Freed From Desire1 Countering Consumerism with Critical Epicureanism

Master Thesis Philosophy by Robin Habbé, written under guidance of Johan Hartle

ABSTRACT: Consumer society has the consumer in a tight hold; due to the cyclical nature of desire the consumer is manipulated to keep on consuming with disastrous ecological and social problems as a result. In my thesis I will elucidate the rise and the workings of contemporary consumer societies, more specifically the element of hedonism, because the organization of consumer society can be categorized as hedonistic. I will discuss hedonism and happiness as understood by Marcuse, as well as tactics for liberation from the imposed desires to consume. I will discover what room we have for emancipating the consumer by providing an alternative form of hedonism, based in Epicureanism. This thesis will show that Marcuse and Epicurus have very similar ideas as to how we should live happily, but most importantly on how to distinguish between true and false desires in order to live a more free and happy life, and to not destroy the planet while living.

Keywords: Consumerism, Liberation, Hedonism, Emancipation, Epicureanism, Desire, Happiness, Marcuse, Aesthetic Revisioning, Critical Hedonism

1 This title is a reference to the 1996 dance song by Gala, a Belgian performer. The lyrics seem to be very much aligned with the teachings of Epicurus: condemning money, power and fame and the desire for them as something we should liberate ourselves from through strong beliefs. I would certainly recommend listening to them. ~ 1 ~

Introduction

We live in strange times: most of the affluent inhabitants on our beautiful planet are consuming away an immense proportion of the scarce resources we have left. These affluent consumers do not make up the majority of the human population, but they happily place the burden of their habits onto people and nature out of sight, whilst letting their own lives and homes overflow with superfluous amounts of stuff they do not need.

Many of us know that there is no actual need for a lot of the consumables that we bring into our lives. The desire we feel to attain them seems to be real, unique and important, but after being gratified a new one swiftly arises. This locks the consumer into an endless cycle of desire. Most consumables lose their mesmerizing grip on us as soon as another desire replaces the fleeting feeling of joy we receive from attaining the consumable. Nevertheless, most consumers seem to be highly under the influence of consumerism and uphold the belief that happiness in life can be found through consumption.

Many of the companies producing “the goods” flooding the market know that there is no actual need for the massive amounts of consumables they introduce. They know very well how to manipulate and shape our desires, making us long for the consumables that they present on the market through the application of various very advanced advertising techniques. These are rooted in psychological research, tapping into the unconscious mind of the consumer. They propose that need creation and the satisfaction of the created needs will bring happiness, whilst in actual fact it only brings about the creation of false desires, thus false happiness.

Yet we continue to consume, as the companies sell. The belief in the possibility of living a gloriously happy life through the consumption of the consumables brought onto the market is just an illusion, springing from a form of false opinions. The false opinions are consciously imposed onto the masses by the industries that profit greatly from this organization of society. With their practices, the industries neglect to adhere value to the lives of factory laborers, the natural surroundings, the scarcity of non-renewable resources and the caused mental unrest within the western consumer. The only topic taken seriously in business is profit maximization and economic growth.

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How have we arrived at a point in human history where companies have this kind of totalized control over our desires, without us being aware of it? In current societies consumerism is regarded as such a natural part of life that it is rarely questioned by the consuming mass, whilst the effects are seriously endangering their lives.

Consumerism leads to a wide variety of problems, both ecological and social. The ecological challenges are numerous; ocean acidification and warming, melting of the ice caps, a rising sea level leading to mass-migration from coastal regions, droughts leading to loss of food resources (IPCC, 2014). The social effects are two-fold; firstly the exploitation of laborers at all levels of the supply chain, growing global inequality, unequal use and exploitation of resources – for instance through the practice of extractivism (Acosta, 2016, p. 54). Secondly the exploitation of the consumer resulting in pathological effects such as compulsive consumerism, consumer hyperchoice, shopping addictions, working too much in order to consume, people having towering credit card debts, the list could go on (Cherrier & Lego Munoz, 2007, p. 4). Many of the disastrous effects we have to face and try to resolve can be traced back to the capitalist organization of the World order, in which through mainstream ideology the exploitation of both labor and nature are centralized and legitimized in order to sustain the ideal of unlimited growth. Meanwhile propagandistic advertising schemes are instrumental in ensuring that products produced in this manner are pervasively consumed by the masses (Acosta, 2016, p. 55).

