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Fire today ManagementVolume 67 • No. 1 • Winter 2007
Mutiny on Boulder Mountain CoMparing agenCy and ContraCt Crew Costs the 10 FireFighting orders, does their arrangeMent really Matter?
United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service Coming Next… Just 16 years after the Wright brothers’ historic first flight at Kitty Hawk, the Forest Service pioneered the use of aircraft. The next issue of Fire Management Today (67[2] Spring 2007) will focus on the rich history and role of aviation in wildland fire. This issue will include insights into the history of both the rappelling and smokejumping programs, the development of the wildland fire chemical systems program, and what’s new with the 747 supertanker. The issue’s special coordinator is Melissa Frey, general manager of Fire Management Today.
Fire Management Today is published by the Forest Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC. The Secretary of Agriculture has determined that the publication of this periodical is necessary in the transaction of the public business required by law of this Department.
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Mike Johanns, Secretary Melissa Frey U.S. Department of Agriculture General Manager
Abigail R. Kimbell, Chief Paul Keller Forest Service Managing Editor
Tom Harbour, Director Madelyn Dillon Fire and Aviation Management Editor
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Fire Management Today Fire Management today Volume 67 • No. 1 • Winter 2007
On the Cover: Contents Mutiny on Boulder Mountain ...... 4 James M. Hagen
Comparing the Costs of Agency and Contract Fire Crews . . . . 9 Geoffrey H. Donovan
Appearances, Reality, and the Rhetoric of Fighting Wildfires . . . 13 Alan P. Church
Restoring the Interior Ozark Highlands ...... 20 John Andre, Mark Morales, and McRee Anderson
Lessons Learned From Rapid Response Research on Wildland Fires ...... 24 On the Cover: Beauty and the Leigh Lentile, Penny Morgan, Colin Hardy, Andrew Hudak, Beast—A wildland firefighter is Robert Means, Roger Ottmar, Peter Robichaud, Elaine Sutherland, silhouetted under a madrone tree Frederick Way, and Sarah Lewis during night burnout operations on the 2005 Blossom Complex on the Improving Fire Management: What Resource Managers Siskiyou National Forest, Medford, OR. This photo earned second place Need To Know From Recreation Visitors ...... 32 honors in the “ground resources” Deborah J. Chavez and Nancy E. Knap category in Fire Management Today’s 2006 photo contest. It was taken by Examining the Sources of Public Support for Eli Lehmann, squad leader on the Wildland Fire Policies ...... 35 Baker River Hotshot Crew, Mount James D. Absher and Jerry J. Vaske Baker–Snoqualmie National Forest, Concrete, WA. Computing the Low Elevation Haines Index ...... 40 Brian E. Potter, Julie A. Winkler, Dwight F. Wilhelm, and The Forest Service’s Fire and Aviation Ryan P. Shadbolt Management Staff has adopted a logo reflecting three central principles of A Fuels Management Bibliography With Subject Index . . . . . 44 wildland fire management: M.E. Alexander • Innovation: We will respect and value thinking minds, voices, and thoughts of those that challenge the status quo while focusing on the greater good. short Features • Execution: We will do what we say we Access to Critical Fire Information and Resources ...... 31 will do. Achieving program objectives, improving diversity, and accomplishing targets are essential to our credibility. An Invitation To Collaborate With Your Peers ...... 39 • Discipline: What we do, we will do well. Improving Wildland Firefighter and Public Safety Fiscal, managerial, and operational dis- Through Fire Behavior Research and Development ...... 49 cipline are at the core of our ability to fulfill our mission. M.E. Alexander Web Sites on Fire ...... 50 2007 Photo Contest ...... InsideBackCover
Firefighter and public safety is our first priority.
Volume 67 • No. 1 • Winter 2007 Mutiny on Boulder Mountain James M. Hagen
he year was 1943. The United States was at war. Manpower We had absolutely no knowledge of this T here on the homefront was firefighting business and were literally short on strong, able-bodied men. Women, old men, and young boys conscripted into service. were filling the gaps left by our men who were away in the Armed Forces. At the end of a very hot summer Our destination was still unknown day, we had just gathered to eat in to us. I was one of those boys—an Eagle the dining hall when some Forest Scout, 16 years old. I was spend Service personnel came in and Our driver, known as “Punjab,” was ing the summer on the staff of asked for all young men 16 years a big, burly East Indian man who Boy Scout Camp Geronimo near and older to stand up. drove the winding roads with a Payson, AZ. In those days, the camp vengeance. When we sailed through was located across the road from I stood. So did 10 other young men, the Sycamore Creek area, we had Kohl’s Ranch on Tonto Creek. (It mostly fellow camp staff members. to hit the deck on the truck’s bed has since been relocated closer to to avoid being whipped by the Pine, AZ.) Whatever this was, it sounded very Sycamore tree branches. serious. There was no time, howev I—along with friend and fellow er, for questions and answers—only The tiny community of scout, John Shipley—was in charge to listen and respond. “Come with Sunflower—usually just a pit stop of the handicraft lodge where many us” were our orders. Before we for something cold to drink—was of the scouts would work on craft knew it, we found ourselves recruit about half way to Phoenix. Just kits or make articles from leather. ed as firefighters. before this more or less wide spot Moccasins and tooled-belts were the in the road, we pulled over at the favorites. The aroma of the fresh Forest Service’s Sunflower Ranger leather, purchased from Porter’s “Come with us” were Station (part of today’s Mesa Ranger District, Tonto National Saddle Shop in Phoenix, added to our orders. the pleasantry of our craft shop Forest). By now, it was dark. The environment. ranger suggested we get some sleep before starting out for the fire We had absolutely no knowledge front. Most of us had grabbed our of this firefighting business and sleeping bags as we’d exited Camp were literally conscripted into ser James Hagen, 80, of Payson, AZ, was a Geronimo. This would be the last 16-year-old Boy Scout in 1943 who was vice. But, of course, all of us were good night’s sleep we would get for conscripted into helping suppress the excited at the prospect of a great Boulder Mountain Fire on the Tonto nearly 2 weeks. National Forest. He would be dispatched to adventure. two other Arizona wildfires during his Boy Scout years. He went on to fly airplanes With no time for packing, plan Meet the Brush Hook in the U.S. Navy, and, at age 40, earned Before daylight, we were awakened a B.S. in physics while working full time. ning, or other preparations, we In 1994, before retiring from a 46-year were herded into the back of a and given our firefighting tools and career in engineering, he designed a coun stake-body truck and sent speed marching orders. The fire was on termeasures system for the Air Force One ing southward through the dust Boulder Mountain, located south presidential 747 aircraft to protect it from east of Sunflower. There in the shoulder-fired heat-seeking missiles. Fire of the Bush Highway, predecessor Management Today is indebted to Cindy to today’s Highway 87. Back then, early dawn we could see the smoke Frantsen, a resource clerk for the Payson the Bush Highway was unpaved, nearly 5 miles away. Ranger District, Tonto National Forest, for bringing this article by Mr. Hagen to our narrow, and always a difficult and attention. hazardous travel route.
Fire Management Today We would have to “hoof it” to the This would be the last good night’s sleep fireline. we would get for nearly 2 weeks. Each of us was given a firefighting tool—axe, rake, hoe—that would become our constant companion. I Our 11 young, inexperienced—but John Shipley and I had known each received a tool I’d never even heard energetic—scouts were joined other for many years. We worked of before: a brush hook. With its by 10 seasoned, experienced, and closely together on the fireline just heavy head and long, sharp-curved much older men. That made a total like we had labored together at blade, this hybrid between an axe of 21 of us to fight a completely different tasks many times before. and a scythe was used to cut and out-of-control fire that had already While we were good friends, we clear brush. burned more than 1,000 acres (405 were opposites in personality. John ha) of cedar, scrub oak, mesquite, was a laidback, fun-loving and jok Whatever tool you ended up with and manzanita. ing type of person. I tended to be pretty much determined what tasks more quiet and serious. We com you would be assigned. I was to The fire was burning westward plemented each other and worked soon learn that just a few hours of on the north side of Boulder well together. swinging that brush hook could Mountain, which is comprised of tire out even a strong adult. a series of north–south ridges that Laboring in close proximity on the drop down into the valley below. fireline proved to be a good bond The next thing we know, an older Each ridgetop would be a potential ing experience. man says “come,” and off we place where a firebreak might stop go—leaving everything behind the raging inferno’s advance. The Fury and Power except the clothes on our back and The first day’s assignment was our one assigned firefighting tool. to build a firebreak down a long (We would sorely miss our sleeping After several days, our north–south ridge located west of bags.) It was rough climbing and a confidence and morale the fire. This would consume all long hike up the mountain to get to of what was left of the day. Even the fireline—especially when carry were approaching the though the work was difficult, we ing such a heavy tool. breaking point. tackled the job with enthusiasm. Much of the brush was stub Communications were utterly born manzanita that could not be lacking. Our parents, siblings, and hoed, chopped, axed or otherwise friends would not know about our moved—not even with the brush “adventure” until it was completely hook. Consequently, we learned over. There were no news helicop that the firebreak had to detour ters or journalists to let the rest of around such obstacles. the world know that this fire even existed. We were going off into the Late that evening, we quit due to wild unknown. lack of visibility and moved out of the danger area onto a high point Out-of-Control Fire away from the fire. That night we As we approached the fire, we heard watched as the fire crossed the bot a noise that was ominous—almost tom of the canyon and roared (loud frightening. It sounded like the as a jet plane) up the hill right roar of Niagara Falls. Our leader toward our firebreak. explained it was the fire devour ing everything in its path. That Reaching the hilltop, the flames leaped hundreds of feet into the roar never let up. It only, at times, Jim Hagen, at 17, 1 year after the young intensified. Our previous thrill of Eagle Scout experienced the trials and air, scattering sparks everywhere. adventure was now taking on a tribulations of being a conscripted wildland We watched in amazement and more serious tone. firefighter.
Volume 67 • No. 1 • Winter 2007 wonder at the awesome force of Mutinous talk began circulating this firestorm. That wildfire—with its power, fury, and thunderous among our band of scouts. noise—was like nothing any of us had ever experienced before. The rugged, rocky terrain took its Huge Rattlesnake We watched as the fire jumped our toll on us in many ways: wounds The work went on and on each day. line and started its slower burn from cactus and sharp brush; It was always a repeat of the previ down into the side of the next can sprains from stumbling over rocks; ous day. We would spend an entire yon. Our job the next day would and sunburn from long, hot days day building a firebreak—only to be to once again build a firebreak with absolutely zero shade. watch the fire jump our barrier down another ridge—out ahead of that night and head toward the the fire. After several days, our confidence next ridge. and morale were approaching the In case you’re wondering: “Where breaking point. By about the sixth This became extremely frustrat were the hotshots, the water-drop day, my boot soles had come loose. ing and heartbreaking. It made the helicopters, the slurry bombers, the With every step, they clacked like a whole situation seem futile. bulldozers?”—that’s easy to answer. pair of flippers. But I lived with it. They didn’t exist. There wasn’t even such a thing as One day we had a couple of spot “duct tape” to mend them. fires outside the main fire area. Fires, back then, were fought the John Shipley and I were assigned to old-fashioned way: with handtools get to these quickly and put them and hard labor. Of course, even Our parents, siblings, out before they could spread. We then, we were wondering if there and friends would made a good team and the task was wasn’t a better way. The thrill of soon done. That work was excit our new adventure was soon gone. not know about our ing and rewarding. But even more It was now just a hot, dusty, smoky, “adventure” until it was thrilling was the huge diamondback and backbreaking full-time task. completely over. rattlesnake that we discovered.
We Were Approaching That snake was at least 6 feet (1.9 the Breaking Point We wore the same clothes for the m) in length and 3 to 4 inches Our second day was a repeat of the duration of the fire. With barely (8–10 km) in diameter. It was the first: work a 16-hour day hoeing, enough water to drink, there was largest rattler either of us had ever raking, axing and whacking down no water to wash with or to brush seen. We wanted to kill him for the bushes and small trees to make a our teeth—even if we had possessed skin and rattles, but he escaped not-very-wide break down a very a toothbrush. into a cavern under a large rock long ridge. Then, just before dark, shelf. Rather foolishly, we grabbed we would retreat to a safe spot to The older men couldn’t shave. a long yucca stalk and tried to pull watch the fire advance and jump Their beards became traps for dust him out. We poked and prodded, our firebreak—again and again. and the soot from the fire. Those but the rattlesnake was deeply few who had hats had a distinct entrenched in his rocky retreat. Feelings of hopelessness were white band across their foreheads, We needed to get back to the main gradually creeping into our minds. just above the black of their faces. fireline. This wouldn’t be the last But, even so, we approached each We had become quite a motley rattler that we would see on that new day with a determination to crew. mountain. conquer this ugly beast. Mutinous Talk Begins In case you’re wondering: “Where were the hotshots, One day when our drinking water was almost gone, our leader showed the water-drop helicopters, the slurry bombers, the us how to find water by digging a bulldozers?”—that’s easy to answer. They didn’t exist. deep hole in the sand of an arroyo
Fire Management Today The Tricks of Firefighter Survival On the 1943 Boulder Mountain What about food and water? A light food, a few hard “dog biscuits,” Fire, T-shirt and blue jeans were aircraft, flown out of Phoenix by and a bar of high melting-point our firefighting uniforms. This A.L. Moore and Sons Mortuary and chocolate. Beggars can’t be choos might have been fine down in the a Civil Air Patrol member, attempt- ers. Each day, we were glad for valley. But up there on that moun- ed to drop us food, tools, and water. our two or three K-rations. And taintop, the night air became very that chocolate was as precious as cold. Not one of us had a jacket or No Drinking Water, gold. even a warm shirt. A Few ‘Dog Biscuits’ Every day someone took our one How could you get any sleep when We got the food. But the tools— pack mule and went to a distant you had goose bumps and your floated down by parachute—drifted horse-watering trough to bring teeth were chattering? off into a distant canyon. We never back our drinking “water.” It was found them. The water, on the always brackish. We drank it any- One of the old timers finally other hand, was pointed right at way. showed us how to sleep warmly. our location. This seemed to be a Making a bed of hot coals and perfect drop. But when its para- Our first casualty was a scout who covering it with dirt provided a chute opened, the handle ripped fell off the mule into a cactus. He warm—albeit unique—way to off of the water canister and all got cactus spines under his skin survive the night. You had to be the water shot down like a bomb, that could not be removed with- careful, though. You didn’t want exploding in our midst—right out surgery. He was sent out— to toss or turn too much in your along with our parched hopes for leaving 20 of us to continue on. bed—you might stir up the coals. good, clean potable water. Throughout the night, more At first, we felt sorry for him. But than one “ouch!” could always be Our food was Army K-rations. This we later realized that he was the heard. consisted of a wax-sealed box that lucky one. contained a small can of precooked - James M. Hagen near green vegetation. He dug the hole and found moisture that, given There were no news helicopters or journalists to time (probably hours), would seep let the rest of the world know that this fire even into the hole and provide enough water for survival. We were too existed. We were going off into the wild unknown. busy to wait for the water to seep in. But just the knowledge that it was there was somehow comfort What little food and water we were Geronimo. But, if we did this, ing. given had become even further what fate would await us? Walk rationed. The brackish water that the plank? Face a firing squad? By By about the seventh or eighth they supplied us was hardly fit to comparing our situation to that of day, we were 10 young men who drink. And there was absolutely no our faraway friends in the Armed were tired, hungry, thirsty, and way that the 21 of us could pos Forces, we managed to squelch completely ragged. The blistering sibly stop that fire. Mutinous talk our overriding urge to mutiny. days and frigid nights and hard began circulating among our band We finally realized that, compared work were taking their toll on the of scouts. We desperately wanted to to soldiers in combat, we had it morale of the troops. It didn’t seem leave and return to civilization. good—or, at least, so we rational to bother the older men, but the ized. rest of us were mumbling in our Our talk included how we might beards—that we didn’t even have slip away. How we might get yet! back the 60 miles or so to Camp
Volume 67 • No. 1 • Winter 2007 Rejuvenation and As we approached the fire, we heard an Reinforcements ominous noise. It was the fire devouring I think it was the eighth day—won- everything in its path. der of wonders—that the Forest Service came driving up the moun tain in 4-wheel-drive trucks with and we were truly thankful for their 20,000 acres (8,094 ha) before food, water, and more than 100 presence. being stopped. A crew of happy American Indians from New Mexico men—and boys—left that Boulder to join our effort. Instead of bugle With a rejuvenated crew of 21 and Mountain area rejoicing that a calls and shouts of “the cavalry is more than 100 reinforcements, difficult mission had been accom coming,” it was truck horns blow over the next 2 days the fire was plished. ing and “Indians to the rescue!” contained. It had burned nearly At $1 per hour, 10 scouts went That night they prepared a true home a bit richer materially, but feast for us. Huge steaks broiled far richer for their experience on over a bed of coals, fried potatoes, the fireline. The mutiny never corn, biscuits, fresh water, and occurred, nor was it mentioned coffee. All you could eat. Nothing aloud (outside our group of young could ever have tasted better. Our men), and we were thankful for thanksgiving for this was surely that and for the lessons learned. as great as that of the pilgrims at Plymouth Rock. We, too, were out These lessons would last a lifetime: numbered by American Indians— firefighting techniques, the value of hard work, the spirit of coopera tion, patience, persistence, endur We approached ance, and survival skills. Such each new day with things cannot be bought at any price. The reward for our efforts a determination to Jim Hagen, 80, with the firefighting brush was the satisfaction of accomplish conquer this ugly beast. hook tool that his teenage hands had ing a seemingly impossible task wielded on the Boulder Mountain Fire more than 6 decades ago. Photo by: Gloria under extremely difficult Alliger, Forest Service, Payson Ranger situations. District, Tonto National Forest, 2006.
