Foundational Frameworks of Positive Psychology: Mapping Well-Being Orientations

Louise Lambert Holli-Anne Passmore and Mark D. Holder Canadian University of Dubai University of British Columbia

The scientific study of well-being has been strongly influenced by ideas from a number of related fields, including different areas of psychology. Two major philosophical traditions—hedonia and eudaimonia— underscore much of our current understanding of well-being, and are reflected across early and contemporary psychological theories of well-being. These traditions help delineate the various conceptualisations of well-being and its components; moreover, these traditions influence which research questions are asked, and where and how answers are sought. This has resulted in a plethora of categories and terms referring to similar, yet distinct, concepts such as: well-being, happiness, optimal or positive experiences, life satisfaction, and flourishing. Given the difficulties of distinguishing these concepts, this article aims to provide clarity by delineating the major orientations in positive psychology. We provide a “road-map” to theories and models of well-being found within positive psychology, thereby providing a starting a point from which an integrative framework of theories and models of well-being can be developed. To that end, also included in this review is a selection of well-being models that lie beyond the traditional frameworks. We conclude with a consideration of several criticisms that have been directed at positive psychology, and provide recommendations for future directions.

Keywords: positive psychology, eudaimonia, hedonia, well-being, character strengths

Although positive psychology is considered a “new” field of chology approach within institutions such as business organisations inquiry, its origins can be traced to several philosophical traditions. (Peterson & Park, 2006; Shahnawaz, 2009), law (Huang & These philosophical traditions provide a foundational framework Blumenthal, 2009), and community wellness (Schueller, 2009). within which positive psychology theories can be understood. Utilizing a philosophical framework, this review maps out numer- Virtue Philosophical Tradition ous theories and models of well-being (see Figure 1). To provide as complete a guide as possible, a selection of well-being perspec- Virtue philosophies propose that individual character strengths tives and models that stand tangential to the traditional philosoph- should be utilized in the development and maintenance of happiness ical frameworks are also considered. because they enable pleasure and other positive experiences (McMahom, 2006; Peterson, Ruch, Beermann, Park, & Seligman, 2007). These theories suggest that virtues, such as bravery or dili- Utilitarian Philosophical Tradition gence, can be cultivated through awareness and effort, and used to Utilitarianism, promoted by the likes of Jeremy Bentham (1748– develop good character over time through practice and wisdom 1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806–1873), focuses on the greatest (Biswas-Diener, Kashdan, & Minhas, 2011). Virtue philosophy is happiness for the greatest number (Brulde & Bykvist, 2010). Within evident in the thinking and research of positive psychology related to positive psychology, utilitarianism is most often manifested as max- character strengths. Inspired by Aristotle’s notion and description of imizing happiness within specific groups of people. For example, virtues as traits that epitomize a good person living “the good life,” the although positive psychology has primarily focused on individual diagnostic manual Character Strengths and Virtues: A Handbook and well-being, Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi (2000) specifically recog- Classification (Peterson & Seligman, 2004) categorizes strengths and nised positive institutions as an important aspect within positive virtues that have been consistently identified across cultures and psychology. Interest is steadily growing in applying a positive psy- across historical periods as those which facilitate thriving.

Hedonic and Eudaimonic Philosophies Eudaimonia and hedonia constitute a basic divide in well-being Louise Lambert, Department of Psychology, Canadian University of theories (Carlisle, Henderson, & Hanlon, 2009; Deci & Ryan, 2008a), Dubai; Holli-Anne Passmore and Mark D. Holder, Department of Psychol- ogy, University of British Columbia. despite suggestions to abandon these separate classifications Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Holli- (Kashdan, Biswas-Diener, & King, 2008). For example, Waterman Anne Passmore, Department of Psychology, ARTS 280-H, 1147 Research et al. (2010) suggested that distinguishing between feeling pleasure Road, University of British Columbia, Kelowna, BC V1V 1V7. E-mail: and doing pleasurable things would be a more useful categorisation of [email protected] happiness than maintaining the distinctions between hedonia and

311 312 LAMBERT, PASSMORE, AND HOLDER

Figure 1. Roadmap of well-being orientations for illustrative purposes. See the online article for the color version of this figure.

