of rapid travel are also shrubs are not uncommon, particu­ exists, perhaps beginning in the part of the fire control problem. larly along meadow perimeters and early use of meadows for hay pro­ Incendiary fires are common and, on natural levees adjacent to water­ duction because annual burning during the past 5 years (1958–62), courses. During the spring months, was thought to produce better hay. accounted for 23 percent of meadows are frequently flooded Meadow hay is known to have com­ all wildfires on the Chippewa during years of normal or above- monly been cut as late as 1950. National Forest. normal precipitation. This frequent flooding is a factor that contributes to the continuance of the meadow cover type. Fire Danger Because of the elongated patterns formed by this vegetative type, a wildfire can quickly increase in perimeter and enter adjoining tim­ ber at several widespread locations. Figure 1 shows a meadow which is recognized as having an exception­ ally high fire hazard. A fire on this meadow could quickly expand to 25 miles (40 km) of perimeter. A rate of spread of 400 chains of perimeter per hour (8 km/h) can occasionally be expected on meadow fires. Thus, in the case illustrated, a fire could When this article was originally published in 1963, Thomas Fulk was a forester for the USDA Forest Service, Hiawatha National Forest; and Robert Tyrrel was a district ranger for the USDA Forest Service, Superior National Forest.

* The article is reprinted from Fire Control Notes 24(3) Figure l—Morph Meadow, Blackduck Ranger District, Chippewa National Forest, [July 1963]: 66–68. Minnesota.

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 47 Table 1—Meadow type available and area prescribed burned by ranger districts. Available area a Prescribed burned annually a Ranger district acres ha acres ha Bena 20,000 8,000 12,500 5,100 Blackduck 5,500 2,200 3,545 1,434 Cass Lake 3,300 1,300 1,600 650 Cut-Foot Sioux 11,285 4,566 3,050 1,234 Dora Lake 5,540 2,240 1,650 667 Marcell 313 126 45 18 Remer 10,240 4,140 5,760 2,330 Walker 22,000 8,900 4,837 1,957 Totals 78,178 31,637 32,987 13,349 a. Varies with annual water level.

Meadow Burning No attempt is made to control the Prescribed burning of fire, since residual snow under Prescribed burning of meadows has adjoining timber provides an been a management tool for approx­ meadows has been a adequate control line. Because of imately 35 years on the Chippewa management tool for about river oxbows and snowdrifts, burn­ National Forest. The objective has 35 years on the Chippewa ing is never uniform; nevertheless, been to reduce the hazard by burn­ National Forest. breaking the continuity of fuel con­ ing under safe conditions. ditions suffices to prevent wildfire from spreading unchecked. Safe conditions for prescribed od when conditions are optimum, meadow burning exist throughout several thousand acres must be an approximate 3- to 4-day period burned by the four- or five-person Burning Needed in the spring. At this time, snow- staff of each ranger district. Table The need for prescribed meadow melt exposes marsh vegetation and 1 shows the area burned by each burning has often been evaluated dries rapidly in the open. Under the ranger district and total acres of and discussed by forest personnel. cover of adjoining timber snow- meadow available by district. Generally, the conclusion has been melt lags, residual snow provides that burning is necessary for effec­ an efficient firebreak. The date of A meadow-burning team will com­ tive fire prevention, particularly in burning may vary by several days monly burn a river meadow 5 to light of the incendiary fire problem. from meadow to meadow, depend­ 10 miles (8–16 km) long in a day. It is better to burn when conditions ing upon latitude, orientation, and Burning is usually done in the in the woods are safe than to take a snow catch. same manner as backfiring; wooden chance on the area burning during matches or drip torches are most periods of high fire danger. ■ Meadow burning is frequently commonly used for ignition. The done individually or by two-person fire is usually set so that the wind teams. During the 3- or 4-day peri- will carry flame across the meadow to be burned.

No attempt is made to control the fire, since residual snow under adjoining timber provides an adequate control line.

Fire Management Today 48 Prescribed burning techniques on the national Forests in south carolina* Zeb Palmer and D.D. Devet

any prescribed burning effects Figure 1—District on national forest lands are ranger on the Santee Ranger Mwell known. However, little District, Francis study has been done on burn­ Marion National ing techniques to achieve specific Forest, briefs his crew prior to the results under specific conditions of start of burning weather, fuel, and topography. operations.

This note will primarily consider the prescribed burning techniques used on the national forests in South Carolina. Prescribed burning has been used as a management tool for more than 20 years (fig. 1). Fortunately, the even-aged timber management plans for the forests permitted extensive use of fire. More than 43,000 acres (17,400 ha) are now prescribe-burned annually. Purpose of Prescribed Burning • Stimulating quail indica­ Importance of Weather The initial purpose was to reduce tor species such as tick trefoil Burn only if the weather is right. A fuels to lessen the fire hazard. Later (Desmodium spp.) and partridge list of weather conditions accept­ prescribed burning was used in pea (Chamaecrista spp.), able for prescribed burning are undesirable species control, brown- • Increasing deer browse, listed in table 1. These conditions spot disease control, planting-site • Encouraging fruiting of ground apply to most of the Southeastern preparation, seedbed preparation, oak (Quercus pumila) and huck­ United States. range betterment, and wildlife habi­ leberries (Vaccinium spp.), tat improvement. • Maintaining openings for deer A special fire danger weather and turkey, and station is not necessary. Local Burning to improve wildlife • Reducing basal area of noncom­ weather bureau offices can supply habitat is used to obtain specific mercial understory species. results such as: • Removing leaf and needle litter, Table 1—South Carolina weather conditions under which prescribed which has a smothering effect on burning can be conducted. desirable forbs and legumes, Factor Winter Summer When this article was originally published Relative humidity 20–45% 20–55% in 1966, Zeb Palmer was the district ranger for the USDA Forest Service, Ouachita Wind velocity 3–10 mph (5–16 km/h) 3–10 mph (5–16 km/h) National Forest, AR; and D.D. Devet worked on the fire control staff for the Wind direction * * USDA Forest Service, national forests in Temperature range 34–75 °F (1–24 °C) 85–100 °F (29–38°C) South Carolina, Columbia, SC.

* The article is reprinted from Fire Control Notes 27(3) Buildup index 3–30 6–40 [July 1966]: 3–4, 14. * Any reasonably constant direction is acceptable. The most unreliable wind directions are in the easterly quadrants.

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 49 all conditions necessary except Backfiring is employed in slope burning and burning in the buildup index. Soil moisture relatively young timber stands, and conditions must be field checked. results in a minimum of scorch. There must be a damp humus layer in the AO horizon. Figure Firing Techniques 2—Prescribed burning crew Five firing techniques are now used watches small on the National Forests in South test fire to see Carolina: if it is burning according to the weather 1. Backfire, forecast. 2. Headstrip, 3. Spot or checkerboard, 4. Flank, and 5. Headfire.

These techniques are employed on specific occasions to accomplish specific purposes (fig. 2). Two or more techniques are used for most burns.

Backfire. A baseline is estab­ lished, and perimeter and interior lines are placed approximately 10 chains (200 m) apart. There may be plowed lines or natural barriers such as creeks, roads, or swamps. Figure 3— On slopes, the baseline should Backing fire is be the top of the ridge, and the started along the plowed line perimeter lines should be on flanks. used as a base Interior lines should be as close to of operations. the contour as possible. The fire is started on the baseline (fig. 3). After the base is safeguarded, the interior lines are fired.

This method is employed in slope burning and burning in relatively young timber stands, and results in a minimum of scorch. It is rec­ ommended for prescribed burning beginners.

Prescribed burning has been used as a management tool in South Carolina for more than 20 years.

Fire Management Today 50 Flankfiring is frequently used to secure the edges of The method works well with heavy the prescribed burn when a backfire, strip headfire, or fuel, gives a minimum of scorch, checkerboard fire progresses. provides heat at ground line for the longest periods, and is recommend­ ed for summer burning when there This technique should be used pri­ Headfire. The head fire is are high temperatures, heavy fuels, marily for winter burning at low air employed on special occasions. low relative humidities, strong temperatures. It can also be used The fire is permitted to run with winds, and high fire dangers. This when conditions are too hot for the wind into a prepared firebreak method is the most popular, easiest headstrip burning. that will stop the spread. This is a to apply, and fastest. dangerous and specialized method Flankfire. A fire that spreads per­ employed primarily to kill all aer­ However, this method needs steady pendicularly to the prevailing wind ial vegetation. This technique is wind from a constant direction, is started. The line of fire is started used to maintain a wildlife open­ plenty of time, interior lines pre­ directly into the wind (fig. 4). The ing under certain conditions, and pared in advance, and continuous fire then spreads laterally at right in brown-spot disease control. It and uniform fuels (at least 1 ton angles to the established line. This is also used when a hot, fast fire per acre [2.2 t/ha] of fuel). technique is frequently used to is needed. secure the edges of the prescribed Headstrip. Short headfires are burn when a backfire, strip headfire, If not carefully used, this technique run with the wind into a prepared or checkerboard fire progresses. could result in a wildfire with spot­ baseline or burned area. The strips ting, crowning, and other undesir­ will vary in width, depending upon Flanking is the cheapest and fastest able characteristics. density and distribution of fuel. burning procedure. This technique is combined with a Summary backing fire to initially secure the This method requires a steady Five basic firing techniques are baseline. After the base is secured, wind, uniform and preferably light strip burning is begun. employed for prescribed burning fuels, and a trained crew. on the national forests in South This technique can be conducted Carolina. One technique or a com­ when relative humidity is 50 to bination of techniques is best under 55 percent, has flexibility for wind certain conditions of fuel, weather, direction changes, can be con­ and topography. ducted in scattered light fuels, needs minimum preparation, is Prescribed burning requires relatively inexpensive, is cheaper experience and knowledge of fire because few plowed lines are behavior. All personnel using pre­ required, and is rapid. scribed burning should recognize the constructive and destructive ■ Spot or Checkerboard. This tech­ power of fire. nique is also called “area ignition.” A series of small spot fires are uniformly distributed so all spots converge before any one spot can gain momentum. Possible damage to residual stands is least for clos­ est spots.

A skilled crew familiar with fire behavior and burning objectives is Figure 4—Flankfire is started with a back­ required. firing torch by a crewman walking directly into the wind.

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 51 a Field trial For regulating Prescribed Fire intensities* Stephen S. Sackett

ertain firing techniques can be used to control the intensities Not all crown scorching results in damage to those species C of prescription burns. When studied, but excessive amounts lines of fire are set to permit spread may be harmful. with the wind, fire intensities are generally greater than those produced by lines of fire moving consisted mainly of a 2- to 3-year ing crown scorch (table 1) served as against the wind. Flankfires gener­ accumulation of needles, and the gages of fire intensities. ally create intensities somewhere vegetative undergrowth was com­ between those generated by head- posed of wiregrass (Aristida stricta Observations fires and backfires. Spotfires often Michx.), gallberry (Ilex glabra (L.) generate the entire range of inten­ From observations of rate of spread, Gray), titi (Cyrila racemiflora L.), flame height, and vegetative fuel sities—the leading edge behaving and other minor shrub species. as a headfire, the sides as flankfires, consumption, fire intensities and the rear as a backfire. appeared to increase directly with Mild February weather prevailed: the number of ignition points and the air temperature was 68 °F Multiple lines or spots of fire are were inversely related to the spac­ (20 °C) and the average relative ing between fire sets. often necessary when a large area humidity 34 percent; wind was has to be burned in a specified light and from the southeast in the time. The lines or spots of fire have When examined for scorch 2 stand, with gusts up to 19 miles months after burning, the con­ a “drawing” effect on each other per hour (31 km/h) in the open. where they converge, and their dition of the crowns supported The spread index was calculated at preliminary observations. The individual intensities become mag­ 33, and the buildup index totaled nified in the junction zones. Since strip headfire blocks had a greater 16. Three days had elapsed since percentage of class C and D tree most fire damage occurs within the last rain—0.34 inch (0.86 cm). these junction zones, the interval crowns than did any of the other Although the surface fuel was mod­ treatment blocks. Scorch was negli­ between fire sets is vital in regulat­ erately dry, the soil was still damp. ing overall intensities. gible in those blocks that had been burned with two or four spots. In Four 4-acre (1.6-ha) blocks were Procedure those with 30 and 60 spots, the allotted for spotfires, and five for percentage of scorch approached A workshop on prescribed burning strip headfires. In order to evaluate that in blocks burned with strip was held recently on the Francis the effect of distance between fire headfires (fig. 1). As the number of Marion National Forest, South sets on behavior and intensities of Carolina. All burns took place in the resulting fires, particularly in an open, mature stand of loblolly junction zones, the number of sets Table 1—Scorch classifications and longleaf pine averaging about per block in the four spotfire blocks used for field trial. 80 feet (24 m) in height. Litter fuel was varied as follows: 2, 4, 30, and Class Percent crown scorch 60 spots. When this article was originally pub­ A None lished in 1968, Stephen Sackett was a In the five strip headfire blocks, the B 1–33 research forester for the USDA Forest Service, Southern Forest Fire Laboratory, strips were placed about a chain (20 C 34–66 Southeastern Forest Experiment Station, m) apart. All plots were burned the D 67–100 Macon, GA. same day. Estimates of the result-

* The article is reprinted from Fire Control Notes 29(3) [July 1968]: 5–6.

Fire Management Today 52 Flankfires generally create intensities somewhere between those generated by headfires and backfires. spots increased (spacing between decreased), the chances for conver­ gence and greater intensities also increased.

Not all crown scorching results in damage to those species studied, but excessive amounts may be harmful. Scorching does, however, indicate the level of fire intensity. Because of the relatively large bole sizes and tree heights involved, observations made during this demonstration probably resulted in conservative interpretations. A younger stand would likely have suffered greater crown scorch and thus more potential damage.

Conclusions Figure 1—Crown scorch associated with a variety of firing techniques. The interval between fire sets appears to strongly influence the fire intensities created by prescrip­ The interval between fire sets appears to strongly influence tion burning. Data from this dem­ the fire intensities created by prescription burning. onstration indicate that, with many sets placed close together, it should be possible to produce a high-inten­ damage the crowns of crop trees. If further study shows that inter­ sity burn. Conversely, a low-inten­ Sometimes, however, higher inten­ pretations made in this demonstra­ sity fire should result from fewer sities are necessary; for instance, in tion are applicable for a normal sets and wider spacing. clearcut areas where fire is used for range of fuel and weather condi­ slash disposal, or in mixed stands tions, another useful means will be In the South, most fire prescrip­ where hardwoods are undesirable available to regulate prescribed fire ■ tions in pine stands call for and need to be controlled. intensities. low-intensity fires that do not

Additional References on Firing Patterns and Crown Scorch/ Fire-Induced Tree Mortality Allen, P.H. 1960. Scorch and mortality Flanagan, P. 1996. Survival of fire-injured Ferguson, E.R.; Gibbs, C.B.; Thatcher, after a summer burn in loblolly pine. conifers. Fire Management Notes. 56(2): R.C. 1960. “Cool” burns and pine mor- Fire Control Notes. 21(4): 124–125. 13–16. tality. Fire Control Notes. 21(1): 27–29. Cain, M.D. 1984. Height of stem-bark Cooper, R.W.; Altobellis, A.T. 1969. Fire Riebold, R.J. 1956. Variations in backfir­ char underestimates flame length in kill in young loblolly pine. Fire Control ing in the South. Fire Control Notes. prescribed burns. Fire Management Notes. 30(4): 14–15. 17(3): 30–33. Notes. 45(1): 17–21.

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 53 Prescribed nighttime burns bring beneFits* Stephen S. Sackett and Dale D. Wade

nighttime prescribed fire suc­ the Southlands Experiment Forest, litter on the area from 16 tons per cessfully reduced the wildfire International Paper Company, near acre (36 t/ha) to 4 tons per acre (9 A hazard created by slash left Bainbridge, GA. If these prescribed t/ha). In December 1967, the plan­ in a recently thinned plantation of burns can be conducted at night, tation was thinned to one-half its 20-year-old slash pines. Weather, the number of hours available for original density; approximately 200 fuels, and fire behavior are briefly burning is increased. The project 8-inch (20-cm) trees were removed described. was part of a cooperative study by per acre. Total ground fuel was the Southern and Southeastern increased to 10 tons per acre (22 Prescribed burning, if properly Forest Experiment Stations. t/ha) by the resulting slash (fig. 1). applied, is the most economical means of eliminating the wildfire Stand Conditions The time scheduled for this pre­ hazard created by slash left in pine The area was a 20-year-old planta­ scribed burn was the daylight hours plantations after a commercial tion of slash pine (Pinus elliottii of March 19, 1968, based on pre­ thinning. One such burn designed Engelm.) to which prescribed fire dicted weather conditions. By that to reduce slash, although originally had previously been applied in the afternoon, however, the air temper­ scheduled for the daytime, was suc­ fall of 1966 and in the spring of ature had risen to 82 °F (28 °C) and cessfully carried out at night on 1967. These fires had reduced the the windspeed was 4 miles per hour

Figure 1—Total fuel after thinning was approximately 10 tons per acre (22 t/ha).

When this article was originally published in 1970, Stephen Sackett and Dale Wade were associate fire behavior scientists, Prescribed burning, if properly applied, is the most USDA Forest Service, Southern Forest Fire economical means of eliminating the wildfire hazard created Laboratory, Macon, GA. by slash after a commercial thinning. * The article is reprinted from Fire Control Notes 31(4) [Winter 1970]: 9-10.

Fire Management Today 54 (6 km/h). The relative humidity had dropped to 21 percent, creating a relatively low fine-fuel moisture of about 8 percent. According to the nearest Fire Danger Rating Station 7 miles (11 km) away, the buildup index (a measure of cumu­ lative moisture deficiency in fuels beneath the surface layer) was 28 and the spread index (a measure of the relative rate of forward move­ ment of surface fires) was 20. These indexes indicated a high fire-dan­ ger condition. Burning under this combination of fuel moisture and weather would probably damage crop trees.

Favorable Burning Figure 2—Fine fuels were virtually eliminated by the prescribed fire. Conditions By 9:00 that evening, conditions were more favorable for burn­ If these prescribed burns can be conducted at night, the ing: The air temperature had dropped to 63 °F (17 °C) and number of hours available for burning is increased. the relative humidity had risen to 66 percent. As a result of this The headfire progressed at a rate scorched on 12 percent of the trees, increase in relative humidity, fuel of 265 to 345 feet (81–105 m) per but less than 2 percent of the trees moisture had risen to 14 percent. hour. Flames varied in height from died. Most of those killed were sup­ The windspeed recorded 4 feet 2 feet (0.6 m) in the litter to 5 to 8 pressed trees too small to cut dur­ (1.2 m) above ground level in the feet (1.5–2.4 m) in heavy concen­ ing the thinning operation. Greater plantation was 1 to 2 miles per trations of slash, and higher flames windspeeds would probably have hour (1.6–3.2 km/h)—enough to were occasionally observed. Some prevented crown scorch and short­ give direction to the fire and dis­ glowing embers landed outside the ened burnout time without aggra­ sipate some of its convective heat. control lines; but, because of the vating the problems of control. Because of this improvement in high humidity and increased fuel conditions, a decision was made moisture, no spot fires developed. These results demonstrate the to go ahead with the burn. suitability of prescribed burning Results at night as a management tool for The relatively light winds dictated All slash less than 0.5 inch (1.27 the prevention of wildfire hazards. the use of a headfire (fire set to Not only did the decision to burn spread with the wind) for slash cm) in diameter was consumed. Litter was reduced by 74 percent, at night increase the time available reduction. A backfire was used for burning, but it also provided an to widen the downwind control leaving 1 ton per acre (2.2 t/ha) and virtually eliminating any threat additional means of regulating the line by reducing the fuel along its prescribed fire’s intensity. ■ inner edge. from wildfire (fig. 2). Crowns were

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 55 rx For burning on the aPache national Forest* Bill Buck

he Apache National Forest, like many southwestern forests situ­ The Apache National Forest, like many southwestern T ated on the Colorado Plateau, forests situated on the Colorado Plateau, has significant fuel has significant fuel hazard prob­ hazard problems. lems. The extensive fuel accumula­ tions in these coniferous forests are the product of several factors: the Prescriptions for Fires The following prescription works in our situation: climate of the Southwest; the his­ In 1968, we modified the Iris tory of forest use by stock men and Springs prescription and burned • Temperature: maximum, 50 °F loggers, creating an environment additional acres. The results (10 °C); minimum, 40 °F (4 °C); favorable to the establishment of of these prescribed burns were • Relative humidity: 30 to 40 per­ extensive “doghair” (Black Jack) successful enough to be helpful cent; thickets; and the steadily increasing to other foresters with similar • Fuel moisture sticks: 20 per­ logging operations, for which the problems. We burned 800 acres cent; and needed slash cleanup has not been (268 ha) at a cost of $2.50 per • Wind: 10 to 15 miles per hour adequately financed. acre and stayed within justifiable (16–24 km/h) (steady). mortality limits. How Much in a Year?! To some degree, tradeoffs can be The Apache acquires 40,000 acres Table 1 compares the statistics made between prescription ele­ (3,300 ha) of new slash fuels each of three block burns in the Iris ments; lower temperatures and year, with an average of 45 tons Springs Burn. Comments on the higher relative humidity than those of dead fuels per acre (100 t/ha). burn are included, and indicated prescribed could be satisfactorily Vast acreages on the Apache actu­ optimum prescriptions are given. ally have two or more deposits of slash—resulting from successive cuttings since the early 1950s. If we are to correct this excess, we must make successful use of pre­ scribed fire.

The Apache initiated its prescribed burning administrative studies in 1967. Under the direction of Harry Nickless, district fire control offi­ cer, 400 acres (130 ha) of the Iris Springs project were burned on the Springerville Ranger District in November.

When this article was originally published in 1971, Bill Buck was the fire control officer for the USDA Forest Service, Apache National Forest.

* The article is reprinted from Fire Control Notes 32(1) Logging and pulp slash. This hottest burn had a convection column well developed [Winter 1971]: 10–12. to 10,000 feet (3,000 m) above ground surface.

