The Battle of Issus

The Aleian plain and the Issus plain comprise a narrow, to utilize that confined space to neutralize the Persian’s vast fairly isolated, horseshoe-shaped lowland. They lie adjacent numerical superiority, Alexander marched with his troops as to the sea and are hemmed in by the Taurus mountain far south as the town of Myriandrus, prepared his camp for range in the north and west and the Amanus mountains in battle, and dispatched scouts to reconnoiter the Pass [3]. the east. Access in and out of these plains would have been Underestimating the severity of Alexander’s illness, Darius extremely difficult, except at three passes: (1) a northwestern apparently misread the Greek’s delay at Soli as cowardice. gate, known today as the Gülek Pass and in antiquity as the He also overestimated his own army’s abilities in the face Cilician Gates;399 (2) a northeastern gate, known today as of a numerically inferior adversary. Learning of Alexander’s the Bahçe Pass and in antiquity as the Amanus Gates;400 and southward advance from Issus, Darius was advised to remain (3) a southern gate, known today as the Belen Pass and in out in the Amuq plain and pitch the battle there in a wide- antiquity as the Syrian Gates.401 open terrain ideally suited to his army’s size. He rejected that Alexander the Great set out from Gordion in the summer counsel and decided instead to lead his forces on a flanking of 333 b.c. [map 87], marching southeast across Galatia maneuver some 50 miles north. He hoped to enter the Issus and western Cappadocia as far as the city of Tyana (Aurelia plain unopposed through the Amanus Gates, sever Alexander’s Antoniniana). From there he was able to travel on what later logistical and supply line in the direction of Anatolia and would become the Via Taurus, and thus he negotiated the Greece, and surprise the Macedonian from the rear. It was Taurus range via the Cilician Gates.402 Upon taking control of an extremely daring and shrewd move that indeed outwitted Cilicia and the town of Tarsus, Alexander unwisely plunged Alexander and gave Darius an advantage—temporarily. Darius into the water of the Cydnus River, which was extremely brought his hordes down into Issus where he mutilated or cold from the melting snow of the Taurus.403 By the time his massacred Alexander’s men left there, and then he pitched his army had arrived on the Mediterranean coast at Soli, he had battle line along the north bank of the Pinarus River [4]. contracted cramps and a severe chill that developed into a Perhaps unaware of the presence of the Amanus Gates, tropical fever. In rather short order, Alexander slipped into a Alexander was surprised beyond belief by reports of Darius’s coma, with his life in peril [1]. cunning and skillful maneuver.405 He required scouts to It was apparently during the few months Alexander was confirm such news before he would move his army away near death that Darius III set out from Babylon with his vast from Myriandrus and the Syrian Gates. They verified that Persian imperial army, comprised of light infantry, heavy the Persian army had in fact already pitched its battle line infantry, cavalry, charioteers, archers, and slingers—a total behind Alexander near the Pinarus, so the Macedonian was estimated to be 300,000, or maybe even twice that many.404 obliged to turn his army around and quickly march northward, Potential numerical exaggeration notwithstanding, this establishing his own battle line somewhere between the so- army must have been quite large and awe-inspiring. It was called “pillar of Jonah” and the south bank of the Pinarus [5]. well fed and very well paid. Accompanying the military For Darius, the advantage of surprise soon paled into a host was a resplendent retinue of some 600 mules and 300 disadvantage of space. From the onset of the battle, it was clear camels carrying an imperial treasury, 365 richly dressed royal that Darius had made a major miscalculation. The coastal plain concubines, the royal chariot of the Persian deity Ahuramazda, between the Amanus foothills and the sea near the Pinarus is an array of silver altars bearing the Persians’ “sacred fire,” less than three miles wide. Darius possessed almost infinitely numerous priests and other noncombatants, and part of superior numbers and technology, yet his brash tactical Darius’s own royal family. Sending his treasury and the bulk decision left him little opportunity to deploy that superiority of his supply train on to Damascus, Darius took up a position effectively. Perhaps unwittingly on both of their parts, Darius at Sochi, a town of uncertain location that must have been had played right into Alexander’s hands.406 Almost before situated somewhere near the Amuq plain not too far east of the battle had been completely joined, Darius and his army the Syrian Gates [2]. realized the imminence of defeat [6]. They attempted to retreat Alexander had largely recuperated by early October when and escape into the lofty Amanus mountains. Alexander and he learned of Darius’s encampment at Sochi. He immediately his cavalry pursued them for some 25 miles east, inflicting moved his forces across the Aleian plain as far as the town of many more casualties as a result of paths clogged by great Issus, where he left his sick and wounded soldiers. Convinced numbers of retreating Persians. Classical sources report that Darius would attack via the Syrian Gates, and wishing Persian losses as high as 110,000 men407 [7].