eudaimonia. Nevertheless, the hedonic and eudaimonic philosophical tives define hedonia as the pursuit of pleasure, gratification, and traditions are commonly viewed as the major philosophical orienta- comfort (Huta et al., 2006); thus, emphasising positive emotions tions evident within positive psychology. (Kahneman, Diener, & Schwarz, 1999). Although critical for plea- Hedonia, the pursuit of pleasure (Huta, Park, Peterson, & Seligman, sure in the short-term, positive affect evoked by hedonic activity 2006; Miquelon & Vallerand, 2008), and eudaimonia, a way of life does not endure beyond the activity itself (Huta et al., 2006; wherein individuals strive to be better by using talent and making Waterman et al., 2010). Furthermore, individuals engaged in pri- meaning (Huta et al., 2006; Waterman, 2007), give rise to conceptu- marily hedonic activities tend to report lower life satisfaction and ally distinct theories. Simply put, hedonia refers to feeling good, while meaning in life (Huta & Ryan, 2010). eudaimonia refers to functioning well (Keyes & Annas, 2009). Al- Subjective well-being. Subjective well-being (SWB; Die- though the relationship between hedonia and eudaimonia is positive ner, 1984), a term often used interchangeably with “happiness,” (Huta & Ryan, 2010; Huta et al., 2006; Vittersø & Søholt, 2011), and refers to the levels of positive affect, low levels of negative the terms conceptually overlap (Deci & Ryan, 2008a; Waterman et affect, and a high degree of overall life satisfaction. Although, al., 2010), they are distinct. technically, “life satisfaction” is not a solely hedonic concept, SWB is primarily considered to be a gauge of hedonic well- Hedonic Philosophical Tradition being (Deci & Ryan, 2008a; Ryan & Deci, 2001; Waterman et Hedonism is evident in philosophical traditions ranging from the al., 2010). Keyes (2005) referred to the subjective evaluations Indian Ca៮rva៮ka school of thought (Billington, 1997) to the Greek that individuals make regarding their emotions and life satis- Cyrennaic school (Brülde, 2014). Modern psychological perspec- faction as emotional well-being. POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY FRAMEWORKS 313

Eudaimonic Philosophical Tradition 2006). Flow is a pleasing state, although individuals do not ap- praise the situation as such while it is occurring. Csikszentmi- Aristotle coined the term eudaimonia to refer to that which halyi’s theory of optimal experience also emphasizes the impor- made life worth living through the realisation of potential (Russell, tance of finding meaning through the pursuit of goals. 2007). Thus, Aristotelian eudaimonia was not a state or a feeling, As a group, humanistic theories of well-being stress the aware- but a way of life (Keyes & Annas, 2009; Ryan, Huta, & Deci, ness of human needs, individual choice and responsibility in meet- 2008). Similarly, contemporary definitions within psychology also ing those needs, and the importance of individual resolve to create consider eudaimonia to be a way of life, wherein an individual a meaningful life. Humanists focused on positive qualities, and strives to be better by developing themselves through their talents addressed questions about what makes life worthwhile. Humanists and use of virtues, and by generating meaning from the resulting were criticised, however, for proposing concepts that were difficult personal growth (Huta et al., 2006; Waterman, 2007). to define, measure, and test. As a result, second generation eudai- Eudaimonia often requires engaging in effortful, sometimes monic well-being theorists included conceptual definitions and difficult, activity. Although challenging pursuits often entail the assessments. Two contemporary eudaimonic theories of well- production of negative affect in the short-term, effortful pursuits being are outlined below. lead to greater overall well-being in the long-term (Higgins, 2006; Psychological well-being. Reflecting health, wellness, and Seligman, Parks, & Steen, 2005). However, although eudaimonic full-functioning, Ryff’s (1989) model of psychological well-being activity contributes to higher life satisfaction, greater meaning in (PWB) consists of six dimensions: (a) autonomy (i.e., a sense of life, increased positive affect, and greater potential to reach one’s independence that emerges from taking responsibility for one’s best self, it is tiresome on its own (Huta et al., 2006; Huta & Ryan, actions and acting on one’s own behalf); (b) environmental mas- 2010; Waterman et al., 2010). In fact, Huta and Ryan (2010) tery (i.e., the ability to choose and create fitting environments for demonstrated that individuals with an exclusive