Fire Management Today 56 Table 1—Statistics of the 1968 Iris Springs Burn. Block Number Conditions 6 10 4 I. Record of actual burn Area 30 acres (12 ha) 60 acres (24 ha) 30 acres (12 ha) Fuel type Ponderosa pine with Ponderosa pine with Ponderosa pine with 3- and 4-year-old log­ 3-year-old logging slash 3-year-old logging slash ging slash Fuel loading Heavy (over 30 tons/acre Heavy (over 30 tons/acre Average (30 tons/acre [67 t/ha]) [67 t/ha]) [67 t/ha]) Aspect Southeast East Southeast Slope 20 percent 30 percent 15 percent Observed weather: –Temperature 40–43 °F (4–6 °C) 38–46 °F (3-8 °C) 32–41 °F (0-5 °C) –Relative humidity 38–44 percent 20–40 percent 28–32 percent –Wind 15–25 mph (24–40 km/h) 5–10 mph (8–16 km/h) 0–5 mph (0–8 km/h) –Fuel moisture stick a 30 percent 20 percent 15 percent Firing method We utilize strip head firing primarily, working downslope on the contour. This technique gives us optimum control and flexibility. Fire behavior observed Hot, parallel to wind Ideal burn, little too Too hot in places, scorch cool, against wind hot at 1400 and crowning Fuel consumption: –Light 70 percent 90 percent 80 percent –Medium 40 percent 60 percent 60 percent –Heavy 30 percent 30 percent 20 percent Duff Average depth in all three blocks—3 inches (7.6 cm). Consumption averaged 1 inch (2.5 cm) depth, with complete consumption beneath and adjacent to fuel concentrations. Comments The gusts rather than Ideal burning conditions. Fuel moisture may the high winds seemed Very little scorch or kill. have gotten a little too to do the only damage. low. Also, lack of wind The high winds would contributes to “baking” fan the fires in the the crowns. The aspect pulp tops to high tem­ seemed to have consider­ peratures; then the wind able affect. would quit, allowing vertical dissemination of heat into the tops of the pole stand. II. Indicated optimum prescription Temperature 43 °F (6 °C) 40 °F (4 °C) 35 °F (2 °C) Relative humidity 38 percent 30 percent 30 percent Wind 15 mph (24 km/h) 10 mph (16 km/h) 10–15 mph (16–24 km/h) Fuel moisture sticka 20 percent 20 percent 20 percent a. 1/2 inch (1.3 cm).

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 57 offset by strong, steady winds or by using slope and firing techniques in your favor. Mortality Strips In the most severe scorch area, mortality strips one year after the Iris Springs Burn revealed these losses:

• 11-1/2 percent of the stems over 6 inches (15 cm) diameter at breast height (d.b.h.), • 16-1/2 percent of the stems 3 to 6 inches (8–15 cm) d.b.h., • 18 percent of the stems under 3 Canyon bottom thinning slash: left, before burn; thinning stem, 3 inches inches (8 cm) d.b.h., and (8 cm); fuel moisture, 7-1/2 percent; temperature, 40 °F ( 4 °C); relative humidity, • 36 percent was the total loss 50 percent. Right, after burn, same location; note end of log in both pictures. (30 percent of this 36 percent was in the suppressed or inter­ mediate trees). Our objective is to compile a catalog of proven prescriptions The loss represented 15-1/2 percent to burn any given site in the pine type. of the basal area, 10 percent of the 15-1/2 percent being in the sup­ Men Are Important, Too. The pre­ must be guaranteed ahead of time pressed, intermediate class. scription alone doesn’t get the job that the right manpower will be done. Of first importance are men. on hand when you need it—and Another sample taken on an The men selected as your torch on short notice. This requires unthinned site (Loop Burn) men must develop a “feel” for the approved financing. revealed 45 percent of the total job. They must know when to slow stems were lost—41 percent of or accelerate the ignition rate; how When to Burn which were under 3 inches (8 cm) much heat they’ve got going and if d.b.h. and which had been sup­ It is important to recognize when it is for or against them; and, when you can safely burn. For the pressed to a basal area of 99 square they need more fire momentum, feet per acre (23 m2/ha). On a high Apache, the time is late October how to get it and how to break it and November. This puts us just class II site index, 74 percent of the (firing techniques). total trees were left. past the fall drying trend and into the cooler temperatures and What Does It Look Like? Another Our Objective shorter days before our first winter important factor is the negative storms. This is the time of year Our objective is to compile a cata­ aspect of a scorched stand. We must when the perennial grasses are log of proven prescriptions to burn realize we can’t burn on a produc­ cured, offering the flash fuels nec­ any given site in the pine type. tion basis without some degree of essary to carry the fire. We begin Each prescription will vary, depen­ mortality. We are not going to get our burns 1 to 4 days following dent upon the basic ingredients of 100 percent consumption of ground light precipitation, which allows slope, aspect, weather, fuel arrange­ fuels with a cool burn. the light fuels to pick up then lose ments, fuel densities, character of the necessary fuel moisture for a residual stand, and the desired den­ Money Matters medium spread factor. sity and composition of the residual Financing has to be programmed. stand when completed. And, in To plan a burn relying on contrib­ order to reach our objective, several uted labor is wishful thinking. You factors have to be considered.

Fire Management Today 58 It is important to recognize when you can safely burn.

Logical Layout The physical layout of your proj­ ect must be logical. Individual blocks must be laid out so that they can be totally ignited and held, within 4-hour periods. Generally, this means about an 80- to 150-acre (27- to 50-ha) block for a four- to six-man crew. Fuel arrangement, density, and moisture content; topography; cultural features; and aspect of slopes will all affect block layout. Conclusion Prescription burning can be a suc­ cessful and practical solution to much of the fuel hazard on the Apache. Our work so far indicates that we are nearing the desired prescriptions, while within justifi­ able losses of the residual stand and within economic limits. ■ Logging tops: above, intermingled with reproduction; below, torching out, reducing resid­ ual stand. This is the most difficult situation to cope with because such fuel arrangements invariably mean loss of patches of trees.

References on Prescribed Burning Aids and Guides Cuoco, C.J. 1992–93. Prescribed burns? Melton, M. 1989. The Keetch/Byram Radloff, D.L; Yancik, R.F. 1983. Decision Share information with fire weather Drought Index: A guide to fire condi- analysis of prescribed burning. Fire forecasters and involve them in the tions and suppression problems. Fire Management Notes. 44(3): 22–29. planning. Fire Management Notes. Management Notes. 50(4): 30–34. Weir, J.R. 2004. Probability of spot 53–54(3): 10–13. Melton, M. 1996. Keetch–Byram Drought fires during prescribed burns. Fire Little, S.; Somes, H.A.; Allen, J.P. 1953. Index revisited: Prescribed fire applica- Management Today. 64(2): 24–26. Choosing suitable times for prescribed tions. Fire Management Notes. 56(4):7– burning in southern New Jersey. Fire 11. Control Notes. 14(1): 21–25.

References on Prescribed Fire and Smoke Management Achtemeier, G.L. 2001. Simulating Harvey, B.; Fitzgerald, S. 2004. Is Florida’s Murphy, J.L.; Fritschen, L.J.; Cramer, O.P. nocturnal smoke movement. Fire prescribed fire program something to 1970. Slash burning: Pollution can be Management Today. 61(1): 28–32. get choked up about? Fire Management reduced. Fire Control Notes. 31(3): 3–5. Editor. 1971. Smoke dispersal determines Today. 64(4): 16–18. Riebau, A.R.; Sestak, M.L. 1989. Smoke when to burn. Fire Control Notes. McLean, H.R.; Ward, F.R. 1976. Is “smoke- management modeling in the Bureau 32(3): 8. free” burning possible? Fire Management of Land Management. Fire Management Editor. 1972. Prescribed burning: Notes. 37(1): 10–13. Notes. 50(1): 56–58. Particles and air quality studied. Fire Control Notes. 33(3): 12.

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 59 Fire is a terror ... but also a tool* Richard E. Baldwin

nstead of promoting only the forest managers oversell the public idea that all fires are bad, fire The public needs to learn to the point that scientific manage­ I prevention efforts need to that fire is a dynamic factor ment is seriously hampered today? emphasize fire as a forest manage­ of the forest environment, ment tool and as a natural environ­ Can this same question be put to mental happening. not necessarily good or bad the “all fire is bad” type of preven­ but natural. tion program mentioned earlier? Smokey Is a Good Will the public be able to accept for­ Teacher est fires as a fact of life, that fire’s probably need increased emphasis, The Cooperative Forest Fire impact on forest ecosystems is as such as prevention engineering and elementary as soil, air, and water? Prevention (CFFP) program with fuel management. Smokey Bear as the symbolic image of fire prevention is an Educational Consider fuel management. Why Reemphasis Needed impressive success story. The mil­ isn’t more effort put into it? Fuel lions of dollars of advertising ser­ management requires scientific Fire prevention efforts must cease vices contributed to the program understanding of fire behavior trying to manipulate public atti­ have paid off in resources saved, and fuels. Unlike the mass media tudes with single objectives, as if even though the saving can’t be approach, the results of fuel manip­ it were selling a brand name soap accurately measured. ulation designed to prevent fires powder. Educational programs can be realistically tested, mea­ should complement overall land Many dedicated fire protection sured, and evaluated to determine management objectives. Since people have been swept into the cost/benefit answers. wildfire has been generally misrep­ mainstream of the mass media resented as being bad, this concept approach to fire prevention, and The results of the mass media needs to be tempered, and the today fire prevention is almost approach, on the other hand, natural role of fire in our forests synonymous with public relations, cannot be precisely determined. emphasized. The public needs to Smokey Bear, and the idea that all Furthermore, these results are in learn that fire is a dynamic factor of fire is bad. For example, if you are terms of the number of people con­ the forest environment, not neces­ considering hiring a fire preven­ tacted and not in terms of actual sarily good or bad but natural. tion specialist, what is one of the resource damage averted. first prerequisites for the person? A.B. Mount, silvicultural research You probably will say, “They must Are We Our Own officer from Australia, made the be good in public relations.” Victims of Oversell? following observation after visiting fire research organizations in our Prevention Has Many Early-day lumber companies har­ country: Facets vested vast areas in a devastating and reckless manner, with little “I was told that anti-pollution But there are other aspects and concern for the soil, fire hazard, approaches to fire prevention that authorities are about to ban for­ or perpetuation of a healthy for­ est burning in Oregon; this in est cover. Because the silvicul­ spite of general recognition by When this article was originally published tural methods of clearcutting were in 1972, Richard Baldwin was chief of the most foresters that fire is an Fire Programs Branch, Division of Fire carelessly applied, the public was integral part of the local forest Control, USDA Forest Service, Missoula, MT. aroused and educated to believe environment. However, this rec­ that clearcutting was all bad. Did ognition has apparently not been * The article is reprinted from Fire Control Notes 33(3) [Summer 1972]: 7–8 strong enough to allow a vigor­

Fire Management Today 60 “… the very efficiency of the fire brigades Fire’s Natural Role guarantees fuel accumulations that will one day produce a Must Be Understood holocaust.” Along with public reeducation, – A.B. Mount, silvicultural researcher from Australia comprehensive burning prescrip­ tions, realistic pre-attack planning, and fire prevention engineer­ ous campaign of public educa­ ter. In Australia there is public ing through fuel and vegetative tion on the need for forest fires. recognition of fuel accumulations manipulation must constitute the Perhaps if the complete role of and public pressure for the use of backbone of the approach to fire fire in the environment had been controlled fire to reduce these management in the 1970s. When understood by the public, forest­ accumulations. In California, fire’s natural role in the environ­ ers would be more outspoken there appears to be public con­ ment and its ecological significance about their use of fire.” demnation of the firefighting are understood, land management organizations for not controlling programs will be able to comple­ Mount also makes the following the fire. It is apparently over­ ment natural processes instead observation: looked that the very efficiency of of trying to overpower them with the fire brigades guarantees fuel man’s advanced technical skills and “One remarkable difference accumulations that will one day machines. ■ between Australia and North produce a holocaust.” America occurs after a fire disas­

Additional References on … Prescribed Fire Education Zabinski, M.; Washa, B. 1999. Fire Use Economics of Prescribed Burning Benedict, T. 1999. Fire: A resource man­ Training Academy completes first year. Jackson, D.H.; Flowers, P.; Loveless, R.S., agement tool. Fire Management Today. Fire Management Notes. 49(4): 21–25. Jr.; Schuster, E.G. 1982. Predicting pre­ 59(3): 34. scribed burning costs of wildlife habitat Perry, K. 2000. Forest Service video high­ management. Fire Management Notes. Prescribed Fire Programs 43(4): 20–22. lights the need for prescribed fire. Fire Bunnell, D.L. 1996. National Prescribed Foley, W.T. 1992–93. A new way to analyze Management Today. 60(2): 40. Fire Awards recognize excellence. Fire prescribed fire costs. Fire Management Reeves, H.C. 1975. Communicating Management Notes. 56(4): 12–13. Notes. 53–54(4): 8. the role of fire in the forest. Fire Bunnell, D.L. 1997. 1996 National Management. 36(1): 12–14. Prescribed Fire Awards presented to Thorsen, J.; Kirkbride, E. 1998. Prescribed eight recipients. Fire Management Notes. Prescribed Burning in Fuels fire and public education. Fire 57(4): 24–25. Management Management Notes. 58(3): 27–29. Bunnell, D.L. 1999. Three National Maule, W.M. 1954. Hazard reduction by Prescribed Fire Awards presented for snag burning. Fire Control Notes. 15(3): Prescribed Fire Training 1997. Fire Management Notes. 59(3): 27–29. Bates, C. 1985. Prescribed burning as 31–33. Morrison, J. 1964. Fire hazard manage- a training exercise in NIIMS. Fire Bunnell, D.L. 2001. Six National Fire Use ment. Fire Control Notes. 25(2): 13–15. Management Notes. 46(2): 3–4. Awards presented for 1998 and 1999. Fire Morrison, J. 1968. Fire hazard manage- Cooper, R.W.; Smith, A.D. 1968. Management Today. 61(4): 39–44. ment in the Bitterroot — A further Simulating prescribed fires – A new Ferguson, J.P. 1998. Florida’s governor report. Fire Control Notes. 29(3): 3, 16. training technique. Fire Control Notes. declares Prescribed Fire Awareness Week. Whitson, J.B. 1983. An attempt to limit 29(1): 11–13, 16. Fire Management Notes. 58(1): 28–29. wildfires through prescribed burning Webb, J.; Brown, A. 1984. Prescribed Jacobs, B. 1996. NPS prescribed fire sup- assistance. Fire Management Notes. fire management training. Fire port modules – A pilot program. Fire 44(1): 16–17. Management Notes. 45(3): 16–17. Management Notes. 56(2): 4–6.

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 61 stereo PhotograPhs aid residue management* Kevin C. Ryan and R.E. Johnson

hotographs of activity fuels Evaluating Fuels Applicable Use increase the usefulness of The development of the planar The coastal Douglas-fir–hemlock fuel inventory records for fuel P intercept fuel sampling theory photo series (Maxwell and Ward management planning and the (Brown 1971) and field inven­ 1976 a) includes examples of evaluation of fuel treatment. This tory procedures (Brown 1974) residue loadings applicable to the article documents the develop­ now make it possible to measure Olympic National Forest. Personnel ment and fire management appli­ actual fuel loadings. The National on the Shelton Ranger District, cations of a color stereo photo Fuel Classification and Inventory however, felt additional resolution series on the Shelton Ranger System (USDA Forest Service of residue loadings was desirable District, Olympic National Forest, 1974) outlines a method to classify because of the complex mixture WA. The local photo series com­ fuels using photographs and these of mature, over-mature and sec­ bines stereo photography with fuel inventories. The procedure ond-growth timber stands on the fuel inventory in an extensive cat­ gives managers both quantitative district. The need was highest in alog of treated and untreated resi­ and visual records of various fuel areas of highly defective old-growth due fuelbeds. The visual reinforce­ Douglas-fir because of the heavy ment provided by the photographs residue loadings created by harvest­ is effective for communication For years, fire managers ing this timber from steep slopes. It and as a memory aid. have used photographs of was also felt that local inventories fuel complexes as decision would increase the fire manage­ Past Uses ment staff’s ability to understand For years, fire managers have making and training aids. and apply photographs to fuel used photographs of fuel com­ inventory and increase the manag­ plexes as decision making and complexes. The system was used er’s confidence in the inventories. training aids. The photographs to develop a photographic series were often accompanied by quali­ of the various levels of treated and Procedure tative ratings of fuel hazard; for untreated activity-created residues Cutover units on the District are example, the low, medium, high, in Region 6 (Maxwell and Ward being systematically inventoried and extreme ratings given to rate 1976 a and b). The photographs by the planar intercept sampling of spread and resistance to con­ are a visual record of forest resi­ technique (Brown 1974). Fuels are trol (Hornby 1936, USDA Forest dues that can be used as a train­ inventoried in the 1-, 10-, 100-, Service 1968). Fireline notebooks ing tool in fire management and and 1,000+ -hour time-lag fuel size (USDA Forest Service 1969) also for facilitating interdisciplinary classes. Fuel and duff measure­ use photographs to key fuel mod­ discussion of residue levels and ments are also taken. Permanent els for fire behavior prediction. treatment objectives. The photos photo points are established so also can be used with supporting that the photographs depict a pan­ When this article was originally published inventory and harvest data and fire oramic view of representative resi­ in 1979, Kevin Ryan was a research for­ modeling to establish treatment due loadings. Color stereo paired ester for the USDA Forest Service, Pacific standards. The costs and benefits photographs are taken from these Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Forest Residues Program, Seattle, of treatment alternatives can then points (fig. 1). WA; and R.E. Johnson was a fuels manage­ be evaluated to determine the best ment assistant for the USDA Forest Service, treatment method. Inventory data are processed and Shelton Ranger District, Olympic National Forest, WA. average fuel loading and depths are calculated. The variance and * The article is reprinted from Fire Management Notes standard errors in fuel measure­ 40(3) [Summer 1979]: 7–9. ments are recorded as an index of

Fire Management Today 62 Figure 1—Stereo pair prior to residue disposal.

Viewing photographs of similarly treated units helps quantify objectives. fuelbed variability and a measure of Establish Prescription Re-inventory inventory precision. This inventory Complex management needs The units are re-inventoried fol­ information is then used to develop require burning prescriptions to lowing treatment. Post-treatment residue treatment prescriptions. be more finely tuned than ever stereo photographs are taken from before. At present, the National Fire the photo points (fig. 2). The suc­ Set Objectives Danger Rating System (NFDRS) cess of the burn can then be evalu­ The inventory data help to establish (Deeming et al. 1977) is being used ated by comparing the actual and objectives for treatment of units. to develop burning prescriptions. the desired conditions following The management needs of several Past experience is used to select treatment. This is an interdisciplin­ disciplines are entered into the combinations of temperature, ary process, as was the prescription information used in prescription humidity, and wind. development phase, which becomes development and aid in developing more refined and accurate with prescriptions and setting priorities. The desired spread component, additional experience. Viewing photographs of similar burning index, and energy release units that have been treated helps component are identified and a Valuable Database in the quantification of objectives. burning prescription is established. This development of a stereo photo Typical objectives are to: As computer capability becomes series tailored to the local situ­ more accessible to the fire manage­ ation and needs is an important • Lessen duff disturbance, ment staff, local fuel models and element of fuels management on • Reduce fine fuels as much as pos­ fire modeling may be used. the Shelton Ranger District. The sible, photos are arranged from lightest • Increase the number and quality Treatment to heaviest fuel loading and then of planting spots, and When burning conditions are placed in an album. Together with • Reduce the negative impact on within prescribed limits, the area is the supporting information from air quality. treated. The actual fuel moisture, burning plans and treatment evalu­ temperature, humidity, wind direc­ ations, they constitute an extensive On this district, prescriptions tion and speeds, and NRDRS indi­ database for planning residue treat­ generally call for broadcast burn­ ces are recorded for subsequent use ments. Such documentation makes ing because other treatments are in the burn evaluation. past experience usable and, in turn, restricted by the steep topography increases future success. and heavy loadings. The photo album allows one to

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 63 Figure 2—Stereo pair after residue disposal. compare, for example, what 50, have similar loadings. The system Brown, J.K.1974. Handbook for inventory­ 75, or 100 tons of fuel per acre also ensures that a new fuels man­ ing downed woody material. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT–16. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest look like. This makes discussion ager will have the benefit of the Service, Intermountain Forest and Range with personnel in other disciplines previous manager’s experience. Experiment Station. easier. As more units are inven­ Deeming, J.E.; Burgan, R.E.; Cohen, J.D. 1977. The National Fire-Danger toried and photographed, it may Advantages of Stereo Rating System-1978. Gen. Tech. Rep. be possible to estimate residue Stereo photos have an advantage INT–39. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest loadings to sufficient accuracy by Service, Intermountain Forest and Range over single-frame photos because Experiment Station. simply comparing the fuels on a the depth of field increases the Hornby, L.G.1936. Fire control planning in unit to stereo photos from units resolution of fuel elements, making the Northern Rocky Mountain Region. with similar loadings. The photos it easier to relate photographs to Progr. Rep. 1. Missoula, MT: USDA Forest also provide a visual record that Service, Northern Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. will be useful in documenting the Maxwell, W.G.; Ward, F.R.1976a. Photo long-term breakdown and decay of Complex management needs series for quantifying forest residues in untreated fuels and residual large the coastal Douglas-fir–hemlock type, require burning prescriptions coastal Douglas-fir–hardwood type. Gen. logs that may interfere with sec­ to be more finely tuned than Tech. Rep. PNW–51. Portland, OR: USDA ond growth management. Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest ever before. and Range Experiment Station. Maxwell, W.G; Ward, F.R. 1976b. Photo The inventory and evaluation sys­ series for quantifying forest residues in tem establishes baseline data for actual conditions. It is also easier the ponderosa pine type, ponderosa pine developing prescriptions and mea­ to use the stereo photos when esti­ and associated species type, lodgepole suring achievement. It gives a reli­ pine type. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW–52. mating fuel loadings on un-inven­ Portland, OR: USDA Forest Service, able estimate of fuel consumption, toried units. Because individual fuel Pacific Northwest Forest and Range which can be used to evaluate haz­ elements are easier to see, the user Experiment Station. ard reduction and site preparation. can envision the proportion of size USDA Forest Service. 1968. Guide for fuel type identification. Portland, OR: USDA It also gives an estimate of available classes in the fuel complex. This Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. fuel for reporting smoke conditions makes interpreting photographs USDA Forest Service. 1969. Fireline note­ to State air pollution agencies. easier, thus allowing a better esti­ book. San Francisco, CA: USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Region. mate of fuel loading. USDA Forest Service. 1974. National fuel The stereo photos and supporting classification and inventory system. documentation are useful in plan­ References Preliminary draft. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service, Washington Office. ■ ning. The actual costs of treating Brown, J.K.1971. A planar intersect method a unit can be used in appraising for sampling fuel volume and surface disposal costs in units projected to area. Forest Science. 17(1): 96–102.

Fire Management Today 64 PositiVe eFFects oF Prescribed burning on wildFire intensities* James A. Helms

rescribed burning has existed in the South since early habi­ These benefits now need to be documented and compared P tation. Indians and settlers with actual effects on wildfire. were burning the woods to make use of the positive aspects of fire. Today the modern forest manager The Blountsville Fire Even though initial attack was prompt, the fire had already gained still uses fire to enhance resource During the early morning hours momentum and required extended management. Controlled fire is of April 4, 1978, the Blountsville initial attack by all the state trac­ used to meet management pre­ Fire was one of a series on the tor plow units in the county plus scriptions relating to hazard reduc­ Chattahoochee–Oconee National tractor plow units from private tion, site preparation, control of Forest in Georgia (fig. 1). It started industry, the USDA Forest Service, undesirable plant species, wildlife some distance from the main and two state units from adjacent habitat improvement, Brown-spot groups of fires and went undetected counties. The conditions of the fire Needle Blight control, and range until 11:45 am. improvement. are listed in table 1.