In current times more than ever it is necessary to use critical theory to bring to light the ways in which society is structured unjustly and unsustainably. There is no time to lose as we have achieved scientific consensus about how the catastrophic effects of global climate change are caused by human activity, mainly by the habits of consumption of those living in Advanced Industrial Capitalist Consumer Societies (IPCC, 2014, p. 2). The most recent aggregate of climate research has shown that there is only 12 years left for us as a world community to change our ways. The impending catastrophe can be slightly limited if we can manage to radically change our culture within those next twelve years (pp. 28, 29). Since consumption today is the main locus of cultural production (Dunn, 2008, p. 5), it is very important to perform a swift cultural transformation into a different mode of consumption. In order to save the planet it is necessary that we consume in a way that is less resource intensive and more respectful to our natural environments. The need for a cultural transformation leads me to ask philosophy the following questions: What are imposed desires and how do they influence the

~ 3 ~ consumer? How can we free ourselves from these imposed desires? And to what extent do we have to free ourselves from our dependency of material objects?

Method and structure of the thesis

In this thesis I will explore the rise and workings of consumer society, which from now on will be termed Consumptia. I consider Consumptia to be an archetype for societies structured around the consumption of consumables, in which the citizens are primarily regarded as consumers. I will through this conceptualization explore it’s essential elements of desire and hedonism and in the end I will propose an alternative form of hedonism with the help of Epicurus. He has proposed some very insightful guiding principles we could all pragmatically implement in our own lives. In this manner I will counter the exploitative workings of hedonism with a critical hedonism through a revision of what it entails to attain happiness. I will be zig-zagging through history, focusing more on conceptual analysis than chronological order. I have decided on this structure because it is the most natural way to first illustrate the current context and how it came to be, after which I can go deeper into a conceptual discussion of hedonism and the necessity for liberation. At the end of the thesis I propose a pragmatic approach in order to realize the consumer liberation that I outline in the real world. My master plan is to take philosophy to the masses and that is why I want to revive elements of Epicurus’ thought and teachings and link them to important radical theory from the sixties. Both of which have been effective in starting progressive movements that find the hope for change in the transformation of individual consciousness.

In the first chapter of my thesis I will analyze the rise of Consumptia, the land of consumerism. I will discuss the accounts of Zygmunt Bauman, a sociologist who is well- known for his works on consumerism and consumer societies. This is essential to provide the contextualization and foundation for the rest of my argument. The main focus will be on how the work ethic has been replaced by the aesthetics of consumption, and how this has affected the consumer in their subjectivity. Then I will go deeper into theory on consumer subjectivity, aided by a very extensive work by Robert G. Dunn, Identifying Consumption, so as to elucidate the elements that create the Consumer Complex, especially focusing on the sentiment of desire which plays an essential role in the perpetuation of Consumptia. Lastly I will zoom out again and discuss how the new stage of consumer capitalism, namely hedonistic consumerism, functions as a systemic accumulation regime.

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The second chapter will be a conceptual discussion of hedonism, happiness and liberation, primarily exploring the 1938 essay On Hedonism by critical theorist Herbert Marcuse. I will firstly provide an overview Marcuse and his historical and philosophical context. Secondly I will discuss and explain Marcuse’s thoughts on hedonism. At the end of the chapter I will discuss discrepancies between Marcuse’s early work and his later work on liberation from the workings of advanced capitalist societies, a category of societies that also entails Consumptia in her many forms. Does the material world offer possibilities for happiness, and if so, what would be the conditions for arriving at happiness according to Marcuse?

In the third and final chapter of my thesis I will pose a positive solution to the question of how we arrive at our desires, utilizing the writing of classical Greek philosopher Epicurus, one of the first hedonist thinkers, who brings to us a philosophy that could help with reflecting on the true origins of desires, thus questioning the system of consumer capitalism as such. I will argue that an alternative form of hedonism can actually help us free ourselves from the desires installed in us by consumer capitalism. I intend to prove that philosophy can be used by all to turn away the quest for happiness from the realm of consumption, and can provide new ways to appreciate life and community. To strengthen my argument for Epicureanism I will use more contemporary and empirical research on consumer happiness (by Hélène Cherrier) and the proposed alternative hedonism (by Kate Soper), two very engaged and inspiring academics working on the frontline to combat consumerism and the demise of our planet.