212 The Moody Atlas of the Bible The Battle of Issus map 89

ABC

s u r u City a T T S. City (uncertain location) ia M Darius led his forces north and V S skirted the Amanus mountains U by passing through the Mountain pass R Cilician Gates Amanus Gates instead, Clash of forces U (Gülek Pass) approaching Issus from the A north and thereby severing Belen Modern place name T Alexander’s supply train; Convinced that Darius would moving a little farther south, come through the Syrian Gates, he established his battle Bahçe 1 Alexander marched east across line along the north 1 the Aleian Plain and came to Issus; bank of the Pinarus river. leaving some of his sick and Amanus Gates Route of Alexander wounded soldiers there, Alexander (Bahçe Pass) on the Via Taurus, marched south through the through the “pillar of Jonah” (a narrow de le 4 Cilician Gates, and on near the coast) and came to to the town of Soli, the town of Myriandrus, Realizing defeat, Darius and his where he encamped. where he prepared for battle. army quickly retreated eastward R. in an attempt to escape; 1 us many Persian casualties m occurred as paths became Adana ra C ) y clogged by great numbers Tarsus y R. P d us of retreating soldiers. n r a S PLAIN u S SSU ( Issus I .

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R 6 S R

n . P R. ha Battle of Issus. inarus 7 ey T S Pina GULF OF rus R. 3 M A . L E ALEXANDRETTA R Soli I A N P u L S A S I a N r “pillar of Jonah” a U K Iskenderun N (Alexandretta) M A Sochi 2 E D Myriandrus 5 M 2 I T E Magarsa Learning of Darius’s skillful maneuver, A R Alexander took the bulk of his army and R Belen A retraced his steps northward, back N through the pillar of Jonah; E he established his battle line Syrian Gates A (Belen Pass) A N somewhere between the M U Q P L A I N pillar and the south S bank of the Pinarus. Route of Darius III from Babylon 01020 30 Miles E A to the town of Sochi, where 2 he encamped (the bulk of his supply train was sent ahead 0102030 40 Kilometers to Damascus). ABC

Following the rout, Alexander returned to the battle scene and a worldview—began to assume a prominent role in at Issus, claimed control of Darius’s royal chariot and imperial this region. Hellenism entailed the introduction of Greek insignia, took a bath in Darius’s large bathtub, donned a language, government, taxation, education, coinage, city Persian robe, and feasted at a banquet off Persian gold plates. planning, entertainment, architecture, religion, and pantheon. The next morning Alexander met Darius’s mother, wife, The Hellenistic concept of cultural osmosis and a “world princesses, and the royal heir. It was only a matter of days until culture” featured equality and uniformity. Being separate Alexander’s troops had occupied Damascus, retrieved the from society was thought to be dangerous. So an array of Persian war chest, and were paid for the first time in months. distinctive problems and responses arose within Judaism.408 Alexander decided against the immediate eastward pursuit of One can confidently state that Hellenism greatly accelerated Darius. Instead, by marching south across Syria and Phoenicia, the process of the rise of Jewish sectarianism (Sadducees, he effectively neutralized any residual influence of Persian Pharisees, Essenes, Nazarenes, Minim, Zealots), which, at its naval efforts along ports on the eastern Mediterranean. core, represented varying and competing responses to the Moreover, a southward march would also give him Egypt and fundamental challenge of this new worldview. Varying degrees provide protection on his southern flank. He would set off to of acculturation also produced a corruption of the Jerusalem face Darius another day. [See commentary with map 87.] priesthood,409 which led ultimately to the Maccabean revolt Military academies and textbooks carefully scrutinize the and paved the way for the arrival of Rome into Jerusalem and strategic and tactical aspects of the battle of Issus. The conflict Judea. [See map 94.] is commonly viewed as one of the most important military Of course, rigid definitive attempts to explain ancient engagements in the history of humankind. Beyond that, historical reality are notoriously tenuous, at times even however, the battle of Issus represents a seminal turning point woefully simplistic. The cause-effect lines are rarely entirely in Near Eastern history. straightforward or simple. Nevertheless, it is fair to argue that For one thing, Alexander’s victory at Issus enabled him the New Testament world of Judaism, Jewish sectarianism, to travel to Egypt where he would be hailed as “pharaoh,” and early Christianity—perhaps even including the language and in the process he also marched across Judea and came in which some of those literatures would be written—are all to Jerusalem. [See map 88.] Far more importantly, with quite likely to have taken a different shape if Darius had been the coming of Alexander, “Hellenism”—both as a mentality victorious at Issus.