This article documents and analyzes two case examples where the fuel reduction resulting from prescribed burning had positive results in aid­ ing wildfire suppression. Benefits Documentation of the actual modification of wildfire intensity in prescribed burn areas has been neglected. Two case histories are outlined here to show how two wildfires were affected. No attempt has been made to completely ana­ lyze or justify the cost of the hazard reduction job in light of the posi­ tive effect on suppression efforts or resource damage. However, empha­ sis is given to the identification, location, and recognition of recent prescribed burn areas as an integral part of initial attack dispatch plans.

When this article was originally published in 1979, James Helms was a regional fire coordinator and fire management special­ ist for the USDA Forest Service, Southern Region, Atlanta, GA.

* The article is reprinted from Fire Management Notes 40(3) [Summer 1979]: 10–13. Figure 1—The Blountsville Fire.

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 65 The fire was burning in an 8-year­ Table 1—Conditions on the Blountsville Fire. old loblolly pine plantation (fig. Factor Measure 2). Fuels were 2 to 6 tons per acre (5–14 t/ha) of perennial grass and Dry bulb temperature 81°F (27.2 °C) pine needles. It was spotting well Relative humidity 36 percent ahead of the main fire. The fire Fine fuel moisture 6 percent burned into a 40-plus-year-old lob- lolly pine stand, where fuels were Wind West at 9 miles per hour (14 km/h) 6 to 8 tons per acre (14–18 t/ha), Forward rate of spread 46 chains per hour (0.9 km/h) and jumped a 20-foot (6-m) dirt Perimeter increase 143 chains per hour (2.9 km/h) road. To this point, control efforts Byram’s Fireline Intensity 260 Btu/sec/ft (900 kW/m) were futile. After the fire crossed the road, it burned into an area Flame length 5 to 6 feet (1.5–1.8 m) that had been prescribe burned 19 Keetch-Byram Drought Index 196 days earlier (fig. 3).

Figure 2—Blountsville The change in fuel loading to less Fire fuel type. than 1 ton per acre (2 t/ha) caused an immediate reduction in inten­ sity and rate of spread. The fire was quickly contained and attention turned to control lines around the flanks and rear.

Suppression action started at 12:20 p.m. and the fire was controlled at 5 p.m. the same day. Conjecture is that had the prescribed burn area not been there, the fire would have advanced another 60 to 80 chains (1.2–1.6 km) and increased another 300 acres (120 ha) in size before burning conditions moderated enough to slow it down.

The fuel reduction was enough to break up the head of the fire, reduce the intensity, and allow con­ tainment success. The Woodpecker Fire The Woodpecker Fire occurred on April 2, 1978, on the Biloxi Ranger

The fuel reduction was enough to break up the head of the fire, reduce the intensity, and allow containment success.

Figure 3—Fuels 19 days after prescribed burn.

Fire Management Today 66 District, DeSoto National Forest in Mississippi (fig. 4). This was a 346 acre (140 ha) fire that burned in the area that was prescribe burned in January 1976. The fire burned hot and moved fast, but damage was light, even on 95 acres (38 ha) of pine plantation.

This fire was started by an incendi­ arist on National Forest land. It was set in at least seven different places. District forces were committed on other fires and the reassignment of attack forces caused a 25-minute delay in initial attack. This allowed the fire to gain momentum that carried it to Class E—300,999 acres (121,810 ha)—size. Initial attack was with two tractor plow units. Follow-up was with another tractor plow unit and 22 people.

The fire had a forward rate-of-spread of 30 chains per hour. Flame length averaged 5 feet (1.5 m). Wind gusts up to 12 miles per hour (19 km/h) Figure 4—The Woodpecker fire caused short periods of spread and intensity above this. Average inten­ sity was computed at 210 Btu/sec/ft (725 kW/m) (Byram’s fireline inten­ sity). Because of the 1976 prescribed fire treatment, fuels consisted almost exclusively of pine needles [fmn40_3.jpg] and grass litter (fig. 5). The intensity level of 210 Btu’s was of very short duration, which reduced the damage Please Identify Photo: potential considerably. File Names on CD are Truncated Spotting did occur, but the flam­ ing brands were light and didn’t persist long enough to cause long-distance spotting. Had heavi­ er fire brands been available, con­ ditions were favorable for long- distance spotting. Again, these favorable factors were the result Figure 5—Woodpecker fire fuel type. of the fuel reduction effected by prescribed burning. These factors made it possible for oped with the knowledge that the suppression forces to use both con- area had been burned by prescrip­ structed and natural barriers for tion 2 years earlier. Had the fuel control lines. Strategy was devel- not been reduced or altered by pre-

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 67 scribed fire, the creek shown on the north end (fig. 6) of the fire would not have been sufficient for a con­ trol line. Spotting would have car­ ried the fire over the creek. Control from that point on would have been very difficult.

Knowing the fuel condition and the fire behavior probabilities allowed the fire boss to determine early in the effort that his current forces would be sufficient. This was very important since the district and its neighbors were still experiencing new fire starts. This decision freed other district and co-op forces to attack and control the new fires in a timely manner. Figure 6—Unburned 8- to 10- year loblolly fuels Positive Effects These two cases document some • Give fire bosses an easily identi­ Summary fiable, positive factor in formu­ positive effects of the hazard In summary, the positive effects lating strategy and deploying reduction of prescribed fire. These of hazard reduction by prescribed forces, and factors can: fire have been expressed frequently. • Increase production rates of line These benefits now need to be doc­ building equipment. • Reduce fire intensity, umented and compared with actual • Reduce resistance to control, effects on wildfire. ■ • Reduce heat persistence and cor­ These positive effects are signifi­ responding damage potential, cant factors in cost-benefit analy­ • Reduce suppression forces needed sis when planning and budgeting for containment/enhance use of a prescribed burning program. natural barriers, The results should be carefully • Reduce mopup and patrol time, documented and made available for dispatcher use in initial fire attack planning.

Additional References of Prescribed Fire Case Studies and Operational Experiences Bruner, M.H. 1966. Prescribed burning to Hunter, J.E. 1988. Prescribed burning for Thomas, D.A.; Marshall, S.J. 1980. 1979 reduce kudzu fire hazard. Fire Control cultural resources. Fire Management – Test year for prescribed fires in the Notes. 27(3): 5. Notes. 49(2): 8–9. Nothern Region. Fire Management Custer, G.; Thorsen, J. 1996. Stand- Jackson, R.S. 1982. Fire programs: Notes. 41(4): 3–6. replacement burn in the Ocala National Prescribed burning assistance pro- Weir, J.R. 2004. Probability of spot Forest – a success. Fire Management gram combats incendiary wildfire. Fire fires during prescribed burns. Fire Notes. 56(2): 7–12. Management Notes. 43(3): 27. Management Today. 64(2): 24–26. Heintzelman, J.; Edginton, C. 1953. Some Pomeroy, K.N. 1948. Observations on Woodard, P.M.; Bentz, J.A.; Van Nest, T. observations on slash burning. Fire prescribed fires in the Coastal Plain of 1983. Producing a prescribed crown Control Notes. 14(4): 28–29. Virginia and North Carolina. Fire Control fire in a subalpine forest with an aerial Hills, J.T. 1954. Prescribed burning gets Notes. 9(2/3): 13–17. drip torch. Fire Management Notes. results. Fire Control Notes. 15(3): 21. 44(4):24–28.

Fire Management Today 68 the cole broadcast burn* James B. Webb

n recent years, the positive aspects of underburning using Prescribed fire is indeed a viable tool to treat thinning slash I prescribed fire have been extolled in pole-size Douglas-fir and by fire managers. Many of the western larch. claims have been perceived as less than credible. Our horizons are perpetually expanding with each treated. As results unfolded, the residual stand consisted of 7 to 8 proven application of fire as a suggested fire tolerance of inland inch (18–20 cm) d.b.h., 60-percent management tool (Martin and Dell Douglas-fir and western larch led Douglas-fir and 40-percent western 1978). Credibility is also improving fire managers to contemplate using larch, on a 12- by 12-foot (4-m × as proof points to success. This arti­ fire to treat thinning slash in stands 4-m) spacing. Slope averaged 20 cle is presented as further evidence heavily populated by these species. percent with a northeast aspect. of the useful role fire can serve in forest management. A test plot in the Cole Creek The objectives of the burn were to: Drainage, Tonasket Ranger District, Tonasket Example containing 150 acres (60 ha) was • Determine feasibility of treating The use of fire to modify the fire prepared for burning. The plan heavy thinning slash in Douglas- hazard in precommercial thin­ was to burn a 20 acre (8 ha) plot fir and western larch type; ning slash on the Tonasket Ranger under a specific prescription. If that • Remove 90 percent dead woody District, Okanogan National Forest, prescription looked acceptable, the material, 0 to 3 inches (0–7.6 cm) started 5 years ago. Thinned stands remaining 130 acres (50 ha) were category; composed primarily of ponderosa to be burned within the same gen­ • Remove 40 percent dead woody pine were the first areas to be eral parameters. material, less than 3 inches (> 7.6 cm) category; Downed fuel inventories on the • Improve site preparation for pon­ When this article was originally published in 1980, James Webb was a district ranger area indicated discontinuous fuel derosa pine seed in unstocked for the USDA Forest Service, Tonasket accumulation (table 1). openings; and Ranger District, Okanogan National Forest, • Retain the residual stand in vig­ Okanogan, WA. Most of the fuel resulted from thin­ orous condition.

* The article is reprinted from Fire Management Notes ning 5 to 6 inch (13–15 cm) d.b.h. 41(3) [Summer 1980]: 3–4. Douglas-fir 12 years before. The To accomplish the objectives, a pre­ scription range was developed (table 2). Table l—Fuel accumulation—Cole Broadcast Burn. Plot 1 Plot 2 Plot 3 Size class tons/acre t/ha tons/acre t/ha tons/acre t/ha 0–0.25 inches (0–0.64 cm) 1.16 2.60 0.08 0.18 9.32 20.89 0.25–1 inches (0.64–2.5 cm) 2.28 5.11 2.28 5.11 9.89 22.17 1–3 inches (2.5–7.6 cm) 4.00 9.67 2.00 4.48 22.02 49.36 3 inches (7.6 cm) sound 23.82 53.40 0.00 0.00 9.23 20.69 3 inches (7.6 cm) rotten 38.77 86.91 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Total 70.03 156.99 4.36 9.77 50.46 113.12

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 69 The Prescribed Fire The desired weather conditions prevailed for several days in mid- October. We burned the 20 acre (8 ha) test plot with slow backing fires set along numerous interior lines that ran parallel to the con­ tours. The lines were 3 to 5 chains (60–100 m) apart. Flame heights seldom exceeded 3 feet (1 m) and averaged 18 inches (46 cm). Gusty winds to 10 miles per hour (16 km/ h) dispersed the smoke and heat well. Temperatures ranged from 45 °F to 50 °F (7–10 °C), with relative humidity varying from 35 to 45 percent. Fuel moisture sticks held at 11 to 12 percent.

Figure 1—A pocket of fuel remaining after the burn was completed provides a good The original 20-acre (8-ha) test plot indication of preburn conditions. looked good (fig. 1). On that basis, we continued the burn to cover the residual stand died after the burn. The most encouraging thing about full 150 acres (61 ha). All initial Insect numbers did increase slight­ using fire in this way is the low impressions seemed to verify our ly immediately after the burn. Soil per-acre cost and environmental premise that prescribed fire was disturbance was lighter than origi­ compatibility. For $9.56 per acre we indeed a viable tool to treat thin­ nally predicted. Only 15 percent of were able to accomplish what nor­ ning slash in pole-size Douglas-fir the humus layer burned to expose mally cost $60 per acre to machine and western larch. mineral soil. pile and $200 per acre to hand pile. Burning actually resulted in Postburn Analysis Because the fall burn consumed less soil disturbance than by either Several post-burn analyses have considerable amounts of large piling process. been completed. They included vis­ fuel, we conducted a spring burn its to the site by a soil scientist, sil­ under the same prescription on an Numerous resource management viculturist, wildlife biologist, ecolo­ additional 65 acres (26 ha). Results specialists from various disciplines gist, entomologist, and numerous were much the same in all but the have looked at the Cole prescribed miscellaneous interested folks. All large logs and stumps. They showed underburn. With few exceptions, objectives were met. Seventy-five less consumption due obviously to they are enthusiastic about the percent of the dead fuel greater higher spring moisture content. opportunity we have to add fire to than 3 inches (7.6 cm) in size was our management tools. Additional consumed. Only 2 percent of the applications will surface as fire managers’ knowledge increases. Table 2—Prescription range developed to accomplish prescription burning goals on the Cole Creek Drainage, Tonasket Ranger District. Reference Martin, R.E; Dell, J.D. 1978. Planning Measure From To for prescribed burning in the Inland Northwest. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW–76. Fuel stick moisture 10% 22% Portland, OR: USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Relative humidity 25% 45% Experiment Station. ■ Windspeed 4 mph (6 km/h) 10 mph (16 km/h) Wind direction Northerly Temperature 45 °F (7°C) 65 °F (18°C)

Fire Management Today 70 stage underburning in Ponderosa Pine* John Maupin

nderburns are conducted for Under present conditions, first The prescription for stage burning range and wildlife habitat entry underburns in ponderosa pine usually centers on control of flame U improvement, silvicultural present a challenge to the fire man­ length. Maximum permissible flame objectives, visual resource man­ ager since, in many cases, natural length in any given stand depends agement, and fuel reduction. Fuel fuels may total 30 tons per acre (67 on ambient air temperature, canopy reduction underburns are used for t/ha) (fig. 1). Also, the lower canopy windspeed, and slope. Flame length disposing of thinning, timber slash, level of the overstory is close to the can be largely controlled by firing and natural fuels. ground and therefore very suscep­ technique. For instance, narrow strip tible to scorch. Consequently, the head fires will produce shorter flame Underburning is cost competitive prescribed fire manager must use lengths than wide strip head fires. with other methods of fuel treat­ techniques that limit damage to the ment and provides other benefits, residual stand. First entry underburns require such as nutrient recycling, browse strong commitment from the regeneration, and pruning of After heavy fuels are reduced, the resource manager. Burning costs the residual stand. Also, burning second stage burn can be con­ and damage potential will be high on avoids the adverse effects, such as ducted with a prescription that first entry burns. After the first entry, soil compaction, of machine treat­ will produce desired fuel reduction however, costs of maintenance burns ment methods. throughout the unit (fig. 2). fall off dramatically and damage potential is negligible. ■ The Ochoco National Forest, locat­ ed in central Oregon, has embarked Figure 1— on a major underburning opera­ Fuels of 30 tons per acre (67 t/ha), tion. In 1980, the forest conducted prior to first stage first entry underburns on about burn. 4,000 acres (1,600 ha) of ponderosa pine. Plans call for increasing the program to about 8,000 acres (3,200 ha) in the next few years.

Historically, pine stands on the Ochoco were visited by low inten­ sity fires at intervals of 2 to 15 years. These fires kept natural fuel levels low. However, effective Figure 2— fire suppression has resulted in a Fuels remain­ ing after second buildup of natural fuels such as stage burn. litter, heavy logs, brush, reproduc­ tion, and snags.

When this article was originally published in 1981, John Maupin was a fire staff offi­ cer for the USDA Forest Service, Ochoco National Forest, Prineville, OR.

* The article is reprinted from Fire Management Notes 42(3) [Summer1981]: 16–17.

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 71 Preliminary guidelines For broadcast burning lodgePole Pine slash in colorado* G. Thomas Zimmerman

odgepole pine (Pinus con­ In northern Colorado, Alexander In Colorado, little research has been torta) is a highly important (1979) found duff layers as deep as conducted, or experience gained, L species in forest manage­ 3.6 inches (9 cm). Depths exceed­ regarding burning prescriptions, ment in Colorado. Combinations ing 4 inches (10 cm) were found firing techniques, and duff reduc­ of a very widespread range, con­ in some of the clearcuts burned in tion in lodgepole pine stands. Adams siderable acreage supporting large this study. Seeds from surrounding (1972) compared natural regenera­ volumes, and wide ecologic ampli­ trees apparently germinate in duff tion following broadcast burning tude contribute to the high value rather than mineral soil and perish with other slash disposal methods of this species (Wellner 1975). during droughty summer months. but presented no information per­ Because of its importance, lodge­ Machine piling followed by burning taining to the actual burning. pole pine stands are intensively fails to scarify enough area for nat­ managed for wood fiber produc­ ural restocking. Planting in thick Data collected during experimental tion in northern Colorado. duff layers becomes labor intensive fires in lodgepole pine slash have and costly. been used to develop preliminary But on many sites, insufficient nat­ guidelines for prescribed burning ural regeneration is occurring fol­ in southwestern Alberta (Quintilio lowing timber harvesting. Artificial Prescribed broadcast 1970, 1972). These guidelines relate regeneration following machine burning of clearcut logging rate of head fire spread and depth­ piling and burning also fails to pro­ slash successfully and safely of-burn to the appropriate compo­ duce desired stocking levels. reduces slash buildups and nents of the Canadian Forest Fire Weather Index System. The depth of forest floor duff lay­ forest floor duff layers. ers in these stands appears to be In an attempt to improve regen­ the principal cause of regeneration The importance of fire in estab­ eration success following logging, failure. The germination of lodge­ lishing proper site conditions for personnel from the USDI Bureau pole pine seed is favored by full lodgepole pine regeneration is well of Land Management (BLM) sunlight; seedlings develop best in known (Brown 1975). Broadcast conducted broadcast burning in mineral soil or disturbed duff free of burning can destroy unopened lodgepole pine clearcut areas. This competing vegetation (Pfister and cones present in slash. Alexander report summarizes the results Daubenmire 1975). Duff layers com­ (1966) observed less natural regen­ obtained from the initial pre­ mon to lodgepole pine stands in the eration on burned plots than on scribed burning trials. Intermountain Region are usually either undisturbed or disturbed shallow and seldom average more mineral soil plots. However, Lotan Site Description and than 2 in (5 cm) (Brown 1975). and Perry (1976) state that broad­ Methods cast burned areas may be the most Lodgepole pine forests represent When this article was originally pub­ lished in 1981, Thomas Zimmerman was suitable for germination and sur­ the principal vegetative type pres­ a graduate student in the Department of vival of artificially applied seeds, ent. Prior to logging, stands were Forest and Wood Sciences at Colorado although true ash surface effects on comprised of an average of 218 State University, Ft. Collins, CO, and a former fire management officer for the germination were not reported. merchantable and 138 cull stems USDI Bureau of Land Management, Craig per acre (respectively, 539 and District Office. 341 per hectare). Harvest opera­ tions removed a gross volume * The article is reprinted from Fire Management Notes 43(1) [Winter 1981–82]: 17–22.

Fire Management Today 72 of nearly 11,000 board feet per Fuel moisture contents (10-hour Preburn Fuel acre (64 m3/ha) and were com­ timelag) were measured by weigh­ Description pleted during the summer of ing a standard array of 0.5-inch As is characteristic in lodgepole 1979. Following timber removal, (1.3-cm) ponderosa pine fuel sticks pine forests following timber har­ all remaining standing stems (Deeming, et al. 1977). vesting, logging residues accounted were felled into the burn units. for the majority of downed woody Prescribed burning was carried Prescribed burning was carried out fuels (fig. 1). In all units burned, out on numerous clearcut blocks during late September and early fuel particles in the greater than 3­ ranging in size from 3 to 10 acres October. On all units, ignition was inch (7.6-cm) sound size class com­ (1.2–4 ha) with results presented started at 1 p.m. each day with drip prised the majority of slash fuels from three representative units. torches used as ignition devices. (fig. 2). Fuels in the greater than Firing techniques used inclued: strip 3-inch (7.6-cm) rotten size class Downed woody fuel accumula­ head, backing, and ring center fires. were noticeably absent in all burn tions were measured by the planar units (fig. 2). intersect method (Brown 1974). Permanent fuel inventory transects were established along lines run­ ning upslope through each burn unit. Duff measurements taken along these transects refer to the sum of the fermentation layer (F), material starting to discolor and break down because of weather and microbial action, and the humified layer (H), where decom­ position has advanced.

Weather conditions were measured on the site prior to and during burning with the components of a standard belt weather kit. Variables measured include: dry bulb temperature, relative humid­ ity, wind speed, and wind direction. Figure l—Preburn fuel conditions.

Figure 2—Concentration of fuels in burned units.

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 73 Preburn measurements showed Broadcast burning destroys the potential seed source that Unit A contained the great­ near the ground but can generate sufficient heat to open est fuel concentration, totaling serotinous cones of standing trees. 65.64 tons per acre (147.15 t/ha) of downed woody materials. The sparsest concentration of fuels, vertical convection occurred where of the lack of firebrand spotting, 17.60 tons per acre (39.46 t/ha) head fires from one strip and back­ this method was extremely success­ was found in Unit B before burning. fires from a previous strip burned ful on flat areas completely sur­ Unit C contained 40.68 tons per together (fig. 3). rounded by live trees. However, the acre (91.20 t/ha) of woody fuels. extreme heat generated resulted in The ring center firing technique crown scorch and mortality of trees Weather Conditions created a situation where indrafts around the perimeter. Weather measurements indicated drew heat away from surrounding that conditions during burning tree crowns and fuels. Firebrands No problems occurred with mop-up of Unit A involved the highest generated by this high intensity fire of any units. Spot fires caused by relative humidity and lowest wind were drawn upward with the smoke burning embers transported across speed and fuel moisture encoun­ column and traveled considerable the firelines occurred most often tered during all burning (table 1). distances before coming into con­ when temperatures were above 70 Conditions changed slightly dur­ tact with unburned fuels. °F (21 °C) and relative humidities ing the burning of Unit B with below 25 percent. Burning during decreases in temperature and Maximum distances traveled by these conditions required more hold­ relative humidity while wind speed these firebrands were not estimated ing forces. Maintaining control of the increased. Fuel moisture in this and no spot fires occurred during burn became quite labor intensive. unit was the highest measured dur­ use of this firing method. Because ing all burning. Weather conditions experienced while burning Unit C included the warmest temperature, lowest humidity, and highest con­ sistent wind speeds (table 1). Fire Description No precipitation fell on the areas for nearly 3 weeks before burn­ ing. In units where strip head fires were used, uphill control lines were burned out initially, then strips of 15 to 100 feet (4.6–30 m) in width were ignited downslope. Strip head fire intensities varied with the strip width. Lowest inten­ sity was observed where the fires backed downhill. Maximum inten­ Figure 3—Strip head fire on a clearcut lodgepole pine area managed by the USDI Bureau sity, highest flames, and greatest of land Management.