Within this thesis I zig-zag through philosophical discourse, because I tell the story and sickness of the era we now live in and try to find a remedy in the works of my predecessors. I am not a historian, but a philosopher. I dance through timelines to connect thoughts and concepts, to link them through time and prove inconsistencies or connections. But I am also here to “heal some malady of mankind”, not only to produce a significant piece of work. I want to serve humanity and move into the new aesthetic reality. I identify a problem then apply Marcuse to form critique, eventually aiming to formulate a positive solution for the problems at hand. I believe that the combination of the critical theory of Marcuse with the critical attitude of Epicurus will bring to light the way in which we can pragmatically bring about change in this destructive system of never-ending consumerism and economic growth. A system that is actually destroying the one and only planet we live on.

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Acknowledgements

Writing this thesis was not an easy task, and even though it is a very solitary work, I could not have done it with the people surrounding me. Firstly of course my parents, of which I have three – my mother Karin, my father Peter and my stepfather Mike. Throughout my life they have taught me that society and those in power should be scrutinized, that counter-culture is the location of hope for change and a big dose of ‘practice-what-you-preach’ mentality. Most of all they taught me that I could always find and realize my potential with their support. In the process of writing this thesis I have benefited greatly from their warm hearts and wise words. Then the teachers and study counselors, who have believed in me, unlike my high school philosophy teacher who was skeptical about my choice to study philosophy, and to those who helped me realize my potential especially here at the UvA. I have to thank Adrienne Zuiderweg specifically for being the best and most patient study advisor I could have wished for. I have had a hard time functioning in the school system and it took some time to grow the necessary discipline. Discipline that I have learned through working in various retail and service jobs, most notably my years in the hair-salon, where I have gained rhetoric skills, patience, but most importantly where I have learned about the power of the philosophical conversation having transformative effects on my hair clients. Also thanks to all people now supporting kapsalon Bruisje, enabling me to live my best and most fulfilling life! Then the wonderful people I have been lucky enough to meet through studying here and who have helped me theorize, recognize, put into words and correct those words, my dear philosophy friends Michele, Annebel, Gert-Jan. Especially Elvi for supporting me and not getting bored of me. All other friends, Cheryl, Sanne, Fer, Emma, Lotte thank you for listening to my endless rants about Epicurus, and helping me get to a place of concreteness, thanks for always trusting in me as well. Anniek, Rick and the aforementioned, thank you for partly reading my work and providing me with the much needed feedback. Eloise, thanks for providing me with the last needed grammar check-up. A big shout-out and thank you to Iseabeau Fort, one of those DJ’s whose musical genius never seizes to amaze me and whose musical compositions have been the soundtrack to my researching and writing. Also I would like to thank my supervisor Johan Hartle, who I had never met before but who I found prepared to guide me from afar and ask me the questions I needed to hear in order to create this piece of work. I have learned a lot through this process, but mostly I feel like I have touched on two fountains of knowledge and wisdom that will not run dry soon, and which I think can be united even more. So my last thanks are to Bauman, Marcuse and Epicurus, R.I.P., for all their sincere work on which I could build my thinking.

I too am an Epicurean.

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Table of Contents Freed From Desire

ABSTRACT: 1

Introduction 2 Method and structure of the thesis 4

Acknowledgements 6 Table of Contents 7

1. We’re all living in Consumptia 9 Introduction 9 1.1 The Rise of Consumptia 10 1.1.1 From the work ethics to the aesthetics of consumption. 10 1.1.2 You better shape up, ‘cause we need a consumer 12 1.1.3 Consuming happiness? 13 1.1.4 Conclusion 14 1.2 The Consumer Complex 15 1.2.1 Introduction 15 1.2.2 Needs and wants 16 1.2.3 Come on baby light my Fire 16 1.2.4 Commodity dynamics, what do you mean? 18 1.2.5 Sub-conclusion 19 1.3 The system of Consumptia Hedonistica 20 1.3.1 Consumptia’s accumulation regime 20 1.3.2 Unhappy consumption 22 1.3.3 Concluding Consumptia Hedonistica 22

2. Let’s get Critical (Theory)! 24

Introduction 24

Who the (...) is Marcuse? 25 2.1 On Hedonism 27 2.1.1 Why study hedonism in critical theory? 27 2.1.2 Universality of reason versus happiness 28 2.1.3 Cyrenaic hedonism, the more the happier 29 2.1.4 Happiness in social relations 30

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2.1.5 Knowledge and happiness 31 2.1.6 Epicureanism through Marcuse’s eyes 33 2.1.7 Table of Hedonisms 34 2.1.8 Conclusion 35 2.2 Freedom is happiness 36 2.2.1 Introduction 36 2.2.2 Potentialities 36 2.2.3 Enjoyment 37 2.2.4 Freedom and Happiness and knowledge 38 2.2.5 Conclusion 40 2.3 One-dimensionality, alienation and liberation 40 2.3.1 Introduction 40 2.3.2 One-Dimensional Consciousness 41 2.3.3 Authentic existence – awareness, consciousness and liberation 42 2.3.4 Ecology 44 2.3.5 Conclusion New Marcuse versus Old Marcuse 44