Fire Management Today CoMparing the Costs oF agenCy and ContraCt Fire Crews Geoffrey H. Donovan
as the increasing use of con tract fire crews (20-person type The results of two recent studies were H 2 fire crews) by our public land combined to provide managers with better management agencies over the past 5 years contributed to these agen information about the relative costs of contract cies’ rising fire suppression costs? and agency fire crews. (See table 1.)
A superficial comparison of the wage rates of agency and contract Important Caveat firefighters would seem to indi One key assumption of the studies Donovan continues: “Less costly cate that contract crews are more summarized in this article needs contract crews were not neces expensive. Such a comparison, to be noted. sarily less productive than more however, is misleading for two expensive crews. Nonetheless, main reasons: The author assumed that all 20 as long as systematic differences person type 2 fire crews are equal in productivity exist, extra care • The wage rate of a contract crew ly productive. Conversations with should be taken when interpreting includes a number of costs not managers by this article’s author, the results presented here.” included in agency crew wage however, suggest that this is not rates, such as training and equip the case. Some contract crews In addition, Donovan said that the ment expenses. are just as productive as agency modeling approach he outlines in • Contract crews are only called crews; whereas, others are not. this article could also be used in on—and paid—when needed. An other regions of the country for agency crew is paid irrespective “However,” explains Geoffrey comparing other types of resourc of whether actual fire suppres Donovan, the article’s author, es such as engines and aerial sion work is available, although “nobody was able to suggest a resources. agency crews often do other simple way to determine a crew’s work, such as fuel management, productivity in advance.” when not engaged in actual fire suppression. Table 1 – Total Federal wildfire suppression costs and the number of To provide managers with better private fire crews under contract in the Pacific Northwest from 1999 information about the relative cost through 2004. of contract and agency fire crews, I have synthesized the results Year Total Federal suppression costs Number of crews under of two recent studies. The first contract in PNW study compared the cost of Forest 1999 $523,468,000 78 Service and contract fire crews that 2000 $1,362,367,000 117 were dispatched in Oregon and Washington (The Pacific Northwest 2001 $917,800,000 207 Region) during the 2003 fire season 2002 $1,661,314,000 264 (Donovan 2005). The second study, 2003 $1,326,138,000 297 2004 $890,233,000 298 Geoffrey Donovan is a research forester for the Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland, OR.
Volume 67 • No. 1 • Winter 2007 which built on the first, developed To correctly estimate the price tag of an a model to identify the optimal mix of agency and contract fire agency fire crew, a variety of costs besides crews for an upcoming fire season wages must be considered. (Donovan 2006). Forest Service Other Cost Factors typically ad hoc crews whose mem bers had permanent nonfirefighting Other factors that significantly Fire Crew Costs jobs within the agency. To correctly estimate the price tag affect costs are overtime and haz ard pay. Government scale (GS) of an agency fire crew, a variety of In contrast, dedicated fire crews, firefighters receive an additional costs besides wages must be consid comprised mainly of temporary 50 percent in pay for all hours ered, including: employees, tended to be less costly. over a normal 8-hour workday. Although there might be good Furthermore, all GS firefighters • Retirement, reasons for including higher grade receive an additional 25 percent • Healthcare, employees on a fire crew, managers increase in pay if their assigned fire • Social Security, should be aware that doing so can is categorized as “uncontrolled.” • Workers’ compensation—the significantly increase a crew’s cost. Forest Service is self-insured for (For this study, an assumption was made that 80 percent of hours were workers’ compensation claims, Contract Crew Costs • Human resource support, on uncontrolled fires.) In contrast to agency crews, most • Training, of the cost of hiring a contract crew • Vacation, Combining all these categories of is included in its wage rate. Similar • Unemployment, costs provided a mean daily cost to agency crews, contract crew • Equipment, and (14-hour day) of $5,539. For com costs vary significantly. • Transportation. parison, just considering the base wage rate of crew members (with In the Pacific Northwest Region, The most significant of these costs no overtime or hazard pay) results these private fire crews sign con are retirement, healthcare, and in a daily cost of $3,023. tracts with any one of 13 dispatch Social Security. When combined, centers, agreeing on the price these three expenses add 26 percent The majority of this study’s 33 and number of crews to be pro to the base cost of a permanent crews reflected a daily cost of vided. When a fire occurs, dispatch firefighter and 8 percent to the cost between $5,200 and $5,700. Four responsibility goes to the closest of a temporary firefighter. crews, however, had a daily cost that exceeded $5,700. One crew’s dispatch center. Agency (Federal and State) crews are dispatched Table 2 shows the contribution of daily cost was $7,500. first. the other cost categories. All costs were estimated based on a 14-hour This variation was due to differenc Should insufficient agency crews be workday with a total of 90 workdays es in the crew members’ pay grade. available, the dispatch center calls in a fire season. These costs were The more expensive crews were calculated for a sample of 33 crews dispatched in the Pacific Northwest Table 2 – The contribution of vacation, training, equipment, workers’ Region during the 2003 fire season. compensation, unemployment, human resource support, and transpor Several simplifying assumptions tation to the daily cost of a Forest Service 20-person type 2 fire crew. were also made. (For a complete Cost category Daily cost discussion of how these costs were estimated, see Donovan 2005.) Vacation and training $163 Overall, the data in this table pro Equipment $154 vide insight into the general mag Workers’ compensation and unemployment $197 nitude of these costs. Human resource support $67 Transportation $121
Fire Management Today 10 on contract crews—dispatching The cost of the agency fire crew work—or that work of equal value the least costly crews first. Thus, engaged in fire suppression can be provided on nonsuppression as more of these crews are dis must now include the wage costs days. patched, the cost of contract crews from the days it does not work. increases. Therefore, the daily cost of an agen The challenge, of course, is for cy fire crew is $8,358—more costly managers to actually apply this During the 2003 fire season, the than the average cost of a contract principle in practice. This was the Forest Service’s Pacific Northwest fire crew. goal of the second of the two papers Region used 2,831 contract crew summarized in this article. Rather days. The daily cost of one of these Fire crews seldom do nothing than describe the model in detail private crews ranged from $6,970 when they are not engaged in fire here, I have: to $11,270 (roughly $25 to $40 per suppression. They could conduct hour per person) with an average of prescribed burns or perform trail • Outlined its general modeling $7,791 for a 14-hour workday. maintenance, for example. If the approach, cost of completing the work that • Presented some of the model’s Comparing Agency and crews do on nonsuppression days is results, and Contract Crew Costs similar to their wage rate, then the • Suggested other ways in which the model can be applied. A comparison of the average daily cost of agency and contract fire The model divides the fire season in crews reveals that the cost of an During the 2003 fire the Pacific Northwest into seven 2 agency crew is just over 70 percent season, the Forest week periods. There is a demand for of the cost of a contract crew. This Service’s Pacific fire crews during each period. The should not imply, however, that model identifies the mix of agency contract crews should never be Northwest Region used 2,831 contract and contract fire crews that meets used. this demand at least cost. crew days. This finding indicates that if agency The Model Used crews have continuous work, they This demand for fire crews was are less costly. Contract crews can crew’s wages on these nonsuppres be laid off when work is not avail estimated by using CHEETAH 2 sion days do not need to be added software, which has data on all able. Agency crews must continue to the cost of operating the crew to be paid, although they are typi fires that have burned on Federal while engaged in fire suppression. lands from 1980 to 2002. The user cally paid less on nonsuppression However, sometimes the value of days. is prompted to enter data on the the work that crews do on nonsup number of crews sent to different pression days is less then their sized fires and the length of time To illustrate this point, consider a wage rate. crew that is engaged in fire sup that the crews stay in fire status. pression on only half of a season’s A colleague refers to all such work possible workdays. In addition, we These data were obtained from as “painting outhouses.” In such the Northwest Interagency initially make the assumption that cases, some portion of a crew’s the crew does no work on nonsup Coordination Center in Portland, wage rate on nonsuppression days OR. For example, between 2001 pression days but still receives should be added to the cost of oper 8 hours of nonhazard pay. (We and 2003, 12.6 type 2 crews were ating the crew while engaged in fire typically dispatched to class-F fires. address the more realistic case of suppression. a crew that does other work on On average, these crews stayed on these fire assignments a total of nonsuppression days next.) Using Finding an Optimal Mix the same assumptions as utilized in 10.4 days. the previous analysis, the cost of an The results outlined above suggest 8-hour day was therefore calculated that it would be cost effective to Given data on fire suppression to be $2,819. hire agency crews, as long as man demand and the cost of agency and agers believe an upcoming fire sea contract fire crews, the model can son will provide close to continuous
Volume 67 • No. 1 • Winter 2007 11 therefore determine the optimal Comparing the average daily cost of agency and number of agency crews to hire before the start of a fire season. contract fire crews reveals that the cost of an Any demand that cannot be met by agency crew is just over 70 percent of the cost these agency crews is met by con of a contract crew. This should not imply that tract crews. contract crews should never be used. Problem Solving Unfortunately, managers do not As one would expect, the optimal crews, because of their greater flex know in advance what the demand number of agency crews increases ibility, their use has the potential to for fire crews will be throughout a as the expected severity of an reduce overall suppression costs. fire season. Therefore, a solution upcoming fire season increases. based on knowing crew demand in What might be less intuitive is The key to achieving this cost advance is of limited use. However, that the optimal number of agency reduction is to use the most effi the model can accommodate uncer crews is not very sensitive to cient mix of agency and contract tain demand by solving for a range periods of high demand. Rather— crews. To do this, managers could of possible fire crew demands. because peaks in demand tend to use the model I have outlined. be met by contract crews—it is the For example, managers often have periods of low demand that influ Less formally, managers might be forecasts for the overall severity ence this solution. able to reduce the combined cost of of an upcoming fire season. Given agency and contract fire crews by such a severity forecast, a manager ensuring that close to continuous might be able to estimate crew The challenge is for work—either fire or nonfire sup demand in reference to previous managers to actually pression-related—is available for fire seasons. For instance, a man agency crews. If this work is non- ager might believe that an upcom apply this principle in suppression work, then the value of ing fire season is going to be more practice. that work should be comparable to severe than normal. The four most the wage costs of the crew. severe fire seasons out of the last 10 approximate the range of variability During periods of low demand, References for that estimate. work of similar value to an agency Donovan, Geoffrey H. 2005. A compari crew’s wage might not be available son of the costs of Forest Service and and the optimal number of agency contract fire crews. Western Journal of In this case, running the model by Applied Forestry. 20(4): 233–239. using crew demand data from these crews is sensitive to these nonsup Donovan, Geoffrey H. 2006. Determining past four most severe fire seasons pression day costs. the optimal mix of Federal and contract fire crews: A case study from the Pacific would be reasonably representative Northwest. Ecological Modeling. 194: of the manager’s decision process. Conclusions 372–378. Even though contract crews have a higher daily cost than agency
Fire Management Today 1 appearanCes, reality, and the rhetoriC oF Fighting wildFires An opportunity to refresh that which is good and to modify that which could be better
Alan P. Church
ecause the wildland fire envi ronment will never be innocu Once we are engaged in a fire, the B ous, we should always desire arrangement of the 10 Standard Firefighting more and better training and continue to study past mistakes to Orders does not matter. ensure that everyone dispatched to a fire makes it back home alive. In recent years, fatality fire trag- 10 Standard Firefighting Orders, Dr. Alan Church is an associate professor edies such as South Canyon and resulting in the 2002 National of English literature and rhetoric at the Thirtymile have served as a cata- Wildfire Coordinating Group University of Texas at Brownsville. From lyst for after-action reviews that (NWCG) recommendation to aban 1998 to 2004, he was a wildland firefighter on the Kaibab National Forest and contin emphasize the need for situational don the acrostically arranged orders ues his yearly wildland fire refresher train- awareness. Recently, this led to in favor of their current (and origi ing with the South Texas Wildlife Refuge reevaluating training tools and the nal) form (see sidebar on page 16). Complex, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
A Serious Student of Wildland Fire
Alan P. Church Nevertheless, my years as a seasonal I imagine that the firefighters firefighter provided me with some who served under these men have I do not have the experience or of the most formative and cherished benefited from their years of expe qualifications of dedicated fire experiences of my life. I approached rience and love of what they do. I management professionals like my duties as a wildland firefighter say all this to make it clear that I John Krebs, Karl Brauneis, and as a serious student of fire. I was am not arguing against these men, Craig Goodell (all referred to in surprised when criticism first nor am I arguing for a reversal in the accompanying article). I have arose about the acrostic Standard the recent decision to abandon only 7 years of seasonal experi- Firefighting Orders, for I, myself, the acrostic Standard Firefighting ence. The highest qualification I had never experienced difficulty Orders. have achieved is squad boss. understanding how they functioned on the fireline. Instead, I see in this discussion an Although I have a Ph.D. and nearly opportunity for further thinking 20 years of college teaching expe- Krebs, Brauneis, and Goodell are not about the relationship between rience, being a professor is not only experienced firefighters who training and experience—an likely to carry the same ethical love the culture of wildland fire, but opportunity to refresh that which appeal to many in the fire com- they are also dedicated teachers in is good and to modify that which munity. After all, my area of spe their own right. This explains their could be better. cialization is not fire science but motivation to help shape the current literature and rhetoric. culture of wildland fire by sharing their ideas in print and elsewhere.
Volume 67 • No. 1 • Winter 2007 1 I want to make it clear that while Focusing on the actual order and arrangement I am not arguing against this deci sion, I do believe the issue deserves of the 10 Standard Firefighting Orders was a red further scrutiny. herring. The real issue should have been how to bridge the gap between classroom training and First, the arguments made to per actual fireline experience. suade the wildland fire community that the 10 Standard Firefighting Orders change was necessary sion of the Standard Firefighting 2006). Like Krebs, Brauneis empha were presented and received as a Orders into the acrostic mnemonic sized the original intent of the logical, commonsense solution to device “FIRE ORDERS” had been Standard Firefighting Orders that a perceived problem. In reality, the an illogical decision that resulted needed to be “used as they were logical appeals of the arguments in mere memorization that served intended and not become just a list do not seem as persuasive as the to disconnect classroom training of items to be memorized.” ethical appeals—the fact that those from the reality of the wildland fire arguing for the change are widely environment. These arguments of Krebs and respected in the wildland fire com Brauneis began circulating widely munity—as well as the emotional After the South Canyon tragedy, in the wildland fire community. circumstances surrounding the Krebs had suggested that those But if there were any counterar issue. responsible for training had “failed” guments in favor of the acrostic by replacing the “deliberately orders, they did not make their Second, I believe that focusing on arranged,” “logically grouped,” and way into print. The National the actual order and arrangement “practical” original orders with “an Interagency Fire Center Web site of the 10 Standard Firefighting exercise in rote memory” (1999). suggests that the debate has ended Orders was a red herring. The real (National Interagency Fire Center, issue should have been how to Brauneis’s original Smokejumper Safety 2006), affirming Krebs and bridge the gap between classroom article (2001) directly blamed the Brauneis’ claims that the intent of training and actual fireline experi acrostically arranged orders as the original Orders were more logi ence. Once we are engaged in a fire, being dangerous. He urged his fel cal than the acrostic ones: the arrangement of the orders does low firefighters to: not matter. They are not recalled The NWCG Parent Group just linearly as a process or checklist, Throw away the listing of the approved the revision of the rather they are dynamically trig Ten Orders as written in today’s 10 Standard Fire Orders in gered in response to many variables literature. The Orders as writ accordance with their origi that we recognize as part of situ ten will compromise your safety. nal arrangement. The original ational awareness. The present listing was devel arrangement of the orders are oped as a catchy way for you to logically organized to be imple My first argument is the more dif memorize the orders. It will not mented systematically and ficult of the two, not because it is help you in real-world terms to applied to all fire situations… hard to demonstrate, but because effectively implement them. For The 10 Standard Fire Orders it will challenge what is currently a the orders to make sense, you are firm. We Don’t Break Them; widespread belief. must understand the original We Don’t Bend Them. All fire intent of the engagement and fighters have a Right to a Safe Basic Assumption disengagement process. The Assignment. Is Challenged orders are, in fact, your rules of The basic assumption of John Krebs engagement. Beware of (1999; 2003) and Karl Brauneis Appearances (2001; 2002) obviously resonated Such hyperbole is noticeably lack With the life-threatening reality of ethically, emotionally, and logically ing in the revised version of the wildfires an ever-present concern within the wildland fire community. article in Fire Management Today and after action reviews of South They believed that the 1980s revi- (2002), which was edited “to be Canyon and Thirtymile conclud more friendly in nature” (Brauneis
Fire Management Today 1 In which order did these firefighters learn the 10 Standard Firefighting Orders? Article author Dr. Alan P. Church explains why that’s largely irrelevant. Photo—taken on the Black Mountain 2 Fire on the Lolo National Forest the night it blew up—by Kari Greer, National Interagency Fire Center, 2003. ing that the Standard Firefighting Orders and most of the 18 Watch My first argument is the more difficult of Out Situations were violated—lead the two, not because it is hard to ing to firefighter fatalities—it is understandable why any argument demonstrate, but because it will challenge calling for change in the status quo what is currently a widespread belief. would be persuasive.