Table l—Weather measurements. Temperature Relative Windspeed Wind Fuel moisture Unit °F °C humidity mph km/h direction (10-hr. timelag) A 55 13 40% 2 3.2 SE 9.5% B 54–56 12–13 31–37% 0–6 0–9.6 NW 12.5% C 70 21 25% 3–5 4.8–8 SE 11.5%

Fire Management Today 74 Fuel Reduction Fuel consumption by prescribed burning varied with the firing techniques used, weather condi­ tions, preburn fuel loading, and duff depth (fig. 4). In Units A and C greatest reductions were observed in all size classes less than 3 inches (7.6 cm) (fig. 2). Unit B, which had the lowest amount of fuel greater than 3 inches (7.6 cm) (chiefly sound), had the highest percent reduction of any unit in this size class.

Total fuel reduction in Unit A was 57 percent and left postburn levels Figure 4—Postburn conditions of lodgepole pine clearcuts. of downed woody fuel at 28.5 tons per acre (63.9 t/ha) (fig. 2). Unit B Table 2—Preburn duff loading/depth and duff removal by post burn fuels totaled 8.81 tons prescribed burning. per acre (19.75 t/ha), a reduction of 83 percent. Burning in Unit C Weight* Depth Depth of burn resulted in a reduction of 75 per­ Unit tons/acre t/ha in cm Reduction in cm cent, leaving the postburn level A 15.52 34.79 1.07 2.72 44% 0.47 1.19 at 9.36 tons per acre (20.98 t/ha). Reductions of 100 percent were B 59.16 132.62 4.08 10.36 90% 3.68 9.35 observed in all size classes less than C 7.25 16.25 0.50 1.27 88% 0.44 1.12 3 in (7.6 cm) in this unit. * Computed by the formula: mean depth x 14.5 = tons per acre (on file at Northern Forest Fire Lab, Missoula, MT). Depth of burn varied from 0.44 to 3.68 inches (1.12–9.35 cm) (table When adequate surface fuels are produce sufficient intensities to 2). Following burning, duff depths present to support fire spread, strip overcome winds and where there is were 0.6, 0.4, and 0.06 inches (1.5, head fires and backfires can be no concern for live trees inside the 1.0, and 0.15 cm) for Units A, B, used. Strip head is the most versa­ burn unit. and C, respectively. Duff reduction tile method of prescribed burning exceeded 40 percent in all three and allows the firing boss to control Prescribed broadcast burning of clearcuts and was greatest in Unit the level of fire intensity (Martin clearcut logging slash in Colorado B, which also had the greatest and Dell 1978). Backfires are the lodgepole pine forests will produce depth prior to burning. gentlest and slowest moving fires satisfactory results when carried (Martin and Dell 1978). Successful out under the following conditions: Summary backfires require lower fuel mois­ Prescribed broadcast burning of ture content and better fuel conti­ • Temperature (dry bulb): 54 °F to clearcut logging slash successfully nuity than head or strip head fires. 70 °F (12–21 °C) and safely reduces slash buildups • Relative humidity: 25 to 40 per­ and forest floor duff layers and pre­ Ring center fires can be used where cent pares sites for natural and artificial heavy fuel buildups are present on • Windspeed: 0 to 6 miles per hour regeneration in Colorado lodgepole relatively flat slopes. This firing (0–9.6 km/h) pine communities. Because lodge­ technique develops high intensity • 10-hour timelag fuel moisture: pole pine regeneration is prolific fol­ fires, rapid burnout, and vertically 9.5 to 12.5 percent lowing wildfires, prescribed burning dispersed smoke. Martin and Dell is a method of site preparation that (1978) state that this technique can can approximate natural conditions. be used where available fuels can

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 75 Weather conditions pose one of the principal limitations Alexander, R.R. 1966. Establishment of lodgepole pine reproduction after differ- when attempting to use fire as a tool in forest management. ent slash disposal treatments. Res. Note RM–62. Ft. Collins, CO: USDA Forest Service; Rocky Mountain Forest and Although desired results were Leaving residual trees rather than Range Experiment Station. felling them may provide a natural Brown, J.K. 1974. Handbook for inventory­ achieved with this prescription, ing downed woody materials. Gen. Tech. adequate advance preparation and seed source. Broadcast burning Rep. INT–16. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest control planning can permit com­ destroys the potential seed source Service, Intermountain Forest and Range pletion of prescribed burning on near the ground but can generate Experiment Station. Brown, J.K. 1973. Fire cycles and commu­ specific sites under different weath­ sufficient heat to open serotinous nity dynamics in lodgepole pine forests. er conditions. For example, while cones of standing trees. In: Baumgartner, D.M., ed. Management the prescription lists wind speed as lodgepole pine ecosystems symposium, October, 1973; Pullman, WA: Washington 0 to 6 miles per hour (0–9.6 km/h), However, because the seed trees are State University. 429–455. subsequent fires were safely carried not sufficiently wind firm or fire Deeming, J.E.; Burgan, R. E.; Cohen, out with wind speeds as high as 18 resistant and require heat above the J.D. 1977. The national fire-danger rat­ safe hazard level to open the cones, ing system—1978. Gen. Tech. Rep. miles per hour (29 km/h). INT–39. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Endean and Johnstone (1974) have Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Weather conditions pose one of suggested that lodgepole pine seed Experiment Station. the principal limitations encoun­ trees show no promise as a seed Endean, F.; Johnstone, W. D. 1974. Prescribed fire to regenerate subalpine tered when attempting to use fire source in combination with pre­ lodgepole pine. Inform. Rep. NOR–X–114. as a tool in forest management. In scribed burning. But, where long­ Edmonton, AB: Canadian Forestry northern Colorado during the peak term survival of residual trees is Service, Northern Forest Research Centre. burning period, low humidities and not a prerequisite to burning, the Lotan, J.E.; Perry. D.A. 1976. Effects of resi­ variable, gusty winds are prevalent. use of broadcast fire may stimulate due utilization on regeneration of lodge­ Frequent high temperatures must the opening of serotinous cones. pole pine clearcuts. In: Proc. Symp. on Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecological Studies also be considered because they of the Northwest. Cheney, WA: Eastern can be responsible for increases in While the results and suggestions Washington State College: 125–133. fire intensity and the likelihood of presented in this report are prelim­ Martin, R.E.; Dell, J.D. 1978. Planning erratic fire behavior due to the pre­ inary, it appears that prescribed fire for prescribed burning in the Inland Northwest. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW–76. heating of fuels, decrease in humid­ can be used for reduction of slash Portland, OR: USDA Forest Service, ity, and increase in unstable air fuels and site preparation in clear­ Pacific Northwest Forest and Range from ground heating (USDA Forest cut lodgepole pine forests. Perhaps Experiment Station. Pfister, R.C.; Daubenmire, R. 1975. Ecology Service 1973). These conditions these preliminary guidelines will be of lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta Dougl.). drastically limit the number of suit­ a starting point in the development In: Baumgartnet, D.M., ed. Management able burning days. of sound programs of fire use to of lodgepole pine ecosystems symposium; achieve desired forest management October 1973; Pullman, WA: Washington State University: 27–46. Questions also arise concerning the objectives. Quintilio, D. 1970. Preliminary guidelines effects of fire on growing conditions for prescribed burning in lodgepole pine for artificial regeneration, par­ slash. Int. Rep. A–30. Edmonton, AB: References Canadian Forestry Service, Northern ticularly surface soil temperature Adams, D.L. 1972. Natural regeneration Forest Research Centre. changes. Endean and Johnstone following four treatments of slash on Quintilio, D. 1972. Fire spread and impact clearcut areas of lodgepole pine—A case (1974) have attributed better sur­ in lodgepole pine slash. Masters thesis. history. Station Note No. 19. Moscow, Missoula, MT: University of Montana. vival and growth of planted stock to ID: University of Idaho, Forest, Wildlife, USDA Forest Service. 1973. Prescribed slash removal and seedling place­ Range Experiment Station. burning guide. Missoula, MT: USDA ment. Fuel and duff consumption Alexander, M.E. Fuels description in lodge­ Forest Service, Northern Region. pole pine stands of the Colorado Front Wellner, C.A. 1975. The importance of by fire can also facilitate easier, Range. Masters thesis. Fort Collins, CO: lodgepole pine in the United States. In: more efficient planting and lower Colorado State University. Baumgartner, D.M., ed. Management of susceptibility to mortality from lodgepole pine ecosystems symposium; droughty summers. October 1973; Pullman, WA: Washington State University: 1–9. ■

Fire Management Today 76 underburning to reduce Fire hazard and control iPs beetles in green thinning slash* Dick Smith, Robert Mrowka, and John Maupin

lash from precommercial thin­ not thinned since they would be Burn Objectives ning in ponderosa pine creates killed by the underburn. Slash was The objectives of the burn were to: S a fire hazard and potential lopped to less than 2 feet (0.6 m) to reservoir for insect infestation. keep average flame length around 3 • Remove up to 90 percent of fine Historically, thinning slash has feet (0.9 m). fuels (primarily needles), been treated by mechanical means • Remove no more than 40 percent or by handpiling and burning. of duff cover, Mechanical treatment often causes The burn produced • Maintain 100 to 225 trees per adverse impacts such as soil com­ temperatures high enough acre (250–550 trees/ha), paction and damage to the residual to significantly reduce Ips • Limit scorch to 50 percent of stand. Handpiling, the alternate emergence from slash in green crown on leave trees, and method, is very expensive. July and August. • Destroy most of the second hatch of Ips pine engraver beetles in the In an attempt to find an economi­ slash prior to midsummer emer­ cal and environmentally acceptable gence (Mitchell and Martin 1980). method of hazard reduction, the A post-thinning exam of permanent Snow Mountain Ranger District of plots revealed 284 trees per acre the Ochoco National Forest began (702 trees/ha), ranging from seed­ The Prescription underburning green thinning slash. lings to trees 40 inches (102 cm) in Table 1 is a prescription developed diameter. Average d.b.h. measure­ in hopes of producing a maximum Site Description ments were 8.4 inches (21 cm). flame length of 4.5 feet (1.4 m), with a desired average of 3 feet The first burn area consisted of a Fuel loading ranged from 8 to 12 (0.9 m). 14-acre (6-ha) ponderosa pine site tons per acre (18–27 t/ha), with the at an elevation of 5,000 feet (1,500 majority of fuel in the 0.3-inch (0.8 Since the critical item of the pre­ m). Slope was less than 10 percent cm) class. Ips entrance holes were scription was green fuel moisture, on a western exposure. The stand very numerous in slash on the site. the rate of needle cure was moni­ contained 960 trees per acre (2,370 No formal survey was conducted, tored closely. Had green needles trees/ha) before thinning. In January but brood levels appeared to be cured completely, it would have 1981, the stand was thinned to a moderate. been difficult to obtain the desired spacing of 18 feet by 18 feet (5.5 x 3-foot (0.9-m) flame length. 5.5 m). Trees over 7 inches (18 cm) in diameter at breast height (d.b.h.) were not thinned unless they were deemed undesirable. Seedlings were Table 1—A prescription to produce a maximum flame length of 4.5 feet (1.4 m) and an average of 3 feet (0.9 m). When this article was originally published Factor Maximum Minimum in 1983, Dick Smith was a fuels manage­ ment technician, Robert Mrowka was a Fine fuel moisture 12% 8% silviculturist, and John Maupin was a fire management officer for the USDA Forest Relative humidity 45% 30% Service, Snow Mountain Ranger District, Windspeed 10 mph (16 km/h) 4 mph (6 km/h) Ochoco National Forest, Prineville, OR. Temperature 75 °F (24 °C) 40 °F (4 °C) * The article is reprinted from Fire Management Notes 44(2) [1983]: 5–6. Green fuel moisture 50% 40%

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 77 Ignition was planned for the cure Timber and fire management personnel are enthusiastic phase when needles were still green about the operation and have planned several additional and contained enough moisture to burns. have a dampening effect on the fire, yet dry enough to be consumed. An examination of the postburn Costs for the burn were approxi­ Firing stand revealed that 196 trees per mately $40 per acre. Since it was Firing started at 5:30 p.m. on June 4 acre (484 trees/ha) remained. These necessary to conduct the burn after and was completed in 3 hours. Strip trees ranged from 1 to 40 inches normal working hours to meet the head fires with a firing width of 10 (3–102 cm) in d.b.h., with an aver­ prescription, much of this cost was to 15 feet (3-5 m) were used. This age size of 10 inches (25 cm) in due to overtime salaries. strip width produced the desired d.b.h. Two-thirds of all trees less flame length of 3 feet (0.9 m). than 4 inches (10 cm) in d.b.h. Summary Conditions at ignition time were: were removed; larger, more desir­ The overall objectives of the burn able trees were retained. were met. Timber and fire man­ • Relative humidity: 38 percent, agement personnel on the ranger • Windspeed: 5 to 8 miles per hour The burn produced temperatures district are enthusiastic about the (8–13 km/h), high enough to significantly reduce operation and have planned sev­ • Green fuel moisture: 50 percent, Ips emergence from slash in July eral additional burns. It is felt that and and August. No Ips infestation leave-trees should be a minimum • Temperature: 70 °F (21 °C). of living trees had occurred as of of 3 to 4 inches (8–10 cm) in d.b.h. December 1981. Low numbers of and 20 feet (6 m) tall before this Results Ips emergence holes were noted in treatment should be attempted. Approximately 75 percent of fine mortality trees with high scorch fuels were removed. A decrease in levels. Ips may have contributed to Reference windspeed midway through the the demise of these trees. Mitchell, R.G.; Martin, R.E. 1980. Fire burn probably reduced fine fuel and insects in pine cultures of the consumption. Approximately 3 percent of residual Pacific Northwest. In: Proceedings of trees were infected by turpentine the Sixth Conference on Fire and Forest Meteorology; April 22–24; Seattle, WA. Less than 40 percent of the duff beetles. No mortality has occurred Washington, DC: Society of American cover was removed, and average in these trees. No attacks by west­ Foresters: 182–190. ■ crown scorch on trees left standing ern pine beetles or mountain pine was 12 percent. beetles have been observed.

Additional References on Prescribed Burning in Ponderosa Pine Ecosystems Editor. 1986. Underburning may reduce Weise, D.R.; Sackett, S.S.; Paysen, T.E.; productivity in ponderosa pine forests. Haase, S.M.; Narog, N.G. 1996. Rx fire Fire Management Notes 47(1): 22. research for Southwestern forests. Fire Fischer, W.C. 1980. Prescribed fire and Management Notes. 56(2): 23–25. bark beetle attack in ponderosa pine Zule, P.Z.; Verkamp, G.; Waltz, A.E.M.; forests. Fire Management Notes. 41(2): Covington, W.W. 2002. Burning under 10–12. old-growth ponderosa pines on lava Orozco, P.; Carrillo, R. 1992–93. soils. Fire Management Today. 62(3): Prescribed burning of ponderosa pine 47–49. red slash on the Gila National Forest. Fire Management Notes. 53–54(1): 3–8.

Fire Management Today 78 a matrix aPProach to Fire PrescriPtion writing* Steven Raybould and Tom Roberts

riting fire prescriptions is a formal procedure by which Our solution was to devise a system that would more closely W most prescribed fire manag­ reflect the subtle ways different prescription elements ers set fire behavior determinants interact. within certain limits. The limits are usually a combination of fire behavior modeling (Albini 1976) The Problem proceed safely. For legal reasons, and the fire manager’s personal however, this was not possible. experience. They include both A fire prescription is usually a sim­ ple list of estimated or premeasured “fixed” and “variable” elements Approved burn plans represent for­ values for the fixed elements and (Green 1981), often expressed as mal authorization to take certain a list of acceptable ranges for the ranges: acceptable risks on behalf of the variable elements on the day of the USDA Forest Service. The project burn, as tabulated above. A. Fixed Indicators or prescribed fire manager is usu­ • Dead fuel: 50+ percent ally not free to make changes in the During the development of a pre­ • Live fuel moisture: 80+ percent prescription without going through scribed fire program on the San • Average slope: 35 percent the time-consuming process of Bernardino National Forest in • Aspect: Northwest reapproval. • Continuity of fuel: 80 to 90 per­ California, we found this approach to be unnecessarily restrictive. The cent The Prescription Matrix • Season: February 15 to June 30 separate elements in a prescrip­ tion are not closely interrelated. Our solution to the problem was B. Variable Indicators Windspeed, for example, has little to devise a system that would more • Fuel stick moisture (10 hours): 9 to do with relative humidity; 10­ closely reflect the subtle ways in to 12 percent hour fuel sticks can read quite low which different prescription ele­ • Relative humidity: 20 to 35 per­ on a dry day, but green fuel mois­ ments interact. At the core of this cent ture might be high. approach is the severity level, • Windspeed: 0 to 10 miles per expressed as a numerical range of hour (0–16 km/h) Thus, while general and long-term “severity points.” The concept of a • Air temperature: 60 °F to 80 °F trends will push all indicators in severity level or range is far more (16–27 °C) the same direction (toward “hot­ useful than ranges of prescription • Time of day: 8:30 a.m. to 4 p.m. ter” or “cooler” conditions) during elements, since humidity levels or any given burning period, indica­ fuel-stick readings are not impor­ Prescriptions thus derived are tors can act in ways that offset tant by themselves, but rather as intended to produce fires intense each other. determinants of how vigorously a enough to achieve the objectives of fire will burn. the fire and manageable enough to We commonly encountered situa­ control with a cost-effective effort. tions where one element was out The severity levels are defined in of prescription on the “hot” side conventional fire behavior terms When this article was originally pub­ lished in 1983, Steven Raybould was a fire and one was out on the “cool” side. in table 1. The point score, which prevention officer and Tom Roberts was Rather than seeing these as two determines if conditions are “in a wildlife biologist for the USDA Forest reasons not to do the burn, experi­ prescription,” is determined by Service, San Bernardino National Forest, adding together individual scores San Jacinto Ranger District, Idyllwild, CA. ence and theory told us that the two elements would compensate for read from a matrix (table 2). In the * The article is reprinted from Fire Management Notes each other and that the burn could matrix, each prescription element, 44(4) [1983]: 7-10.

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 79 Table l—Description of fire severity levels and corresponding fire behavior. Severity Level Fire behavior description 13 points Up to 20 percent of the area will be burned. Most prescribed burns in 1-hour fuels occur in this range. There is very little ignition. Some spotting may occur, but is associated with winds above 9 miles per hour (14 km/h). Flame lengths will usually be a minimum of 2–3 26 points feet (0.6–0.9 m); 0–55 Btu/sec/ft (0–190 kW/m).

Charred leaf litter is produced when poorly aerated litter is not totally incinerated. Some grayish ash is present. Maximum temperature during this “black ash” condition is 350 °F (177 °C); soil surface temperature is 25 °F (4 °C) to 3 inches (7.6 cm) down. A light burn has less than 2 percent of area severely burned. The remaining area is lightly burned or Light burn not burned at all. Less than 40 percent of the brush canopy is consumed.

29 points Twenty to 40 percent of the area may be burned. This generally represents the limit of control for handcrews at the flaming front. Glowing brands could cause spotting below 50 39 points percent humidity. Handlines should be able to hold the fire. Flame lengths will usually be a minimum of 3 to 4 feet (0.9–1.2 m); 56–110 Btu/sec/ft (194–380 kW/m). 41 points Forty to 50 percent of the area may be burned. The flaming front will be too intense for handcrews to work directly. Machines, engines, tractors, or indirect methods can be used successfully. Fuel burns easily. Flame lengths will usually be a minimum of 4 to 6 feet 52 points (1.2–1.8 m); 111–280 Btu/sec/ft (384–969 kW/m).

The leaf litter and fine woody material is consumed, leaving a “bare-soil” condition. Maximum temperatures produced are 750 °F (399 °C); soil surface temperature is 550 °F 65 points (288 °C) to 3 inches (7.6 cm) down. A moderately burned area has less than 10 percent of the area severely burned and over 15 percent moderately burned. Between 40 and 80 per­ cent of the area is consumed with the remaining charred twigs larger than 1/4 to 1/2 inch (0.6–1.3 cm) in diameter. Moderate burn 70 points Fifty to 60 percent of the area could be burned. Fuel has high ignitability, with occasional crowning and spotting caused by gusty winds; otherwise, moderate burning conditions. A 78 standard handline might not hold the fire if there is considerable litter, rat nests, or grass across the line. Flame lengths should be the same height or greater than the fuel for a successful burn at this severity level. Flame lengths could be a minimum of 7 to 9 feet (2.1–2.7 m); 231–520 Btu/sec/ft (799–1,799 kW/m). 80 Sixty to 70 percent of the area will be burned. The fuel has quick ignition with rapid build­ up. The heat load for anyone within 30 feet (9 m) is dangerous. However, the flaming front should only last a few minutes near the line. Flame lengths will usually be a minimum of 10 to 13 feet (3–4 m); 521–670 Btu/sec/ft (1,802–2,318 kW/m). 91 Severe burns are typically characterized by a “white ash” condition. Maximum tempera­ tures exceed 950 °F (510 °C); soil surface temperature exceeds 750 °F (399 °C) to 3 inches (7.6 cm) down. A severely burned area has more than 10 percent severely burned with 98 more than 80 percent moderately or severely burned. Eighty percent of the brush canopy

Severe burn is completely consumed, leaving plant stems greater than 1/2 inch (1.3 cm) in diameter.

104 Up to 80 percent of the area will be burned. Extended spotting and firewhirls could occur 110 with fire behavior being on the extreme side. Any spot fires will spread rapidly. Suppres­ 117 sion efforts at the head of the fire, without existing control lines, will be ineffective. Flame lengths will generally exceed 14 feet (4.3 m); 671–1,050 Btu/sec/ft (2,321–3,632 kW/m).

Fire Management Today 80 Table 2—A fire prescription matrix. To find severity level, follow indicator column down to appropriate figure and then left to severity points. Total points for level of severity—use one half points as needed.