3. The Age of Epicurius 46 Introduction 46 3.1 Meet Epicurus 47 3.1.1 Life of Epicurus 48 3.1.2 The Doctrine - The Four Fold Remedy 50 Pleasure and pain 52 Typology of desires 53 3.1.3 Garden of Epicurus 54 3.1.4 Conclusion 56 3.2 A Unity of Critical Happiness 56 3.2.1 An unsurprising kinship 56 3.2.2 The Epicusean table 59 3.3 The Fall of Consumptia 62 3.3.1 Introduction 62 3.3.2 From the aesthetic of consumption, to an anti-consumerist aesthetic 62 3.3.3 Get ready for the New Sage 64 3.3.4 The Table of Hedonisms according to Robin H. 66 3.3.5 Conclusion 68 Bibliography 74

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Chapter 1 - We’re All Living in Consumptia Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé

1. We’re all living in Consumptia2

Figure 1 - Artwork by Mateusz Urbanowicz and a picture of Zygmunt Bauman laid over by me Introduction

“Ours is a consumer society” (Bauman, 1998, p. 23)

In this chapter I will theorize Consumptia from different angles. The main focus of the first section will be the historical transformation of the western developed societies from producer societies with a centrality of the work ethic to consumer societies, with a high level of aestheticization. Concluding the historical account I will provide a short discussion of the mechanisms through which consumer societies groom their subjects into becoming consumers. Both of these aspects of Consumptia will be elucidated through a discussion of the sociological account by Zygmunt Bauman 3 , as his theory is much in line with the common conceptions within critical theory and his theory provides an interesting viewpoint on the switch from ethics to aesthetics. Departing from the exploration of the historical and structural context of Consumptia and how it came to be, I will secondly focus on the subjective experiences of the consumer within consumer societies. This I will do by using Robert Dunn’s Identifying consumption (2008), an extensive theoretical work that investigates the subjectivity of the consumer within modern consumer society. I will discuss the experience of desire and the elements constituting the ‘Consumer Complex’. In the third and final section of this chapter I will delve deeper into a novel but key element in current Consumptia: the practice of ‘hedonistic consumerism’. Going into a more structural and

2 Consumptia is an umbrella term for consumer societies, western advanced capitalist societies; highly industrialized societies organized around the consumption of consumables. This title is also a reference to the 2004 Rammstein song ‘Amerika’, an industrial metal/hard rock-song offering critique on American imperialism and consumerism. 3 Bauman was a notable Polish sociologist and philosopher who has written many works on societal stratification, capitalism, liquid modernity and consumerism. ~ 9 ~

Chapter 1 - We’re All Living in Consumptia Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé contemporary analysis, I will investigate in the third section how the shift from ‘regular consumerism’ to ‘hedonistic consumerism’ developed itself systemically and what could be identified as the main characteristics of this hedonistic form of consumerism

1.1 The Rise of Consumptia

1.1.1 From the work ethics to the aesthetics of consumption.

Zygmunt Bauman states that before the rise of the consumer society there was the society of production (1998, p. 24).4 The society of production, which came to a rise through the move of industrialization in the 19th century, instilled on its subjects what Bauman calls the “work ethic” (p. 5). Before the instilment of the work-ethic, the producer was free to purposefully create the produced product, to freely choose their profession from passion and through this achieve meaning in life (p. 7). Through the work ethic a slave-like mindset was installed onto the subjects, after which their labor could easily be exploited by the capitalists (p. 8). Work was no longer the means through which the subject shapes their identity, not an activity that should bring about any form of satisfaction or happiness. The person producing the products went through a process of detachment and was valued only as an instrument within the system of production.5 The work ethic was both used to help the growing industries with their problem of sourcing cheap labor, as well as to provide a basis for the discrimination of the weak and poor (p. 11). Being of productive value through performing labor was regarded as the only justification for living; only through work could one prove themselves to be a valuable part of society and only through work could one provide themselves with any sense of meaning in life. As Bauman aptly illustrates:

“Under the guise of the work ethic, a discipline ethic was promoted: don’t mind pride or honour, sense or purpose – work with all your strength, day by day and hour by hour, even if you see no rhyme nor reason to exert yourself and are unable to adumbrate the meaning of the exertion.” (Bauman, 1998, p. 7)

