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National Park Service Canyonlands U.S. Department of the Interior Canyonlands National Park The Archeology of Horseshoe Canyon Permissions The articles in this collection are made available for personal use only. With the exception of Barrier Canyon Rock Art Dating by Betsy L. Tipps, which is in the public domain, no part of this publication may be commercially published or exploited without prior written permis- sion of the copyright holder(s). Copyright information is included at the end of each article. Contents 5 The Power and the Glory, by Alan Schroedl Changes in the lifeway of the Desert Archaic culture over time and with climate change. Dis- cussion of split twig fi gurines. Possible dates for BCS rock art. 9 Excerpts from Indian Rock Art of the Southwest, by Polly Schaafsma A primer on rock art studies, including sections on style, function, interpretation, and tech- nique. Comparion of BCS and Pecos styles. 19 Trance and Transformation in the Canyons: Shamanism and Early Rock Art on the Colorado Plateau, by Polly Shaafsma BCS and Basketmaker rock art is examined for shamanistic themes. Schaafsma makes the case that shamanistic practices were behind the creation of this rock art, and that shamanism was very important in these societies. 31 Early Archaic Clay Figurines from Cowboy and Walters Caves in Southeastern Utah, by Nancy J. Coulam and Alan R. Schroedl An extensive analysis and discussion of the clay artifacts found in the Horseshoe Canyon area, some of which resemble the ghost fi gures at the Great Gallery. 35 Barrier Canyon Rock Art Dating, by Betsy L. Tipps A discussion of methods used to date BCS rock art, including the current chemical methods which have provided seven clustered dates between 1900 BC and AD 300. 47 Excerpts from Archaic Occupancy of the Glen Canyon Region, by Phil R. Geib An extensive summary of chronometric data for characterizing the Archaic period of the Glen Canyon region and examination of different models of Archaic occupancy of the area. 61 The Curve-Tailed Canine, by Jim Blazik A look at the representation of dogs in Barrier Canyon Style rock art. 69 Suggested Readings reprinted by permission from The Power and the Glory, by Alan Schroedl The Power and The Glory Shamanistic Arts of the Archaic Period By Alan R. Schroedl For over a hundred years, Ameri- Ancient environmental evidence cans have been intrigued by their an- from about 6000 to 8000 years ago shows cient prehistoric predecessors in the that when the Archaic people were living Greater Southwest. By the turn of in these canyons, the rainfall in the sum- the century archaeologists knew that mer was much more frequent and run-off the haunting cliff dwellings were left from winter snow was much greater. In by the Anasazi farmers who lived in several of the narrow canyons, small lakes, the region 700 to 900 years ago. But ponds or marshes were formed. These it was only in the 1930’s and 1940’s well-watered areas provided a rich environ- that archaeologists discovered evidence ment in the canyon for both the wild plants of the first people in the southwest, the and animals that Archaic people collected and hunted. Big Game Hunters. These Big Game Hunters manufac- But over the years, the environment changed: rain- tured the unique fl uted Clovis and Folsom points and fall decreased, temperatures rose slightly, and these people hunted mammoth and now-extinct bison from about had to adapt to new ways. Archaeologists found evidence 8000 to 11000 years ago. Still, as recently as twenty years that Archaic people started manufacturing new varieties ago almost nothing was known about the people who of stone tools and probably hunted smaller game such occupied the canyon country after the Big Game Hunt- as rabbits more intensively, and when the game became ers, but before the Anasazi cliff dwellers. As they became harder to hunt, they started eating more wild plants and known, they would emerge as some of the most artisti- grasses. cally creative people of ancient times. Recent research has shown that about 3000 to 4000 Through several archaeology projects in the mid- years ago there was a signifi cant change in the climatic 1970’s, our knowledge of the time period from about regime of the area. This environmental shift may have af- 2000 years to 8000 years ago blossomed. These excava- fected the populations of large game animals, forcing pre- tions opened a view to a lifeway during this period that historic Archaic people to face the problem of dwindling archaeologists call the “Archaic.” The Archaic people were food resources. Perhaps it was during such times of stress nomads, hunting large and small game animals, and col- that Archaic peoples