Indicators Fixed Variable points Severity Aspect Season ° F (°C) feet (m) Slope: % % of cover Time of Time day mi/h (km/h) Temperature: Model (SCAL) 10 hour stick: % Continuity of fuel: Dead fuel moisture Average Average fuel depth: Dead fuel: % of total Relative humidity: % Live fuel moisture: % Wind speed—mid-flame 1 1 (0.3) 20 15 90 0 N Spring 15 60 0 (0) 20 7 p.m. 2 (0.6) April 15-30, G (6.6) 2 30 20 80 10 May 12 45 2 (3) 45 (7.2)

15 Late spring Early summer 9 a.m. 3 3 (.9) 40 30 76 25 NE June, July 10 35 4 (6) 59 6 p.m. (15)

4 4 (1.2) 41 31 75 30 E Winter 9 34 5 (8) 60 Jan., Feb. (15.5) 10 a.m. 5 5 (1.5) 55 40 65 35 SE/ B 7 29 6 (10) 70 5 p.m. NW (21.1)

40 Early spring March, 4 p.m. 6 70 45 60 50 W April 1-14 6 25 8 (13) 80 (26.7)

7 6 (1.8) 71 46 59 55 SW Early winter 5 24 9 (14) 81 3 p.m. Dec. (27.2) 11 a.m. 8 80 55 50 60 Summer C 4 19 10 (16) 89 2 p.m. Aug., Sept. (31.7)

7 (2.1) 65 Fall 11 (18) 1 p.m. 8 (2.4) Oct., Nov. 9 (2.7) 90 65 45 70 S 3 15 15 (24) 95 12 p.m. 9 10 (3) (35)

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 81 fixed or variable, can be assigned a matrix that will prove or disprove available and experience of both value. In this way, a windspeed of the validity of this approach. Fire researchers and fire managers. 15 miles per hour (24 km/h)—point behavior determinants produce We anticipate many changes as score 9—can be used to compen­ effects that are notoriously nonlin­ the matrix approach is refined. sate for a high relative humidity of ear. For example, according to the Currently, we are doing chaparral 50 percent—point score 1. Fireline Handbook (USDA Forest burning with matrix prescriptions Service 1980), rate of spread dou­ in the 41 to 78 range. Generally, Either of these values would be “out bles when dead fuel moisture drops prescribed fires have behaved of prescription” according to the old from 15 to 10 percent, but it triples in the manner predicted by the system of fixed and variable indica­ between 10 and 5 percent. severity level score. However, the tors. But windspeed compensates matrix underpredicts somewhat for high humidity (we have burned for windspeed and when chamise under these conditions). And, the This matrix is an attempt to (Adenostoma fasciculatum) pre­ score given by these values (10) is increase the prescribed fire dominates on a site. the same as that given by the “in manager’s flexibility without prescription” values of windspeed of Summary sacrificing safety. 6 miles per hour (10 km/h)—point This matrix has been adopted score 5—and relative humidity 29 by the San Bernardino National percent—point score 5. Forest. It is an attempt to increase Fuel depths appear to have an essen­ the flexibility of prescribed fire tially arithmetic relation to inten­ The implication here is not that the managers without sacrificing safety. fire will behave identically no mat­ sities up to a certain point, after which effect is much less (Cohen ter how the score of 10 is derived, Modifications of the point scoring pers. comm.). It is worth noting also but that control will be possible system will occur as more informa­ that even the most sophisticated fire with the same forces and that tion becomes available. approximately the same percentage behavior models do not always agree of the area will burn. with observed fire behavior (USDA Forest Service 1980). References Albini, F.A. 1976. Estimating wildfire Limitations behavior and effects. Gen. Tech. Rep. The point values given in table 2 The matrix uses eight fixed and INT–30. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest represent a working compromise Service, Intermountain Forest and Range five variable indicators. The point between fire behavior models Experiment Station. score assigned to an indicator Cohen, J. Personal communication. is, of course, the aspect of the Research Forester. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. Green, L.R. 1981. Burning by prescription in chaparral. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW–51. References on Prescribed Fire Decision Berkeley, CA: USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Support Systems Experiment Station. USDA Forest Service. 1980. Guidelines for Alexander, M.E.; Maffey, M.E. 1992–93. Fischer, W.C.; Bevins, C.D.; Johnson, C.M. estimating fire control requirements. Predicting fire behavior in Canada’s 1982. Why programs RxWTHR and In: Fireline handbook. FSH 5109.32. aspen forests. Fire Management Notes. RxBURN won’t run: A checklist of com­ Washington, DC: Chapter 23. ■ 53–54(1): 10–13. mon errors. Fire Management Notes. Andrews, P.L.; Bradshaw, L.S. 1990. 43(4): 18–19. RXWINDOW: Fire behavior program Reinhardt, E.D.; Keane, R.E.; Brown, J.K. for prescribed fire planning. Fire 1998. FOFEM: A first order fire effects Management Notes. 51(3): 25–29. model. Fire Management Notes. 58(2): 25–27.

Fire Management Today 82 underburning on white Fir sites to induce natural regeneration and sanitation* Gary J. Petersen and Francis R. Mohr

he Blue Mountains of east­ (Echinodontium tinctorium)—and inches (38 cm) diameter at breast ern Oregon and southern high levels of suppressed growing height (dbh). The trees were evenly T Washington contain a wide stock. Advanced regeneration in spaced, full crowned, and free from range of vegetation types—from some cases was so suppressed that defect. Often the understory trees non-forested meadows and grass­ 12 to 15 years later growth release numbered 3,000 to 4,000 stems per land plateaus to heavily forested had not yet released. Problems due acre (7,400–9,900 stems/ha). steep mountain slopes. to soil compaction and fuel buildup were also identified. Preburn Preparation Approximately 24 percent of the Before burning, all understory trees 278,000 acres (112,500 ha) on the Prescribed underburning in shel­ less than 7 inches (18 cm) dbh La Grande Ranger District of the terwoods was eventually chosen to (many of which were disease dam­ Wallowa–Whitman National Forest, manage white fir stands. Twenty- aged or suppressed) were felled. La Grande, OR., is conifer stands of four units totaling 903 acres (365 This preburn activity contributed white fir (Abies concolor), grand fir ha) were underburned during the to the success of the underburn (Abies grandis), or white fir–grand because it eliminated fuel ladder fir hybrids (Abies grandis x concol­ continuity and created a more uni­ or), generally referred to as “white This high-risk management form, horizontal fuel bed close to fir sites” or “white fir stands.” practice and the resulting the ground. The resulting homoge­ postharvest site conditions neous fuel bed permitted more con­ Past timber harvest activity on caused increasing concern trol of the fire behavior—a more these sites frequently involved a evenly sustained fire versus erratic silvicultural system of selectively on the district. fire output. This fuel bed, in turn, cutting trees that had a high risk widened the “burning window” of mortality before the next sched­ (number of burning days available) spring, summer, and fall months in uled harvest. in which it was possible to conduct 1980–83. The units, on slopes from the burn. This high-risk management prac­ 0 to 45 percent, varied in size from 13 to 185 acres (5–75 ha) and con­ tice and the resulting postharvest Burn Objectives site conditions caused increas­ tained fuel loading estimates of up ing concern on the district. to 23 tons per acre (51 t/ha) in the The objectives for this burning pro­ Following harvest, stands con­ 0 to 3 inches (0–7.6 cm) in diameter gram were to expose mineral soil tained many trees heavily damaged size class. Total fuel loading ran as on at least 30 percent of the unit with basal wounds, root or heart high as 45 tons per acre (101 t/ha). and to consume at least: rot—laminated root rot (Phellinus weirii) or Indian paint fungus Site Description • 70 percent of the fuels 0 to 1/4 inch (0–0.6 cm) in diameter, A typical white fir underburn unit When this article was originally published • 60 percent of the fuels 1/4 to l contained 14 large overstory shel­ in 1984, Gary Petersen was a silviculturist inch (0.6–2.5 cm) in diameter, terwood trees per acre, primarily for the USDA Forest Service, La Grande • 50 percent of the fuels 1 to 3 Ranger District; and Francis Mohr was a Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga men­ inches (2.5–7.6 cm) in diam­ fuels management specialist for the USDA ziesii), western larch (Larix occi­ Forest Service, Wallowa–Whitman National eter, and dentalis), and white fir at least 15 Forest, Baker, OR. • 10 percent of the fuels 3 inch and

* The article is reprinted from Fire Management Notes greater (≥ 7.6 cm) in diameter. 45(2) [1984]: 17–20.

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 83 The constraints for this burn Critical duff and fine fuel moisture is a significant contribution as shade were to: content for the project area were for the seedlings and meeting other often not met until mid-August. resource objectives for the site. • Retain 50 percent of existing duff However, daytime temperature, layer, and relative humidity, and wind Mortality to the shelterwood leave • Kill no more than 50 percent conditions were at limits that trees was within the 5 percent of the trees over 20 inches exceeded heat intensities of 4- to constraint without rearranging (51 cm) dbh. 5-foot (1.2–1.5-m) flame lengths. fuels near these trees prior to Therefore, units were frequently burning. The moderately thick Burning Prescription burned during the night. bark of mature white fir and high and Implementation branching habitat that develops The burning prescription estab­ Results when grown in a fully-stocked lished that a flame length not Preburn and postburn fuel data for stand lessens the trees’ susceptibil­ exceeding 5 feet (1.5 m) during 80 a recently burned unit (Minefield ity to fire damage. percent of the time of the burn was #28) are shown in table 1. desirable. Because a wide range of Natural regeneration has been temperatures and relative humidi­ Underburning can be successful achieved on these prescribed ties could exist, careful monitor­ under white fir. By comparing the burn units with a high degree of ing of the ignition pattern and objectives with the results, the pre­ success. After one growing sea­ sequence would be necessary to scribed burn met or came close to son, portions of units contain as manage the heat intensity. There meeting all the objectives set forth many as 80,000 seedlings per acre were times when additional igni­ in the burn plan. (200,000 seedlings/ha). Height tions had to cease while heat from growth of western larch has been larger fuel material and concentra­ Postburn examination of the unit as much as 5 inches (13 cm) in the tions dissipated. (table 1) revealed 27 percent con­ first growing season (fig. 1). sumption of total fuel loading. Duff moisture and fine fuel mois­ However, the consumption of small­ Underburning may be the most ture content were the critical envi­ er sized fuels is most important in practical way to achieve consis­ ronmental prescription elements reducing fire hazard and providing tent success with natural regen­ for this prescribed burn. The pre­ adequate seedling establishment eration of western larch and at scription called for a duff moisture sites for natural regeneration. The considerable savings. The species content range of 60 to 75 percent postburn fuel bed arrangement of composition varies depending and a fine fuel moisture content of partially consumed larger size fuels on the overstory, but it includes less than 10 percent. Duff in contact with larger size fuels or concentra­ Table 1—Ground fuel characteristics before and after burn. tions would be consumed, exposing the mineral soil necessary for seed­ Preburn Postburn Consumed/ ling establishment. Fuel item reduced tons/acre (t/ha) % Duff on areas with lighter fuel Loading loadings would not be totally con­ –Total fuel loading 23.3 (52.2) 17.1 (38.3) 27 sumed and thus would meet the –By size class: desired soil covering constraint. 0–1/4 inch (0–0.6 cm) 0.6 (1.3) 0.2 (0.4) 67 The low fine fuel moisture content 1/4–1 inch (0.6–2.5 cm) 2.3 (5.2) 0.9 (2.0) 61 was necessary to achieve fuel con­ 1–3 inch (2.5–7.6 cm) 2.9 (6.5) 1.8 (4.0) 38 sumption objectives and ensure ≥ 3 inch (≥ 7.6 cm), sound 17.5 (39.2) 14.2 (31.8) 19 sustained fire spread in the lighter ≥ 3 inch (≥ 7.6 cm), rotten 0 0 0 fuel volume areas. In essence, the in (cm) prescribed burn was intended to achieve the goal of matching a Fuel depth 12.9 (32.8) 2.9 (7.4) 77 natural surface fire. Duff depth 0.2 (0.5) 0.08 (0.2) 60

Fire Management Today 84 people to do the job, thus lessen­ ing fuel problems for future man­ ing cost. Preburn weeding and agers, while preparing a seed bed cleaning activity was contracted at for natural regeneration. $43 per acre. Currently, artificial regeneration is being contracted The site is sanitized of diseased and at $289 per acre. Therefore, each defective trees and regenerated with naturally regenerated acre resulted desirable seedlings. Natural regen­ in $190-per-acre savings over pre­ eration in place of hand planting vailing contract planting costs. has netted considerable financial savings to the reforestation pro­ Wildlife managers have also been gram. Land managers have ample quick to point out benefits for flexibility to manipulate stand com­ their resource. Most burned areas position to meet future objectives. were soon reoccupied with more succulent vegetation and wider Wildlife benefits were enhanced diversity of browse plants (fig. 2). in terms of food and habitat as a Figure 1—A vigorous, naturally seeded Sufficient snags were still stand­ result of plant production and spe­ seedling in the Ladd Canyon prescribed ing. Larger size fuel coverings still cies diversity. Soil compaction and burn area shows 5 inches (13 cm) of growth after one growing season. existed for small mammal habitat. adverse soil effects were minimized. Finally, underburning eliminates all major species common to a need for machine site prepara­ Treatment cost for weeding, clean­ the area. This varied regenera­ tion or fuel disposal activities, thus ing, and burning each acre aver­ tion composition gives the land lessening soil compaction and site ages $99. Artificial regeneration is manager many options for future disturbance. currently $289 per acre. Each acre management of a stand. burned and naturally regenerated Summary results in a $190 savings in the Based on 903 acres (365 ha) com­ Prescribed underburning met reforestation program. pleted on the La Grande Ranger most of the resource objectives District in the last 3 years, the for managing white fir sites on Outlook average cost to prescribe under- the La Grande Ranger District. The Wallowa-Whitman National burn a white fir stand was $56 per This technique can reduce fuel Forest anticipates the prescribed acre. Night burning required fewer loading and arrangement—lessen- burning of 1,400 to 1,600 acres (570–650 ha) of white fir stands annually during the next 3 years, primarily to favor natural regen­ eration and sanitize the sites. If accomplished, this will result in a projected annual reforestation sav­ ings of $260,000 to $285,000.

Fire and fuel managers on the for­ est are reevaluating how these prescribed burns might be done within the desired constraints and at reduced cost. Such consider­ ations as night burning with fewer igniters, shape and size of harvest­ ing units, staggered work schedules, and use of specialized fire suppres­ sion crews are some alternatives Figure 2—White fir shelterwood underburn one growing season after burning in the Ladd that will be evaluated during the Canyon project area. Note reoccupation of site by herbaceous vegetation. Portions of this unit also contain up to 80,000 seedlings per acre (200,000 seedlings/ha). coming season. ■

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 85 Prescribed burning oF a chained redberry JuniPer community with a helitorch* Guy R. McPherson, Robert A. Masters, and G. Allen Rasmussen

rescribed burning is an effec­ tive means of reducing downed Aerial ignition was selected for safety and time P woody debris in redberry juni­ considerations. Steep, dissected terrain made hand per (Juniperus pinchotii)– mixed ignition unsafe. grass communities. Conventional ground ignition techniques are effective and relatively inexpensive, obtusum), buffalograss (Buchloe age. Juniper trees can be killed if but they are limited to accessible dactyloides), and threeawns less than 15 years old (Steuter and areas. Large areas of rough terrain (Aristida spp.). Britton 1983). Honey mesquite can cannot be burned in a single day be killed if less than 2.5 years old using ground ignition methods. As a result of light grazing pres­ (Wright and others 1976). This paper describes a prescribed sure—40 acres (16 ha) animal unit fire conducted on a large area with per year—most grass plants were Methods a helitorch. not grazed, leaving an abundance of The effectiveness of the burn in rank material that reduced the pal­ removing downed woody debris and The 9,914-acre (4,015-ha) unit atability of forage. Chained woody is dominated by redberry juni­ reducing canopy cover was mea­ debris impaired livestock handling sured along five 98-foot (30-m) per­ per– mixed grass habitat character­ and decreased forage availability istic of the Texas rolling plains. It manent transects randomly located and accessibility. Furthermore, in the unit. In addition, 20 tempo­ is located on the 7L division of the seedlings and basal sprouts of red- Triangle Ranch, 24 miles (40 km) rary sampling planes were estab­ berry juniper and honey mesquite lished. Permanent transects were northeast of Paducah, TX (latitude (Prosopis glandulosa) were present 34°10’ N, longitude 100°00’ W). marked with 3-foot (1-m) lengths on the unit. of concrete reinforcement bar numbered with metal livestock ear The unit was chained 2 years prior Objectives to burning. Red needles were pres­ tags. Downed woody debris along ent on the chained juniper at the The specific burn objectives were to: transects was inventoried using a time of burning. Fine fuel bed was planar-intercept technique (Brown composed primarily of tobosagrass • Remove 80 percent of downed 1974). Canopy cover of all shrubs (Hilaria mutica), little bluestem woody debris, was estimated using line intercept (Schizachyrium scoparium), sideo­ • Reduce juniper canopy cover by (Canfield 1941). ats gramma (Bouteloua curtipen­ 70 percent, dula), vine mesquite (Panicum • Remove decadent material from After burning, inventory of woody 70 percent of grass plants, and debris and canopy cover was • Check encroachment of juniper repeated on permanent transects and mesquite by killing 70 per­ and on an additional 20 temporary When this article was originally published cent of young plants. transects. For each transect, per­ in 1985, Guy McPherson, Robert Masters, cent consumption of woody debris and Allen Rasmussen were research assis­ The last two objectives would be was calculated according to Brown tants at Texas Tech University, College of Agricultural Sciences, Department met if fire carried over 70 percent (1974). Reduction of canopy cover of Range and Wildlife Management, of the unit. Rank growth of herba­ was determined by: Lubbock, TX. ceous plants is removed by burn­

* The article is reprinted from Fire Management Notes ing. Juniper and mesquite trees 46(4) [Fall 1985]: 7–10. are killed if burned at a young

Fire Management Today 86 A strip head fire ignition pattern The fuel mixture was applied at an Percent reduction = starting in the northeast corner and average speed of 40 miles per hour [1 – (postburn cover ÷ preburn moving southwest into the wind (65 km/h) from a height of 150 to cover)] x 100 percent was used to ignite the unit. Strip 200 feet (45–60 m). The mixture spacing was 300 to 450 feet (100– was dropped in a 15-foot-wide (5­ To test the efficiency of permanent 150 m). Consequently, an estimated m-wide) strip, each drop the size of sampling, t-tests were conducted 300 miles (480 km) of strip head a golf ball (fig. 1). on all attributes measured. fires were needed to burn the unit. Hand ignition would have required Personnel and equipment were the Burning Strategy at least 600 work hours, not includ­ same both days. A burn boss, aerial The unit was prepared and burned ing time for holding crews. By con­ ignition boss, 5-person helipad according to Wright and Bailey trast, 70 work hours were required crew, and two 6-person holding (1982). Two firelines were dozed for aerial ignition. crews were used. The unit could 400 feet (120 m) apart on the north not be seen in its entirety from a and east sides of each unit. Eleven Ignition fuel was a mixture of single observation point. Therefore, miles (18 km) of fireline were Alumagel and unleaded gasoline. the aerial ignition boss directed burned out with strip head fires The amount of Alumagel used ignition from the helicopter. The in January and February of 1985 varied according to air tempera­ burn boss, located on the best pos­ under cool conditions (relative ture and relative humidity. Cool sible ground observation point, humidity 40 to 60 percent, temper­ and moist conditions required directed the activities of ground ature 40 °F to 60 °F (4–16 °C), and more Alumagel. personnel and coordinated ground­ windspeed 0 to 10 miles per hour to-air communication. Two radio (0–16 km/h). With an air temperature of 69 °F frequencies were used—one for the (21 °C) and relative humidity of burn boss, helicopter, and helipad Main unit head fires were lit with 34 percent, 12.3 pounds (5.6 kg) boss, and the other for the burn a helitorch on 2 days, February 25 of Alumagel were mixed with 50 boss and holding crews. and March 6, 1985. Weather condi­ gallons (190 L) of gasoline. With tions were measured every 30 min­ an air temperature of 59 °F (15 Results utes with a belt weather kit (USDA °C) and relative humidity of 45 Ignition of the unit was completed Forest Service 1959). percent, 13.2 pounds (6 kg) of in about 10 hours. The first day, Alumagel were required to obtain air temperature ranged from 63 Aerial ignition was selected for the desired consistency. °F to 69 °F (17–21 °C), relative safety and time considerations. humidity ranged from 30 to 40 Steep, dissected terrain made hand ignition unsafe. Sheer drops of 65 to 100 feet (20–30 m) were common. Fine fuel load in drain­ ages was about 9,000 pounds per acre (10,000 kg/ha). The unit was dissected by numerous fuel dis­ continuities in the form of roads, streams, and rocky ridges.

Large units can be burned safely and quickly with a helitorch at far less expense than hand ignition.

Figure 1—Aerial ignition of chained redberry juniper using a helitorch.