4 Bauman stresses that we should keep in mind that humans in societies have been producing and consuming since the dawn of the human species and will keep on doing so always. The distinction is found in the difference in which the members of society are engaged: in the producer society the subjects are primarily engaged in their capacity as producers, in the consumer society they are primarily engaged in their capacity as consumers (Bauman, 1998, p. 24). 5 A process very beautifully illustrated by the 1936 film ‘Modern Times’ starring Charlie Chaplin. ~ 10 ~

Chapter 1 - We’re All Living in Consumptia Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé

This moral system swiftly got replaced by a more practical conception of monetary reward being the prime element in the subject’s relationship to work. 6 Labor transformed into a necessary means to acquire monetary rewards which were promised to bring the worker to a future freedom.7 The promise on this function of work turned out to be just a façade, a dream (p. 21). Workers noticed that the chances of being able to rise above their disadvantaged positions, to transform themselves from exploited laborers to factory owners were close to nothing. A new mechanism was put in place, which replaced the emphasis on the betterment of one’s life through work with the accumulation of more money through work: ‘the material incentives to work’ (p. 21). Through these incentives the emphasis moved from ‘better’ to ‘more’ work and reward, as the more work would be done, the more material rewards could be gained. Bauman asserts that the channeling of the power conflict of the quality of social existence into the struggle for the quantity of monetary income had an important influence on the course of development of modern industrial society (p. 22). This course of history laid the foundation for the acceptance of the regard for human value and dignity merely being expressed through monetary rewards, as well as shifting the human motivation and craving for pleasure, freedom and equality into the sphere of consumption (p. 22).

In the consumer society the guide for human behavior is no longer based in ethical norms as it used to be in the producer society, but in aesthetic experience. This transformation is essential to highlight, as it is the reason why the consumer nowadays cannot easily be persuaded to change their ways through ethical arguments. The emphasis on the aesthetic dimension is also the fountain from which the hedonistic aspect of Consumptia springs. Aestheticization within society entails that the commodities and the way they bring sensations8 of pleasure through consumption are centralized in the experience of the subjects. The pleasurable experience is regarded as being of upmost importance. The move from the work ethic to the aesthetic experience is necessary to make Consumptia function in favor of capitalism, because in Consumptia consumption should not be experienced by the consumer as a duty having to do with ethical norms, but as a free right to pursue their aesthetic interests, in other words: to gain pleasurable experiences (Bauman, 1998, p. 31). 9 In Consumptia there is no need for normative regulations; “seduction, display of untested wonders, promise of

6 The monetary rewards would supposedly bring more freedom in the life of the worker, as it would make them capable of attaining means of production and become a capitalist themselves. 7 This freedom is today linked to the freedom to consume. 8 Sensations here are meant in relation to the sense-perception. 9 Which also results in consumer uprising against more stringent regulation to limit choice or ban certain very harmful products, as the “consumer spirit” is so caught up in the aesthetics of consumption, that the freedom every human being craves is sought in this domain (Bauman, 1998, p. 25). ~ 11 ~

Chapter 1 - We’re All Living in Consumptia Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé sensations yet untried but dwarfing and overshadowing everything tried before, will do nicely” (Bauman, 1998, p. 31). The seduction of the consumer takes place mainly via the method of propagandistic advertisements, which are aesthetic by definition (Garvey, 2016, p. 143). From the aestheticization of society also follows a new valuation of work as perceived in terms of aesthetics instead of ethics. This means that work is no longer inherently valuable,10 but only is valuable if it brings a sort of satisfaction or pleasure to the person performing the work. Placing work in the aesthetic realm provides another base for a more stratified 11 society, as there is a distinction in the value of certain types of work, the ‘elevated’ types of work ask of their performers the same qualities for the appreciation of high art - such as creativity, higher education, good taste and disinterested dedication, while the more ‘basic’ life-sustaining types of work are looked down upon. In other words: class differences are expressed in the valuation of the work performed. Thus the subjects within Consumptia are pushed to, as in the sphere of consumption, be demanding and seek fulfilment and variety in their labor (Bauman, 1998, pp. 33, 34). The move from ethical norms to aestheticization together with centralizing the subjective experience of the consumer as a consumer within society are two of the main driving forces shaping Consumptia.

