The Assault on Journalism on Assault The People who exercise their right to freedom of expression through journalism should be able to practice their work without restrictions. They are, nonetheless, the constant targets of violence and threats. In an era of globalization and digitization, no single party can alone carry the responsibility for protection of journalism and freedom of expression. Instead, this responsibility must be assumed jointly by the state, the courts, media companies and journalist organizations, as well as by NGOs and civil society – on national as well as global levels. To support joint efforts to protect journalism, there is a growing need for research- The Assault based knowledge. Acknowledging this need, the aim of this publication is to highlight and fuel journalist safety as a field of research, to encourage worldwide participation, as well as to inspire further dialogues and new research initiatives. The contributions represent diverse perspectives on both empirical and theoretical on Journalism research and offer many quantitatively and qualitatively informed insights. The articles demonstrate that a new important interdisciplinary research field is in fact Building Knowledge to Protect emerging, and that the fundamental issue remains identical: Violence and threats against journalists constitute an attack on freedom of expression. Freedom of Expression Edited by The publication is the result of collaboration between the UNESCO Chair at the University of Gothenburg, UNESCO, IAMCR and a range of other partners. Ulla Carlsson and Reeta Pöyhtäri United Nations UNESCO Chair on Freedom of Expression, Educational, Scientific and Media Development and Global Policy Edited by Ulla Carlsson and Reeta Pöyhtäri Cultural Organization Sweden JMG – DEPARTMENT OF JOURNALISM, MEDIA AND COMMUNICATION The Assault on Journalism The Assault on Journalism Building knowledge to protect freedom of expression Edited by Ulla Carlsson and Reeta Pöyhtäri NORDICOM The Assault on Journalism Building knowledge to protect freedom of expression Edited by Ulla Carlsson and Reeta Pöyhtäri © Editorial matters and selection, the editors; articles, individual contributors; Nordicom 2017 (with one exception, page 341-362, reprinted by permission of UNESCO) The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNESCO concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimi- tation of its frontiers or boundaries. The ideas and opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors; they are not necessarily those of UNESCO and do not commit the Organization. ISBN 978-91-87957-50-5 (printed) ISBN 978-91-87957-51-2 (web) Publisher: Nordicom University of Gothenburg Box 713 SE-405 30 Göteborg Sweden Cover by: Daniel Zachrisson Layout by: Henny Östlund Printed by: Ale Tryckteam AB, Bohus, Sweden, 2017 Contents Acknowledgements 9 Ulla Carlsson and Reeta Pöyhtäri Words of Introduction 11 THE STATUS OF SAFETY OF JOURNALISTS. KEY ARTICLES Simon Cottle Journalist Killings and the Responsibility to Report 21 Guy Berger Why the World Became Concerned with Journalistic Safety, and Why the Issue Will Continue to Attract Attention 33 Silvia Chocarro Marcesse The United Nations’ Role in Promoting the Safety of Journalists from 1945 to 2016 45 Berit von der Lippe and Rune Ottosen Gendering War and Peace Journalism. New challenges for media research 61 Thomas Hanitzsch Collaboration Is the Future. Doing research in the network era 71 THE WAY FORWARD 1. Reflection, Reconsideration, Collaboration Elisabeth Eide A Country without Mercy. Afghan journalists caught in crossfires 81 Pradip Ninan Thomas The Cost of Truth Telling in India. Reporting in the context of intolerance 87 Ramon R. Tuazon, Paz H. Diaz and Therese Patricia C. San Diego Philippine and Global Research on News Media Safety. Crossing disciplines, bridging gaps 93 Reeta Pöyhtäri UNESCO’s Research Agenda on the Safety of Journalists. Call for new academic research initiatives 103 Jackie Harrison Setting a New Research Agenda. The establishment of a journalism safety research network 109 Magda Abu-Fadil Journalism Schools Must Include Safety Courses in Curricula 113 2. How to Measure Safety of Journalists Katharine Sarikakis Assaults against Journalists. We see the tip of the iceberg 119 Sara Torsner Measuring Journalism Safety. Methodological challenges 129 5 RESEARCH ARTICLES Ari Heinonen Introduction. Explorations in an Emerging Research Field 141 1. Threats and Violence against Journalists, and Its Effects Syed Irfan Ashraf and Lisa Brooten Tribal Journalists under Fire. Threats, impunity and decision making in reporting on conflict in Pakistan 147 Umaru A. Pate and Hamza Idris How Journalists Survived to Report. Professionalism and risk management in the reporting of terror groups and violent extremism in North East Nigeria 159 Lilian Ngusuur Unaegbu Safety Concerns in the Nigerian Media. What gender dynamics? 