turned to religion and shamanistic lecting and processing wild plants. It appears they did not activities to try to magically increase the number of plants build permanent habitation structures, but lived in caves and animals. Shamanism is a form of religion in which and in small brush shelters built in the open. They occu- certain individuals thought to be endowed with supernat- pied the Colorado Plateau until the introduction of corn ural powers perform rituals revealed in a trance or dream. agriculture about 2000 years ago. While archaeologists fi nd it very diffi cult to identify In the late 1970’s, archaeologists generally believed religious or ritual activities of people who are long gone, that Archaic peoples lived in the upland forested areas split-twig fi gurines and Barrier Canyon rock art may be and large open parklands. The resources in the narrow prime artistic expressions of this kind of magico-religious canyons of the region were thought to be too sparse and activity. limited to attract the Archaic peoples. Recent research in In dry caves, primarily in the Grand Canyon area Canyonlands National Park and Glen Canyon National and along tributaries to the Green and Colorado rivers Recreation Area has shown that this is not the case. Ar- in southern Utah, many small animal effi gies have been chaeologists have found camps belonging to the Archaic recovered. These fi gurines are usually constructed from people in many of the canyons. Some date back almost a single thin branch, such as willow, that has been split, 8000 years. bent, folded and wrapped into the shape of an animal. 5 Archeology of Horseshoe Canyon Generally these forms are suggestive of deer and moun- that the Archaic people were hunting. In fact, at least one tain sheep, but dogs too, might also be represented. Ra- of the split-twig fi gurines was found with a “miniature diocarbon dating on fi gurines and associated twigs has spear” piercing the chest of the animal. produced seven dates, fi ve of which range between 3500 This evidence suggests that local Archaic people and 4000 years ago. would journey to these caves for a kind of ritual activity In caves in the Grand Canyon region, split-twig fi g- called imitative magic by anthropologists. The fi gurines ures are found in a context that clearly implies their ritual were constructed as representations of the big game ani- function. They are recovered in very high, almost inac- mals. Perhaps after some chants or other rituals, the fi gu- cessible caves, caves that are not suitable for everyday liv- rines were speared in an effort to increase the chance of ing. It is a rugged climb into the caves. There is no water hunting success. At the end of the ceremony, the fi gurines nearby, nor is there a wide were buried or left on the variety of plants or animals surface of the cave. While available in the immediate much of this scenario is area. speculation, it is consistent The placement of with the careful observa- the fi gurines within these tions made about these caves is a clear indication of fi gurines and their context magical use of these items. by archaeologists. At least three cave sites in / NEAL HERBERT SERVICE PARK NATIONAL Understanding and the Grand Canyon area, interpreting the elusive na- Tse’an Kaetan Cave, Tse’an ture of religious activities of Sha Cave and Shrine Cave, Archaic and other ancient have split-twig fi gurines peoples is diffi cult at best. associated with rock cairns. Hell Roaring Canyon. Figures painted with deep red-brown But due to its uniqueness, At other sites, such as Stan- pigment. In contrast, the “comet” on the left is yellow ochre. rock art has also been tradi- ton’s Cave in the same area, tionally interpreted as part the fi gurines are found in small caches under boulders. of the religion or ideology of prehistoric peoples. At none of these sites is there trash and debris of everyday Some of the most spectacular examples of rock art Archaic life. These caves were not used for habitation, but in the Greater Southwest and canyon country are attrib- for rituals. uted to Archaic people. This rock art, the Barrier Canyon The utilization of Shrine Cave for religious activity Style, usually consists of larger-than-life-size anthropo- by Archaic people is very intriguing. On the northwest morphic (manlike) forms, as well as stylized animals such side of the fi rst alcove, a large limestone block was identi- as birds and dogs and other objects. The identifying char- fi ed as a shrine. This block had a small cairn of limestone acteristics of these fi gures are vacant looking or missing rocks placed on top. Surrounding this shrine were a series eyes, the frequent absence of arms and legs, and the pres- of 13 other small rock cairns.