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 87 percent, and windspeed was 10 burning on March 6 were cooler that 61 percent of the unit burned. miles per hour (16 km/h). After a than normally prescribed for this Concentration of livestock on ridg­ week of undesirable weather, burn­ fuel type. Early spring green-up, es and low-lying flat areas reduced ing was completed on a cooler day; leading to a rapidly increasing continuous fine fuel below 1,000 temperature 54 °F to 59 °F (12–15 green component in the fuel bed, pounds per acre (1,100 kg/ha) and °C), relative humidity 40 to 50 forced ignition on a relatively cool created fuel breaks. By comparison, percent, and windspeed 8 miles per day. As a result, the specific burn drainages and hillsides were not hour (13 km/h). objectives were not met on the heavily grazed. As a result, only 20 area burned March 6. to 30 percent of the areas of great­ Containment of the fire was not a est livestock concentration were problem. No suppression actions From transects flown after comple­ burned. However, dissected terrain were required. Conditions for tion of ignition, it was determined was characterized by 80 to 90 per­ cent fire coverage. Table 1—Downed woody fuel and canopy cover reduction resulting from a spring prescribed fire in the Texas rolling plains. Transects 1 2 3 Attribute Permanent Temporary Total Standard Standard Standard 4 Mean error Mean error Mean error Preburn woody fuel cubic feet/acre 240.0 71.4 287.2 58.6 277.2 48.6 m3/ha 16.8 5.0 20.1 4.1 19.4 3.4 Postburn woody fuel cubic feet/acre 155.8 82.9 134.3 34.3 138.6 31.4 m3/ha 10.9 5.8 9.4 2.4 9.7 2.2 Woody fuel reduction (%) 35.1 53.2 50.0 Preburn canopy cover (%) Downed woody debris 12.6 4.0 12.8 1.8 12.8 1.6 Redberry juniper 15.1 3.0 13.0 1.3 13.4 1.2 Other shrub species 2.7 1.7 3.1 0.8 3.0 .7 Total 30.4 6.0 28.9 2.6 29.2 2.3

Postburn canopy cover (%) Downed woody debris 7.5 2.1 8.2 1.2 8.1 1.0 Redberry juniper 6.0 2.5 6.2 1.6 6.2 1.3 Other shrub species 2.3 1.5 2.2 .7 2.3 .6 Total 15.8 3.9 16.7 2.2 16.5 1.9 Canopy cover reduction (%) Downed woody debris 40.4 35.9 36.7 Redberry juniper 60.2 52.3 53.7 Other shrub species 14.8 29.0 23.3 Total 48.0 42.2 43.5

1 n = 5 2 n = 20 3 n = 25 (combined results from all transects) 4 Standard error of the mean calculated according to Steele and Torrie (1980)

Fire Management Today 88 Additional research is needed before permanent transects The increased sampling efficiency can be universally recommended. offered by permanent transects indicates that they are a viable alternative to temporary tran­ Table 1 summarizes reduction in Management sects in this fuel type. Additional woody fuel volume and canopy Implications research, however, is needed before cover. Results from permanent and permanent transects can be univer­ Near optimal weather conditions temporary transects were similar sally recommended. on February 25 compensated for for all attributes measured. Downed fine fuel inadequacies, and burn woody fuel and total canopy cover Acknowledgments objectives were achieved. Because were reduced only 50 and 44 percent of cooler weather conditions and The authors wish to thank Henry respectively, primarily due to the increased percentage of green fine A. Wright and Clifton M. Britton discontinuous nature of the fire. fuel on March 6, overall objectives of Texas Tech University, Jimmy were not met. Propst and Gene Bradbury of Propst Where fine fuel was continuous Helicopters, and Zach Osburn of enough to ensure fire spread, In light of this burn, we believe Triangle Ranch. Many students and woody fuel volume was reduced large units can be burned safely and staff members from Texas Tech 90 percent, and total canopy quickly with a helitorch at far less helped on the burn. Their assis­ cover was reduced 85 percent. expense than hand ignition. tance is greatly appreciated. Moreover, consumption of 54 percent of live tree canopy Because of the speed of the opera­ References reduced juniper stature. In tion, communication is of funda­ Brown, J.K. 1974. Handbook for inventory­ addition to improving visibility ing downed woody material. Gen. Tech. mental importance when using across the pasture, this reduc­ Rep. INT–16. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest aerial ignition. Our experience indi­ Service, Intermountain Forest and Range tion in plant stature will reduce cates that two radio frequencies are Experiment Station. the competitive ability of juni­ desirable to minimize confusion. Canfield, R.H. 1941. Application of the per—thereby increasing produc­ line interception method in sampling tion of herbaceous species. On range vegetation. Journal of Forestry. 39: Permanent and temporary transect 388–394. the second day of ignition, cooler means were not significantly differ­ Steele, R.G.D.; Torrie, J.H. 1980. Principles than normal conditions, coupled and procedures of statistics. 2nd ed. New ent (P < 0.01) for any of the attri­ with light fuel loads in some York, NY: McGraw-Hill. butes measured. Therefore, these Steuter, A.A.; Britton, C.M. 1983. Fire- areas, produced less than desired data indicate that fewer transects induced mortality of redberry juniper results. (Juniperus pinchotii Sudw.). Journal of can be used for sampling downed Range Management. 36: 343–345. woody debris and shrub canopy USDA Forest Service. 1959. Belt weather Total cost of burning the unit cover in this fuel type if transects kit. Fire Control Notes. 20(4): 122–123. was $22,439.97, or $2.26 per acre are permanently established. Wright, H.A.; Bailey, A.W. 1982. Fire ($5.59/ha). The helitorch was con­ Ecology. New York, NY: John Wiley and tracted for $1.00 per acre ($2.47/ Sons. Permanent sampling planes can Wright, H..A.; Bunting, S.C.; ha). Remaining costs were primar­ be established almost as quickly as Neuenschwander, L.F. 1976. Effect of fire ily attributed to personnel ($6,150) on honey mesquite. Journal of Range temporary transects in the field. and transportation ($3,996). Management. 29: 467–471. ■

Additional References on Aerial Ignition Devices for Prescribed Burning Bungarz, D. 1980. Helitorch use in Hildreth, G.W. 1985. Aerial ignition device. Sain, J.F. 1980. North Carolina aerial igni- California. Fire Management Notes. Fire Management Notes. 46(3): 22–23. tion program. Fire Management Notes. 41(4): 15–17. Lundsford, J. D. 1986. The plastic sphere 41(2): 12–14. Fort, J. 1991. Mark III aerial ignition: dispenser aerial ignition system. Fire Tour, J. 1986. An improved helitorch A field perspective. Fire Management Management Notes. 48(3): 30–35. design. Fire Management Notes. 47(4): Notes. 52(2): 7–9. Sackett, S.S. 1975. Airborne, igniters for 20–21. prescribed burning. Fire Management. 36(2): 12–13.

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 89 Prescribed Fire in the southeast— FiVe stePs to a successFul burn* James Lunsford

hile the use of prescribed fire, whereas small hardwoods will fire in the Southeastern be top-killed and some will eventu­ W United States predates ally be eliminated. Live tissue has any type of formal records, it can a tolerance of heat to about 145 °F nonetheless be traced to use by (63 °C), but lesser temperatures Native Americans and members will kill live tissue if exposed for a of the cattle industry established long period of time by the first settlers from Europe (Komarek 1981). Southern yellow pine trees have thick, insulating bark that provides The Southeast was settled primarily protection, and a damaging level of by people of a pastoral background heat is seldom reached, especially from Scotland, Wales, Ireland, on large trees. For all species, the England, and Spain. These cattle larger the tree, the more heat it herders made up 75 percent of can resist. The tolerance of heat is Figure 1—The handheld drip torch is the the white population of the time most frequently used source of ignition for much less for hardwoods and for (Owsley 1949). The use of fire to prescribed burning in the South. other pine and fir species. maintain grazing land for cattle was brought from the home countries, these mountain pastures and is cur­ Let me borrow a paragraph from where its use continues today. rently used today to maintain these Pyne (1982) to help set the stage balds for their esthetic values. for the use of fire: Open range in the Southeast was prevalent, lasting officially until The three physiographic regions of A fire environment consists of the 1949 when Florida enacted closure the Southeast—the coastal plains, fuels, topography, and weather of the last open range. However, the mountains, and the piedmont— within which a fire burns. When lack of enforcement extended open have their own unique require­ a fire environment combines range into the 1950’s. ments for the use of prescribed with a consistent pattern of igni­ fire. The pine forests of the coastal tion, then a fire regime results, Cattle Grazing plains allow almost unlimited use characterized by a particular Cattle grazing, carried out in the of fire because of the natural resis­ vegetative ensemble and regular Appalachian Mountains in a man­ tance of the southern pine tree pattern of fire behavior. Such ner similar to the coastal plains, to damage by heat. However, the vegetative ensembles are often was particularly favored on high hardwoods of the mountains are referred to as cover types or fuel ridges and mountain tops that damaged severely by fire. Its use, types and to transform vegeta­ could not be farmed. This use therefore, is limited to openings, tion deliberately from one cover accounts for most of the “mountain bald maintenance, and site prepara­ type to another is known as type balds” of the southern Appalachians tion for planting commercial trees. conversion. When, because of its today. Fire was used to maintain fire pattern, a fire regime main­ The piedmont is made up of rolling tains a certain type of vegeta­ When this article was originally published hills and a mixture of hardwood tion cover that, in the absence in 1978, James Lunsford was a prescribed and pines. The use of prescribed of fire would give way to other fire and smoke management specialist for the USDA Forest Service, Southern Region, fire must be compatible with the cover types, then that biota is Atlanta, GA. vegetation occupying the site. referred to as a fire climax and Grasses and herbaceous plants are the particular vegetation as a fire * The article is reprinted from Fire Management Notes 48(3) [Summer 1978]: 30–35. nurtured and respond favorably to type. … When a consistent pat­

Fire Management Today 90 tern of reburning is established, The three physiographic regions of the Southeast all have the outcome is a fire cycle. … their own unique requirements for the use of prescribed fire. Controlled fire that is intro­ duced under a predetermined set of conditions (prescription) is the use of prescribed fire could areas (streamside zones) are also referred to as a prescribed fire. reduce this damage by reducing the mapped. A detailed description is amount of fuel under less severe made of all stands and inclusions. The evolution of prescribed fire conditions than may exist when a in the South transcends the cattle wildfire occurs. Thus, “wood burn­ During this inventory process, a industry, the agricultural industry, ing” has come full circle and is now thorough analysis is made of each and, later, the timber cutting that practiced by most land manage­ stand to determine needs and what eliminated most of the commercial ment agencies. actions should be taken to meet forests. After the timber harvest those needs. Many alternatives to that peaked in 1900, the use of fire The Five-Step Method fire that provide acceptable effects continued and thus prevented any “A Guide for Prescribed Fire in are mowing, herbicide, and mechan­ reforestation. The land became a Southern Forests” (Mobley 1978) ical treatments. Generally, fire is the timber desert. suggests a five-step method for a most economical or has fewer side successful prescribed fire. I plan to effects. Due to the risk from smoke, Fire was declared illegal and fire describe this procedure as carried however, its use is limited. prevention was the thrust to pro­ out by the USDA Forest Service in tect the new forest. Because of the Southern Region. Grazing. Improving grazing is the mosaic that existed across the one of the oldest uses of prescribed South, game (quail and turkey) Analysis. An inventory of all fire and at one time the most became plentiful and game man­ national forest land in the South extensive. Mowing can produce a agement became profitable. Many is conducted on a 10-year rotation. similar effect to fire on the grass “hunting plantations” developed During this inventory, as much area, provided machinery can be that catered to the rich ‘“Yankee information as possible is gathered used. However, mowing leaves tourist” and others who could about each stand and forest type. the “thatch” and mowing residue afford to participate. As the popu­ Each ranger district is subdivided (waste). Waste has a detrimental lation of wildlife began to decline, into compartments of about 1,000 effect on most plant life (Komarek however, this economic windfall acres (400 ha) each. Each compart­ 1981). Fire has the effect of remov­ became short lived. ment is broken down into stands ing both the excess growth and the of 10 to 80 acres (4–32 ha) each, old thatch. Hunting plantation owners depending on the vegetative type. banded together to find the Wildlife Habitat Improvement. cause for this decline. Herbert The maximum size of a regen­ Prescribed fire applied when the Stoddard was commissioned eration cut (usually a clear cut) is plants are dormant generally only to study the problem in 1924. dictated by law in the Forest and top-kills the species that are desirable Seven years later, he published Rangeland Planning Act of 1974. by wildlife, i.e., the plants will sprout “The Bobwhite Quail, Its Habitat, The act limits clear cuts in the again, providing the browse needed Preservation, and Increase.” He pine type to 80 acres (32 ha), and for wildlife. However, summer burns concluded that quail populations 40 acres (16 ha) in the hardwood tend to root kill and eliminate most depend on land management type. However, the average is much hardwood species and many forbs. A practices and that “fire may well less—about 30 acres (12 ha). low-intensity fire that does not burn be the most important single fac­ deeply into the duff is desirable. This tor in determining what animals Ten acres (4 ha) is a minimum type of fire will cause sprouting and or vegetable life will thrive in because any smaller area is more kill fewer plants. many areas” (Stoddard 1931). difficult to manage and inventory. Smaller areas, however, are mapped Timber Management. Fire is used Evidence began to mount that the as inclusions in larger stands as for site preparation and to remove growth of “rough” contributed to wildlife openings or food plots undesirable competition. The site damage caused by wildfire and that referred to as key areas. Riparian prep burn is applied in the summer

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 91 if possible and a hot fire is desired old. Prescribed fire is used to burn the already high temperatures. to kill as much competing vegeta­ off the infected needles and kill the Experience may lead to more sum­ tion as possible. A fire to reduce blight. However, this applies only mer burning because some very the undesirable competition is first to the current crop of trees; the desirable effects can be accom­ applied during the dormant season next crop will again need the same plished during this time. when the pine overstory is about 3 treatment. Armillaria mellea (root inches (7.6 cm) in diameter at the rot) is thought to be reduced by Because temperatures are criti­ ground. Fire is applied on a 3- to 5­ prescribed fire. cal—live tissue will be killed at year cycle in the summer when the about 145 ° F (63 °C)—the pre­ trees are 6 to 8 inches (15–20 cm) Rare and Endangered Species. scription becomes very important. in diameter. This technique will Prescribed fire is used to maintain One of the most important ele­ produce almost a pure stand of pine the habitat of several rare plants ments in the prescription is fuel and less competition for reforesta­ and animals. The red-cockaded moisture. Fuel moisture is depen­ tion after harvest time. woodpecker requires a certain veg­ dent on type of fuel, days since etative condition that is perpetu­ rain, and relative humidity. Fire Protection. A pine plantation ated by the use of fire. Rare plants is most vulnerable to fire when such as mountain golden heather Fuel moisture serves to dampen the trees are young and have the (Hudsonia montana) and pitcher heat and the rate of fuel consumed normal grass and small plants plant (Sarricia sp.) can be perpetu­ and thusly limits, to a large degree, associated with young pines. A ated by fire. the amount of heat produced. cool prescribed fire applied as soon Windspeed has the next critical role as possible, usually when the trees in fire behavior. The faster the wind are 2 to 3 inches (5 to 7.6 cm) in Smoke from the fire, a blows, the faster and hotter the diameter at the ground, will fire seemingly harmless element, fire—provided the fuel moisture is proof the plantation for about 3 has become as important low enough to allow combustion to years. Even then, a heading wild­ and as potentially dangerous take place. fire will cause considerable dam­ age. Fire prevention is still neces­ as the fire itself. Firing Techniques. Experience sary. A rotation of fuels reduction has shown that fire may be applied burning must be carried out on a with a variety of combinations of 3 to 5 year cycle. Prescription. This is a complex fuel moisture and windspeed with document and probably the most varying results. Combinations of Esthetics. In areas of high visi­ important single ingredient in the low fuel moisture and high wind tor use, the concern is to keep prescribed fire process. Generally, speeds, however, generally cause down the understory and provide the prescription refers to the envi­ unacceptable damage to overstory a pleasing view. Flowering plants ronmental conditions affecting species. Firing techniques can be and shrubs respond differently to how a fire will behave in a given used to control heat in many cases. fire applied at different times of the fuel bed. The prescription is only Here the experience of the burner year. If fire is applied after flower a single part of the prescribed fire must be applied. Large-scale weath­ buds are set in late summer, the plan. The prescription is usually er patterns must be observed to bud will be killed and there will be written as open as possible to take keep abreast of wind changes and no flowers the next spring. Timing advantage of the few days that are approaching storm centers. is critical when fire has such an favorable for burning. effect. Maintenance of openings and Prescription writers—the pre­ mountain balds is accomplished Timing. In the Southeast, there scribed fire planners—should be with fire. Herbicide use following are generally about 22 to 28 days the most qualified persons avail­ a fire will help convert the area to that are considered suitable for able. Their qualifications must grass, if desired. burning in the fall and winter include both actual experience and months. Some burning is done in access to research data and training Disease Control. Longleaf pines the summertime, which accounts by other disciplines, such as wild­ are infected with brown spot blight for additional days, but the amount life biology, silviculture, etc. The (Scirrhia acieola) when they are in of burning is limited because of prescription (prescribed fire plan) the grass stage, about 1 to 3 years

Fire Management Today 92 must include all the elements to be ing the fire. The type of fire used, remain favorable during the time of considered before, during, and after (backing fire, slow ignition, etc.) the burn. The wind direction must the burn. A simple, short form will should be considered. Natural be correct to prevent smoke from not suffice for this documentation. barriers such as rivers, bays, and affecting smoke sensitive areas, and roads can also be used to lessen the the atmosphere must be capable of Smoke Hazards. Smoke from the impact on the environment. dispersing the smoke. fire, a seemingly harmless ele­ ment, has become as important When access is available, the fire The firing technique and firing and as potentially dangerous as may be controlled by water pump­ device were previously listed in the the fire itself. Recently, several ing equipment. Other equipment burning plan; the necessary equip­ people have been killed as a result used in fire line construction ment must also be ready. If aerial of smoke blocking visibility on includes the mist blower, which ignition is planned, the extensive major highways. Lawsuits in the works best in hardwood leaves. organization required must be put millions of dollars have resulted Blasting (Primacord) has also been together prior to ignition time. against the companies responsible used but is not readily available and Communications must be estab­ for the prescribed fire, and some requires highly qualified personnel. lished with all participants. states have proposed legislation to eliminate the use of fire as a Lines are constructed when only a Test Fire. Assuming that all the management tool in the forest. backing fire is to be used—plowed logistical problems have been Fortunately, no laws have passed at approximately 10-chain (200-m) solved, a test fire should be con­ that would severely limit manage­ intervals perpendicular to the wind ducted to confirm that all the ment of southern pine forests and direction. Firing is done from each planning and predictions are true. other habitat improvements. line to maintain a low-intensity If the test fire does not indicate backing fire. that the fire will achieve the objec­ Data and guidelines have been tives of the plan, the fire must be developed to allow the user of Lines should be constructed at extinguished. Generally, an area has prescribed fire to manage smoke. some time prior to the planned been previously set up for the test Areas that are affected by smoke burn, but not so early that leaf and fire, or, at this time, a fire plow or such as highways, hospitals, and needle fall will fill the lines. If the water equipment will be needed to airports, should be identified. A lines do become filled, a mist blow­ extinguish the fire. wind direction is chosen that will er can be used to again open up the blow the smoke away from the lines. The burn plan should contain Ignition. Once the decision to smoke sensitive area. Other efforts a map that depicts the locations of burn is made, the preplanned igni­ include mitigating measures such all fire lines and how they are to be tion pattern is executed, i.e., back­ as closing roads. constructed. Cross drainage ditches ing fire, strip-head fire, or spot fire. should be incorporated at the time Ignition is primarily done with the Preparation. Another seemingly of construction to prevent erosion. hand-held drip torch. More use is simple process becomes critical being made of aerial ignition in the when one takes into account the Preparation also includes gather­ past few years. damage caused by the use of a ing weather data. Weather station plow to construct a fire line. Soil equipment can be located on the The helitorch and the Ping-Pong erosion may become a problem burn site to determine rainfall, ball machine offer the capability to or the visual effect of the plowed relative humidity, wind speed, and burn areas inaccessible or unsafe line may be unacceptable. Many fuel moisture. for foot travel and can burn large techniques are employed. For areas in a short time. The best instance, in sensitive areas hand Execution. When the time to ignite rate of burning to date is 3000+ lines are constructed and, in some the fire has finally arrived, this may acres (1,200+ ha) in 1 hour on cases, a water expansion system only be obvious to a few experienced the Kisatchie National Forest in (foam) is used. individuals. The time to burn is Louisiana. Normal operations, when the weather is favorable—“in however, are about 3,000 to 4,000 Regardless of the system employed, prescription”—and a weather fore­ acres (1,200–1,600 ha) per day the line must be capable of hold­ cast predicts that conditions will for underburning and 300 to 400

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 93 acres (120–160 ha) per day for site Fuel loading will also determine the characteristics such as flame length preparation. Many variables are type of fire to use and the effects of and rate of spread must be gathered involved in burning, and experi­ the fire. Heavy fuel loading, when during the burn. Several items that ence is needed in each area to an overstory exists, should not be should be evaluated: know what to expect. planned to be consumed in a single The helitorch, which requires the burn. Several burns may be necessary • Weather parameters. Were they mixing of gasoline and Alumagel to reduce the loading to a safe level. within prescribed guides during or Sure-Fire, a thickener, requires the burn? Data should be record­ 2 to 4 persons to work around the The Ping-Pong ball machine starts ed during the burn to insure that heliport. This expense, plus the a series of spot fires spaced accord­ unforeseen conditions do not risk of fire or explosion, has given ing to desired intensity. Spots cause resource damage or cause us good reason to use the Ping- closer together provide less inten­ the fire to escape control. Pong ball machine. sity than spots at wide intervals • Effects on vegetation. Did the (Johansen 1984). fire accomplish the objectives This machine reduces the risk and set out in the prescription? Were the number of people involved. Only The backing fire spreads at about 1 trees killed or scorched beyond one person is needed to operate to 3 chains (20–60 m) per hour in desirable levels? Was lesser veg­ the machine with no exposure to all fuels regardless of wind speed etation consumed or killed as flammable materials. The machine (Hough 1968). When a backing desired? Information should be injects the plastic ball, which con­ fire is planned, fire lines must related to weather parameters tains potassium permanganate, with be plowed perpendicular to wind for future reference. An evalu­ ethylene glycol and then ejects the direction at intervals that will allow ation after the growing season ball from the helicopter. the burn to be accomplished in the will indicate effects concerning specified time. A ring fire may be sprouting and other conditions The balls ignite after reaching the used for clearcut slash areas—espe­ not known at the time of burn. forest floor, causing a spot fire. cially if danger exists to crews • Effects on fuels. Did the fire Results of all types of ignition are crossing the area. consume—more or less—the similar and the decision to choose fuels as desired? Consumption one over the other depends on Most common is the use of the will be related to fuel mois­ needs, availability, type of fuels, helitorch to ignite the slash unit as ture, wind speed, and days and terrain involved. Aerial igni­ quickly as possible using the strip since rain (drought conditions). tion will permit more heat to be method. This represents an “area Consumption of all fuel will generated and is used when high fire” and creates considerable heat expose mineral soil and could fuel moisture conditions exist. with a large convection column. later lead to erosion problems. In fact, the helitorch can be used Again, some experience will be nec­ • Escape. Did the fire escape the when moisture is too high for essary to conduct a successful burn. control lines? Why? What were other ignition sources. Selection of the firing technique conditions when escape occurred? must consider the effects of the Was line incorrectly located or Firing Pattern. The firing pattern fire on all resources—soil, water, constructed? A weather forecast will have a great deal of influence air quality, timber, wildlife, and so prior to burn time should predict on the results of the burn. Strip- forth. possible weather changes that head fire is the most commonly may cause erratic fire behavior. used when firing with the handheld Evaluation. The evaluation should • Effects on other resources. Was drip torch and the helitorch. This be a part of the original prescribed excessive mineral soil exposed? A technique is used for underburn­ fire plan. The objectives of the burn later evaluation may indicate ero­ ing when the overstory is large should be defined so that they may sion or other problems. Did the enough—6 to 8 inches (15–20 cm) be evaluated after the burn, both fire affect wildlife such as ground or larger—to withstand consider­ immediately and at some later date. nesting birds? Were there smoke able heat. The backing fire, gener­ Clearly defined objectives, of course, related incidences? Were smoke ally, must be used for plantation—2 will make this job easier. An evalua­ sensitive areas affected? We are to 3 inch (5–8 cm)—and poles—3 tion form should be attached to the responsible for our actions even to 6 inch (8–15 cm). burning plan with several items to though the effects may be subtle, be evaluated after the burn. Data on