1.1.2 You better shape up, ‘cause we need a consumer

The magical land of Consumptia is inhabited by the consumer. The consumer uses up the consumed, destroys, annihilates the consumable12 in order to satisfy their needs or desires. As Consumptia is structured in such a way that money is the mediator between a need or desire and its satisfaction or gratification, the consumer appropriates the consumable through exchanging their money attained through work (Bauman, 1998, p. 23). In modernity, as Bauman calls it, the shift in emphasis from the subject as producer to the subject as primarily a consumer is an important central element in considering societies as being a form of

10 The performance of work would be the fulfillment of an ethical duty, meaning that in this sense all kinds of work were equal and the work would bring satisfaction to its performer through this fulfillment. 11 Stratification is a concept central to Bauman’s work and research and entails the way in which societies are layered in social divisions. Through the process of seeing work as something consumable, the decision to perform a certain kind of work seemingly is a free choice, not a matter of many intertwining factors and privileges that enable some to choose and others to not choose freely what kind of work they want to pursue. 12 A consumable: instead of using the term consumer good, as this in my opinion has connotations with something that should be considered good. I do not want to consider the consumable to be a good thing, neither a bad thing per se. A consumable is an object that is brought onto the market after production, in order to be consumed – that is, used up quickly - by the consumer, after which it needs to be replaced again. The original economic definition of consumable is more about perishable goods like medicine and food, I find however that this using up and quick-replacement is very much descriptive of most material things brought onto the market today, like electronics, clothing and home-decorations. The planned obsolescence makes the item a consumable. ~ 12 ~

Chapter 1 - We’re All Living in Consumptia Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé

Consumptia (p. 24). 13 The first difference in the way people are groomed to meet the requirements of society is the way in which the people are taught to shape their social identities. Before, in the society of production the social identity of the subject was decided by their work. Since the transformation of the society into a consumer society, the social identity is shaped primarily by the consumption of consumables. As humans we are always confused and confronted with our ambivalent view of the concept of identity, as it is not desired to be static, but to be very mutable (p. 28). This is another important element in the shaping of the consumer, as the consumables with their high level of disposability and interchangeability provide the consumer with an excellent way to form an interchangeable identity as well as keeping the consumer on edge, always longing for more.

In a more recent work, Consuming Life (2007), Bauman described another nuanced shift in the consumer’s relation to the consumable, as in the producer society the possessions were used conspicuously to show status and to display a sense of transcendence through time, which means that the possessions were acquired for their timelessness (p. 30). Subjects attained a feeling of durable security and stability through the acquirement of these timeless possessions, but through the transformation into the quick-response consumer society where all the desires have to be met instantly, and the objects of consumption are easily replaced,14 this sense of stability and security is taken away from the subjects (p. 31). The only stable and certain element is that we know a new consumable will be brought onto the market, will seek and find its application and in the end will be replaced again (p. 38). This leads to the search of stability in the realm of consumption, we all know that at least the shops, online or offline, will be there for us always, as the trustworthy churches of consumerism. It is in these places where the consumer is promised to find their happiness, but is this promise in vain?

1.1.3 Consuming happiness?

According to Bauman, sentiments of happiness and unhappiness are derived from hopes and expectations, which are culturally constituted and differ within different social settings (2007,

13 Bauman notes that in both types of societies still production and consumption are interlinked and apparent; the main difference is one of emphasis, as the number of people involved in productive forces has decreased significantly between the 1970s and the 1990s. It could of course be argued that this has to do with the outsourcing of labor to third-world countries, continuing the western projects of imperialism and colonialism, thus alleviating the Western labor forces from this type of productive work. 14 This high degree of built-in obsolescence resulting in the fast replacement of products also puts a huge strain on the environment, as the production of products requires the use of natural resources, but also a lot of human labor, which is mostly sourced in developing countries. They are even more so the true victims of our consumer societies. ~ 13 ~

Chapter 1 - We’re All Living in Consumptia Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé p. 43). The consumer society is the first in human history in which happiness is promised in earthly life, happiness is a possibility here and now, but only to be attained through the consumption of massive amounts of consumables (p. 44). Being unhappy within consumer society will consequently be interpreted as a personal deficit in consumption, placing the responsibility for happiness on the shoulders and in the wallets of the consuming consumer, again stigmatizing the poor for their lack of consuming power.15 Consumption is described as being a ‘hedonic treadmill’,16 a system which will not increase the overall happiness of those who enter it, but will make them chase a promised ideal of happiness indefinitely. The treadmill metaphor is striking, as we can imagine how the subjects are endlessly running, powering a system which will actually not profit themselves, only benefitting the people who achieve ever-growing amounts of riches from this system.

