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Dealing with Change: Indigenous Knowledge and Adaptation to Climate Change in the Ngono River Basin, Tanzania

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Dealing with Change: Indigenous Knowledge and Adaptation to Climate Change in the Ngono River Basin, Tanzania Dealing with Change: Indigenous Knowledge and Adaptation to Climate Change in the Ngono River Basin, Tanzania Dissertation Submitted to Obtain the Degree of Doctor (Dr. rer. Nat.) at the Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences of the Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-University of Bonn Submitted by Theobald Frank Theodory (M.A) Bonn 2016 Angefertigt mit Genehmigung der Mathematisch- Naturwissenschaftlichen Fakultät der Rheinischen Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn 1. Gutachter: Prof. Dr. Detlef Müller-Mahn 2. Gutachterin: Prof. Dr. Sabine Tröger Tag der Promotion: 17.08.2016 Erscheinungsjahr: 2016 II Summary This thesis investigates the role of indigenous knowledge in dealing with climate change. For the purposes of this thesis, indigenous knowledge consists of everyday experiences, learning processes, and practices that have been gained by local communities through their daily experiences of living with nature. This thesis focuses on the case of the Haya living in the Ngono River Basin in north-western Tanzania, an area with recurrent impacts of different on- going climatic and non-climatic changes. It points out that vulnerability in the study area is not caused only by climate change, but also by different on-going changes, which intersect and produce risks among the rural poor. Informed by empirical data, a particular emphasis is placed on climate change related risks, such as long drought seasons, reduced precipitation, and incidences of strong winds. In view of these risks, this thesis examines how indigenous knowledge might help local communities to adapt to climate change. However, this knowledge is neither rigid nor static, but dynamically shaped by external influences and socio-cultural transformation. In order to understand how the indigenous knowledge of the Haya is learned, shared, and transmitted within the community, this thesis uses the Situated Learning Theory (SLT). This theory provides the framework for an in-depth exploration of knowledge acquisition process within a certain community that considers the socio-cultural context of the learners. SLT considers learning to be a fundamentally social phenomenon, which occurs through everyday interactions. The thesis builds on eight months of fieldwork carried out in two phases: August to December 2013, and September to November 2014. The sample size for questionnaires and interviews was either randomly or purposively selected. For the selection of individuals at the village level, random selection was used to obtain a sample for the questionnaires. This was done with the assistance of village leaders using village register book. 291 household heads were randomly selected for the questionnaire sample. In addition, 48 interviews with local communities and 18 focus group discussions were conducted in selected villages of Ngono River Basin. Interviewees were able to discuss different issues, such as different on-going changes they had experienced in the last 30 years, as well as long-term adaptation practices used to deal with these changes. Furthermore, documentary review, participant observation, expert interviews, resource mapping, transect walks, and history timelines were used to obtain empirical data. The data was analysed both qualitatively and quantitatively. There are four major observations that were drawn from this research: III 1. The Haya people have experienced new and recurrent changes which contribute to their vulnerability. These changes are agricultural, economic, socio-cultural and environmental in nature. Although some of these changes were beneficial to local communities, the evidence indicates that these changes have also undermined the Haya’s adaptive capacity in relation to climate and non-climate related changes. 2. Irrespective of these different changes, the Haya perceive climate change as the main driver of their vulnerability, because their livelihoods depend on nature to a great extent. 3. The Haya possess a repertoire of practices embedded in the socio-cultural context of the region, which have assisted them in responding to recurrent climate change risks. The dominant practices include wetland cultivation during long drought season, growing early maturing crops, and the use of locally made pesticides. 