Fire Management Today 94 Fire in the southern forest is responsible for the propagation should be sufficiently permanent of the southern pine forest ecosystem. to last until the burn is completed. Prevention of erosion from plowed lines can be done when construc­ such as aggravating one person’s Other States’ laws say a violation tion of line is completed. lung problems, dirtying the clean of the law constitutes negligence. laundry hanging outside or depos­ Thus, if the burners fail to acquire Execution of the burn will be in iting soot and ash on nearby cars. a burning permit, they are auto­ compliance with the plan or with matically negligent and responsible approved changes. Ignition can be Legal Responsibilities for any damage (Siegel 1985). The either handheld or aerial, as pre­ Regulations pertaining to the use best defense against liability is to scribed in the plan. An evaluation of fire differ in almost every State. follow the law and the prudent per­ should be made immediately after Some States require permits to son concept. the burn and also at some later burn that are issued only when date. The evaluation should deter­ burning conditions are low. Some Conclusion mine if the objectives of the burn have a prohibition against burning Fire in the southern forest tran­ were met and if any corrections or when air quality standards will be scends all human records and is adjustments should be made on violated. Some air quality regula­ responsible for the propagation of future burns. We must be aware of tions prohibit any kind of pollution the southern pine forest ecosystem, our legal responsibilities in order to that constitutes a “public nuisance.” especially the longleaf pine. This insure that we’ll be able to continue Some States require notification of species, known as a fire climax type, to use prescribed fire as a manage­ adjacent landowners. would probably pass from existence ment tool. without fire. Two forms of liability must be References addressed, criminal and civil. To perpetuate the pine type, fire Hough, W.A. 1968. Fuel consumption and Criminal liability exists when a can be applied by management but fire behavior of hazard reduction burns. Research Paper. SE–36. Asheville, NC: State law is violated, such as fail­ only under acceptable conditions. USDA Forest Service, Southeastern ing to acquire a burning permit. Because of the liabilities associated Forest Experiment Station. Violation of state law may be either with fire, the user is responsible Johansen, R.W. 1984. Prescribed burning with spot fires in the Georgia Coastal a misdemeanor or felony. The basic for acting in a prudent manner Plains. Georgia Forest Res. Pap. 49. difference is that a misdemeanor and not inflicting personal or Georgia Forestry Commission, Macon, has a jail sentence of less than 1 property damage. GA. year. A felony has a jail sentence of Komarek, E.V. 1981. Economic and envi­ ronmental evaluation of prescribed burn­ more than 1 year. Both are accom­ A five-step system is suggested to ing and alternatives. Contract 53–43ZP– panied by a fine. minimize the risk when using pre­ I00839. Atlanta, GA: USDA Forest Service, scribed fire. An inventory of needs Southern Region. Mobley, H.E. 1978. A guide for prescribed Civil liabilities exist when the fire should be undertaken to determine fire in southern forests. Atlanta, GA: causes personal injury or property the amount of burning needed USDA Forest Service, Southeastern Area. damage. Damage could occur on and the compatibility with other Owsley, F.L. 1949. Plain folk of the South. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State adjacent land if the fire escapes, resources. A detailed plan must be University. or the smoke could cause an acci­ prepared to insure all necessary Pyne, S.J. 1982. Fire in America. Princeton, dent at some distance from the requirements are met. This plan NJ: Princeton University Press. fire. However, to be liable, a person must include labor and equipment Siegel, W.C. 1985. Legal implications of prescribed burning in the South. must first be judged to have been needs, burning parameters, smoke In: Wade, D.D., comp. Prescribed fire negligent. Some State laws say neg­ management requirements, and an and smoke management in the South: ligence is not present if the burner evaluation list. Conference proceedings; 1984 September 12–14; Atlanta, GA. Asheville, NC: USDA has taken all the necessary precau­ Preparation must be done in Forest Service, Southeastern Forest tions that a “prudent person” would advance of the burn to insure Experiment Station: 77–85. have taken under the circumstances. completion prior to burn time and Stoddard, H.L. 1931. The bobwhite quail— its habits, preservation and increase. New York, NY: Scribners. ■

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 95 how to estimate tree mortality resulting From underburning* Elizabeth D. Reinhardt and Kevin C. Ryan

rescribed burning beneath in Washington, Idaho, Oregon, Fires were conducted from May standing timber is widely used and Montana. Species included through October. Mortality was P to accomplish objectives such were both Pacific Coast and monitored for at least 2 years fol­ as preparing land for reforestation, Intermountain varieties of lowing the fires. Mortality on the reducing fuels, improving livestock Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menzie­ 43 individual plots ranged from range, and modifying wildlife habi­ sii (Mirb) Franco), western larch 0 to 97 percent. Mortality for the tat. Such burning is usually guided (Larix occidentalis Nutt), western individual species ranged from 15 by written plans that set forth red cedar (Thuja plicata Donn.), percent for western larch to 87 general objectives and a firing pat­ western hemlock (Tsuga hetero­ percent for western hemlock and tern to accomplish them. The plan phylla (Raf.) Sarg.), Englemann Engelmann spruce. typically specifies acceptable levels spruce (Picea engelmannii Parry), of mortality in standing trees and lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta How Fire Kills Trees describes desired fire behavior, par­ Dougl.) and subalpine fir (Abies Fire kills trees in several ways: ticularly flame length. lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nutt.). crown injury, cambium injury, and root injury. Trees of different spe­ This article offers two nomograms cies and ages vary in resistance to facilitate effective planning and Fire kills trees in several to fire injury. Larger trees have successful burning. One nomogram ways: crown injury, cambium proportionately more foliage above is intended for estimating levels of injury, and lethal scorch height in a given fire. mortality for various scorch heights root injury. The amount of crown injury a tree among tree species common to the receives depends on scorch height, Northwest. A second nomogram is tree height, and crown base height. useful for determining the flame Tree height ranged from 20 to length that will keep tree mortality 220 feet (6–67 m), and tree diam­ Species differ in the timing of bud within specifications. eter from 3 to 65 inches (8–165 break and also in the degree to cm). Based on species, diameter which their buds are shielded from The nomograms can also be used at breast height, and published heat. Species with large buds and to estimate numbers, sizes, and equations, computed bark thick­ twigs tend to be more resistant to species of trees to leave in a partial ness ranged from 0.1 to 4.3 inches fire injury. Shallow-rooted species cut, and also to identify trees that (0.3–10.9 cm). have greater susceptibility to root will die and should be salvaged after injury than deep-rooted species. an unplanned fire. Crown volume scorched was mea­ sured visually in the field and Fire resistance among trees of dif­ How the Nomograms ranged from 0 to 100 percent. ferent species and sizes mainly Were Developed Fuels ranged from light natural depends on differences in bark The mortality nomogram was accumulations to moderate log­ thickness. Large trees of thick- derived from a study of 2,356 ging slash. Fire behavior fuel barked species may have bark 100 trees from 43 prescribed fires models (Anderson 1982) included times as thick as small trees of 8, 11, and 12. The 10-hour time thin-barked species. Field deter­ When this article was originally published lag National Fire Danger Rating mination of bark thickness is time in 1988, Elizabeth Reinhardt and Kevin Ryan were research foresters for the System (Deeming et al. 1977) mois­ consuming and may be impractical USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Fire ture content ranged from 5 to 25 in operational situations, but bark Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. percent, and the 1,000-hour mois­ thickness can be estimated from species and diameter. * The article is reprinted from Fire Management Notes ture content from 11 to 30 percent. 49(4) [Fall 1988]: 30–36.

Fire Management Today 96 Moderate logging slash area being prescribed burned. Area prescribed burned approximately 1 year ago. Note low scorch height on trees.

The Model The lower left quadrant of the Once an acceptable level of nomogram shows diameter and bark The model assumes that differ­ thickness for the seven species stud­ ences in mortality between spe­ mortality has been chosen ied. These relationships were taken cies are due only to differences in for a particular species, from the literature (Ryan 1982). bark thickness. We used published the nomogram can be The upper left quadrant shows the equations to compute bark thick­ used to develop a burning relationship between bark thickness, ness from species and diameter. percentage crown volume scorched, Computed bark thickness was then prescription. and tree mortality. This is the graph­ used with observed crown volume ical representation of the mortality scorched (percent) to predict tree prediction equation. The curved mortality. tion can kill cambium through even the thickest bark and can lines are mortality contours showing probability of mortality for various The prediction equation generated result in higher than predicted combinations of bark thickness and was: mortality. Thick layers of dry duff may result in long periods of smol­ crown volume scorched. P =1/(1 + exp(– (1.466 – 4.862 B + dering even after the flame front m The right side of the nomogram 1.156 B2 + 0.000535 C2))) has moved through the stand. Heavy concentrations of logs near shows the relationship between percent crown volume scorched, where P is the predicted probabil­ trees will also result in extended m crown ratio (upper right quadrant), ity of mortality, B is bark thickness duration of burning and a cor­ and tree height and average scorch in inches; and C is percentage of responding under-prediction of height (lower right quadrant). We crown volume scorched. For each mortality. Conversely, mortality will assumed that tree crowns take the species, the difference between likely be over-predicted in light, form of symmetric parabolas and predicted and observed mortality patchy surface fires. that scorch heights are uniform was less than 15 percent—except within a tree. Engelmann spruce, which was Mortality Nomogram 30 percent. Predicted mortality The equation was used to develop was within 20 percent of observed the mortality nomogram (fig. 1). Scorch Height mortality for all except 5 of the 43 The nomogram allows the manager Nomogram sample fires. to determine the maximum scorch Figure 2 is a nomogram for pre­ height compatible with a chosen dicting scorch height. The nomo­ The model has an underlying level of mortality, using inputs of gram is based on Van Wagner’s assumption of a fire of average species, diameter, tree height, and (1973) equation for predicting duration. Fires of very long dura­ crown ratio. crown scorch height from air tem-

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 97 perature, windspeed, and Byram’s (1959) fireline intensity.

The relationship is shown in terms of both fireline intensity and flame length, based on Byram’s (1959) relationship between the two. The figure was developed for midflame windspeeds of 5 miles per hour (8 km/h), an average value for pre­ scribed underburns.

Higher windspeeds result in lower levels of crown scorch height for a given flame length or fireline inten­ sity. The differences are small for windspeeds between 0 and 10 miles per hour (0–16 km/h). Managers who are interested in solutions for other windspeeds should refer to Van Wagner’s equation or graphical representations by Albini (1976). How To Use the Nomograms To use the mortality nomogram Figure 1—Tree mortality nomogram for use in prescription development. Key to sym­ bols: LP identifies lodgepole pine; SF, subalpine fir; ES, Englemann spruce; RC, western (fig. 3), choose an acceptable level red cedar; WH, western hemlock; WL, western larch; and DF, Douglas-fir. Figure can be of mortality (e.g. 20 percent or enlarged on copier paper for field use. a 0.2 probability of mortality). Acceptable mortality will depend on Figure 2—Van the value of the trees and the objec­ Wagner’s crown scorch height model, shown tives of the fire. Successful under- for a midflame wind- burning involves choosing and speed of 5 miles per staying within a reasonable level hour (8 km/h) and a of mortality. Data from these fires range of ambient tem­ peratures. Figure can indicate that it is unreasonable to be enlarged on copier expect to underburn without some for field use. mortality. It is not possible, there­ fore, to select zero mortality.

Once an acceptable level of mortal­ ity has been chosen for a particular species, the nomogram can be used to develop a burning prescription. For example, consider a shelter- wood harvest with Douglas-fir leave trees averaging 17 inches (43 cm) in diameter, 100 feet (30 m) tall, with a crown ratio of 0.5.

Fire Management Today 98 Entering the nomogram at the lower left at observed tree diameter, draw a horizontal line until you intersect the correct species line. Then turn a right angle and draw a line straight up. Where the line crosses the top edge of the lower left box, bark thick­ ness can be read, if desired, but it is not necessary to do so.

In this example, bark thickness of a 17-inch (43-cm) Douglas-fir is about 1.1 inches (2.8 cm). Continue the line straight up until it inter­ sects the target mortality rate curve (0.2). At this point, turn a right angle again, to the right. This time, when passing from the upper left to the upper right quadrant, it is possible to read off crown volume scorched (percent).

This example shows that a little more than 40 percent of the crown volume of these trees may be scorched with out exceeding the tar­ Figure 3—This figure illustrates the use of the mortality nomogram to set scorch height get mortality of 20 percent. If that is limits for a prescribed underburn in which the target leave trees are Douglas-fir, 17 inches all you want to know, stop there. (43 cm) in diameter at breast height, 100 feet (30 m) tall with a crown ratio of 0.5, and an acceptable mortality of 20 percent. To convert percentage crown vol­ Figure 4—This figure ume scorched to scorch height, illustrates the use continue working clockwise of the scorch height through the nomogram. Make a nomogram to set flame length limits for right angle turn down, intersecting a prescribed under- the curve representing the appro­ burn on a 60 °F (15.5 priate crown ratio. Then continue °C) day, in order to limit scorch height to down to the appropriate tree height 60 feet (18 m). curve. Make another right angle turn to the left. Read allowable scorch height (in this example 60 feet [18 m]) off the vertical axis of the lower right quadrant. This is the maximum available scorch height that can still limit the mor­ tality to the desired level.

If desired, continue on to figure 4 and determine the maximum allow­ able flame length. To keep scorch heights to 60 feet (18 m) on a 60 °F (15.5 °C) day, flame lengths should be kept between 9 and 10 feet (2.7–

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 99 3 m). This value can be used in Acceptable mortality will depend on the value of the trees conjunction with fuel models and and the objectives of the fire. fire behavior predictions to develop a prescription for burning (Pucket and others 1979; Rothennel 1983; find the expected mortality level Byram, G.M. 1959. Combustion of forest Andrews 1986). Field crews can in the upper left quadrant of the fuels. In: Davis, K.P. Forest Fire: control and use. New York, NY: McGraw Hill. attempt to limit the flame length to nomogram (fig. 1). Deeming, J.E.; Burgan, R.E.; Cohen, this level through ignition pattern The nomogram can also be used J.D. 1977. The National Fire-Danger modifications. to develop a marking guide for a Rating System—1978. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT–39. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest salvage sale after fire injury has Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Additional Applications occurred. In this case, crown vol­ Experiment Station. In some applications of prescribed ume scorched can be observed. Kilgore, B.M.; Curtis, G.A. 1987. Guide to understory burning in ponderosa pine- fire, tree mortality is desired. For Therefore, the right side of the larch-fir forests in the Intermountain example, a manager may wish to nomogram is not needed. Work West. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT–223. Ogden, eliminate encroaching Douglas-fir backward through the left half of UT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain the nomogram to find the mini­ Research Station. from a grassland. In these situa­ Puckett, J.V.; Johnston, C.M.; Albini, F.A.; tions, a nomogram can be used mum diameter for leave trees. and others. 1979. User’s guide to debris to determine the minimum flame prediction and hazard appraisal. Missoula, MT: USDA Forest Service, Northern lengths necessary to achieve the References Region. fire objectives. Albini, EA. 1976. Estimating wildfire Rothermel, R.C. 1983. How to predict the behavior and effects. Gen. Tech. Rep. spread and intensity of forest and range INT–30. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest A nomogram can also be used ear­ fires. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT–143. Ogden, Service, Intermountain Forest and Range UT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain lier in the planning process, at the Experiment Station. Forest and Range Experiment Station. time of developing the silvicultural Anderson, H.E. 1982. Aids to determining Ryan, K.C. 1982. Evaluating potential fuel models for estimating fire behavior. prescription. One can determine tree mortality from prescribed burn­ Gen. Tech. Rep. INT–122. Ogden, UT: ing. In: Baumgartner, D.M., ed. Site how many trees of each species to USDA Forest Service, Intermountain preparation and fuels management on leave to achieve the desired num­ Forest and Range Experiment Station. steep terrain. Pullman, WA: Washington ber and species proportions after Andrews, P.L. 1986. BEHAVE: fire behavior State University Cooperative Extension. prediction and fuel modeling system- 167–179. fire treatment. To do this, select a BURN subsystem, Part I. Gen. Tech. Van Wagner, C.E. 1973. Height of crown reasonable expected crown scorch Rep. INT-194. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest scorch in forest fires. Canadian Journal of height. For each component of the Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Forest Research. 3: 373–378. ■ Experiment Station. stand, work in from both sides to

Summary of Steps in a Successful Prescribed Burn* 1. The general objectives of man­ 3. General objectives of the treat­ 6. Written plans should be devel­ agement for a given piece of ment should be developed and oped and reviewed. land should come from overall should involve several resource 7. Preparations must be made land use planning and the basic disciplines. for burning. philosophy of the organization. 4. A decision should be made on 8. The burn is conducted. 2. A reconnaissance is neces­ the tools to be used and spe­ 9. The burn is evaluated and sary to decide if the unit needs cific objectives of the treatment mopped up. treatment. Measurements and delineated. An environmental 10. Feedback on various steps of evaluation may be needed at this analysis report may be prepared the planning process will aid point. at this point. in future burning. 5. A prescription that will meet *From: Martin, R.E.; Dell, J.D. 1978. Planning for prescribed burning in the Inland Northwest. the objectives should be devel­ Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW–76. Portland, OR: USDA oped. Several estimation tech­ Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. niques are available.

Fire Management Today 100 author index—Volume 65

Alexander, Martin E. Long-term experi­ Henson, Carol J. Rapid-response fire Orleman, Andrew; Clark, Jess; Parsons, ment takes some of the mystery out behavior research and real-time Annette; Lannom, Keith. Using satel­ of crown fires. 65(3): 35–36. monitoring. 65(3): 23–26. lite imagery for burned area emer­ Barnett, James K. Contrast modeling Ferguson, Joseph P. Building a land- gency response. 65(2): 37–39. and predicting fire behavior. 65(3): scape-level prescribed fire program. Owen, Wayne; Brown, Hutch. The 19–22. 65(3): 16–18. effects of fire on rare plants. 65(4): Barrett, Stephen W.; Swetnam, Thomas Graham, Russell T.; Finney, Mark 13–15. W.; Baker, William L. Aboriginal A.; Cohen, Jack; Robichaud, Peter Quinn, Beth. Oregon’s Biscuit Fire: burning: Deflating the legend. 65(3): R.; Romme, William; Kent, Brian. Monster in the woods. 65(2): 4–17. 31–34. Hayman Fire impacts. 65(1): 19–22. Raymond, Crystal; Peterson, David L. Beal, Doug. Rodeo–Chediski: Some Keeley, Jon E. Chaparral fuel modifica­ How did prefire treatments affect the underlying questions. 65(1): 13–16. tion: What do we know—and need to Biscuit Fire? 65(2): 18–22. Brown, Hutch. Ecological restoration: know? 65(4): 10–11. Robbins, Jan. Snow Camp Lookout: Two recent studies. 65(3): 11. Keeley, Jon E. Lessons from the 2003 Remembering a Biscuit Fire casualty. Brown, Hutch. Ecological restoration fire siege in California. 65(4): 9–10. 65(2): 23–24. in Montana’s western larch. 65(4): Keller, Jeremy A. A new look at wild­ Roizen, Ron; See, Jim. The Big 29–35. land/urban interface hazard reduc­ Blowup’s impact on an Idaho town. Cheng, Tony S.; Becker, Dennis R. tion. 65(3): 8–11. 65(4): 24–25. Public perspectives on the “wildfire Keller, Jeremy A. On parallel tracks: Scott, Larry. Forest fire. 65(1): 23. problem.” 65(3): 12–15. The wildland fire and emergency Southard, Lewis F. Two Golden Smokey Delaney, Ed. The ABCs of correctly management communities. 65(1): Awards presented for 2004. 65(4): mapping a fire. 65(3): 27–30. 30–34. 36–37. Dillon, Madelyn. Fire Management Keller, Paul. Arizona’s Rodeo–Chediski Swetnam, Thomas W. Fire in our Today announces 2004 photo contest Fire: A forest health problem. 65(1): mountains—and mountains in our winners. 65(4): 38–45. 7–9. rivers. 65(2): 28–29. DiMauro, Susan. Los Alamos Project: Keller, Paul. Rodeo–Chediski: Tribal Tymstra, Cordy; MacGregor, Bruce; Reducing Fire Hazards in the loss. 65(1): 10–12. Mayer, Bruce. Alberta’s House River Wildland/Urban Interface Keller, Paul. The Southwest: A record- Fire. 65(1): 16–18. 65(4): 21–23. breaking fire year. 65(1): 4–6. Weaver, Traci. Operation Success: Donovan, Geoffrey H.; Nordijk, Peter. Keller, Paul. Treatment area saves Columbia Space Shuttle recovery. Prediction errors in wildland fire ranger station. 65(3): 37. 65(2): 32–34. situation analyses. 65(2): 25–27. Keller, Paul. Treatment success on the Weaver, Traci. Shuttle recovery: Largest Editor. Corrections on Thirtymile. Rodeo–Chediski Fire. 65(2): 30–31. GIS emergency response to date. 65(1): Back cover. Kolaks, Jeremy; Grabner, Keith; 65(2): 35–36. Editor. Websites on fire. 65(1): 15. Hartman, George; Cutter, Bruce E.; Williams, Jerry. America’s wildlands: A Loewenstein, Edward F. An updated future in peril. 65(3): 4–7. Editor. Websites on fire. 65(2): 17. rate-of-spread clock. 65(4): 26–27. Williams, Jerry. Reconciling frictions in Editor. Websites on fire. 65(3): 22. Lannom, Keith; Quayle, Brad; Finco, policy to sustain fire-dependent eco­ Editor. Websites on fire. 65(4): 10. Mark. Satellite mapping of wildland systems. 65(4): 4–8. ■ Frederick, Ken; Benefield, Mike. The fire activity. 65(2): 40–41. Digi-Tall Complex: A look at the McClure, Richard. Washington’s “awful future? 65(4): 16–20. conflagration”—The Yacolt Fire of 1902. 65(1): 24–27. Munson, Steve; Fisher, Chad. “Transition”: What does the word mean? 65(1): 28–29.

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 101 subJect index—Volume 64

American Indians Burned Area Emergency Public perspectives on the “wildfire problem.” Tony S. Cheng and Dennis Aboriginal burning: Deflating the leg­ Response R. Becker. 65(3): 12–15. end. Stephen W. Barrett, Thomas W. Using satellite imagery for burned Swetnam, William L. Baker. 65(3): area emergency response. Andrew Shuttle recovery: Largest GIS emer­ 31–34. Orleman, Jess Clark, Annette gency response to date. Traci Weaver. 65(2): 35–36. Ecological restoration in Montana’s Parsons, and Keith Lannom. 65(2): western larch. Hutch Brown. 65(4): 37–39. 29–35. Ecological Restoration Rodeo–Chediski: Tribal loss. Paul California Ecological restoration: Two recent Keller. 65(1): 10–12. America’s wildlands: A future in peril. studies. Hutch Brown. 65(3): 11. Jerry Williams. 65(3): 4–7. Ecological restoration in Montana’s Arizona Chaparral fuel modification: What do western larch. Hutch Brown. 65(4): 29–35. Arizona’s Rodeo–Chediski Fire: A forest we know—and need to know? Jon E. health problem. Paul Keller. 65(1): Keeley. 65(4): 10–11. 7–9. Lessons from the 2003 fire siege in Emergency Management Fire in our mountains—and moun­ California. Jon E. Keeley. 65(4): On parallel tracks: The wildland fire tains in our rivers. Thomas W. 9–10. and emergency management com­ Swetnam. 65(2): 28–29. Reconciling frictions in policy to sus­ munities. Jeremy A. Keller. 65(1): 30–34. Rodeo–Chediski: Some underlying tain fire-dependent ecosystems. Jerry questions. Doug Beal. 65(1): 13–16. Williams. 65(4): 4–8. Operation Success: Columbia Space Shuttle recovery. Traci Weaver. 65(2): Rodeo–Chediski: Tribal loss. Paul 32–34. Keller. 65(1): 10–12. Canada Shuttle recovery: Largest GIS emer­ Treatment area saves ranger station. Alberta’s House River Fire. Cordy gency response to date. Traci Paul Keller. 65(3): 37. Tymstra, Bruce MacGregor, and Bruce Mayer. 65(1): 16–18. Weaver. 65(2): 35–36. Treatment success on the Rodeo– Using satellite imagery for burned Chediski Fire. Paul Keller. 65(2): Long-term experiment takes some area emergency response. Andrew 30–31. of the mystery out of crown fires. Martin E. Alexander. 65(3): 35–36. Orleman, Jess Clark, Annette Parsons, and Keith Lannom. 65(2): Art 37–39. Cooperation Fire Management Today announces Building a landscape-level prescribed 2004 photo contest winners. Madelyn Equipment and Dillon. 65(4): 38–45. fire program. Joseph P. Ferguson. 65(3): 16–18. Engineering Forest fire. Larry Scott. 65(1): 23. The Digi-Tall Complex: A look at the Los Alamos project: Reducing fire haz­ future? Ken Frederick and Mike ards in the wildland/urban interface. Benefield. 65(4): 16–20. Aviation Susan DiMauro. 65(4): 21–23. Satellite mapping of wildland fire activ­ The Digi-Tall Complex: A look at the A new look at wildland/urban interface ity. Keith Lannom, Brad Quayle, and future? Ken Frederick and Mike hazard reduction. Jeremy A. Keller. Mark Finco. 65(2): 40–41. Benefield. 65(4): 16–20. 65(3): 8–11. Shuttle recovery: Largest GIS emer­ On parallel tracks: The wildland fire gency response to date. Traci Awards and emergency management com­ Weaver. 65(2): 35–36. Two Golden Smokey Awards presented munities. Jeremy A. Keller. 65(1): for 2004. Lewis F. Southard. 65(4): 30–34. An updated rate-of-spread clock. Jeremy Kolaks, Keith Grabner, 36–37. Operation Success: Columbia Space George Hartman, Bruce E. Cutter, Shuttle recovery. Traci Weaver. 65(2): and Edward F. Loewenstein. 65(4): 32–34. 26–27.