eudaimonic focus growth by utilizing one’s ability to control both internal and experienced fatigue and a loss of perspective, which required external factors); (c) personal growth (i.e., the development of hedonic activity for rejuvenation. personal potential via the tackling of new challenges); (d) positive Eudaimonic Psychological theories of well-being. relationships, which are vital to well-being and reflect an individ- Humanistic theories. Humanists began a movement to the ual’s ability to empathize and show affection; (e) purpose in life, positive aspects of psychology by proposing theories focused on which emerges when an individual sets goals for his or her self the qualities of healthy individuals and their routes to wellness. To within an overall meaningful direction for their life; and (f) self- illustrate, a selection of humanistic theorists and their respective acceptance (i.e., knowing, liking, and ultimately accepting, one- theories follow. self). Although not without criticism (e.g., Springer, Hauser, & Alfred Adler (1870–1937) believed that lifestyle and life goals Freese, 2006), a body of research and intervention literature exists are directed toward success; individual values and attitudes are supporting the validity and effectiveness of this six-factor model of associated with these life goals. Thus, the Adlerian construct of well-being in predicting, and enhancing, individual well-being (see well-being involves an active, creative, and selective choice of life Ryff, 2014 for review). opportunities in connection with what one values, considers mean- Self-determination theory. Developed by Ryan and Deci ingful, and hopes for (Adler, 1956). (2000) as a model of eudaimonia, self-determination theory (SDT) Considered the founder of humanistic psychology, Abraham considers competence (feelings of effectiveness and efficiency in Maslow (1908–1970) was the first psychologist to systematically the completion of task), autonomy (having choice and control over study excellence to define the scope of human potential. The term behaviour geared toward intrinsic goals and rewards), and relat- self-actualization, coined by Maslow (1968), refers to the use of edness (the feeling of belongingness one has with others) to be the talents and potentialities, and emerged as the final need in three innate, and fundamental, psychological needs that are inte- Maslow’s well-known “Hierarchy of Needs.” Self-actualization gral to optimal well-being. Although utilizing similar constructs to involves making choices based on growth, self-awareness, and those found in Ryff’s PWB, an important theoretical difference accepting responsibility for one’s actions. Furthermore, self- exists: in SDT, well-being is fostered by the concepts of environ- actualization entails peak experiences—events in which individu- mental mastery, autonomy, and personal relationships, while in als feel intense, positive emotions whereby life is reaffirmed. Ryff’s PWB, these concepts are used to define well-being (in Carl Rogers (1902–1987) believed that individuals were natu- conjunction with the dimensions of personal growth, purpose rally in a state of full functioning, which is when individuals are in life, and self-acceptance). Well-being is attained when indi- self-actualizing, and open to both positive and negative experi- viduals meet these three SDT needs through goal pursuits. A ences (Rogers, 1961). Such individuals trust their feelings, set their plethora of research supports the validity and efficacy of SDT own obligations, are accountable to themselves, and do not me- across diverse domains of interest and application ranging from the chanically accept convention; thus, fully functioning individuals work place (Gagné & Deci, 2005) to video games (Ryan, Rigby, & achieve their ideal selves. Przybylski, 2006) to academics (Black & Deci, 2000; see also Deci Akin to Maslow’s concept of peak experiences, Mihalyi Csik- & Ryan, 2008b for literature review). szentmihalyi (1934–present) proposed a theory of optimal expe- There is considerable overlap between these two contemporary rience exemplified by the positive state of flow (Csikszentmihalyi, eudaimonic theories of well-being. Both perspectives include in- 1990). Achieving flow necessarily entails engaging in activities dividual dimensions relating to behaviour, activity, or goals, in that are increasingly psychologically complex—activities that addition to having a social dimension. Additionally, both of these challenge one’s skills while simultaneously providing a sense of perspectives offer an explanation for well-being, and suggestions skill mastery and competence (Rathunde & Csikszentmihalyi, as