4. Fourth, the intersection of indigenous knowledge and western knowledge in adaptation brings forward questions of power. Within the community there are struggles over what constitutes “best practices” for adaptation. In particular, the evidence indicates that there is a power imbalance between extension staff and other members of the community. Most of the extension staffs recommend the use of western knowledge for climate change adaptation, which is often rejected by other parts of the community, as western knowledge sometimes does not fit the particular socio-cultural context. Against this backdrop, it is not surprising that the majorities of the Haya are still using indigenous knowledge and related practices in adapting to climate change. The study concludes that efforts to adapt to climate change are faced with the challenge of integrating indigenous and western knowledge, without prioritizing one over the other. IV Acknowledgement My heartfelt gratitude goes to my major supervisor, Professor Detlef Müller-Mahn, and my second supervisor, Professor Sabine Tröger, for their cordial supervision, friendly help, encouragement, dedication, and support in the course of writing this thesis. Their constructive comments alongside their strong commitment to my work endowed me with inspiration and helped to shape this thesis from the beginning, to the submission of the final work. I am grateful to my employer Mzumbe University (MU) for granting me a three years study leave. This PhD project has been co-funded by the Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst (DAAD) and the Ministry of Education, Science, Technology and Vocational Training (MoESTVT) of the United Republic of Tanzania. I am deeply grateful for their unwavering support. Without this financial support, this study would not have been possible. I am also extremely appreciative to the local communities in Muleba and Missenyi Districts. Despite the fact that they make a living under extreme circumstances, they shared their information with me and I will always be indebted to all of them. The Development Geography Working Group of the University of Bonn is a wonderful family and I am proud to have belonged to it. I thank all members of the working group who have been my intimate friends and will continue to be a part of my success throughout my PhD work. I have benefited from group seminars, workshop, individual and group discussions that were organised by the working group. I would also like to thank Dr. Florian Weisser and Dr. Benjamin Etzold for the fruitful discussions we had during the writing of this thesis. I would like to give an acknowledgement to my cartographer Mr. Johannes Dittmann who I thank deeply for this consistently high quality work. Special thanks to my PhD colleague “fellow combatant” Million Gebreyes for his support and the valuable discussions that he offered me while conducting this study. I am also indebted to the institute of Geography of the University of Bonn for their support and guidance through which, this PhD work was able to be conducted successfully. I would like to express my sincere appreciation to my family especially my beloved wife Joymertha Frank, and my children, Collins Rutashubanyuma and Hellen Atugonza whose love, understanding, unfailing encouragement, tireless support and prayers have motivated V me daily to work harder on this thesis. Indeed, things were not always easy and certain but they were the source of my happiness. Lastly, what I have achieved today is the result of the job well done by my parents who prepared me well during my years of childhood and adolescence. I cannot sufficiently express my appreciation to my late parents Theodory Nshekela Bajunanaki and Hellen Kokwijuka Rwezaula for their generous kindness, love, encouragement, support, friendly help, and care at every turn of the road. They laid down crucial foundations that have enabled me to be at this level. I would also like to thank my aunts, uncles and brothers who had to take care of me and my young brothers (Edwin and Engineer Avith) and sister (Anchila) after the demise of my parents. I am grateful to Faustina Rwezaula, Theonestina Rwechungura, Joseph John, Gration Mushumbusi, Julius Majula, the late Angela Rwezaula and my brothers Hon. Ambassador Dr. Diodorus Buberwa Kamala and his wife Adelaida Kamala, Advocate Joel Laurent and Divo Rugaibula, for their moral and practical support. VI Dedication To my parents: Dad “Theodory Nshekela Bajunanaki (1938-2000) Mom “Hellen Kokwijuka Rwezaula (1954-1991), No single day that can pass without thinking of you Usually, I think of the past and feel happy and sad You both worked hard to make sure I grow in a happy family I love you and I miss you. And until we meet again, May your souls rest in peace amen. To my grandmother, my hero, Theresa Kokugonza Rwezaula, for all the support and love throughout my life, I thank you for grooming my life particularly being obedient to everyone. Also to my family particularly my beloved wife Joymertha Frank, my little kids, Collins and Hellen for the love, encouragement and your prayers that kept me motivated throughout this process. VII Table of Contents Summary .................................................................................................................................
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