But appearances are not always commonsense decision to reimpose Acrostic Devices Help what they seem. When decisions the original orders, in reality, relies Memorization Process are based on appearances as much on questionable, unsubstantiated as reality, we are clearly in the claims about the intent of the Krebs (1999), for instance, claims realm of rhetoric. Rather than rely acrostically arranged orders. that the original version of the on logical proof alone, rhetoric Standard Orders was easy to relies on other factors, like emotion The acrostically arranged FIRE remember. But if memorizing has and character. ORDERS was intended as a mne any value, then why is an easier-to monic device. It was never consid remember mnemonic device less While I do not doubt the reality or ered an end in and of itself, or to be desirable than one that is not as validity of the emotional and ethi something disconnected from the easy to remember? Acrostic devices cal appeals intrinsic to the argu actual process of fighting wildfires. do facilitate memorization. If there ments for restoring the 10 Standard Furthermore, there is some incon is any inherent value in memoriza Firefighting Orders to their original sistency among the arguments for a tion, an acrostic device is desirable. form, what resonates as a logical, return to the original orders.
Volume 67 • No. 1 • Winter 2007 1 While this inconsistency is minor, a Brauneis’s original Smokejumper article directly more perplexing problem concerns the mistaken belief that the acros blamed the acrostically arranged 10 Standard tic device was something intended Firefighting Orders as being dangerous. to be memorized but not under- stood—something that is supposed to be resolved by learning the 10 Standard Firefighting Orders as a linear process of engagement. Ten Standard Firefighting Orders History When the acrostic FIRE ORDERS first appeared (Standards for The original 10 Standard 9. Maintain control of your forces Survival 1988), they were not Firefighting Orders were devel at all times. devoid of a context that clearly oped in 1957 by a Forest Service 10. Fight fire aggressively, having expressed their intended use. task force commissioned by then provided for safety first. Buried without a proper heading on Chief Richard E. McArdle. The pages 30-31 of Fire Management task force reviewed the records In the 1980s, the 10 Standard Notes 49(3)—where they first of 16 tragedy fires that occurred Firefighting Orders where rear appeared—is an explanation of from 1937 to 1956. The orders ranged into an “acrostic” series in the widely used “Standards for were based in part on the success which the first letter in each line Survival” training course. Until ful “general orders” used by the spelled out: “FIRE ORDERS:” recently, this training course U.S. Armed Forces. These 10 fire centered on the 18 Watch Out fighting orders were “organized F ight fire aggressively, but pro Situations and the 10 Standard in a deliberate and sequential way vide for safety first. Firefighting Orders, acrostically to be implemented systematically I nitiate all actions based on cur arranged. and applied to all fire situations:” rent and expected fire behavior. R ecognize current weather con The article claims that the acros The 10 Standard ditions and obtain forecasts. tic arrangement was designed to Firefighting Orders E nsure instructions are given “promote retention of information” 1. Keep informed on fire weather and understood. without affecting the orders’ origi conditions and forecasts. nal meaning. The mnemonic was 2. Know what your fire is doing O btain current information on a device “to trigger recall” of the at all times. fire status. orders in situations such as those 3. Base all actions on current and R emain in communication with presented in the “Standards for expected behavior of the fire. crew members, your supervisor Survival” training program: 4. Identify escape routes and and adjoining forces. safety zones and make them D etermine safety zones and The “Standards for Survival” known. escape routes. training course is a 1-hour 5. Post lookouts when there is E stablish lookouts in potentially videotape supplemented with possible danger. hazardous situations. student workbook and exercises. 6. Be alert. Keep calm. Think R etain control at all times. Eight “scenarios”—reenact clearly. Act decisively. S tay alert, keep calm, think ments of dangerous fireline situ 7. Maintain prompt communica clearly, act decisively. ations that led to fatalities—are tions with your forces, your used to pinpoint critical fireline supervisor, and adjoining In 2002, these 1980s acrosti events. Students are asked to forces. cally arranged Fire Orders were identify hazardous situations 8. Give clear instructions and disbanded and replaced by the noted in the scenarios, key them insure they are understood. original 10 Standard Firefighting to the 18 “Watch Out!” situa Orders. tions, and then state the appro priate Fire Orders that must be observed.
Fire Management Today 1 Nothing Illogical what is the relationship Between It is clear from this context, and ClassrooM training and what from anyone who has participated in the “Standards for Survival” aCtually happens on a Fire? training course, that the acrostic FIRE ORDERS were understood as This conclusion leads me to my ational awareness—and to safely part of a dynamic process of critical second argument and the real comply with the orders. thinking desirable in the decision- issue underlying the arguments making associated with fire sup about the 10 Standard Firefighting Situational Awareness pression. Orders: What is the relationship This emphasis on situational aware between classroom training and ness is perhaps best reflected in Contrary to what has been claimed, what actually happens on a fire? Krebs’ recommendation to slightly there was nothing illogical with the change the last of the 10 Standard orders’ mnemonic arrangement or Answering this question is not as Firefighting Orders from “Fight in how they were intended to be simple as suggesting that by think fire aggressively, having provided used. Nor, in fireline training, have ing of the orders as a linear process for safety first,” to “Fight fire intel I ever witnessed any institutional that provides the “rules of engage ligently having provided for safety failure in preparing young men and ment” we have “systematically” first.” women to recognize the dynamic bridged the gap between the class room and the fireline. In a similar vein, Craig Goodell (2005) recently presented a paper Viewing the orders as a linear pro providing a constructive analysis of Following the 10 cess or a checklist is fine before and Standard Firefighting how the orders function in relation after responding to an incident. But to situational awareness. Claiming Orders is not a static applying the orders in the actual that the wildland fire community but a dynamic process. context of fighting a fire requires continues “to experience a break us to understand these 10 firefight down in the understanding and ing orders not as a linear and static application of the 10 Standard nature of the wildland fire environ process, but one that is recursive Firefighting Orders and the 18 ment or the recursive and interde and dynamic. Watch Out Situations,” Goodell pendent nature of the “10/18/and 4” argues that a “better system for (10 Standard Firefighting Orders, The Thirtymile Fire Accident teaching and applying” these tools 18 Watch Out Situations, and Review Board (2002) determined is needed to move firefighters “from LCES—Lookouts, Communication, that it was necessary to “Ensure the realm of memorization to one Escape Routes, and Safety Zones). that fire program managers and of dynamic analysis in utilizing the incident commanders have situ fire orders.” If the intent of the acrostic arrange ational awareness, assessment, and ment had been only memorization, decisionmaking abilities necessary He conceives of the orders as “a it would have been the truly point to react to significant changes in systematic/fluid model for develop less exercise some have perceived fire danger thresholds.” ing and maintaining situational it to be. If those responsible for awareness, analyzing the fire training did not routinely empha In his most recent comments on environment, and appropriately size the relationship between the the orders, Krebs (2003) explains engaging and disengaging the fire” 10 Standard Firefighting Orders how “situational awareness” was a (2005). His model demonstrates and the 18 Watch Out Situations “buzzword” that caught his atten the linear process of engagement in response to scenario reenact tion, leading him to rethink the mandated by the orders—as argued ments in training or actual fire nature of the orders. With the by Krebs and Brauneis—while incidents, the fault does not lie acrostic orders now abandoned, demonstrating how situational with the orders—no matter their Krebs initiated a more construc awareness simultaneously leads to sequence—but in communicating tive explanation of the relationship an ongoing, nonlinear process of their purpose to firefighters. between the orders and fireline reassessment that reveals the rela analysis necessary to achieve situ tionship between the 10 Standard
Volume 67 • No. 1 • Winter 2007 1 Firefighting Orders and the 18 certain objects or ideas by relating Wildfire Environment Watch Out Situations. them to already formed cognitive Relating this to the wildfire envi categories. The modern develop ronment will help clarify the rela Goodell describes a process of reas ment of this theory begins with tionship between situational aware sessment crucial to situational Cambridge psychologist F. C. ness, the 10 Standard Firefighting awareness that corresponds to Bartlett, who argues that schemata Orders, and the 18 Watch Out the intended “use” of the orders operate as “an active organization Situations. Generally speaking, the in either their acrostic or original of past reactions, or past experi dynamic nature of schema theory is form. Further, he illustrates them ences which must always be sup reflected in the language imbedded with the kinds of scenarios pre posed to be operating in any well- in the culture of fighting fire. sented in fireline refresher train adapted organic response.” Bartlett ing courses like the “Standards for continues that these are “dynamic Just as schemata are preexisting Survival” used today. Nevertheless, constructs, playing an active role in or previously created thought pat Goodell fails to realize the dif comprehension” (Semino 1997, p. terns, tools of training like the ference between the 10 Standard 127; Bartlett 1932). 10/18/and 4 are the schemata intro Firefighting Orders and 18 Watch duced to first-year firefighters prior Out Situations, which leads him This moves schema theory away to their being allowed on the fire- to the conclusion that many of the from being a static process of rec line. Just as schemata must initially latter are redundant and should be ognition to a dynamic, productive be created, after they are created removed. But there is a difference one. In other words, schemata are they are refreshed or reinforced. between these firefighting orders engaged not just in remembering and the watch out situations, a facts but in influencing potential One way this occurs is on the difference which cognitive theory action. fireline, where schemata learned explains. in training are triggered and Subsequent schema theorists in reinforced when the situations the area of artificial intelligence Schema Theory firefighters encounter correspond (Schank and Abelson 1977) recog In order to develop “situational to what their training has taught nize that upon exposure to a par awareness” we need to recognize them to expect. Schemata are also ticular situation, schemata latent in “trigger points” as conditions that reinforced during mandatory fire- a person’s memory were triggered. affect fire behavior and resource line “refresher” training. management to determine if a This, in turn, prompts that person to respond to the triggered “scene” change in strategy and tactics is If the language of schema theory according to a “script” that would warranted (Greenlee 2003). When is encoded in the language of wild allow the person to implement a we talk about how memory is trig fire management, the relationship “plan” in the pursuit of a “goal.” gered in response to a particular of the 10/18/and 4 illustrates the situation that has the potential relationship between situations that Also part of the dynamic nature of to influence the decisionmaking trigger particular scripts, plans, and schemata is that once triggered, process, we are at the crossroads goals in fighting fire. of rhetoric and a cognitive theory they are either reinforced, modified, or abandoned—depending on the known as “schema theory.” The difference between the 18 extent to which the current experi Watch Out Situations and the 10 ence corresponds to the expected Schema theory originates in the Standard Firefighting Orders is that schemata (Rumelhart and Norman philosophy of Kant, who empha the former are “scenes” that lead 1978). sizes that we are able to identify to the scripts, plans, and goals of the Standard Orders. LCES serves as topical categories under which If there were any counterarguments all such scenes, scripts, plans, and goals can be understood as operat in favor of the acrostic orders, they did ing. not make their way into print.
Fire Management Today 1 Imagined Scenario The arrangement of the 10 Standard Firefighting Let’s suppose a firefighter encoun- Orders is largely irrelevant. ters the following scene:
It’s late afternoon. It’s getting Staying calm and alert, the fire The Smokejumper. (Retrieved May 19, hotter. Near the head of the fire, fighter reminds the crew about the 2006, from
Volume 67 • No. 1 • Winter 2007 1 restoring the interior ozark highlands John Andre, Mark Morales, McRee Anderson
he Forest Service’s Big Piney Ranger District on the Ozark- Fire and the Ozark Highlands T St. Francis National Forest, Hector, AR—in concert with mul Fire—throughout history—has park-like, oak–hickory and pine tiple partners—is implementing a played a significant role in shap woodlands with a rich mix of wild landscape-scale, long-term project ing plant and animal communities flowers and grasses. to restore and maintain the forest’s within the Ozark Highlands. fire-dependent woodland ecosys Then, about 80 to 100 years ago, tems within the Ozark Highlands. Several thousand years prior to these woodlands were heavily cut. European settlement, American The historic fire regime was dras Prescribed fire, thinning treat Indian ecosystem management tically altered. Next, long-term ments, commercial timber sales, practices included setting fre fire suppression changed these and stewardship contract sales are quent woodland fires for a variety open woodlands from once having all included in this large-scale, of purposes. During the 1800s, the approximately 45 to 76 trees per ambitious undertaking, known as first European settlers continued acre, to today’s dense forests with the Bayou Woodland Ecosystem this process—maintaining open, 300 to 1,000 trees per acre. Restoration Project.
The project’s overall intent is to return this area back to the land Collaborative landscape-scale monitoring and scape condition that greeted the adaptive management protocols have been first European setters here—as documented in the government developed for this project. land office survey records for 10 years beginning in 1830. In 2004, 30,000 acres (12,141 ha) departure from the historic fire were burned; in 2005, an addi regime—to Fire Regime Condition For the project’s initial phase, six tional 22,000 acres (8,903 ha) were Class 1—representing a low depar ecosystem restoration areas were burned. Forest health and other ture from the historic fire regime. identified. These restoration areas noncommercial forest thinning represent all of the “land type asso treatments totaled 2,500 acres Adaptive Management ciations” from the National Forest (1,112 ha) in 2004, and 2,000 acres Collaborative landscape-scale moni Ecological Classification System. (809 ha) in 2005. Commercial tim toring and adaptive management Each is comprised of 3 to 6 land- ber sales and stewardship contract protocols have also been developed scape-scale prescribed fire units, sales treated about 6,000 acres for this project. A comprehensive for a combined total of 60,000 acres (2,428 ha) in 2004 and 2005. monitoring program is docu (24,281 ha). menting ecosystem response to By this combination of both pre prescribed fire and timber cutting scribed fire and thinning treat treatments. ments, landscapes are beginning to John Andre is an ecologist and Mark change from Fire Regime Condition Monitoring at 96 permanent plots Morales is the fire management officer Class 3*—representing a high for the Big Piney Ranger District, Ozark- quantifies treatment effects on: St. Francis National Forest, Hector, AR.; McRee Anderson is the fire restora * Fire Regime Condition Class (FRCC) is an interagency, standardized tool for determining the degree of depar • The overstory, tion program director for The Nature ture from reference condition vegetation, fuels, and Conservancy’s Arkansas Field Office, disturbance regimes. Assessing FRCC can help guide • The understory and herbaceous Jasper, AR. management objectives and set priorities for treatments. plant community,
Fire Management Today 0 A comprehensive monitoring program is documenting ecosystem response to prescribed fire and timber cutting treatments.
• FIREMON, • Fuels Management Analyst, and • FSVeg Fuels Module. Why Restore This Forest? While oak trees do not survive or reproduce well in shade, many other trees such as red maple, ash, A restored post oak–white oak woodland on a south-facing slope in the Ozark National elm, and black gum thrive in shade. Forest. The diverse herbaceous understory developed from onsite plants and seed in the While these tree species are part of seed bank. Overstory thinning and prescribed fire produced these results. the area’s historical plant commu nity, under the historic fire regime, • Fuel loads, and data from the monitoring plots are they occurred in far fewer numbers • Soils. currently being analyzed in three than today. Decades of fire sup software programs: pression have allowed the forest to To date, monitoring results reveal both a 40-percent increase in her baceous species and an 11-percent Summary of Herbs, Shrubs, and Trees increase in herbaceous plant cov Plants Treated Plots Untreated Plots erage after one to two prescribed (1 or 2 burns) (no burns) fires. The number of shrub stems Herbs per acre has decreased by 75 per cent in the burned areas. Avg. # species/plot 7 5 Total number of species 72 63 Additional detailed monitoring data Average % cover/plot 40 36 have been provided via three dif Shrubs ferent research projects conducted in cooperation with Arkansas Tech Avg. # species/plot 4 11 University and the University of Total # species 10 24 Arkansas at Monticello. Two of Average % cover/plot 9 18 these studies have documented the Stems/acre 372 1,515 effects of oak woodland restoration Trees on the small mammal and bird communities. The third partner- Avg. # species/plot 25 36 based project has documented the Total # species 17 26 effects of prescribed fire on oak Stems/acre 328 470 sprouting ecology. Basal area 105 111 In addition, to ascertain the best Quantifying the effectiveness of woodland restoration treatments program for future use on the is an integral component of this multipartner monitoring project. Ozark National Forest, fuel load Monitoring data is essential for measuring progress, employing adaptive management techniques, and communicating success.