to how individuals can maximize their own well-being by 314 LAMBERT, PASSMORE, AND HOLDER pursuing eudaimonic goals, meeting key psychological needs, specific and fixed goal. It has been proposed that achieving, and/or engaging in activities that promote eudaimonic living. learning, and pursuing mastery at both an individual and group Social well-being. Another important indicator of eudaimonia level can be a distinct pathway to attaining happiness, which may is social well-being—how well one is functioning in their social have the potential for overlap with the other pathways (Diener & life—which considers the quality of one’s relationships with other Diener, 2011). people, the neighbourhood, and the community (Keyes & Shapiro, Numerous studies, including cross-national studies, have sup- 2004). This encompasses five dimensions of sociality: integration, ported the link between the original authentic happiness pathways contribution, coherence, actualization, and acceptance (Keyes, and well-being, and the theory’s comprehensive concept of “the 1998). Social well-being complements eudaimonic aspects of well- full life” (Chan, 2009; Gabriele, 2008; Headey, Schupp, Tucci, & being that emphasise functioning well in one’s private life, such as Wagner, 2010; Park, Peterson, & Ruch, 2009; Vella-Brodrick, PWB. Park, & Peterson, 2009). Research also supports the important role Both hedonic and eudaimonic theories of well-being reflect that positive relationships (both individual relationships and group specific, distinguishable types of happiness; however, each per- relationships via community social support) have in initiating and spective by itself is a fallible marker of well-being (Carlisle et al., maintaining happiness (Boehm & Lyubomirsky, 2009; Delle Fave, 2009). Hedonic well-being, with its focus on feelings, neglects Brdar, Freire, Vella-Brodrick, & Wissing, 2011). There is limited functioning, in addition to neglecting important sources of well- empirical validation of the comprehensive PERMA framework being. Eudaimonic theories tend to stress functioning at the ex- and its proposal that well-being rests upon the five pillars of pense of knowing how individuals actually feel about their lives. positive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning, and ac- Thus, neither hedonia or eudaimonia alone constitute a complete complishment. Research which has directly tested the PERMA understanding of well-being; both perspectives are vital to happi- model is, however, supportive of its validity (Coffey, Wray-Lake, ness. Therefore, it is recommended that both a hedonic and a Mashek, & Branand, 2014). eudaimonic approach be used when examining and assessing well- being (Henderson & Knight, 2012; Huta & Ryan, 2010). Flourishing

Combining the Four Philosophical Traditions Keyes (2002, 2005) proposed the term flourishing to refer to the state of complete mental health. Keyes’ complete mental health model places positive mental health and well-being orthogonal to Authentic Happiness the presence of psychopathology, rather than placing mental well- Seligman’s (2002) authentic happiness framework of well-being being along a continuum of mental health and psychopathology. identifies three pathways conducive to happiness: pleasure, en- Specifically, flourishing not only includes positive evidence of gagement, and meaning. Together, these pathways reflect all four healthy functioning (e.g., feeling good and functioning well), but of the philosophical traditions. The first pathway, the pleasant life, also denotes an absence of psychopathology. Flourishing is con- is focused on the maximization of positive emotions; thus, the trasted with languishing, a state of stagnation and emptiness de- pleasure pathway reflects a hedonistic orientation. The second noted by markers of psychopathology and the absence of positive pathway, engagement, is driven by the philosophical traditions of mental health. Keyes’ broad measure of flourishing incorporates both eudaimonia and virtues. Connecting individuals to their ac- PWB, SWB, and social well-being (Keyes, 1998). Flourishing, tivities, engagement is fostered by utilizing character strengths and therefore, combines aspects of all four philosophical traditions. virtues that facilitate thriving, including grit, zest, love of learning, (See Keyes, 2007 for a review of findings supporting this complete and bravery (Peterson & Seligman, 2004). The third pathway, mental health model). meaning, is strongly associated with the eudaimonic perspective (Steger, 2012). The meaning pathway includes using one’s Alternative Conceptualisations of Well-Being Outside strengths in the service of