The Historical Geography of the Land 213 Hellenistic Cities in Palestine

Alexander the Great and his immediate successors established Dora, Joppa, Samaria, and Ascalon) were granted municipal many cities and towns throughout their domains in strategic rights by the Ptolemies, which entailed a fair measure of localities or along arterial roadways—often on the sites political autonomy in those places. During the reign of of former Achaemenid administrative centers. Erecting a Ptolemy II Philadelphia in particular (285–246 b.c.), some new city (polis in Greek) became a key means of spreading cities were established and named for royal family members: Hellenistic culture, settling and providing for former soldiers, Berenice-Pella and Berenice-Elath were named after one of his and maintaining a degree of local political control.410 daughters, and Philoteria (Beth-yerah) was named after his Ptolemy I Soter and his dynasty began to occupy Palestine sister. [See map 91.] and parts of Jordan around 301 b.c. in the aftermath of the When the Ptolemaic hold on Palestine was lost to the battle of Ipsus. He created and fortified the cities of Ptolemais Seleucids in 200 b.c. as a result of the battle of Panias, one (Acco) and Philadelphia (Rabbah-Amman) as major Ptolemaic might say that efforts towards Hellenization—including administrative centers, which acted in concert with the city building—assumed an even more defined cast. Ptolemaic administrative headquarters in Alexandria. As Like Alexander the Great, the Seleucid rulers were of part of the same process, certain towns in Palestine (e.g., Macedonian origin and were especially fond of naming cities after themselves. Dozens of classical cities bear the name Alexandria, Seleucia, or Antiochus, including cities in The oval-shaped Roman forum at Gerasa/Antiochia-on-Chrysorrhoas (“Antioch on Palestine (e.g., Seleucid Demos [Gaza], Antiochia [Jerusalem, the Golden river”) is adjoined to the colonnaded cardo maximus street. Hippos], and Antiochia Seleucia [Gadara]).

214 The Moody Atlas of the Bible Hellenistic Cities in Palestine map 90

A BC

Town given Greek name Sidon City given Greek name City given municipal rights by Ptolemies City given Ptolemaic dynastic name Nysa City given Seleucid dynastic name (i.e., underlined) 1 1 Litani R. 01020 30 Miles Tyre d Antiochia a 0102030 40 Kilometers Panias o R k n ru t T ea Gr

Ptolemais Antiochenes G A L I L E E

SEA OF A Sycaminium GALILEE E Antiochia (Hippos)

S K i s Bucolon Polis h Philoteria uk R. rm o Ya n Abila N R 2 . Itabyrium Gadara Seleucia 2 A Dora Antiochia E Seleucia N

A Strato’s Tower

R

R Scythopolis

E Narbata Nysa Berenice-Pella

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d Gerasa M r o Antiochia-on-Chrysorrhoas J A ok R. Apollonia bb I a R J A Pegae M A A Joppa S E R 3 Philadelphia 3 Port of Jamnia E P Jamnia Azotus Paralius Jerusalem Azotus Antiochia A E A Ascalon Marisa D U E Anthedon J Gaza DEAD Seleucid Demos SEA Arnon R. B e T s o r

d B a r o o 4 R o 4 k k n A ru t T Grea I D U M E A B

A Zered B roo ABN k C

The Historical Geography of the Land 215