Volume 67 • No. 1 • Winter 2007 1 become much more dense—with a Big Piney Ranger District closed canopy. Bayou Woodland Ecosystem It is under this closed canopy that Restoration Project these four aforementioned tree spe cies dominate the understory and Fire Learning Network midstory. Without the reintroduc Collaborative Landscape Goal Statement tion of fire, they are destined to become the overstory. • Landscape ecosystem compo- • Ecosystems within the historic nents and processes are main- range of variation achieve bio Drought and native insects—such tained within the historic range diversity goals and provide mul as the red oak borer—have histori of variation by periodic fire use tiple recreational opportunities. cally helped to produce and main and ecologically-based resource tain fire-dependent oak and pine management. • Promote and facilitate ecosys woodlands. tem restoration at other sites • Landscapes are in Fire Regime and develop public support with In dense forests, competition Condition Class 1, providing continuing partnership involve- among plants for resources— healthy watersheds and safety ment. including water, nutrients, and for “communities at risk.” sunlight—is fierce. This compe tition has produced more than 300,000 acres (121,407 ha) of The changes in structure and spe Furthermore, the increased fuel stressed, unhealthy, and dying trees cies composition that occurred from the dense forest and dead in the Ozark National Forest. This here during the last century not trees poses a significant wildfire widespread condition has put the only had negative consequences on risk and threat to human life and forest at greater vulnerability to the forest ecosystem, but also had a private property within, and sur insect attack, drought, and prema negative impact on the surrounding rounding, the Ozark-St Francis ture death. These natural agents of communities and their dependence National Forest. The potential change have an even more severe on forest resources. for high-intensity wildfire also affect in dense forest.
Restoring the forest structure and implementing prescribed fire will therefore allow for a more open canopy, thereby creating conditions favorable to oak and pine recruit ment, as well as an abundant and diverse herbaceous plant understo ry. This, in turn, will subsequently attract wildlife such as deer, elk, and turkey.
This widespread condition has put the forest at greater vulnerability to insect attack, drought, and
premature death. A comprehensive monitoring program is an integral part of the Bayou Woodland Ecosystem Restoration Project. Changes in the plant community that have resulted from recent thinning and burning treatments are tracked in 96 permanent plots.
Fire Management Today threatens municipal water sources, The increased fuel loadings pose a thereby affecting even broader populations. significant wildfire risk and threat to human life and private property. Partnerships for Change Collaborative partnerships based Big Piney Ranger District on a shared vision and common goals are vital to the success of the Bayou Woodland Ecosystem Big Piney Ranger District’s Bayou Restoration Project Woodland Ecosystem Restoration Project. Collaborative Partnership List
The Arkansas Chapter of The Oak Ecosystem Team Nature Conservancy was the pri Arkansas Chapter of The Nature Conservancy mary partner that developed and Arkansas Game and Fish Commission institutionalized the landscape- Arkansas Natural Heritage Commission scale monitoring and adaptive Arkansas Audubon Society management plan to track plant Arkansas Forestry Commission community changes for achieving the desired ecological conditions National Wild Turkey Federation on the ground. This monitoring Quail Unlimited program includes clear, measurable Southwest Fire Use Training Academy objectives and detailed descriptions Caddo Nation of Oklahoma of data collection methods that National Park Service, Buffalo National River the project team has successfully Forest Service, Southern Research Station implemented. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Arkansas Field Office In addition to supporting on Arkansas Tech University the-ground efforts, The Nature Conservancy staff is also respon Network (
Volume 67 • No. 1 • Winter 2007 lessons learned FroM rapid response researCh on wildland Fires Leigh Lentile, Penny Morgan, Colin Hardy, Andrew Hudak, Robert Means, Roger Ottmar, Peter Robichaud, Elaine Sutherland, Frederick Way, Sarah Lewis
n recent years, more research ers are collecting data either on Researchers must understand and work closely Iactive wildfires or immediately with fire management organizations without after wildfire occurrence. Known as Rapid Response Research, this compromising these managers’ primary tasks. important undertaking provides real-time information, useful data, and improved tools for managers. By using this Rapid Response forecasting the consequences of fire Research, we have the potential and fuels management. Rapid Response Research can to link fire effects to conditions encompass fire ecology, burn sever before, during, and after fires. This In this way, Rapid Response ity, fire behavior, firefighter safety, information is critical to building Research products are also help- emissions, erosion, vegetation the next generation of tools for ing fire managers and local land response, remote sensing, and a multitude of various fire-related topics.
Leigh Lentile and Penny Morgan are fire ecologists with the Department of Forest Resources, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID; Colin Hardy and Elaine Sutherland are research scientists with the Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Science and Forestry Sciences Laboratories, Missoula, MT; Andrew Hudak and Peter Robichaud are research scientists and Sarah Lewis is a research engineer with the Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Forestry Sciences Laboratory, Moscow, ID. Roger Ottmar is a research scientist with the Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Pacific Wildland Fire Sciences Laboratory, Seattle, WA; Robert Means is a fire management officer with the Wyoming Bureau of Land Management, Cheyenne, WY; and Frederick Way is the District Ranger on the Colville National Forest, Colville, Washington.
This article is a synthesis of informal discussions and a panel review held at the 2005 Joint Fire Sciences Principal Investigators Meeting. These discussions Monitoring Active Fire Behavior—Rapid Response Researcher Jim Reddering, remote concentrated on what has been learned from Rapid sensing program manager with the National Center for Landscape Fire Analysis, Response Research, including insights from managers who provided recommendations on how to improve University of Montana, Missoula, MT, monitors the 2003 Cooney Ridge Fire near Missoula. coordination between research and fire management Photo: Andrew Hudak, research forester and landscape ecologist, Forest Service, Rocky teams. Mountain Research Station, 2003.
Fire Management Today managers make informed decisions The Joint Fire Science Teams of research scientists and about the ecological and social con technicians have an increasing sequences of fire. Program funding presence in today’s fire camps. agency requires these Demands for information and At the same time, however, Rapid scientist–manager accountability from the media and Response Researchers can com partnerships to place general public also peak during plicate resource and personnel large fire incidents. management for managers during a strong emphasis on critical emergency periods on wild transferring research The added safety and logistical fires. Researchers must therefore be findings to the field. requirements required for Rapid constantly aware of the challenges Response Research are justifiable of conducting research on active only if the research data can be wildfires (see sidebar). They must Fire scientists and fire managers effectively collected—and we learn understand and work closely with have long worked closely together, information that we cannot ascer fire management organizations but if they are to successfully tain by any other means. without compromising these man address today’s complex wildland agers’ primary tasks. fire challenges, they must now work together even more closely.
Recommendations for Successful Rapid Response Research
Researchers must understand the address fire risk, rehabilitation, The work done to nurture rela fire organizations and their objec- and restoration. To ensure that tionships between management tives. The fire managers’ primary this occurs, researchers must be and research communities outside responsibility is to manage the fire constantly aware of the potential of the actual fire season is equally safely—not to support research. challenges that face them while important for successful Rapid When arriving to do research on a conducting research on active wild- Response Research on actively fire, researchers must therefore be fires. burning fires. This includes prepared, have the necessary “red engaging with fire managers card” credentials that indicate suf- Researchers must understand that through workshops and trainings. ficient training, fitness, and the fire management organizations appropriate knowledge. adhere to a strict code and follow Remember, the “goodwill” built a chain-of-command. Researchers through 10 years of successful Researchers must also have—and must respect this chain-of-com- Rapid Response Research can be follow—an operations plan. We mand by: threatened by safety violations recommend using a liaison and and poor communication. More building strong relationships with • Attending daily fire management information—including the 9 rec- fire managers. Just as importantly, meetings and briefings, ommendations for any research researchers must always share • Communicating clearly and regu- team considering Rapid Response what was learned with these fire larly with incident management Research on wildland fire or other managers. teams, incidents—is available at
Volume 67 • No. 1 • Winter 2007 What Is Rapid Rapid Response Teams must coordinate Response with fire management teams to quantify Research? How conditions immediately before, during, and Is it Different after wildfires and prescribed burns. From Other Fire Research? By the time funding is obtained, The governing board of the USDA/ Certain types of information or data the research opportunity has often USDOI Joint Fire Science Program that are essential to our under passed, or other factors—precipita (JFSP), a partnership of six Federal standing of wildland fire can only tion, faded memories, changing wildland fire management and be obtained during, or immediately seasons—have masked or destroyed research organizations, has pro after, a fire. Large fires can provide important information. vided financial support for teams unique opportunities for assessing of research scientists and technical fire behavior, fire effects, fuel treat In the past, research on active fires specialists that can mobilize quick ments, and social responses on a has been hampered by: ly to investigate fire behavior or fire landscape scale. effects on active fire incidents. • Lack of funding, Rapid, well-organized, and pre • Inadequate preseason planning The JFSP funding agency provides planned responses from the sci and coordination, scientific information and support ence community must therefore be • Poor adoption or adherence by for fuel and fire management pro organized to gather data on actively researchers to the incident com grams. The JFSP funding agency burning fires. mand system, and also requires scientist–manager • Lack of acceptance or tolerance of partnerships that place a strong If advance planning and funding for research by incident management emphasis on transferring research a timely research response is not teams (IMTs). findings to the field. in place, critical data could be lost. How Is Rapid Post Fire Data—Leigh Lentile, post-doctoral Response Research research scientist with the Department of Conducted? Forest Resources, University of Idaho, Advance Planning Moscow, ID, collects data on post-fire Proves to be Crucial ground cover and Rapid Response Research teams vegetation response must coordinate with fire manage one year after the Umatilla National ment teams to quantify conditions Forest’s School Fire. immediately before, during, and Photo: Pete Robichaud, after wildfires and prescribed burns. research engineer, Forest Service, Rocky Rapid Response projects are expect Mountain Research ed to take advantage of opportuni Station, 2006. ties to obtain information on large fires.
Traditionally, researchers conceived research questions and designed experiments beforehand and sub mitted competitive research pro posals. If awarded, they then devel oped operations’ plans, participated in training sessions, and purchased
Fire Management Today equipment. With Rapid Response Research, however, the study area is not defined until after a fire ignites and various research criteria are met.
Researchers must therefore be ready to decide—within days— whether a given fire will be sam pled and travel to the fire on short notice, strategize data collection, and coordinate with IMTs to ensure safe operations. Rapid Response Research teams must always be prepared for efficient mobilization, be flexible, and be cognizant of management concerns.
A Rapid Response Research team led by Elaine Kennedy Sutherland, Forest Service research biolo gist, performed Rapid Response Research on seven fires around Measuring Water Infiltration Rate—Sarah Lewis, civil engineer with the Soil and Water Missoula, MT, in 2003. Sutherland’s Engineering Research Work Unit, Forestry Sciences Laboratory, Moscow, ID, measures team focused on fire effects on fish relative water infiltration rate to assess the degree of post-soil water repellency after the Hot Creek Fire on the Boise National Forest. Photo: Pete Robichaud, research engineer, and fish habitat. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, 2005. Coordinating with local land man agement decisionmakers and IMTs, a crew of six researchers located Some fire management teams more readily small streams with known native welcome researchers on fires than others. trout populations or potential trout habitat. They then established sample sites near actively burning objectives, it was also useful for Familiarity with the fire manage fires—locations likely to burn in a the IMT, as well as the resource ment program and its science day or two—taking measurements, specialist and fish biologists. This needs increases the potential for setting up instruments, and survey information proved instrumental in meaningful data collection and ing fish populations. developing post-fire rehabilitation interpretation. Some fire manage objectives. Presentations were made ment teams more readily welcome In some of these locations, fires to fire management teams during researchers on fires than others. burned the study sites, or areas incident briefings, and the data This acceptance often depends on immediately upstream from the were made available immediately fire conditions and objectives, as sites. Some of the sampled sites post-fire. well as the prior nurturing of per were never reached by fire. After sonal relationships and credibility the fires, fish populations were Applied Research between researchers and team resurveyed and measurements were Applied research that provides real- members. retaken. For some data, the sites time data and information builds were monitored for days or weeks. credibility, increases the likelihood For example, Peter Robichaud, of application, and fosters oppor Forest Service research engineer, While the data collected during tunities for future collaboration conducts Rapid Response Research this project addressed research between scientists and managers. on post-fire hydrological response
Volume 67 • No. 1 • Winter 2007 and soil erosion mitigation. Rapid Response These instruments then autono Robichaud has provided erosion Research provides a mously recorded or reported obser control measures information such vations to field personnel working as the effectiveness of felling trees venue for scientists to in a safe zone located outside the and snags on the contour. This, obtain information and fire perimeter. As fires burned in turn, has allowed Burned Area knowledge that is not through these field sites, a ground- Emergency Response (BAER) teams otherwise available. based thermal infrared radiometer to immediately change contract measured radiant heat flux emit specifications, alter treatments, and ted from points within or near the improve effectiveness (Robichaud sample sites. post-fire mapping and description 2005). of fire effects—thus, improving the Additionally, the multispectral Often times on these fire incidents, strategic effectiveness of post-fire FireMapper™* image acquisition a unique window of opportunity rehabilitation efforts. system installed on the Pacific exits to extend preliminary research Southwest Research Station’s air Under the supervision of Ed results directly to end-users. For borne sciences aircraft collected Mathews, the research team’s IMT instance, when Robichaud arrives multiple images of the sample site research liaison, small crews of on a fire, he provides a brief justifi at 4-minute time steps (Riggan research technicians were sent into cation of why his research is neces and Hoffman 2003; Riggan and areas before they burned to collect sary and useful, and also provides others 2003). These missions were prefire measurements of soil and a followup closeout presentation. vegetation condition and to install Although analysis is usually incom * The use of trade, firm, or corporation names in this instruments to collect heat flux, as publication is for the information and convenience plete before this closeout briefing, of the reader. Such use does not constitute an official well as other fire behavior informa endorsement of any product or service by the U.S. Robichaud can still share: Department of Agriculture. Individual authors are tion. responsible for the technical accuracy of the material • Anticipated results; presented in Fire Management Today. • Benefits of the research; and • How these results can enhance adaptive management, thereby improving the managers’ deci sionmaking and support. Research Findings During 2003 Fires The 2003 Montana fire season brought many opportunities for several newly funded Rapid Response Research projects. Teams led by Forest Service research ers Colin Hardy, Phil Riggan, and Andy Hudak—in collaboration with University of Montana and University of Idaho faculty mem bers—explored alternative image acquisition and analysis methods for remote sensing of burn severity.
Mutual research objectives were to Feel the Heat—Fire-proofed video systems and instrumentation for measuring heat improve the predictive capabilities flux, fire behavior, and local weather are installed on the Dragon Complex Wildland Fire for fire risk, the real-time assess Use Incident on the North Rim of the Grand Canyon, AZ, by mechanical engineer Jason Forthofer (sitting) and project leader Colin Hardy. Both men are from the Fire Behavior ment of fire behavior, and the Research Work Unit, Missoula Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. Photo: Dan Jimenez, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, 2005.
Fire Management Today Today, a critical need exists for researchers to evaluate the effec tiveness of management actions to reduce the hazard of severe wild fire and to mitigate fire effects on human, floral, and faunal popula tions. To do this, scientists must understand the logistical and tem poral constraints and the sociopo litical environment in which man agers make most of their decisions.