171 Anthony Feinstein and Bennis Pavisian The Psychological Wellbeing of Iranian Journalists 185 Roy Krøvel Violence against Indigenous Journalists in Colombia and Latin America 191 Kirsten Sparre The Dangers of Sports Journalism 205 CURRENT RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS Marilyn Clark and Anna Grech Unwarranted Interference, Fear and Self-censorship among Journalists in Council of Europe Member States 221 Sriram Arulchelvan Internal Threats and Safety of Journalists. A study from India 227 Fay Anderson Australian News Photographers, Safety and Trauma 231 Trond Idås and Klas Backholm Risk and Resilience among Journalists Covering Potentially Traumatic Events 235 2. Protection of Journalists and Sources Stig A. Nohrstedt and Rune Ottosen What’s Wrong with War Journalism? Why and how legal aspects of conflicts need better reporting 241 Leire Iturregui Mardaras, María José Cantalapiedra González and Leire Moure Peñín Embedded Journalism and Its Implications in the Field. 255 Mariateresa Garrido Villareal The Protection of Citizen Journalists during Armed Conflicts. A legal approach 267 Bora Ataman and Barış Çoban How Safe Is It? Being an activist citizen journalist in Turkey 279 6 Judith Lohner and Sandra Banjac A Story Bigger than Your Life? The safety challenges of journalists reporting on democratization conflicts 289 Sallie Hughes and Mireya Márquez-Ramírez How Unsafe Contexts and Overlapping Risks Influence Journalism Practice. Evidence from a survey of Mexican journalists 303 CURRENT RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS Giovanna Dell’Orto Foreign Correspondents and Local Journalists. A key newsgathering partnership, for safety and for the global public good 319 Sadia Jamil Freedom under Pressure. Threats to journalists’ safety in Pakistan 323 Olunifesi Adekunle Suraj and Olawale Olaleye Digital Safety among Nigerian Journalists. Knowledge, attitudes and practice 329 The Authors 337 REPUBLICATION OF Time to Break the Cycle of Violence against Journalists. Highlights from the UNESCO Director-General’s 2016 Report on the Safety of Journalists and the Danger of Impunity UNESCO, Paris, 2016 341 Appendix 363 1. UN Plan of Action on the Safety of Journalists and the Issue of Impunity 2. UNESCO: Towards a Research Agenda on the Safety of Journalists 7 Acknowledgements In connection with World Press Freedom Day 2016 in Helsinki an international con- ference, entitled Safety of Journalists. Knowledge is the Key, was arranged by UNESCO and the UNESCO Chair on Freedom of Expression at the University of Gothenburg in collaboration with International Association for Media and Communication Research (IAMCR), and a range of other partners. Centre for Freedom of the Media (CFOM) at University of Sheffield should especially be mentioned for their efforts. This publica- tion is based on the contributions to the conference. We are grateful to the Swedish Anne-Marie and Gustaf Anders Foundation for Media Research, whose financial support enabled the publication of this book. We also wish to express our great appreciation for the support provided by UNESCO and IAMCR. Finally, we are deeply indebted to the contributors all around the world who have made this publication possible. 9 WORDS OF INTRODUCTION Words of Introduction Ulla Carlsson and Reeta Pöyhtäri § 21 Finally it is also an important right in a free society to be freely allowed to contribute to society’s well-being. However, if that is to occur, it must be possible for society’s state of affairs to become known to everyone, and it must be possible for everyone to speak his mind freely about it. Where this is lacking, liberty is not worth its name. /…/ Peter Forsskål wrote these words in the last paragraph of 21 in his pamphlet Thoughts on Civil Liberty, published in Stockholm in 1759. This publication was a polemic against oppression and tyranny – arguing for freedom of expression and civil rights. F orsskål, born in Finland, which at that time was part of the Kingdom of Sweden, was a phi- losopher, theologian, botanist and orientalist, as well as one of Carl Linnaeus’ disciples. He was brilliant – and stubborn. It was a most challenging statement, and another was in paragraph 9, where F orsskål wrote: “A wise government will rather let the people express their discontent with pens than with other guns”. Both are universal statements just as important then as now. Threats to freedom of expression are constantly recurring in both old and new shapes, something we, at present, are all aware of every