1.1.4 Conclusion

Through the shift of the centrality of work as an ethical duty, thus providing a certain stability, to the aesthetics of consumption in which all is determined by the everchanging variety of consumables on offer and in which even the acquisition of work is expressed in terms of aesthetics, the subject in Consumptia is faced with a manifold of insecurities. The social identity is no longer shaped through work, but through the consumption of consumables, even placing work in the realm of consumption. The consumable in the shape of material possessions provides no longer a sense of stability, as they are made to be disposed of as soon as another possible possession arrives in the life and installs desire into the heart of the consumer, making them run endlessly on the hedonic treadmill of consumption. In the next section I will discuss the internal subjective mechanisms that fire up the desire to consume. Additionally, I will show that the consumer is not merely subjected to this system, but should be attributed a certain degree of agency, showing that there is room to liberate the consumer from this exploitative system.

15 This is also where the massive problem of cheaply mass-produced consumer goods come from, as in order to give the poor the illusion of happiness and wealth, they are able to buy very cheaply made knock-off items, often produced under dire circumstances in third-world countries. Through consuming and feeling happy, the poor will lose their revolutionary power as they are kept asleep in this system of consuming trash. 16 The hedonic treadmill theory presupposes that humans bounce back to their original level of happiness after certain happiness increasing or decreasing events. ~ 14 ~

Chapter 1 - We’re All Living in Consumptia Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé 1.2 The Consumer Complex

1.2.1 Introduction

After this sociological account by Zygmunt Bauman of the transformation of the society of production to the consumer society, I think it is important to take a closer look at the mechanisms in place which influence the subjects within this consumer society. A recent work by Robert G. Dunn, Identifying Consumption (2008), provides a thorough account on various theories that explore the shaping of the consumer. According to Dunn, the consumers are “social and individual subjects who are (1) agents acting out of largely unconscious forces shaped by the productive and reproductive needs of capitalism, and (2) as actors consciously seeking to satisfy needs and desires in meaningful ways” (2008, p. 5). Through discussing Bauman’s view on the topic the consumer seems to fall largely in the first category only, while personally I would agree with Dunn and do regard the consumer as a person with a certain amount of agency, as this will leave room for them to break free from the semi- ideological oppression of consumerism. Dunn proposes to view the relational issue at hand not as an agency/structure problem, but as an actor – system relation, in which the actor (the consumer) is characterized as being a human subject with an idea of the self and reflexive capacities (p. 79). This notion is necessary for the rest of the argument, as I will in the end with Epicurus conclude that precisely these reflexive capacities will provide the possibility of bringing about real systemic change, within the consumer and through the consumer in Consumptia.

I will first bring about an account of the desire of the consumer, a topic which has not been thoroughly researched but is very important in the context of the consumer society. According to Dunn, these desires are not merely imposed from above but do help the subjects to achieve some sense of gratification in life. Consumer culture is a complex system of meaning, practices and representations that organize within society the ideal of consumption as a way of life, a system which according to Dunn does provide “real possibilities for the satisfaction of human need and desire (p. 9)”. Consumerism is the legitimizing ideology which makes the subjects bound to this system (p. 8). As Bauman also has argued, it is true that people need to consume in order to live their lives, and to a certain extent the value of life can be found through means of consumption. The corrupting factor in today’s societies is the ideology of consumerism which renders the subjects unfree and installs onto them a broad

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Chapter 1 - We’re All Living in Consumptia Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé variety of unnecessary desires which will be endlessly replaced, thus never really satisfied (p. 9).

1.2.2 Needs and wants

In order to theorize the experiences of the consumer within consumer society it is necessary to investigate the passions or emotive sensations that are central to the life of the consumer. Traditionally in critical theory and sociological research, these passions were defined as the needs and wants, and the placement of the wants as the most important driving force in society. Marcuse for instance makes the distinction between 'true' and 'false' needs in his theorization of one-dimensional society, 17 in order to propose a critique of consumer capitalism (Dunn, 2008, p. 96). Needs are universal minimum requirements for survival and well-being, they could be biological, social, metaphysical, cultural, material or psychological (p. 12). However, according to Dunn the concept of needs has lost its relevance in the study of consumer culture. Wants are more fleeting, more subjective and so could also be implied onto the subject through various forms of manipulation. Wants have to do with choice, as they are often not necessary for survival or well-being. Bauman argues in his analysis of the consumer society that the dynamic involving needs and their satisfaction has been turned around, as instead of the need calling for satisfaction by a certain consumable, in Consumptia the consumable first comes into existence, after which the desire for this consumable is constructed through psychological manipulation by the industry (1998, p. 25). Also according to Dunn the concepts of 'wants' or ‘needs’ are inadequate to describe the psychology and subjectivity within consumer societies and proposes instead a discussion of the concept and experience of desire as being central in Consumptia (2008, p. 49).