One of the primary goals of Rapid Response Research on wildfires is to facilitate the interpretation and utility of research results to enable land managers to make challeng ing, timely decisions. Researchers learn from observing fires first hand. They become more aware of the total management context, as well as the broader decisionmaking Thermal Infrared—Patrick Freeborn, physical scientist with the Fire Chemistry Research process. Work Unit, Missoula Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT, operates both mid- and short-wave thermal infrared cameras to monitor radiant heat flux and temperatures on the Dragon Complex Wildland Fire Use Incident on the North Rim of the Grand Canyon, Rapid Response Research provides a AZ. Freeborn installed these cameras inside the Rapid Response Research plots. Photo: venue for scientists to obtain infor Colin Hardy, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, 2005. mation and knowledge that is not otherwise available. This research planned, executed, and monitored What Is the Value allows scientists to collect real- in full compliance with local inci of Rapid Response time measurements and observa dent aviation safety protocols, tions that are normally modeled or including pilot briefings, coordina Research? reconstructed. tion with air attack, and post-mis Rapid Response Research has great sion debriefings. potential to promote mutual under Rapid Response Research on fire standing between the land manage behavior can play a critical role These technology-produced multi- ment and science communities. in furthering our evaluation of band (visible and thermal) images Scientists doing Rapid Response assumptions underlying existing were used to remotely determine Research have a responsibility to models, as well as providing key the heat intensity of the fire. These provide land managers with defen information for the evolution and data were merged onto a digital sible information and the useful development of new models. Rapid topographical map which was then tools necessary to expedite and Response Research can assist with accessed by fire commanders for strengthen fire management. model calibration, provide accu potential decisionmaking on the racy assessments for many com ground. monly used predictive models, and increase user confidence in these tools. Researchers learn from observing fires firsthand. They become more aware of the total Furthermore, Rapid Response management context, as well as the broader Research can provide data to test new equipment. Information from decisionmaking process. the duff moisture meter, for exam ple, adds a new level of accuracy
Volume 67 • No. 1 • Winter 2007 to predictions of duff consumption David Sandberg collaborated with Rapid Response Research links and smoke emissions (Robichaud research teams from the Forest post-fire effects, fire behavior and others 2004). Such equipment Service, University of Idaho, during the fire, and prefire condi can also be used to determine the Colorado State University, and Yale tions. In this way, Rapid Response best and safest time for a prescribed University to jointly sample and Research can build and help propel burn. Improved tools to detect soil characterize fuels, vegetation, fire the necessary understanding for water repellency and areas at risk consumption, and smoke produc improving fire and fuels manage to erosion can help to identify haz tion from the same sample points ment. ardous situations, streamline treat before, during, and after the burn. ments, and reduce costs. Lessons learned from the pioneers Their data will help to develop of Rapid Response Research have Sharing Results improved, practical indicators of demonstrated that the potential Results and recommendations from burn severity that will comple benefits outweigh the costs and—if Rapid Response Research projects ment existing indicators such researchers and managers continue are being shared with many dif as the “normalized burn ratio” to work together effectively—the ferent users. Roger Ottmar has used by BAER teams and others. challenges are manageable. been conducting Rapid Response Additionally, this joint effort com Research for most of his career as plements ongoing research to: Thus, Rapid Response Research can a Forest Service research forester. continue its vital role of advancing In the early 1990s, Ottmar’s Rapid • Assess the Alaska black spruce science that is both relevant and Response Research involved attach and white spruce fuel type pho immediately useful to all of us. ing instruments to interagency toseries (Ottmar and Vihnanek hotshot crew members as part of a 1998); Acknowledgments smoke exposure study. • Provide calibration (Rorig and This research was supported in part others 2003) for Canadian Forest by funds provided by the Rocky This ongoing research has provided Fire Danger Rating System Mountain Research Station, Forest important information about fuel (Turner and Lawson 1978), Service in cooperation with the flammability and smoke emis National Fire Danger Rating University of Idaho, and additional sions—critical for both short- and System (Deeming and others funding from the USDA/USDI Joint long-term firefighter safety and 1978), Consume (Ottmar and Fire Science Program (Project 03 health. others 1993), and fuel models 2-1-02), and the National Fire Plan. (Scott and Burgan 2005), and We would like to thank Erik Berg, Forest Service research scientists • Evaluate duff consumption ele JoAnn Fites-Kaufman, Ed Mathews, Bret Butler and Jack Cohen’s Rapid ments of predictive models Kevin Ryan, Henry Shovic, and Response Research work has pro (Ottmar and Sandberg 2003). John Szymoniak for their insights vided firefighters with valuable and contributions to this article. information about safety zones Successful field operations would (Butler and Cohen 1998a, b). Due not have been possible without References to their efforts, a combination of the cooperation of the Alaska Fire Butler, B.; J. Cohen. 1998a. Firefighter safe trainings, publications, and Web Service, State of Alaska, and IMTs ty zones: A theoretical model based on sites now provide information on who tactically and logistically radiative heating. International Journal of supported this Rapid Response Wildland Fire. 8(2): 73–77. how and why safety zones are used Butler, B.; J. Cohen. 1998b. Firefighter on fire incidents. In fact, their safe Research. safety zones: How big is big enough? Fire ty zone guidelines are now included Management Notes. 58(1): 13–16. Unique Opportunity Deeming, JE; R.E. Brogan; J.D. Cohen. in the Incident Response Pocket 1978. The national fire-danger rating Guide carried by every wildland Rapid Response Research provides a system. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT–39. USDA firefighter. unique opportunity to pursue ques Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Ogden, UT. tions important to managers tasked Gieryn, T.F. 2000. A space for place in soci In Alaska, during the summer of to integrate the best available sci ology. Annual review of sociology. 1–36. 2004, the Rapid Response Research ence in their decisionmaking about Hudak, A.; P. Morgan; C. Stone; P. team led by Roger Ottmar and fire risk, rehabilitation, and restora Robichaud; T. Jain; J. Clark. 2004a. The tion.
Fire Management Today 0 relationship of field burn severity mea NFES 2580. Boise, Idaho: National Robichaud, P.R.; D.S. Gasvoda; R.D. sures to satellite-derived Burned Area Wildfire Coordinating Group. National Hungerford; J. Bilskie; L.E. Ashmun; J. Reflectance Classification (BARC) maps. Interagency Fire Center. Reardon. 2004. Measuring duff moisture American Society for Photogrammetry Ottmar, R.D.; M.F. Burns; J.N. Hall; content in the field using a portable and Remote Sensing Annual Conference A.D. Hanson. 1993. CONSUME users meter sensitive to dielectric permittivity. proceedings. guide. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW–GTR–304; International Journal of Wildland Fire. Hudak, A.; P. Robichaud; J. Evans; J. Portland, OR: USDA Forest Service, 13: 343–353. Clark; K. Lannom; P. Morgan; C. Stone. Pacific Northwest Research Station. Rogers, E.M. 2002. The nature of technol 2004b. Field validation of Burned Area Patterson, M.W.; S.R. Yool. 1998. Mapping ogy transfer. Science Communication. 23 Reflectance Classification (BARC) prod fire-induced vegetation mortality using (3): 323–341. ucts for post-fire assessment. Proceedings Landsat Thematic Mapper data: A com Rorig, M.L.; S.A. Ferguson; and D.V. of the Tenth Biennial Forest Service parison of linear transformation tech Sandberg. 2003. Fire weather indexes and Remote Sensing Applications Conference. niques, Remote Sensing of Environment. fuel condition in Alaska. In: Krista, E.M.; Key, C.H; N.C. Benson. 2006. Landscape 65: 132–142. Galley, E.M.; Klinger, R.C.; Sugihara, assessment: sampling and analysis meth Riggan, P. J.; J. W. Hoffman. 2003. N.G., eds. Proceedings of Fire Conference ods. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS–GTR–164– FireMapper™: a thermal-imaging radi 2000: The First National Congress on Fire CD; Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, ometer for wildfire research and opera Ecology, Prevention and Management. Rocky Mountain Research Station. tions. Proceedings of the IEEE Aerospace Miscellaneous publication no. 13: Tall Landry, R.; N. Amara. 2001. Climbing the Conference; 2003 March 8–15; Big Sky, Timbers Research Station, Tallahassee, ladder of research utilization. Science Montana. Institute of Electrical and FL. Communication. 22(4): 396–422. Electronics Engineers, Inc. Paper no. Scott, J.H.; R.E. Burgan. 2005. Standard Ottmar, R.D.; D.V. Sandberg. 2003. 1522. fire behavior fuel models: a comprehen Predicting forest floor consumption Riggan, P. J.; R. G. Tissell; J. W. Hoffman. sive set for use with Rothermel’s sur from wildland fire in boreal forests of 2003. Application of the FireMapper™ face fire spread model. Gen. Tech. Rep. Alaska – preliminary results. In: Galley, thermal-imaging radiometer for fire RMRS–GTR–153. Fort Collins, CO: USDA K.E.M.; Klinger, R.C.; Sugihara, N.G., eds. suppression. Proceedings of the IEEE Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Proceedings from Fire Conference 2000: Aerospace Conference; 2003 March 8–15; Station. The First National Congress on Fire Big Sky, Montana. Institute of Electrical Turner, J.A.; B.D. Lawson. 1978. Weather Ecology, Prevention, and Management. and Electronics Engineers, Inc. Paper no. in the Canadian Forest Fire Danger Miscellaneous publication no. 13. 218– 1523. Rating System: a user guide to national 224. Robichaud, P.R. 2005. Measurement of standards and practices. Canadian Forest Ottmar, R.D.; R.E. Vihnanek. 1998. Stereo post-fire hillslope erosion to evaluate and Service, Pacific Forestry Centre, Victoria, photo series for quantifying natural model rehabilitation treatment effective BC. Information Report BC–X–177. fuels: volume II: Black spruce and ness and recovery. International Journal white spruce types in Alaska. PMS 831. of Wildland Fire. 14(4): 475–485. aCCess to CritiCal Fire inForMation and resourCes
he Wildland Fire Lessons • Synopses of many of the fire • Articles that explore the links Learned Center has added a resources available from Forest between forest restoration and T new feature to its popular Web Service research stations and bioenergy production—spurred site,
Volume 67 • No. 1 • Winter 2007 1 iMproving Fire ManageMent: what resourCe Managers need to know FroM reCreation visitors Deborah J. Chavez and Nancy E. Knap
ecreation visitors to our In general, managers of public 1. Fire Safety and national forests and rangelands lands who provide outdoor recre Prevention Messages R comprise a demographic group ation opportunities receive direc The resource managers recognized that doesn’t receive much research tion and financial support from that recreation visitors receive mul emphasis, even though it is impact a variety of sources, including tiple, and sometimes conflicting, ed by wildfire in large numbers. In presidential initiatives such as the fire safety and prevention messages. fact, recreation visitors might be National Fire Plan and the Healthy They identified these inconsisten one of the largest groups impacted Forests Initiative. cies as agency related. For example, during, and after, wildfire events. messages differed significantly that The resource managers involved in were disseminated to the public by: In southern California, an estimat this study confirmed that they are ed 2,200 recreation visitors were looking to research for assistance • State agencies, evacuated during the 2002 Williams in effectively managing fire and • Local agencies, Fire, and more than 45,000 recre healthy ecosystems in an outdoor • The Forest Service, ation visitors and residents were recreation context. • Other Federal agencies, and evacuated during the 2003 Old Fire • “Environmentalists.” and adjacent Grand Prix Fire. Managers wanted When these message conflicts After these wildfire events, visitors occur, the resource managers said are often impacted by fire-related to know if recreation they wanted to know whom the rec closures of public lands, restricted visitors perceived reation visitor finds most credible. use of these lands, and the destruc the Healthy Forests Specifically, they wanted to know tion of recreation amenities within Initiative to be “just if Smokey Bear had lost credibility these lands. logging in disguise.” due to the introduction of the new message that fire can be beneficial In an effort to improve the rec to ecosystem health. reation research link to manage rial interests, during the 2003 Brainstorming Session These managers also expressed Utah State University Outdoor These 34 resource managers interest in knowing if recreation Recreation Short Course for engaged in a brainstorming ses visitors perceived the Healthy Managers, we asked 34 resource sion that explored the National Fire Forests Initiative to be “just log managers to discuss outdoor rec Plan and Healthy Forests Initiative ging in disguise.” reation management as it relates and their effect on forest recreation to fire and healthy forests. These visitation. Five themes emerged: Addressing such questions might managers represented the Forest logically also lead to an investiga Service, USDI Bureau of Land 1. Fire safety and prevention mes tion of what makes an organization Management, and Bureau of sages, and its messages credible and how Reclamation. 2. Treatments, Federal land management agencies 3. Closures, can create and sustain this cred 4. Public funds and private hold ibility. Deborah Chavez is a project leader and research social scientist and Nancy Knap ings, and is a social science technician for the 5. Rehabilitation and restoration. Some of the resource managers Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research expressed the belief that recreation Station, Riverside, CA.
Fire Management Today visitor behaviors and attitudes Resource managers wanted to know if Smokey toward fire safety and fire preven- tion techniques would be better Bear had lost credibility with the introduction of informed if these visitors were the new message that fire can be beneficial to provided with effective information ecosystem health. about these resource issues.
Specifically, the managers wanted such as reduced air quality and the Summary ideas for future a measure of the level of visitor aesthetic of burned tree stands. The research studies. Research might knowledge—some way of assessing managers were also curious about need to describe perceptions of what and how much visitors know the levels of landscape change closures and restricted access, as about: that recreation visitors are willing well as gauge the acceptance of to tolerate, such as accepting the permitting outfitter-guided activi • Fuel reduction practices, exchange of short-term aesthetics ties into closure areas. • Restrictions on recreation activi for long-term ecosystem health. ties during periods of high fire 4. Public Funds and danger, and Summary ideas for future Private Holdings • Fire-safe recreation. research studies. Research might The resource managers were aware focus on visitor preferences for of the growing controversy over the Summary ideas for future treatment options and how visi allocation of public funds for fire research studies. In conclu tors are affected based on recre fighting and fire prevention used sion, an evaluation of education ation activity or season. to protect private inholdings. They programs and public service wanted to know the recreation vis announcements could result in 3. Closures itor’s view of the fairness of using more effective educational out The resource managers wanted to public monies (taxes and fees) for reach efforts. know how recreation visitors view the benefit of private interests. forest closures. More specifically, 2. Treatments they wanted to know how to recon Summary ideas for future The resource managers wanted cile limiting the recreation visitor’s research studies. Research can to know the recreation visitor’s access with closures necessary for measure the perceptions of rec preference for fuel treatments, their safety—which is, in part, the reation visitors, including rec particularly toward thinning and mission of Federal land manage reation homeowners, about the burning. The managers expressed ment agencies. The managers were appropriate use of public funds to a concern about visitors accepting also concerned with the economic defend private inholdings. a potential reduction in the qual impacts of fire-related closures on ity of their recreation experience. the communities that serve recre 5. Rehabilitation and Restoration Because many prescribed burns are ation visitors. Judging by objections that are performed during hunting season, a routinely voiced at public meet concern was also expressed for this To reduce the severity of these ings about partially burned stands particular forest-user group. impacts, while managers consid of trees, the resource managers ered providing access to outfit sensed that recreation visitors In addition, the resource managers ter-guided groups, they were con believe that this post-fire rehabilita wanted to know visitor tolerance cerned that this could be perceived tion and restoration work occurs for some of fire’s negative effects, as inequitable—or even elitist. too slowly.
There might be a perceived lack of They were also concerned with the economic faith in the ability of Federal land impacts of fire-related closures on the management agencies to restore and rehabilitate. communities that serve recreation visitors.
Volume 67 • No. 1 • Winter 2007 Summary ideas for future ods of high fire danger, differenc • Describe recreation visitor per research studies. Research could es between forest health practices ceptions of closures and restrict measure recreation visitors’ and logging, and recognition by ed access. expectations to determine if there visitors of fire-dangerous prac • Assess the perceptions of rec is a lack of confidence in the abil tices (such as untended campfires reation visitors, including rec ity of Federal land management or careless cigarette smoking). reation homeowners, about the agencies to restore and rehabili This research might also evaluate appropriate use of public funds to tate the landscape. Techniques for defend private inholdings. diffusing conflict could be devel • Quantify recreation visitor expec oped. The resource managers tations about restoration and were aware of the rehabilitation. Determine if there Potential Studies is a lack of confidence in an agen growing controversy Social science research benefits cy’s ability to do the job. from discussions such as these over the allocation in providing a higher level of rel of public funds for Seeking resource manager input evance to recreation management. firefighting and fire into research is important in keep ing research relevant and timely. This session yielded the aforemen prevention used tioned five topic areas suitable Social science research results can for further research. To provide to protect private provide the tools that resource guidance to resource managers, inholdings. managers need to accomplish their we encourage social scientists to work more effectively. address these topics. message source (who is best to In addition, developing resource Potential studies include: deliver the message and how it is manager training programs that supplied). provide practical information • Determine credible messages for • Measure visitor preferences for geared toward actual application fuel reduction, restrictions on specific treatment options such as will help improve fire management recreation activities during peri thinning and burning. and better serve outdoor recreation visitors.
Fire Management Today exaMining the sourCes oF puBliC support For wildland Fire poliCies James D. Absher and Jerry J. Vaske
ecent severe wildfires have reinforced the need for suc Only Starting To Emerge R cessful mitigation strategies to be coordinated across all levels of Half a century ago, Lasswell cess (O’Laughlin, 2003). Hoover government that address the needs (1951) emphasized the impor and Langner (2003), for example, and concerns of homeowners who tance of merging social science noted “the importance of under live in the wildland/urban interface and policy. Work in policy arenas standing …attitudes, perceptions (WUI). (such as housing and labor) has and beliefs about fire in develop empirically linked public beliefs ing feasible fire management Despite the growing body of social and policy issues (Hyman and strategies.” Despite this recogni science literature on agency-ini others, 2001). Natural resource tion, social science-based analyses tiated wildland fire policies and managers have similarly recog of wildland fire policies are only homeowner mitigation strategies, nized that the social sciences can starting to emerge in the litera knowledge gaps surrounding these inform the decisionmaking pro ture (Cortner and Field, 2004). policies and strategies still exist (Cortner and Field, 2004). To better manage the human dimensions of wildland fire, a better understand To better manage the human dimensions of ing of the underlying mechanisms wildland fire, we must understand the underlying that influence public support for agency and homeowner behaviors mechanisms that influence public support for is therefore needed. agency and homeowner behaviors.