positive institutions; thus, also reflecting of the Four Philosophical Traditions the utilitarian perspective. Other approaches to well-being are not fully encompassed by PERMA the four philosophical traditions of utilitarianism, virtues, hedonia, and eudaimonia. In this section, we examine two additional frame- In 2011, Seligman revised his authentic happiness model of works: a psychological framework set forth by Diener and Ryan well-being and proposed the model of PERMA. The PERMA (2009), and a hybrid class of well-being models that combine model maintains the original authentic happiness pathways—plea- theory and research from varying paradigms. Just as the concep- sure (P), engagement (E), and meaning (M)—while adding two tualisations of well-being thus far described often overlap or additional pathways: positive relationships (R) and accomplish- incorporate more than one philosophical tradition, the theories of ments (A). The inclusion of positive relationships in the PERMA well-being described in the following section often straddle two or model supports Christopher Peterson’s often quoted mantra of more of the categories set forth in these alternative frameworks. positive psychology, that “Other People Matter.” The relationships pathway reflects a eudaimonic philosophy via Keyes’ (1998) so- Psychological Framework of Well-Being Theories cial well-being, and a utilitarian philosophy in suggesting that happiness can be attained by promoting the happiness of others Diener and Ryan (2009) classified contemporary theories of (Brülde & Bykvist, 2010). The final pathway—accomplish- well-being into six categories: telic theories, top-down versus ment—is achieved by applying one’s skills and efforts toward a bottom-up theories, cognitive theories, evolutionary theories, the- POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY FRAMEWORKS 315 ories of temperament and personality, and relative standard theo- them to individuals. As the plethora of well-being theories within ries. positive psychology evidences, any specific individual’s level of Telic theories. Telic theories propose that well-being or hap- well-being and happiness is a unique combination of a myriad of piness is achieved when goals are reached or needs are fulfilled. factors including genetics, life circumstances, and personal Ryan and Deci’s (2000) SDT can be categorised as both a telic choices. All of these facets interact together, with each facet theory and a eudaimonic theory. influencing the others in an idiosyncratic manner (Biswas-Diener, Top-down versus bottom-up theories. Both top-down and 2013). bottom-up well-being theories conceptualise well-being in terms Relative standard theories. Relative standard theories of of its parts. However, bottom-up theories view well-being as a well-being involve comparisons between standards (e.g., one’s state that arises from accumulations of incremental experiences of well-being is compared with a standard of well-being based on positive affect, while top-down theories view well-being as a trait one’s past, other individuals, ideals, or actual conditions). Two arising from inherited or habitual propensities to experience the related theories within this category are adaptation theories and world in a specific manner (e.g., optimism). hedonic treadmill theories. Adaptation theories propose that people Cognitive theories. These theories are related to top-down compare their current level of well-being to their remembered past theories in that they propose that cognitive processes determine level of well-being (Brickman, Coates, & Janoff-Bulman, 1978; individual well-being. Cognitive theorists focus on processes in- Lyubomirsky, 2011). This theory also proposes that when individ- cluding bias, attention, memory, and present-orientation; they ex- uals repeat behaviours in an attempt to achieve a previous affective amine the ways in which individuals remember events, which state, these behaviours garner less powerful effects than during aspects of situations receive an individual’s focus, and the manner previous occurrences. Brickman and Campbell (1971) referred to in which individual’s belief systems filter perceptions. SDT (Ryan this process as the “hedonic treadmill.” & Deci, 2000) can be classified as a cognitive theory, in addition Set-point theory (e.g., Headey, 2008, 2010) postulates that life to being a telic theory, in that the autonomy aspect of well-being goals play little role in well-being, and major life events are postulated (i.e., the choice of goals and control of behaviour directed to to account for only transitory effects on well-being. Life events are achieving those goals) is related to an