Fire Management Today 102 Using satellite imagery for burned America’s wildlands: A future in peril. Arizona’s Rodeo–Chediski Fire: A forest area emergency response. Andrew Jerry Williams. 65(3): 4–7. health problem. Paul Keller. 65(1): Orleman, Jess Clark, Annette Ecological restoration: Two recent 7–9. Parsons, and Keith Lannom. 65(2): studies. Hutch Brown. 65(3): 11. Fire in our mountains—and moun­ 37–39. Ecological restoration in Montana’s tains in our rivers. Thomas W. western larch. Hutch Brown. 65(4): Swetnam. 65(2): 28–29. Fire Behavior 29–35. Hayman Fire impacts. Russell T. Alberta’s House River Fire. Cordy The effects of fire on rare plants. Graham, Mark A. Finney, Jack Tymstra, Bruce MacGregor, and Wayne Owen and Hutch Brown. Cohen, Peter R. Robichaud, William Bruce Mayer. 65(1): 16–18. 65(4): 13–15. Romme, and Brian Kent. 65(1): 19–22. Chaparral fuel modification: What do Fire in our mountains—and moun­ we know—and need to know? Jon E. tains in our rivers. Thomas W. Lessons from the 2003 fire siege in Keeley. 65(4): 10–11. Swetnam. 65(2): 28–29. California. Jon E. Keeley. 65(4): 9–10. Contrast modeling and predicting fire Rodeo–Chediski: Some underlying behavior. James K. Barnett. 65(3): questions. Doug Beal. 65(1): 13–16. Oregon’s Biscuit Fire: Monster in the 19–22. woods. Beth Quinn. 65(2): 4–17. Reconciling frictions in policy to sus­ How did prefire treatments affect the tain fire-dependent ecosystems. Jerry Rodeo–Chediski: Some underlying Biscuit Fire? Crystal Raymand and Williams. 65(4): 4–8. questions. Doug Beal. 65(1): 13–16. David L. Peterson. 65(2): 18–22. The Southwest: A record-breaking fire Lessons from the 2003 fire siege in Fire Effects year. Paul Keller. 65(1): 4–6. California. Jon E. Keeley. 65(4): Treatment success on the Rodeo– 9–10. The Big Blowup’s impact on an Idaho town. Ron Roizen and Jim See. Chediski Fire. Paul Keller. 65(2): Long-term experiment takes some 65(4): 24–25. 30–31. of the mystery out of crown fires. Washington’s “awful conflagration”— Martin E. Alexander. 65(3): 35–36. The effects of fire on rare plants. Wayne Owen and Hutch Brown. The Yacolt Fire of 1902. Richard Rapid-response fire behavior research 65(4): 13–15. McClure. 65(1): 24–27. and real-time monitoring. Carol J. Henson. 65(3): 23–26. Fire in our mountains—and moun­ tains in our rivers. Thomas W. Fire Prevention Rodeo–Chediski: Some underlying Swetnam. 65(2): 28–29. Two Golden Smokey Awards presented questions. Doug Beal. 65(1): 13–16. Hayman Fire impacts. Russell T. for 2004. Lewis F. Southard. 65(4): Oregon’s Biscuit Fire: Monster in the Graham, Mark A. Finney, Jack 36–37. woods. Beth Quinn. 65(2): 4–17. Cohen, Peter R. Robichaud, William Treatment area saves ranger station. Romme, and Brian Kent. 65(1): Fire Use Paul Keller. 65(3): 37. 19–22. Aboriginal burning: Deflating the leg­ Treatment success on the Rodeo– How did prefire treatments affect the end. Stephen W. Barrett, Thomas W. Chediski Fire. Paul Keller. 65(2): Biscuit Fire? Crystal Raymand and Swetnam, William L. Baker. 65(3): 30–31. David L. Peterson. 65(2): 18–22. 31–34. An updated rate-of-spread clock. Rodeo–Chediski: Some underlying The Digi-Tall Complex: A look at the Jeremy Kolaks, Keith Grabner, questions. Doug Beal. 65(1): 13–16. future? Ken Frederick and Mike George Hartman, Bruce E. Cutter, Treatment success on the Rodeo– Benefield. 65(4): 16–20. and Edward F. Loewenstein. 65(4): Chediski Fire. Paul Keller. 65(2): Ecological restoration: Two recent 26–27. 30–31. studies. Hutch Brown. 65(3): 11. Washington’s “awful conflagration”— Ecological restoration in Montana’s The Yacolt Fire of 1902. Richard Fire History western larch. Hutch Brown. 65(4): McClure. 65(1): 24–27. Aboriginal burning: Deflating the leg­ 29–35. end. Stephen W. Barrett, Thomas W. Fire Ecology Swetnam, William L. Baker. 65(3): Fuels Management Aboriginal burning: Deflating the leg­ 31–34. Arizona’s Rodeo–Chediski Fire: A forest end. Stephen W. Barrett, Thomas W. Alberta’s House River Fire. Cordy health problem. Paul Keller. 65(1): Swetnam, William L. Baker. 65(3): Tymstra, Bruce MacGregor, and 7–9. 31–34. Bruce Mayer. 65(1): 16–18.

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 103 Building a landscape-level prescribed The Big Blowup’s impact on an Idaho Washington’s “awful conflagration”— fire program. Joseph P. Ferguson. town. Ron Roizen and Jim See. The Yacolt Fire of 1902. Richard 65(3): 16–18. 65(4): 24–25. McClure. 65(1): 24–27. Chaparral fuel modification: What do Reconciling frictions in policy to sus­ we know—and need to know? Jon E. tain fire-dependent ecosystems. Jerry Lookouts Keeley. 65(4): 10–11. Williams. 65(4): 4–8. Snow Camp Lookout: Remembering a Ecological restoration: Two recent Rodeo–Chediski: Some underlying Biscuit Fire casualty. Jan Robbins. studies. Hutch Brown. 65(3): 11. questions. Doug Beal. 65(1): 13–16. 65(2): 23–24. Ecological restoration in Montana’s Snow Camp Lookout: Remembering a western larch. Hutch Brown. 65(4): Biscuit Fire casualty. Jan Robbins. Mapping 29–35. 65(2): 23–24. The ABCs of correctly mapping a fire. How did prefire treatments affect the The Southwest: A record-breaking fire Ed Delaney. 65(3): 27–30. Biscuit Fire? Crystal Raymand and year. Paul Keller. 65(1): 4–6. David L. Peterson. 65(2): 18–22. Washington’s “awful conflagration”— Montana Lessons from the 2003 fire siege in The Yacolt Fire of 1902. Richard Ecological restoration in Montana’s California. Jon E. Keeley. 65(4): McClure. 65(1): 24–27. western larch. Hutch Brown. 65(4): 9–10. 29–35. Los Alamos project: Reducing fire haz­ Idaho ards in the wildland/urban interface. The Big Blowup’s impact on an Idaho New Mexico Susan DiMauro. 65(4): 21–23. town. Ron Roizen and Jim See. Los Alamos project: Reducing fire haz­ A new look at wildland/urban interface 65(4): 24–25. ards in the wildland/urban interface. hazard reduction. Jeremy A. Keller. Susan DiMauro. 65(4): 21–23. 65(3): 8–11. Incident Management Rodeo–Chediski: Some underlying Alberta’s House River Fire. Cordy Oregon questions. Doug Beal. 65(1): 13–16. Tymstra, Bruce MacGregor, and How did prefire treatments affect the Treatment area saves ranger station. Bruce Mayer. 65(1): 16–18. Biscuit Fire? Crystal Raymand and Paul Keller. 65(3): 37. Contrast modeling and predicting fire David L. Peterson. 65(2): 18–22. Treatment success on the Rodeo– behavior. James K. Barnett. 65(3): Oregon’s Biscuit Fire: Monster in the Chediski Fire. Paul Keller. 65(2): 19–22. woods. Beth Quinn. 65(2): 4–17. 30–31. Corrections on Thirtymile. Editor. 65(1): Back cover. Personnel Geographic Information The Digi-Tall Complex: A look at the Systems The Digi-Tall Complex: A look at the future? Ken Frederick and Mike future? Ken Frederick and Mike Shuttle recovery: Largest GIS emer­ Benefield. 65(4): 16–20. Benefield. 65(4): 16–20. gency response to date. Traci Weaver. On parallel tracks: The wildland fire Websites on fire. Editor. 65(1): 15. 65(2): 35–36. and emergency management com­ munities. Jeremy A. Keller. 65(1): Hazard/Risk Assessment 30–34. Policy Chaparral fuel modification: What do Operation Success: Columbia Space America’s wildlands: A future in peril. we know—and need to know? Jon E. Shuttle recovery. Traci Weaver. 65(2): Jerry Williams. 65(3): 4–7. Keeley. 65(4): 10–11. 32–34. Chaparral fuel modification: What do Los Alamos project: Reducing fire haz­ Oregon’s Biscuit Fire: Monster in the we know—and need to know? Jon E. ards in the wildland/urban interface. woods. Beth Quinn. 65(2): 4–17. Keeley. 65(4): 10–11. Susan DiMauro. 65(4): 21–23. Prediction errors in wildland fire situ­ Ecological restoration: Two recent A new look at wildland/urban interface ation analyses. Geoffrey H. Donovan studies. Hutch Brown. 65(3): 11. hazard reduction. Jeremy A. Keller. and Peter Nordijk. 65(2): 25–27. Ecological restoration in Montana’s 65(3): 8–11. Shuttle recovery: Largest GIS emer­ western larch. Hutch Brown. 65(4): gency response to date. 29–35. History Traci Weaver. 65(2): 35–36. Fire in our mountains—and moun­ America’s wildlands: A future in peril. “Transition”: What does the word tains in our rivers. Thomas W. Jerry Williams. 65(3): 4–7. mean? Steve Munson and Chad Swetnam. 65(2): 28–29. Fisher. 65(1): 28–29. Fire Management Today 104 Hayman Fire impacts. Russell T. Satellite mapping of wildland fire activ­ Building a landscape-level prescribed Graham, Mark A. Finney, Jack ity. Keith Lannom, Brad Quayle, and fire program. Joseph P. Ferguson. Cohen, Peter R. Robichaud, William Mark Finco. 65(2): 40–41. 65(3): 16–18. Romme, and Brian Kent. 65(1): Using satellite imagery for burned Contrast modeling and predicting fire 19–22. area emergency response. Andrew behavior. James K. Barnett. 65(3): Lessons from the 2003 fire siege in Orleman, Jess Clark, Annette 19–22. California. Jon E. Keeley. 65(4): 9–10. Parsons, and Keith Lannom. 65(2): Public perspectives on the “wildfire Reconciling frictions in policy to sus­ 37–39. problem.” Tony S. Cheng and Dennis tain fire-dependent ecosystems. Jerry R. Becker. 65(3): 12–15. Williams. 65(4): 4–8. Southwest Rodeo–Chediski: Some underlying The Southwest: A record-breaking fire Washington questions. Doug Beal. 65(1): 13–16. year. Paul Keller. 65(1): 4–6. Washington’s “awful conflagration”— “Transition”: What does the word Websites on fire. Editor. 65(4): 10. The Yacolt Fire of 1902. Richard mean? Steve Munson and Chad McClure. 65(1): 24–27. Fisher. 65(1): 28–29. Suppression Alberta’s House River Fire. Cordy Weather Preparedness/Planning Tymstra, Bruce MacGregor, and Contrast modeling and predicting fire The ABCs of correctly mapping a fire. Bruce Mayer. 65(1): 16–18. behavior. James K. Barnett. 65(3): Ed Delaney. 65(3): 27–30. Contrast modeling and predicting fire 19–22. On parallel tracks: The wildland fire and behavior. James K. Barnett. 65(3): The Digi-Tall Complex: A look at the emergency management communi­ 19–22. future? Ken Frederick and Mike ties. Jeremy A. Keller. 65(1): 30–34. Corrections on Thirtymile. Editor. Benefield. 65(4): 16–20. Prediction errors in wildland fire situ­ 65(1): Back cover. The Southwest: A record-breaking fire ation analyses. Geoffrey H. Donovan The Digi-Tall Complex: A look at the year. Paul Keller. 65(1): 4–6. and Peter Nordijk. 65(2): 25–27. future? Ken Frederick and Mike Benefield. 65(4): 16–20. Wildland/Urban Interface Prescribed Fire Rodeo–Chediski: Some underlying America’s wildlands: A future in peril. Building a landscape-level prescribed questions. Doug Beal. 65(1): 13–16. Jerry Williams. 65(3): 4–7. fire program. Joseph P. Ferguson. Oregon’s Biscuit Fire: Monster in the Chaparral fuel modification: What do 65(3): 16–18. woods. Beth Quinn. 65(2): 4–17. we know—and need to know? Jon E. “Transition”: What does the word Keeley. 65(4): 10–11. Research/Technology mean? Steve Munson and Chad Lessons from the 2003 fire siege in The ABCs of correctly mapping a fire. Fisher. 65(1): 28–29. California. Jon E. Keeley. 65(4): Ed Delaney. 65(3): 27–30. An updated rate-of-spread clock. 9–10. Long-term experiment takes some Jeremy Kolaks, Keith Grabner, Los Alamos project: Reducing fire haz­ of the mystery out of crown fires. George Hartman, Bruce E. Cutter, ards in the wildland/urban interface. Martin E. Alexander. 65(3): 35–36. and Edward F. Loewenstein. 65(4): Susan DiMauro. 65(4): 21–23. Rapid-response fire behavior research 26–27. A new look at wildland/urban interface and real-time monitoring. Carol J. hazard reduction. Jeremy A. Keller. Henson. 65(3): 23–26. Texas 65(3): 8–11. Satellite mapping of wildland fire activ­ Operation Success: Columbia Space Public perspectives on the “wildfire ity. Keith Lannom, Brad Quayle, and Shuttle recovery. Traci Weaver. 65(2): problem.” Tony S. Cheng and Dennis Mark Finco. 65(2): 40–41. 32–34. R. Becker. 65(3): 12–15. Shuttle recovery: Largest GIS emer­ Shuttle recovery: Largest GIS emer­ Reconciling frictions in policy to sus­ gency response to date. gency response to date. Traci Weaver. tain fire-dependent ecosystems. Jerry Traci Weaver. 65(2): 35–36. 65(2): 35–36. Williams. 65(4): 4–8. Websites on fire. Editor. 65(2): 17. Satellites Training/Education The Digi-Tall Complex: A look at the The ABCs of correctly mapping a fire. Yellowstone future? Ken Frederick and Mike Ed Delaney. 65(3): 27–30. Websites on fire. Editor. 65(3): 22. ■ Benefield. 65(4): 16–20.

Volume 66 • No. 1 • Winter 2006 105 guidelines For contributors

Editorial Policy Release Authorizations. Non-Federal Style. Authors are responsible for using Fire Management Today (FMT) is an inter­ Government authors and coauthors must wildland fire terminology that conforms national quarterly magazine for the wildland sign a release to allow their work to be in the to the latest standards set by the National fire community. FMT welcomes unsolicited public domain and on the World Wide Web. In Wildfire Coordinating Group under the manuscripts from readers on any subject addition, all photos that are not the property National Interagency Incident Management related to fire management. Because space is of the Federal Government require a written System. FMT uses the spelling, capitalization, a consideration, long manuscripts might be release by the photographer. The author and hyphenation, and other styles recommended abridged by the editor, subject to approval by photo release forms are available from General in the United States Government Printing the author; FMT does print short pieces of Manager Melissa Frey. Office Style Manual, as required by the U.S. interest to readers. Department of Agriculture. Authors should Logo. Authors who are affiliated should use the U.S. system of weight and measure, Submission Guidelines submit a camera-ready logo for their agency, with equivalent values in the metric system. Your manuscript may be hand-written, typed, institution, or organization. or word-processed, and you may submit it Try to keep titles concise and descriptive; either by e-mail or mail to one of the follow­ Electronic files. If you are mailing a word- subheadings and bulleted material are useful ing addresses: processed manuscript, submit it on a 3-1/2 and help readability. As a general rule of clear inch, IBM-compatible disk. Please label all writing, use the active voice (e.g., write, “Fire General manager: disks carefully with name(s) of file(s) and managers know…” and not, “It is known…”). USDA Forest Service system(s) used. Submit electronic text files, Provide spellouts for all abbreviations. Consult Attn: Melissa Frey, F&AM Staff whether by e-mail or on a disk, in one of recent issues (at ) for placement of the author’s Avenue, SW WordPerfect 7.0 or earlier for Windows 95; name, title, agency affiliation, and location, Washington, DC 20250-1107 Microsoft Word 6.0 or earlier for Windows 95; as well as for style of paragraph headings and tel. 202-205-0955, fax 202-205-1401 Rich Text format; or ASCII. references. e-mail: [email protected] Do not embed illustrations (such as photos, Tables. Tables should be logical and under­ Managing editor: maps, charts, and graphs) in the electronic standable without reading the text. Include USDA Forest Service file for the manuscript. We will accept digital tables at the end of the manuscript. Attn: Hutch Brown, Office of the Chief images if the image was shot at the highest 4NW Yates, 201 14th Street, SW resolution using a camera with at least 2.5 Photos and Illustrations. Clearly label all Washington, DC 20024 megapixels or if the image was scanned at 300 photos and illustrations (figure 1, 2, 3, etc.; tel. 202-205-0896, fax 202-205-1765 lines per inch or equivalent with a minimum photograph A, B, C, etc.). At the end of the e-mail: [email protected] output size of 5 x 7 inches. Submit each manuscript, include clear, thorough figure illustration in a standard interchange format and photo captions labeled in the same way Author Information. Include the complete such as EPS, TIFF, or JPEG, accompanied by as the corresponding material (figure 1, 2, name(s), title(s), affiliation(s), and address(es) a high-resolution (preferably laser) printout. 3; photograph A, B, C; etc.). Captions should of the author(s), as well as telephone and fax For charts and graphs, include the raw data make photos and illustrations understandable numbers and e-mail information. If the same needed to reconstruct them. without reading the text. For photos, indicate or a similar manuscript is being submitted the name and affiliation of the photographer elsewhere, include that information also. and the year the photo was taken.

Contributors Wanted We need your fire-related articles and photographs for Fire Management Today! Feature articles should be up to about 2,000 words in length but may be longer. We also take very short items. Subjects of articles published in Fire Management Today include: Aviation Firefighting experiences Communication Incident management Cooperation Information management (including systems) Ecosystem management Personnel Equipment/technology Planning (including budgeting) Fire behavior Preparedness Fire ecology Prevention/Education Fire effects Safety Fire history Suppression Fire science Training Fire use (including prescribed fire) Weather Fuels management Wildland/urban interface To help prepare your submission, see “Guidelines for Contributors” in this issue.

Fire Management Today 106 thirteen Prescribed Fire situations that shout watch out!* John Maupin

You are burning with a plan that has not You decide a test fire is unnecessary. 1. been approved by the appropriate line 8. officer. 9. You decide all your people are old hands 2. You are not a qualified burning boss but and no briefing is necessary. have been told to go ahead and burn. 10. Escape probability is small so you don’t 3. The objective of the burn is not clear. bother with escape planning. You, or the firing boss, are beginning to There are areas of special concern within 11. lose control of your torch people. 4. the burn that cannot be burned. 12. Mop-up and patrol instructions are not 5. Private land or structures adjoin the burn. specific or understood by the mop-up boss. You haven’t lost one in a long time and are You are uncomfortable with the 13. starting to feel smug. 6. prescription.

You have not requested spot weather When this article was originally published, John Maupin was a 7. forecasts. fire staff officer for the USDA Forest Service, Ochoco National Forest, Prineville, OR.

* The article is reprinted from Fire Management Notes 42(4) [1981]:10.

websites on Fire* A Guide for can benefit prescribed fire practitio- Originally written in 1966, the Prescribed Fire in ners in all regions. guide was revised throughout Southern Forests the 1970s and rewritten in 1988 The guide’s topics include vari- by Dale D. Wade of the USDA This well-compressed “how to” ous techniques for implement- Forest Service’s Southeastern guide provides time-proven infor­ ing prescribed fire, prescribed Forest Experiment Station and mation to help resource manag­ fire’s environmental effects, and James D. Lunsford of the Forest ers plan and execute prescribed the importance of weather when Service’s regional office, Fire and burns within ecosystems in the prescribe-burning. Its overrid- Aviation Unit, Southern Region. Southern States. But its insights ing purpose: to provide the basic In 1990, the National Wildfire * Occasionally, Fire Management Today briefly information to help one become Coordinating Group’s Prescribed describes Websites brought to our attention by the wildland fire community. Readers should not technically proficient in the proper Fire and Fire Effects Working construe the description of these sites as in any use of prescribed fire. Its informa- Team sponsored the guide’s pub- way exhaustive or as an official endorsement by the USDA Forest Service. To have a Website described, tion—including a comprehensive lication. contact the managing editor, Hutch Brown, at USDA Forest Service, Office of the Chief, Yates glossary and suggested reading Building, 4th Floor Northwest, 201 14th Street, list—is well presented. Found at