We examined the influence of three sets of predictors—sociodemo to better understand the social 1. Sociodemographic variables. graphic, situational, and psycholog complexities of each wildland fire These variables are commonly ical—on two agency policies, pre policy. Thus, our major working measured in social science sur scribed fire and mechanical thin hypothesis is that wildland fire poli veys and are frequently reported ning, and two homeowner actions, cies have distinct sources of public in wildland fire management defensible space and Firewise con support that, to be effective, must studies. Variables such as age, struction. be understood. sex, education, and income have been shown to be related to resi We anticipate that the differences Predicting Policy dents’ perceptions of wildland in the relationships among the Support fires and potential mitigation predictor variables that are precur Combinations of underlying factors strategies (Hoover and Langner, sors to each policy provide a basis have been shown to influence sup 2003). Individuals with more port for wildland fire management income, for example, have more Jim Absher is a research social sci alternatives (Kneeshaw and others, personal resources to adopt some entist with the Forest Service, Pacific 2004; Taylor and others, 1988). In homeowner wildland fire mitiga Southwest Research Station, Riverside general, the wildland fire literature tion strategies (such as Firewise Fire Lab, Riverside, CA; Jerry Vaske is a construction). professor in the Department of Natural has addressed the three categories Resource Recreation and Tourism, Human of predictor variables used in our Dimensions in Natural Resources Unit, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO. study:
Volume 67 • No. 1 • Winter 2007 2. Situational variables. These fac Wildland fire policies have distinct tors define a given context and influence what the public per sources of public support that, to be ceives as acceptable or feasible effective, must be understood. (Kneeshaw and others, 2004; Taylor and others, 1988). Large tracts of forested land often sur More specific psychological vari four mechanical thinning ques round homes built in the WUI. ables (beliefs about effectiveness tions, each measured on 7-point Proximity of a home to a forest is and aesthetics of mitigation efforts) agree–disagree scales. (For analysis likely to enhance the homeown would be expected to account consistency with the homeowner ers’ general awareness of the for relatively more variation in activity variables, these composite potential dangers associated with response. Situation variables (such indices were collapsed into dichoto wildland fires and their willing as proximity to a forest) might be mous variables where “0” reflected ness to accept mitigation efforts. somewhere in between in predictive opposition and “1” indicated sup potential. port for each agency action.) 3. Psychological variables. These variables—such as specific Thus, situational variables raise Variables and beliefs and attitudes regarding awareness of the potential risks of Predictors Examined wildfires—are perhaps most wildland fires, but are less specific Three sets of independent variables important to understanding than the psychological variables. were examined. The sociodemo wildland fire policy support. The graphic predictors included age, public often under or overesti Survey and Model sex, total annual household income, mates wildfire risks. Large attitu Data for this study were obtained and education. Four general situ dinal differences sometimes exist from a mail survey of residents ational predictors were examined: between experts and non-experts living in six WUI counties in in risk situations (Vogt and oth Colorado. A random sample of • Year-round residency, ers, 2005). these residents was mailed a sur • Distance of home from forested vey in May 2004. After a postcard area, Not all of these three classes of reminder and two repeat mail • Own or rent property, and predictors, however, are likely to ings, 532 completed surveys were • Years living in Colorado. contribute equally to support—or returned, for a 47-percent response oppose—agency wildland fire polic rate. The psychological variables mea es or homeowner mitigation strate sured respondents’ specific famil gies. Social–psychological theories The survey contained four separate iarity, perceived effectiveness, and for these disparities suggest that dependent variables representing aesthetic impacts regarding pre the “specificity” principle (the cor different wildland fire mitigation scribed burning and mechanical respondence between the measured strategies. Each was introduced thinning. For defensible space and concepts) influences the strength with a short description and a cap Firewise construction, individu of observed relationships between tioned illustration. Two strategies als also indicated whether or not variables (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975; dealt with defensible space and the actions enhanced the safety of Vogt and others, 2005). Firewise construction homeowner their property. These variables were activities, and two concerned the coded on 9-point scales (1 = not at This principle predicts that general agency activities of mechanical all familiar, 9 = extremely familiar). sociodemographic variables (such thinning and prescribed burning. as education and income) and gen A more comprehensive discussion eral situational variables (such as For the homeowner activities, of the scientific issues, methods home ownership) that are not wild- respondents indicated whether used in this study, and full exposi land fire-specific will explain less of or not they currently practiced tion of the statistical tests used the variability in support for agency defensible space or Firewise con are available in Absher and Vaske prescribed burning, for instance, or struction. For the agency action (2006a, 2006b). for homeowner wildland fire miti strategies, respondents rated three gation strategies such as defensible prescribed burn questions and space.
Fire Management Today Survey Results respondents were year round (84 Among the sociodemographic indi percent) homeowners (93 percent) cators, only age (mechanical thin More than three quarters of the who lived in, or near, a forest and ning model) and income (Firewise WUI residents surveyed, 79 per had resided in Colorado an average construction, mechanical thinning, cent, practiced at least one type of of 26.7 years. and prescribed burning models) defensible space activity (such as were statistically significant. None cleaning gutters or pruning trees), In terms of the psychological of the sociodemographic variables and 47 percent engaged in some variables, the respondents were statistically influenced defensible form of Firewise construction. Nine supportive of both agency and space activities. out of 10 respondents, 90 percent, homeowner mitigation efforts, with approved of mechanical thinning, averages ranging from 5.32 to 6.83 Overall, the sociodemographic and 82 percent supported pre on a 9-point scale. variables were weakly linked to scribed burning activities. the personal action strategies and only slightly better represented The respondents were typically Statistical Analyses in the agency actions. Again, for male (65 percent), about 56 years Separate statistical analyses (logis more detailed information on the old, had at least some college edu tic regression models) were calcu methods or results of the statistical cation, and reported household lated for each of the three sets of models and tests, please see Absher incomes slightly more than $70,000 predictor variables on each of the and Vaske (2006a, 2006b). per year. These sociodemographic four criterion variables (see table). results are typical of homeown Significant relationships link ers in WUI settings. A majority of ages are indicated by check marks.
Patterns of significant linkages of sociodemographic, situational, and psychological influences on wildland fire policies. “Personal Action” Policies “Agency Action” Policies Influences by type Defensible Firewise Mechanical Prescribed Space Construction Thinning Burning Sociodemographic: Gender Age Education Income Sub-group Situational: Year-round resident Forest proximity Home ownership Years in Colorado Sub-group Psychological: Familiar with policy Think it’s effective Think it’s safe n/a n/a Think it improves look Sub-group n/a = not applicable
Volume 67 • No. 1 • Winter 2007 Three of the four situational vari These results point to the utility of The use of social science data to ables (forest proximity, home knowing the social and psychologi inform wildland fire policy can ownership, years in Colorado) influ cal precursors. Especially notewor clarify different considerations enced participation in defensible thy is the fact that psychological that are important in affecting space actions (see table). In the linkages to all wildland fire policies support, opposition, or behav Firewise construction model, only are strong and pervasive. ioral compliance with wildland distance from the forest was sig fire policy. nificant. None of the four situation The policy-specific pattern of sig- predictors influenced mechanical nificance also differed between the thinning. In the prescribed burn sociodemographic, situational, gest that residential land developers ing equation, only years living in and psychological predictors. The and the home construction indus Colorado was significant. sociodemographic variables had try should be an important target more influence in agencywide for communication efforts—espe Overall, the situational factors were policy models, while the situational cially if they will agree to incorpo important to defensible space deci variables were relatively more rate Firewise principles more often sions, but only weakly tied to the important in understanding hom and more aggressively market such other actions. eowner actions. options to customers.
The psychological variables Among the psychological variables, This Study: Initial Step explained more of the variability perceived familiarity with the In summary, our work in this study in both the personal and agency agency or homeowner actions had represents an initial step toward action models than either the bridging traditional discursive sociodemographic or situational policy analysis with a theoreti variables. Perceived familiarity with A total of 90 percent of cally grounded empirical approach the action was significant in all four the study’s respondents espoused by Lasswell (1951). Our models. Effectiveness influenced three-factor causal model offers a defensible space and prescribed supported mechanical theoretical framework for better burning actions. Safety was signifi thinning; 82 percent understanding policy support and cant in the defensible space model. supported prescribed homeowner behavior. Aesthetic impacts influenced rat burning activities. ings of agency actions, but not the Furthermore, our results support homeowner actions. Taken as a the working hypothesis of differ whole, the subgroup of psychologi ential social causes and suggest a strong and consistent influence cal variables was consistently the that fire managers need to engage on each policy. This suggests that best predictor of policy support. homeowners and the general popu greater support for these policies lation differently. However, because and actions might be possible if the Understanding Public less than half of the variance was communication strategy enhances Support explained in any of the models, residents’ knowledge or under more work is needed to identify a Variables in each of the three standing of the rationale for them. classes of predictors can influ comprehensive model of policy sup port for wildland fire actions—and ence agency policy and individual To enhance compliance with to demonstrate its use in other geo homeowner behavior. Consistent Firewise construction and defen graphic or resource settings. with social psychological theory sible space strategies, agencies and the previously discussed speci should pay attention to the psy Our general modeling approach ficity principle, specific wildland chological drivers and to the situ should also be broadly applicable to fire beliefs and attitudes (such as ational variables such as proximity other policy arenas, especially those psychological predictors) had more to the forest. Given the homeown focused on natural resource man predictive power than either the ers’ costs associated with adopt agement or natural disaster issues. general sociodemographic or gen ing Firewise construction and the Recognizing these causal influences eral situational indicators. potential barriers that these pose to can improve policy development, compliance, our results also sug
Fire Management Today communications, and local com Psychological linkages to all wildland fire policies munity involvement strategies. are strong and pervasive. These results also underscore the utility of including psychological Cortner, H.J.; Field, D.R. 2004. of acceptable wildland fire management determinants in the policy analysis Introduction: Humans, fire, and forests actions. Society and Natural Resources. model, as well as the need to care – Part III. Society & Natural Resources: 17: 477–489. fully assess the role of constituent 17: 659–660. Lasswell, H. D. 1951. “Democratic charac influences for a specific policy. Fishbein, M.; Ajzen, I. 1975. Belief, attitude, ter,” in the political writings of Harold intention, and behavior: An introduc D. Lasswell. Glencoe, IL: Free Press. tion to theory and research. Reading, 465–525. References Massachusetts: Addison–Wesley. O’Laughlin, J. 2003. Policy analysis and Hoover, A.P.; Langner. L.L. 2003. People natural resources: Bringing science to Absher, J.D.; Vaske, J.J. 2006a. In press. and wildfire: An overview. In: P.J. Jakes, policymakers. Moscow, Idaho: University Modeling public support for wldland fire Homeowners, communities, and wildfire: of Idaho. policy. In Sustainable Forestry in Theory Science findings from the National Fire and Practice. Wallingford, UK: CABI Taylor, J.G.; Carpenter, E.H.; Cortner, H.J.; Plan. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC–231. St. Paul, Press. Cleaves, D.A. 1988. Risk perception and MN: USDA, Forest Service, North Central behavioral context: U.S. Forest Service Absher, J.D; Vaske, J.J. 2006b. An analysis Research Station. fire management professionals. Society of homeowner and agency wildland fire and Natural Resources. 1: 253–268. mitigation strategies. In: J.G. Peden Hyman, D.; Bridger, J.; Shingler, J.; Van & R.M. Schuster. Proceedings of the Loon, M. 2001. Paradigms, policies and Vogt, C.A.; Winter, G.; Fried, J.S. 2005. 2005 Northeastern Recreation Research people: Exploring the linkages between Predicting homeowners’ approval of fuel Symposium. Gen.Tech. Rep. NE–341. normative beliefs, public policies and util management at the wildland-urban inter Newtown Square, PA: USDA, Forest ity consumer payment problems. Policy face using the theory of reasoned action. Service, Northeastern Research Station. Studies Review. 18(2): 89–121. Society and Natural Resources. 18(4): Kneeshaw, K.; Vaske, J.J.; Bright, A.D.; 337–354. Absher, J.D. 2004. Situational influences
an invitation to CollaBorate with your peers
he Wildland Fire Lessons as applied fire effects, fire behav There are also specific prac Learned Center’s ior, and aerial ignition. Members titioner groups using the T “MyFireCommunity” often request to join these existing “MyFireCommunity” Web site for Web site—located at
Volume 67 • No. 1 • Winter 2007 CoMputing the low elevation haines index By Brian E. Potter, Julie A. Winkler, Dwight F. Wilhelm, Ryan P. Shadbolt
hen D.A. Haines introduced his Lower Atmospheric Our goal is to determine the most accurate W Severity Index—now known method for computing the Haines Index. as the Haines Index—almost 20 years ago (Haines, 1988), he designed it to use the input data three options exist for comput 2. Interpolate the 950 mb tempera regularly reported as part of the ing the low elevation Haines Index ture from surface and 925 mb upper air soundings taken by the from observational data: observations, or National Weather Service (NWS). 3. Adjust the Haines Index thresh 1. Use the 925 mb temperature in olds to allow direct use of the Haines based the low-elevation ver place of 950 mb temperature, 925 mb temperature. sion of his index on temperature observations at 950 millibar* (mb) and on temperature and humidity observations at 850 mb. In 1988, What Is the Haines Index? measurements were commonly taken at the 950 mb pressure level, D.A. Haines developed his “Lower observation stations across North even though this level was not a Atmosphere Stability Index”—now America. mandatory sounding level (required universally known as the Haines by NWS rules). The 850 mb level Index—in 1988 to be used to The Haines Index readings range was—and remains—a mandatory indicate the potential for wildfire from 2 to 6. The drier and more level. growth by measuring the stability unstable the lower atmosphere, and dryness of the air over a fire. the higher the index: In 1991, the NWS introduced a new mandatory level at 925 mb. This is calculated by combining 2 – Very Low Potential (moist, Measurements at 950 mb became the stability and moisture content stable lower atmosphere) less frequent. While some sound of the lower atmosphere into a 3 – Very Low Potential ings still include 950 mb data, the number that correlates well with 4 – Low Potential majority do not. There has been no large fire growth. The index’s “sta 5 – Moderate Potential coordinated, standard adaptation of bility term” is determined by the 6 – High Potential (dry, unstable the low-elevation Haines Index to temperature difference between lower atmosphere) account for this change. two atmospheric layers. Its “mois ture term” is determined by the When fire managers see higher Index Options temperature and dew point differ Haines Index values, they know Theoretically, when there is no ence. they could be facing a dry, unsta observed 950 mb temperature, ble atmosphere conducive to This index has been shown to cor large wildland fires. Because the * A unit of atmospheric pressure equal to one-thou relate with large fire growth on Haines Index can usually distin sandth (10-3) of a bar. Standard atmospheric pressure at sea level is about 1,013 millibars. initiating and existing fires where guish between average and rapid surface winds do not dominate fire growth conditions, it has Brian Potter is a research meteorologist fire behavior. The Haines Index become a standard tool of many for the Forest Service, Pacific Northwest is computed from the afternoon fire weather forecasters and fire Research Station, Seattle, WA; Julie Winkler is a professor and Dwight Wilhelm soundings from radiosonde managers. and Ryan Shadbolt are research assistants in the department of geography, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI.
Fire Management Today 0 Our objective in this study is to We make no attempt to blow-up)—where an inaccurate present information on how well value is most likely to be a fire these methods reproduce the actu determine how well the behavior or firefighter safety con al Haines Index—computed using Haines Index compares cern. an observed 950 mb temperature. with fire behavior or Thus, our goal is to determine the activity. (For a more detailed explanation of most accurate method for comput the methods used in our analysis, ing the Haines Index itself. It is see sidebar on page 43.) important to note that we make no 3. The “interpolation approach” attempt to determine how well the – interpolating temperature Study Results Haines Index compares with fire between the surface and 925 mb Table 1 summarizes the results for behavior or activity. to obtain a value at 950 mb; and spring (March, April, May), sum 4. The “new thresholds approach” mer (June, July, August), autumn Analysis Methods – adjusting the thresholds origi (September, October, November), We examined 39,818 atmospheric nally used by Haines to demar and winter (December, January, soundings from 18 locations in the cate values of 1, 2, and 3 for the February). The values in the table same region Haines (1988) identi stability component of the Index. indicate the percent of soundings fied for using the low-elevation where the alternative approach version of the Haines Index (figure We compared the alternative ver yielded results that were lower or 1). While these soundings covered sions with the original version of higher than the original Haines from 1958 to 2000, most were the Haines Index to determine how Index. taken between 1992 and 1997. often they agreed or disagreed. The better the agreement, the more These results show that, most For each sounding, we computed “true” that alternative was to the of the time, “the 925 mb raw four values for the Haines Index: original Index. approach” underestimates the Haines Index (and presumably the 1. Original Haines Index – using We considered only those cases in risk of large or erratic fire). The the observed 950 mb tempera which the original Haines Index “interpolation approach” fares ture; was a 5 (moderate potential for much better, although it also tends 2. The “925 mb raw approach” blow-up) or 6 (high potential for to underestimate the Haines Index. – using the 925 mb temperature as a direct substitute for 950 mb temperature; Table 1—Error rates for alternative calculations of the Haines Index for cases where the original Haines Index was a 5 or 6.