individual’s self-efficacy associated with changes to levels of happiness, but these are, as beliefs. described by adaptation theory, only temporary, as individuals Lyubomirsky and Dickerhoof (2010) proposed the construal eventually adapt and return to biologically established points. model of happiness to explain the differences between happy However, people do not necessarily adapt to everything that is people and less happy people. This model focuses on the cognitive experienced (Diener, Kahneman, & Helliwell, 2009); individual’s interpretations of events and the choices that individuals make in well-being “set-points” can change over time (Diener & Biswas- generating happiness. For example, Lyubomirsky and Dickerhoof Diener, 2008), and different types of experiences can produce found that happier people used more humour and ruminated less different types of adaptation (Hsee, Yang, Li, & Shen, 2009). on negative events, than did less happy people. Adaptation and habituation to circumstances are complex and Evolutionary theories. Evolutionary theories of well-being nuanced processes with regard to their effects on well-being. recognise the evolutionary value of positive emotions and well- Hedonic adaptation Prevention. Building on set-point the- being. For example, Fredrickson’s (1998, 2001, 2006) “broaden- ory, the hedonic adaptation prevention model (Sheldon, Boehm, and-build” model of positive emotions and well-being proposes & Lyubomirsky, 2012; Sheldon & Lyubomirsky, 2012) identi- that positive emotions broaden attention and lead to the expansion fies two main factors in the erosion of happiness: growing and accumulation of social, physical, and intellectual resources aspirations and the decline of positive emotions over time. The that may be accessed in the present and future (Fredrickson, Cohn, hedonic adaptation prevention model suggests that individuals Coffey, Pek, & Finkel, 2008; Johnson, Waugh, & Fredrickson, can thwart hedonic adaptation to positive events, and increase 2010; Kok et al., 2013). The broadened perspective that results their happiness, by savouring their positive life changes well from feelings of happiness may alert individuals to opportunities after they have occurred, and by finding ways to engage with for resource enhancement and mobilize them to take advantage of these changes in varied ways. It also suggests that people these (Nesse, 2009; Nesse & Ellsworth, 2009). Fredrickson’s should not focus too quickly on future aspirations after current broaden-and-build model can also be categorised as a bottom-up positive events, because by doing so, they diminish their pres- theory of well-being, in that it proposes that well-being arises from ent happiness. a steady accumulation of incremental experiences of positive affect. Hybrid Models and Theories of Well-Being Theories of temperament and personality. Research shows that temperament and personality explain significant variance in Hybrid models and theories of well-being combine theory, re- well-being. For example, the personality trait of extroversion is search, and philosophy from varying paradigms. Two examples of strongly positively correlated with well-being, happiness, and pos- hybrid models of well-being are Lyubomirsky et al.’s (2005) itive affect (Diener & Lucas, 1999; Lucas & Fujita, 2000; Rusting sustainable happiness model and Wong’s (2010) existential posi- & Larsen, 1997; Zelenski, Sobocko, & Whelan, 2014). Research tive psychology (EPP). suggests that genetic inheritance of personality traits and temper- Sustainable happiness model. This model proposes that ament plays a significant in role well-being (Lykken & Tellegen, multiple factors account for well-being (Lyubomirsky et al., 1996; Lyubomirsky, Sheldon, & Schkade, 2005). However, cau- 2005). Three main elements are identified as contributing to tion must be exercised when interpreting demographic statistics happiness: genetics, circumstances, and personal choice. All six related to the heritability of happiness and subsequently applying categories of well-being theories proposed by Diener and Ryan 316 LAMBERT, PASSMORE, AND HOLDER