Alternative Error Season Haines Index % Under % Over 925 mb raw Spring 78 0 Summer 81 0 Autumn 74 0 Winter 68 0 Interpolation Spring 3 1 Summer 4 1 Autumn 14 0 Winter 12 0 New Thresholds Spring 11 1 Summer 15 1 Autumn 19 1 Figure 1—Locations and abbreviations for stations used in this study. Winter 23 1
Volume 67 • No. 1 • Winter 2007 1 The “new thresholds approach” comes close to the “interpolated approach” in accuracy.
None of the three approaches yields values higher than the original Haines Index more than 1 percent of the time. The error rates vary with season and location, as shown in Figures 2 and 3. These two fig ures indicate how often an alterna tive method yielded a value of the Figure 2—Percent of 925 mb raw method Haines Index values of 4 that were “true” Haines Index that would have been Haines Index values of 5 for (a) 00 Universal Time Coordinated (UTC) spring, (b) 00 UTC summer, and (c) 00 UTC fall. higher had the “true” Haines Index been computed. Error Values For the “925 mb raw method” (fig. 2), the spatial pattern of errors is generally the same regardless of the season. The lowest errors are over the Gulf Coast and Mississippi River. In the Southeast, the highest error rates occur in spring, while the peak error rates for most other areas occur during the summer. The highest overall error values Figure 3—Percent of interpolation method Haines Index values of 4 that were “true” Haines Index values of 5 for (a) 00 Universal Time Coordinated (UTC) spring, (b) 00 UTC are found in Texas during summer, summer, and (c) 00 UTC fall. with errors as high as 80 percent. rate exceeds that of the interpola Figure 3 shows the results of the tion method, which is presently in “interpolated approach” for Haines We considered only those cases in which use. Because the new thresholds Index readings of 4 that correspond were primarily a test to deter to “true” 5 readings. (Note that the an inaccurate value is mine whether there was a simple, contour interval on these figures most likely to be a fire straightforward way to adapt the is much smaller than that on fig. Haines Index to 925 mb data, we 2.) There is no spatial consistency behavior or firefighter safety concern. felt that, for practical applica across seasons. For example, the tion, the greater error rates were gradient in error rate over the sufficient grounds to reject this Great Lakes region reverses from approach. summer to fall. The errors at Looking at these soundings for Birmingham, AL, dominate the pat Birmingham, we found that inver To Reduce Confusion tern for fall, but the overall magni sions accounted for nearly two- tude of the errors is greater in fall thirds of the days where interpola Our results show that a Haines than other seasons. tion gave a 4 and the “true” Haines Index calculated from interpolated Index was a 5. Nearby locations did 950 mb temperature is less likely We looked at the interpolation not show such frequent inversions. than a Haines Index calculated with errors from Birmingham in more 925 mb temperature to underes detail to get an idea of what might We did not examine the spatial timate the original formulation of be causing the larger fall errors patterns for the “new thresholds” the low elevation Haines Index— at this location—and in general. method. This method is not cur whether the 925 mb temperature is rently in use anywhere and its error used with the original or modified
Fire Management Today A More Detailed Description of This Study’s Methodology
To compare the three calculation contained both 925 mb and 950 mb “ln” indicates the natural loga options in this study required observations came from the 1992 rithm, T950 is the interpolated using individual soundings that to 1997 period—shortly after the 950 mb temperature, Tsfc is the contained both 950 millibar (mb) 925 mb level was introduced as a observed surface temperature, T925 and 925 mb temperature observa- standard level. Overall, the analy- is the observed 925 mb tempera tions. Furthermore, the locations sis examined 39,818 atmospheric ture, and psfc is the observed sur of these soundings had to be with- soundings. face pressure in millibars. in the geographical region that D.A. Haines specified for using For each sounding, we computed Haines originally used 950 mb to the “low elevation” version of the four values for the Haines Index: 850 mb temperature difference Haines Index in 1988. the original Haines Index, the 925 thresholds of 4 º celsius (C) and 8 mb raw approach, the interpolation ºC, with temperature differences On an unrelated project, two of approach, and the new thresholds below 4 ºC—indicating an A com- this article’s authors (Winkler approach (see mainbar for defini- ponent of 1, differences of 8 ºC or and Shadbolt) had previously tions). more, indicating an A component examined National Climatic Data of 3, and intermediate values indi- Center sounding data spanning Interpolation Approach cating an A component of 2. from 1958 to 2000 from locations For the interpolation approach, between the Rocky Mountains we used the natural logarithm of As a rough approximation, the and the Appalachians. This exami- pressure as the vertical coordinate layer from 925 mb to 850 mb is nation produced a data set that in the interpolation calculation. three-fourths of the depth of the removed aborted soundings and This is common when interpolat original layer. We therefore chose those with missing observations. ing temperature vertically in the new thresholds that are three atmosphere. The equation for fourths of the original values. The While we analyzed this entire original 4 ºC and 8 ºC thresholds this interpolation is: T950= Tsfc + 1958 to 2000 period in this study, became 3 ºC and 6 ºC, respectively. [ln(psfc)-ln(950)]/[ln(psfc)-ln(925)] * the majority of the soundings that (T925-Tsfc). thresholds. All three methods tend to produce Haines Index values All three methods tend to produce Haines Index lower than the original formula- values lower than the original formulation. tion.
As we point out at the beginning of At present, Haines Index users for the sake of consistency, if noth this article, our study considered might have no idea how this index ing else, a standardized method of how best to reproduce the original is calculated. Nor might they real computation would reduce confu formulation of the temperature ize that is quite possible to receive sion and uncertainty within the component of the low elevation conflicting values of the Haines user community. Haines Index. This is completely Index from different, equally distinct from comparing how well authoritative, sources. In light of any calculation of the Haines Index References the differences noted here among correlates with large or erratic fire Haines, D.A. 1988. A lower atmospheric the various methods for computing severity index for wildland fires. National growth. This study never attempted the low elevation Haines Index, and Weather Digest. 13(2): 23–27. to address or answer that question.
Volume 67 • No. 1 • Winter 2007 a Fuels ManageMent BiBliography with suBjeCt index M.E. Alexander
he primary purpose of fuels vide a comprehensive review and a 70-year record of publishing on management has been to lessen bibliography of the entire field. all aspects of wildland fire manage T potential fire behavior and, ment. While early emphasis was on thereby, increase the probability of The current efforts of the Forest fire protection and fire suppression, successful containment (Alexander Service’s (2004) Applied Wildland it wasn’t long before articles deal 2003). More specifically, it has been Fire Research in Support of Project ing with fuels management began to decrease the rate of fire and, in Level Hazardous Fuels Planning to appear. turn, fire size and intensity—as well Project to review and summarize as crowning and spotting potential. the existing information on fuel Bunton (2000), in Fire treatments in dry forests of the Management Today issue 60(1), In recent years, fuels management Western United States (
Fire Management Today Bibliographies This comprehensive bibliography includes By Subject 117 articles—listed under 12 subject areas— that date back to 1939. Broadcast Slash, Pile, and Snag Burning Ash, L.W. 1951. Paper-covered piled slash. Murphy, J.L.; Green, L.R.; Bentley, J.R. Keeley, J.E. 2005. Chaparral fuel modifica Fire Control Notes. 12(3): 18–19. 1967. Fuel–breaks – effective aids, not tion: What do we know – and need to Fahnestock G.R. 1954. Roofing slash piles cure–alls. Fire Control Notes. 28(1): 4–5. know? Fire Management Today. 65(4): can save—or lose—you dollars. Fire Murphy, E.E.; Murphy, J.L. 1965. Value of a 11–12. Control Notes. 15(3): 22–26. timber fuel break – the Wet Meadow Fire. Manning, D. 1990. Vegetative management Gilmore, R.; Blaine, C. 1960. Box for paper Fire Control Notes. 26(4): 3–4. in the wildland–urban interface. Fire used to cover slash piles. Fire Control Sipe, H. 1953. Railroad bulldozers fire Management Notes. 51(4): 14–15. Notes. 21(1): 29–30. break. Fire Control Notes. 14(4): 29. Waisel, Y.; Friedman, J. 1966. Use of tama Johansen, R.W. 1981. Windrows vs. small Wagstaff, A.J. 1942. Firebreak prevents rix trees to restrict fires in Israel. Fire piles for forest debris disposal. Fire larger fires. Fire Control Notes. 6(3): Control Notes. 27(2): 3–4, 15. Management Notes. 42(2): 7–9. 114–115, 127. Johnson, V.J. 1984. How shape affects Williston, H.L.; Conarro, R.M. 1970. Fuel Hazards the burning of slash piled debris. Fire Firebreak of many uses. Fire Control Dell, J.D. 1970. Road construction slash: Management Notes. 45(3): 12–15. Notes. 31(1): 11–13. Potential fuse for wildfire? Fire Control Maule, W.M. 1954. Hazard reduction by Notes. 31(1): 3. snag burning. Fire Control Notes. 15(3): Fuel Conversion Forman, O.L.; Longarce, D.W. 1971. Fire 27–29. potential increased by weed killers. Fire Morford, L. 1958. Slash disposal by burn and Vegetation Control Notes. 31(3): 11–12 ing on the Klamath. Fire Control Notes. Manipulation Johnson, R.F. 1963. The roadside fire prob 19(4): 141–143. Baldwin, J.J. 1968. Chaparral conversion lem. Fire Control Notes. 24(1); 5–7. Schimke, H.E.; Murphy, J.L. 1966. provides multiple benefits on the Tonto Nordwell, D.S. 1941. Spread of cheatgrass Protective coatings of asphalt and wax National Forest. Fire Control Notes. increases fire hazard. Fire Control Notes. emulsions for better slash burning. Fire 29(4): 8–10. 5(3): 143. Control Notes. 27(2): 5–6. Davis, W.S. 1949. The rate of spread–fuel Tester, M.E. 1964. Fire hazard on Tobago. Stradt, G.H. 1950. Debris burning on the density relationship. Fire Control Notes. Fire Control Notes. 25(2): 11–12, 16. Ouachita. Fire Control Notes. 11(4): 4–5. 10(2): 8–9. USDA Forest Service, Division of Fire USDA Forest Service, Region 6, Division Editor. 1954. Sheep fight fire. Fire Control Research. 1951. Are snags a fire problem? of Fire Control. 1952. Paper for covering Notes. 15(3): 26. Fire Control Notes. 12(4): 19. piled slash. Fire Control Notes. 13(3): 46. Farnsworth, A.; Summerfelt, P. 2002. Williams, D.E. 1956. Fire hazard resulting Flagstaff interface treatment prescription: from jack pine slash. Fire Control Notes. Chemical Fuel Results in the wildland–urban interface. 17(4): 1–8. Treatments Fire Management Today. 62(2): 13–18. Blanchard, R.K. 1947. Killing brush with 2, 4–D. Fire Control Notes. 8(2/3): 13–17. Bruce, H.D. 1939. Sterilizing soil with chemicals for firebreak maintenance. Fire This Is What Fuel Management Control Notes. 3(1): 17–21. Is All About Davis, J.B. 1971. Diammonium phosphate prevents roadside fires. Fire Control Where we manage land for spe all land use activities will some Notes. 32(1): 7–9. cific uses, we alter the timing, way influence the potential for Morton, D.H.; Fine, E. 1969. Chemical thin ning reduces fire hazard. Fire Control amount, and condition of the veg vegetation to be adversely affected Notes. 30(3): 5–7, 15. etation and associated debris. We by insect or disease epidemics, Ward, E.J. 1957. The effect of certain veg change its readiness to burn. We windthrow or breakage, wildfire, etation eradicators on the flammability of various materials. Fire Control Notes. convert green fuel to dead fuel. and other hazards. The choices 18(1): 29–32. As a strictly functional activity we make concerning what, where, of fire protection, fuel manage and how we manipulate vegeta Firebreaks and ment could lead one into the trap tion ought to be tempered by the Fuelbreaks of managing land simply for the expected hazard associated with Crandall, C.R. 1980. Firebreaks for railroad sake of successful fire control. such activities. This, basically, rights–of–way. Fire Management Notes. To avoid this trap, we must view is what fuel management is all 41(4): 9–10. Davis, W.S. 1951. Nebraska firebreaks. Fire fuel management in relation to about. Control Notes. 12(1): 40–43. all land management objectives. –A. P. Brackebusch (1973) Dell, J.D. 1965. A new experimental fire We must be keenly aware that area in Southern California. Fire Control Notes. 26(3): 5–7.