(2009) are incorporated into this model. For example, As Waterman (2013) noted, “the relationship between the fields bottom-up theories of happiness are used to explain the positive of humanistic and positive psychology has been marked with affect that results from experiences, top-down trait theories are continued tension and ambivalence” (p. 124). Waterman suggested used to account for hereditary aspects of well-being, and cog- that these tensions stem from differing philosophical and theoret- nitive theories are used to account for cognitive influences on ical foundations that may ultimately prove to be incompatible for well-being such as perception and focus across situations and large segments of both the positive psychology and humanistic personal choices. psychology communities. In contrast, others have noted the over- Existential positive psychology. Wong’s (2010) EPP is an lap in thematic content and theoretical presuppositions, particu- amalgamation of existential psychology and positive psychology larly with respect to eudaimonic happiness, and have expressed that integrates both positive and negative aspects of human life and optimism (albeit, guarded) for a rapprochement between the two existence. Wong suggested that only by addressing the totality of fields (Friedman, 2008; Robbins, 2008). life’s experiences and existential questions can one improve the Positive psychology’s near exclusive focus on “positive” emotions human condition, and increase individual well-being and flourish- has been questioned, and some have urged that the field examine how ing. EPP addresses the four existential anxieties addressed by “negative” emotions and experiences relate (and perhaps even con- Yalom (1980)—meaning in life, isolation, freedom, and death—in tribute) to well-being (Kashdan & Biswas-Diener, 2014; Kashdan & addition to addressing two “positive” existential anxieties—iden- Steger, 2011). A related critique is that the emphasis on positive tity and happiness. Wong expanded the category of happiness by experiences and emotions has left the question of any potential dis- specifically denoting spiritual happiness as a distinct type of hap- advantages of “too much happiness” relatively unexplored (Gruber, piness. This is in line with van Dierendonck’s (2012) proposition Mauss, & Tamir, 2011). that spirituality can be conceptualised as a fourth key psycholog- Although when introducing positive psychology in 2000, ical need, in addition to the three SDT needs (Ryan & Deci, 2000) Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi highlighted the connections of competence, autonomy, and relatedness. The EPP hybrid model between positive psychology and physical health, relatively of well-being includes the utilitarian, virtue, hedonic, and eudai- meagre attention has since been paid to the physical body and monic philosophical traditions, in addition to incorporating the its role in facilitating well-being. Indeed, as Hefferon (2013) existential philosophical tradition. pointed out, in the over 7,000 books written on positive psy- It is important to note that many of the theories of well-being chology, “there are only brief references to physical activity, that we have connected to a eudaimonic philosophical tradition, touch, nutrition, etc.” (p. ix) despite the extensive research also address existential concerns. For example, meaning in life is evidencing various physical mechanisms involved in enhancing addressed in Ryff’s (1989) PWB, in Ryan and Deci’s (2000) SDT, both short-term pleasure and longer-term eudaimonic well- in Seligman’s (2002) authentic happiness theory, and in Keyes’ being. (2002, 2005) flourishing model. Additionally, existential concerns The criticisms noted above are being addressed. For example, regarding isolation are evident in the relationship component of research has been conducted which acknowledges, and evidences, SDT and Seligman’s (2011) PERMA, and in Keyes’ (1998) social well-being costs related to high levels of some strengths and well-being. Existential concerns regarding freedom are evident in virtues (Grant & Schwartz, 2011). Researchers are examining the autonomy aspect of SDT. moderators that impact the relationship between character strengths and well-being (Allan & Duffy, 2014; Khan & Husain, Critiques of Positive Psychology 2010) and moderators that enhance prosocial behaviour (Thomson & Siegel, 2013). Criticisms of positive psychology have been made by people Promising work is occurring with regard to community and within and without the field. Seligman’s (2002) theory of authentic organisational well-being, such as Fox Eades (2008) “Celebrat- happiness was criticised for not recognising that is, for many ing Strengths” school-based program that shifts emphasis from people, individual happiness can be secondary to concerns and the individual to the collective good, and Garcea and Linley’s desires regarding religion, family, relationships, culture, and/or (2011) work on building positive organisations. Examples of social groups (Pedrotti, 2007; Richardson & Guignon, 2008). The national policy aligned with well-being indicators are increas- expanded PERMA model (Seligman, 2011) has been charged by ingly being documented as various governments recognise their critics as being, yet again, overly grounded in Western assump- expanded role in improving the lives of citizens (Helliwell, tions that individuals can attain happiness solely through them- Layard, & Sachs, 2012). Progress is also being made with selves (Christopher, Richardson, & Slife, 2008; Dieser, 2005). regard to the examination of the good life and conceptualisa- Similarly, the conceptual model of Peterson and Seligman’s (2004) tions of well-being between, and across, diverse cultures (for a work on character strengths and virtues has been criticised as being review, see Knoop & Delle Fave, 2013). However, much work overly individualistic (Biswas-Diener, Linley, Govindji, & Wool- remains to be done. ston, 2011), in addition to having overlooked cultural strengths such as hospitality and honour (Biswas-Diener, 2013). Calls have Future Directions for Positive Psychology been made for the development of indigenous positive psycholo- gies (Lambert, Pasha-Zaidi, Passmore, & York Al-Karam, 2015). Positive psychology has experienced impressive growth since Peterson and Seligman’s (2004) measurement-drive approach to its formal inception in 2000, with theories of well-being con- subdividing strengths and virtues has been criticised for being tinuing to emerge and evolve. As evidenced by the theories and incompatible with Virtue Ethics’ and Aristotle’s whole person models reviewed in this article (see Figure 1), the types of focus (Fowers, 2005; Schwartz & Sharpe, 2006). questions that are asked with regard to happiness, and how POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY FRAMEWORKS 317 happiness and well-being are understood, depend on which ophiques, hedonia et eudaimonia, sous-tendent nombre des con- orientation is used and to what purpose. naissances actuelles sur le bien-être et trouvent écho dans les Although the utilitarian orientation (with its focus on collective théories en psychologie sur cette notion, tant les toutes premières happiness) is gaining some psychological traction, it is recommended que les contemporaines. Ces traditions aident a` délimiter les di- as an area of future expansion within positive psychology research verses conceptualisations du bien-être et de ses composants; en (Biswas-Diener et al., 2011; Kubokawa & Ottaway, 2009; Yen, outre, elles influencent les questions de recherche qui sont posées 2010). As Biswas-Diener et al. proposed, “positive psychology is a ainsi que les méthodes utilisées pour y répondre et les endroits où vehicle for positive social change . . . [in that it] presents a unique chercher les réponses. Cette situation a donné lieu a` une multitude opportunity to address social ills with new tools” (p. 412). Further de catégories et de termes qui définissent des concepts semblables, development of well-being theories and models from a virtues phil- mais néanmoins distincts : bien-être, bonheur, expérience optimale osophical orientation is also important given that character strengths ou positive, satisfaction de vivre, épanouissement. Étant donné la and virtues are involved in physical and mental health (Froh, Sefick, difficulté de délimiter ces concepts, cet article vise a` éclaircir les & Emmons, 2008; Leontopoulou & Triliva, 2012), academic achieve- distinctions en déterminant les principales orientations au sein de ments (Lounsbury, Fisher, Levy, & Welsh, 2009), and job satisfaction la psychologie positive. Il fournit un « plan » des théories et des (Harzer & Ruch, 2012; Littman-Ovadia & Steger, 2010; Peterson, modèles sur le bien-être en psychologie positive, en vue d’établir Stephens, Park, Lee, & Seligman, 2010). un point de départ pour l’établissement d’un cadre intégrateur. À As the scientific study of well-being moves into the future, the cette fin, sont inclus dans la présente recherche des modèles sur le use of innovative research methods is advised to expand the data bien-être qui ne correspondent pas aux cadres traditionnels. used in examining the subjective content of well-being (Linley, L’article se termine par une réflexion sur des critiques a` l’égard de Joseph, Harrington, & Wood, 2006; Norrish & Vella-Brodrick, la psychologie positive ainsi que par des recommandations pour 2008; Park & Peterson, 2009; Pawelski, 2011). Greater utilization les recherches futures. of qualitative methodologies and mixed method approaches within Mots-clés : psychologie positive, eudaimonia, hedonia, bien-être, positive psychology is also recommended (Friedman, 2008). force de caractère. Relatively underdeveloped areas of study within well-being need to be expanded. 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