Volume 67 • No. 1 • Winter 2007 Hof, J. 2004. Diversifying fuels man Fuel Management agement to offset uncertainty. Fire Fuel Properties Decision Support Management Today. 64(2): 22–23. and Assessment Systems and Aids Graham, R.T.; Finney, M.A.; Cohen, J.; Techniques Robichaud, P.R.; Romme, W.; Kent, Editor. 1981. Need help with fuels apprais Bruce, D. 1952. Fuel weights on the B. 2005. Hayman Fire impacts. Fire al? Fire Management Notes. 42(4): 7. Osceola National Forest. Fire Control Management Today. 65(1): 19–22. Hirsch, S.N.; Radloff, D.L. 1981. A method Notes. 12(3): 20–23. Laughlin, D.C.; Zule, P.Z. 2006. Meeting for making activity–fuel management Buck, C.C. 1951. Flammability of chaparral forest ecosystem objectives with wildland decisions. Fire Management Notes. 42(3): depends on how it grows. Fire Control fire use. Fire Management Today. 66(4): 5–9. Notes. 12(4): 27. 21-24. Radloff, D.L. 1984. Using decision analysis Dieterich, J.H. 1963. Litter fuels in red pine Limtiaco, D. 2002. A fire hazard mitigation to evaluate fire hazard effects of timber plantations. Fire Control Notes. 24(4): plan for Guam. Fire Management Today. harvesting. Fire Management Notes. 103–106. 62(1): 25–28. 45(1): 10–16. Fastabend, M. 2002. Kenai Peninsula Lowden, M.S. 1947. Slash disposal in selec Scott, J. 1999. NEXUS: a system for assess Borough: A spruce bark beetle mitigation tive cuts ponderosa pine stands. Fire ing crown fire hazard. Fire Management program. Fire Management Today. 62(1): Control Notes. 8(4): 35–40. Notes. 59(2): 20–24. 22. Martin, G.G. 1988. Fuel treatment assess Ward, F.R. 1982. Drafting guidelines to Greenlee, D.; Greenlee, J. 2002. Changes ment – 1985 fire season in Region 8. Fire manage forest residues. Fire Management in fire hazard as a result of the Cerro Management Notes. 49(4): 21–24. Notes. 43(4): 12–17. Grande Fire. Fire Management Today. Maupin, J. 1979. Developing a long–range 62(1): 15–21. fuel program. Fire Management Notes. Miller, R.K.; Schwandt, D.L. 1979. Slash Fuel Management 40(1): 3–5. fuel weights in red pine plantations. Fire Problems and Issues Management Notes. 40(1): 6–7. Beal, D. 2005. Rodeo–Chediski: Some Pyne, S.J. 2000. No fuel like an old fuel. underlying questions. Fire Management Fire Management Today Fire Management Today. 60(4): 4–5. Today. 65(1): 13–15. Rouse, C.; Paananen, D.M. 1988. A quick Dombeck, M. 2001. How can we reduce and its predecessors method to determine Northeastern wood the fire danger in the Interior West? Fire now have a 70-year fuel weights. Fire Management Notes. Management Today. 61(1): 5–13. 46(2): 24–25. Keller, P. 2005a. Arizona’s Rodeo–Chediski record of publishing on Weise, D.R.; Saveland, J.M. 1996. Fire: A forest health problem. Fire Monitoring live fuel moisture – a task Management Today. 65(1): 7–9. all aspects of wildland force report. Fire Management Notes. Keller, P. 2005b. Rodeo–Chediski: Tribal fire management. 56(3): 12–16. loss. Fire Management Today. 65(1): Woodard, P.M.; Pickford, S.G.; Martin, R.E. 10–12. 1976. Predicting weights of Douglas–fir Klinger, K.E.; Wilson, C.W. 1968. What are Mills, D.P. 2006. Wildland fire use success slash for material up to 3 inches in diam we going to do about the brush in south stories. Fire Management Today. 66(4): eter. Fire Management Notes. 37(3): 8–9, ern California? Fire Control Notes. 29(1): 16-18. 12. 3–6. Moore, S.T. 1960. Slash disposal in fire Linstedt, K.W. 1950. The mounting planning. Fire Control Notes. 21(2): Fuel Treatment Douglas–fir slash problem in western 60–61. Oregon and Washington – what can we Morrison, J. 1964. Fire hazard manage Effectiveness do about it? Fire Control Notes. 11(3): ment. Fire Control Notes. 25(2): 13–15. Banks, W.G.; Little, S. 1964. The forest fires 22–24. Morrison, J. 1968. Fire hazard management of April 1963 in New Jersey point the way Williams, J. 2005a. American’s wildlands: A in the Bitterroot – a further report. Fire to better protection and management. future in peril. Fire Management Today. Control Notes. 29(3): 3, 16. Fire Control Notes. 25(3): 3–6. [repub 65(3): 4–7. Nasiatka, P.; Christenson, D. 2006. lished as: Fire Management Today. 63(3): Williams, J. 2005b. Reconciling frictions in Measuring success in your fuels program. 74–78. 2003] policy to sustain fire–dependent ecosys Fire Management Today. 66(4): 57058. Cron, R.H. 1969. Thinning as an aid to fire tems. Fire Management Today. 65(4): 4–8. Nelson, N.D. 1941. Fire hazard reduction: control. Fire Control Notes. 30(1): 3. an instrument for desirable forest pro Dieterich, J.H. 1976. Jet stream influence Fuel Management tection and management. Fire Control on the Willow Fire. Fire Management Notes. 5(2): 81–83. Notes. 37(2): 6–8. [republished as: Fire Programs, Policies, Philpot, C.W. 1974. New fire control Management Today. 63(4): 17–19. 2004] Strategies, and strategy developed for chaparral. Fire Helms, J.A. 1979. Positive effects of pre Training Management. 35(1): 3–7. scribed burning on wildfire intensities. Stewart, S. 2006. SPOTS: Maximizing fuel Fire Management Notes. 40(3): 10–13. Anderson, H.T. 1964. Brush clearance for and vegetation management effectiveness. [republished as: Fire Management Today. structural protection. Fire Control Notes. Fire Management Today. 66(3): 22–26. 66(1): 65–68. 2006.] 25(4): 9–10. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Keeley, J.E. 2005. Lessons from the 2003 Editor. 1973. A new dimension in fire pre Forest and Range Experiment Station. fire siege in California. Fire Management vention. Fire Management. 34(2): 20. Slash disposal and forest management Today. 65(4): 9–10. Freeman, D.R. 1982. The fuel management after clear cutting in the Douglas–fir Keller, P. 2005a. Treatment success on the training series. Fire Management Notes. region. Fire Control Notes. 5(4): 213. Rodeo–Chediski Fire. Fire Management 43(3): 10–13. Whitson, J.B. 1983. An attempt to limit Today. 65(2): 30–31. wildfires through prescribed burning Keller, P. 2005b. Treatment area saves assistance. Fire Management Notes. ranger station. Fire Management Today. 44(1): 16–17. 65(3): 37. Fire Management Today Keyes, C.R.; Varner, J. M. 2006. Pitfalls in Shenk, W.D.; Harlan, R.N. 1972. Mounted Alexander, M.E. 2006. Forest health: Fire the silvicultural treatment of canopy in place of dozer blade, crusher–cutter behavior considerations. In: Appendix— fuels. Fire Management Today. 66(3): efficiently disposes of slash. Fire Control DVD, proceedings of post-harvest stand 46–50. Notes. 33(2): 5–7. development conference, Edmonton, Pirsko, A.R. 1963. More grass – less fire Tyree, J. 1980. Slash burning equipment. Alberta. January 31-February 1, 2006. damage. Fire Control Notes. 24(1): 8–9. Fire Management Notes. 41(2): 19–20. Sponsored by Foothills Growth and Raymond, C.; Peterson, D.L. 2005. How did Van, S.H.; Gallagher, D.G. 1968. Disposal Yield Association, Alberta Forest Genetic prefire treatments affect the Biscuit Fire? of logging slash with a “rolling chopper”. Resources Council, and Forest Resource Fire Management Today. 65(2): 18–22. Fire Control Notes. 29(2): 7–8. Improvement Association of Alberta, Scott, J. 1998. Reduce fire hazards in Ward, F.R.; Russell, J.W. 1975. High–lead Hinton, Alberta, Foothills Model Forest. ponderosa pine by thinning. Fire scarification: an alternative for site prepa Andrews, P.L.; Butler, B.W., comps. 2006. Management Notes. 58(1): 20–25. ration and fire–hazard reduction. Fire Fuels management—how to measure Management. 36(4): 3–4, 19. success: Conference proceedings, March Mechanical and Other Weatherhead, D.J. 1969. Fuel treatment 28-30, 2006, Portland, OR. Proc. RMRS systems for partially cut stands. Fire P-41. Fort Collins, CO: Forest Service, Fuel Treatments Control Notes. 36(2): 11. Rocky Mountain Research Station. Asher, R.L. 1967. A new tool for slash dis Brackebusch, A.P. 1973. Fuel management: posal. Fire Control Notes. 28(3): 11–12. Thinning Slash A prerequisite not an alternative to fire Cook, W.R. 1966. Slash disposal by chip control. Journal of Forestry. 71: 637–639. pers. Fire Control Notes. 27(2): 7. Alexander, M.E.; Yancik, R.F. 1977. The Bunton, D.R. 2000. Subject index – Editor. 1958. Slash disposal by dozer, effect of precommercial thinning on fire Volumes 31–59. Fire Management Today. northern Rocky Mountains. Fire Control potential in a lodgepole pine stand. Fire 60(1): 32–94. Notes. 19(4): 144–154. Management Notes. 38(3): 7–9, 20. Editor. 2006. All our past issues now avail Getz, D. 1973. Domesticated Bobcat: Appleby, R.W. 1970. Thinning slash and fire able on the Web. Fire Management Today. something new in slash disposal. Fire control. Fire Control Notes. 31(1): 8–10. 66(3):59. Management. 34(4): 14–15. Dell, J.D.; Franks, D.E. 1971. Thinning Fernandes, P.M.; Botelho, H.S. 2003. A Johnson, G.B. 1947. Army explosive for slash contributes to eastside Cascade review of prescribed burning effectiveness hazard reduction. Fire Control Notes. wildfires. Fire Control Notes. 31(1): 4–6. in fire hazard reduction. International 8(1): 42–44. Journal of Wildland Fire. 12: 117–128. Johnson, R.E. 1992–93. Shred, don’t burn References Greenlee, J.M.; Sapsis, D.B. 1996. Prefire – an alternative for treating slash on Agee, J.K.; Bahro, B.; Finney, M.A.; effectiveness in fire management: A steep terrain. Fire Management Notes. Omi, P.N.; Sapsis, D.B.; Skinner, C.N.; summary and a review of the state–of– 53–54(4): 14–16. van Wagtendonk, J.W.; Weatherspoon, knowledge. Fairfield, WA: International Lambert, M. 1975. Treating and utilizing C.P. 2000. The use of fuelbreaks in land Association of Wildland Fire. [see also: slash. Fire Management. 36(2): 8. scape fire management. Forest Ecology
Volume 67 • No. 1 • Winter 2007 Outcalt, K.W.; Wade, D.D. 2004. Fuels management reduces tree mortality from On Developing the Sound wildfires in the Southeastern United Principles of Fuel Reduction States. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 28(1): 28–34. The lack of factual information much better results than can be Schumann, M. 2001. Annotated bibliogra and specific knowledge regarding obtained by relying on the hur phy: Fuel treatments and fire behavior. Santa Fe, NM: National Community fire influences and the techniques ried judgements of many differ- Forestry Center, Southwest Region. of relative social and econom- ent administrators. The problems USDA Forest Service. 2004. Fuels plan ics appraisals is handicap to the of fuel reduction are so complex ning: science synthesis and integration; fact sheet: the fuels synthesis project development of sound principles that busy administrative men can overview. Res. Note RMRS–RN–19–WWW. of fuel reduction. Estimating and do little more than guess, and Fort Collins, CO: USDA Forest Service, theorizing may have to be relied such guesses are an obviously Rocky Mountain Research Station. Weatherspoon, C.P; Skinner, C.N. 1995. on more than desirable. But if the inadequate basis for guiding the An assessment of factors associated with work is done systematically, cau- expenditures of millions of dollars damage to tree crowns from the 1987 tiously, and prudently, the guides for post-war work. wildfires in California. Forest Science. 41: that are developed should produce 430–451. –C.K. Lyman (1945)
Covered Pile Burning: A Safe and Effective Technique for Fuel Removal
The burning of piled slash is a the years, including polyethylene This should provide a valuable well-established technique for film or “black plastic”—no longer technique for fuel removal within disposing of thinning, logging, recommended due to environ- the wildland/urban interface. and other woody debris (Beaufait mental concerns (Garrett 1994). 1966, Luke and others 1993, For current information on paper References Olson and Fahnestock 1955, specifically designed for covering Beaufait, W.R. 1966. Prescribed fire plan- Steele 1960). This fuels manage- slash piles, see, for example, the ning in the Intermountain West. Res. Pap. INT–26. Ogden, UT: Forest Service, ment bibliography included four wax paper offered by Terra Tech, Intermountain Forest and Range long-forgotten articles on covered LLC* (
Fire Management Today iMproving wildland FireFighter and puBliC saFety through Fire Behavior researCh and developMent M.E. Alexander
he need to accurately appraise Forest Fire Danger Rating System potential wildland fire behavior Particular emphasis directly to wildland firefighter T is embedded in nearly every fire needs to be devoted safety and community fire protec management decision. tion (such as the “Grassland Fire to the prediction of Behavior Pocket Card” and other And, because of potentially adverse extreme or severe fire media, including posters). impacts to wildland firefighter safe behavior. • Wildland fire behavior training ty, the public-at-large, and other course delivery and development values at risk, particular emphasis at the national level (including needs to be devoted to the pre rent state of knowledge regarding the Canadian Interagency Forest diction of extreme or severe fire wildland fire dynamics. Fire Centre’s Advanced Wildland behavior. Fire Behavior and Wildland In recent years, the centre’s Fire Behavior Specialist train In addressing these significant wild- focus and accomplishments have ing courses) and several CD land fire safety needs, the wildland occurred in four key areas: ROM based courses (Principles fire behavior research and devel of Fire Behavior, Intermediate opment activities at the Canadian • Applications of fire behavior Wildland Fire Behavior, Wildland Forest Service’s Northern Forestry knowledge and the Canadian Fire–Safety on the Fireline, and Centre have two broad objectives: Marty Alexander, • To conduct fundamental and the article’s author, applied research to develop math underburning for an experimental fuel ematical models and operational treatment effective guidelines for predicting the ness study in a low- characteristics of the various phe pruned and partially thinned 75-year-old nomena associated with extreme jack pine stand fire behavior; and in the Northwest • To ensure that fire managers and Territories, Canada. Photo: R.A. Lanoville, other clients are aware of the cur- June 2005.
Dr. Marty Alexander is a senior fire behav ior research officer with the Canadian Forest Service, Northern Forestry Centre; and an adjunct professor of wildland fire science and management in the Department of Renewable Resources, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.
This article is adapted from a summary associated with a scientific poster presentation made at the XII World Forestry Conference held September 2003 in Quebec City, Quebec. Copies of the poster are available for downloading at:
Volume 67 • No. 1 • Winter 2007 Understanding the Fire Weather The centre’s focus and accomplishments have Index System). occurred in four key areas. • Development of new, generic models for predicting extreme fire behavior (such as the ini These activities of the Northern An updated list of the publica tiation and spread rate of crown Forestry Centre’s wildland fire tions (Alexander 2003) pertain fires, maximum spotting distance behavior research and development ing to this work is available upon from crown fires). efforts have been accomplished request (e-mail Marty Alexander: • The International Crown Fire with the assistance of numerous [email protected]). Modelling Experiment that has regional, national, and interna provided new insights into the tional partners. A strong sense of Reference nature of crown fires and the social responsibility for ultimately Alexander, M.E. 2003. Wildland fire behav opportunity to test and evaluate benefiting the environment and ior research at the Northern Forestry several fuel management theo Centre. Edmonton, Alberta: Canadian all of its inhabitants is a common ries. Forest Service, Northern Forestry Centre theme that is weaved into all of
Web sites on Fire* The Canadian Forest for the evaluation of forest fire dan- Currently, the CFFDRS Web site Fire Danger Rating ger, description of fire occurrence, also includes a list of selected System and prediction of fire behavior publications and information on characteristics. computer software. The Canadian Forest Fire Danger Rating System (CFFDRS) is The CFS fire research group has A current, comprehensive sum Canada’s national system for developed a Web site to provide mary of the CFFDRS can be rating forest fire danger. It was a source of up-to-date techni- found in: Taylor, S.W.; Alexander, developed by the Canadian Forest cal information that describes M.E. 2006. Science, technol- Service (CFS) in cooperation with the development, structure, and ogy, and human factors in fire the provincial, territorial, and fed- application of the four subsystems danger rating: The Canadian eral fire management agencies in or modules that comprise the experience. International Journal Canada. CFFDRS: of Wildland Fire. 15: 121–135. • The Fire Weather Index System, (This and other CFFDRS publica- The CFFDRS includes decision • The Fire Behavior Prediction tions can be downloaded from aids—both existing and planned— System, the FIREhouse Web site:
Fire Management Today 0 2007 photo Contest announCeMent
Fire Management Today (FMT) invites you • You must have the right to grant the Disclaimer to submit your best fire-related images Forest Service unlimited use of the • A panel of judges—with significant pho to be judged in our photo competition. image, and you must agree that the tography and publishing experience— Entries must be received by close of busi image will go into the public domain. determines the winners. The judges’ ness on Friday, October 5, 2007. Moreover, the image must not have been decision is final. previously published in any publication. • Photos depicting safety violations—as Awards • We prefer original slides or negatives; determined by the panel of judges—will All contestants will receive a CD with the however, we will accept duplicate slides be disqualified. images and captions (as submitted) remain or high-quality prints (for example, those • Life or property cannot be jeopardized to ing after technical and safety reviews. with good focus, contrast level, and obtain photos. Winning images will appear in a future depth of field). Note: Slides, negatives, • The Forest Service does not encourage issue of Fire Management Today and may and prints will not be returned. or support deviation from firefighting be publicly displayed at the Forest Service’s • We will also accept digital images if the responsibilities to capture photos. national office in Washington, DC. image was shot at the highest resolution • Photos will be eliminated from the com using a setting with at least 3.2 mega petition if they are obtained by illegal or Winners in each category will receive: pixels. If a print or slide is scanned, use a unauthorized access to restricted areas; • 1st place – A 20- by 24-inch framed copy setting of at least 300 lines per inch with show unsafe firefighting practices (unless of your image. a minimum output size of 5 x 7 inches. that is their expressed purpose); or are of • 2nd place – A 16- by 20-inch framed copy Digital image files should be TIFFs or low technical quality (for example, have of your image. highest quality JPGs. Note: Photos that soft focus or camera movement). • 3rd place – A 11- by 14-inch framed copy are date stamped will be eliminated from • You must complete and sign the Release of your image. the competition. Statement form (below) that grants the • Honorable Mention – A 8- by 10- inch • You must indicate only one competition Forest Service the rights to use your framed copy of your image. category per image. To ensure fair evalu image(s). ation, we reserve the right to change the Categories competition category for your image. Mail your completed release with your • You must provide a detailed caption for • Wildland fire entry or fax it to 970-295-6799 at the same each image. Example: A Sikorsky S-64 time you e-mail your digital image files. • Prescribed fire Skycrane delivers retardant on the 1996 • Wildland/urban interface fire Clark Peak Fire, Coronado National Mail entries to: • Aerial resources Forest, AZ. • Ground resources • You must include the following informa Forest Service • Miscellaneous (fire effects; fire weather; tion with your photo: your name, profes Fire Management Today Photo Contest fire-dependent communities or species; sional affiliation, town, State, and year Karen Mora etc.) that image was captured. 2150 Centre Avenue • You must complete and sign the Release Building E, Suite 008 Rules Statement form (below) granting Fort Collins, CO 80526 • The contest is open to everyone. You may the Forest Service rights to use your or submit an unlimited number of entries image(s). e-mail images and captions to: taken at any time. No photos judged in
2007 Fire Management Today Photo Contest Release Statement and Contact Information
Enclosed is/are (number) slide(s)/print(s)/digital image(s) for publication by the Forest Service. For each image submitted, the contest category is indicated and a detailed caption is enclosed. I have the authority to give permission to the Forest Service to publish the enclosed image(s) and am aware that, if used, it/they will be in the public domain and appear on the World Wide Web.
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