1.2.3 Come on baby light my Fire

Desire is a concept which is broader and more varied in opposition to “wanting” or “needing” and is experienced as a very deep yearning for something or someone (Dunn, 2008, p. 12). Desire is perceived to have a dynamic social aspect, as the desire for objects that help us become part of a social group could be shifted to new objects the next day (Belk, et al., 2003, p. 330). Desire is traditionally by different religious ideologies perceived to be a vice, but through the workings of global capitalist consumerism the desire to consume is now essential

17 In his 1964 work “One-dimensional man: Studies in the Ideology of Advanced Industrial Society”. ~ 16 ~

Chapter 1 - We’re All Living in Consumptia Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé in living a virtuous life (p. 331). Desiring and desiring to desire are central to the lived experiences of the subjects who live within Consumptia.

In ‘The fire of desire: A Multisided Inquiry into Consumer Passion’, Russel W. Belk et. al. present a thorough account of the subjective experience of consumer desires. They introduce the concept of the cycle of desire, which entails that the consumer on an individual level has a cyclical experience of the emotion of desire (Belk, et al., 2003, p. 430). Desire is not merely an emotion, but also a process which goes through different phases and could be repetitive depending on the object of desire and whether the desire is fulfilled or not. In the desire for consumables, we can distinguish moments of self-seduction in which the agent fuels their own desire while this desire is still brought about from media imageries and cultural mythologies (p. 341). The active role of the consumer in their own seduction is proven through the empirical research in this article. When a desire is fulfilled, the consumer will only feel satisfied for a short time, until a reformulation of the desire takes place (p. 342). This process makes consumer desire cyclical, and this process could be perceived as one of the driving forces within Consumptia, because the consumer is "on a perpetual but fruitless quest for consumption euphoria" (p. 342). This cycle of desire is termed as a ‘boredom- initiated cycle of desire’, a cycle in which a new object of desire replaces the previous one at the moment of satisfaction (p. 342). There is also a category of desires which can be recycled infinitely, meaning that their fulfillment does not do away with the feeling of longing. The experienced satisfaction is of such pleasure that the desire is renewable over and over again, for instance having dinner at that one lovely Thai restaurant every once in a while. This cycle is termed the ‘fulfillment-initiated cycle of desire’ which recycles desires with the aim to repeat the pleasurable

To desire means to be hopeful and many of the respondents express to be rather fearful to be without desire. Desire is considered as the ‘spice of life’ by the interviewed consumers, an element of life without which life would be bland and boring. This seems to prove that there is a basic human desire to desire (p. 342). However, desire and hope are still distinct states, as desire is the emotional attraction towards an object, and hope is the experienced feeling of the possibility of attaining that object, thus fulfilling the desire (p. 343). This cycle determines the insatiability of the desires within consumerism, as the desire to desire apparently is so central to the life of the consumer, that it almost seems like desires should not be fulfilled. So not only do we see within Bauman’s sociological account the cyclical hedonic treadmill as an aspect of consumer desire, also within the consumer experience of psychological states we ~ 17 ~

Chapter 1 - We’re All Living in Consumptia Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé find the cyclical motion that is the driving force behind consumer capitalist societies. As Bauman has put it more beautifully than I ever could:

“In a properly working consumer society consumers seek actively to be seduced. They live from attraction to attraction, from temptation to temptation, from swallowing one bait to fishing for another, each new attraction, temptation and bait being somewhat different and perhaps stronger than those that preceded them; just as their ancestors, the producers, lived from one turn of the conveyer belt to an identical next.” (Bauman, 1998, p. 26)

This quote illustrates the cycle of desire, but also the active agency of the consumer who is seeking to find a new desire over and over again.

1.2.4 Commodity dynamics, what do you mean?

After concluding that desire plays an essential role in the experience and valuation of life itself by the consumer, as well as taking a central role in motivating the subjects within Consumptia to consume, the moment has arrived to investigate how the commodity influences this desire. In essence Dunn argues that there is and should be a middle ground between the commodity-based view and the subject-based view. In the traditionally Marxist view, culture is shaped wholly by the exchange and valuation of commodities. Within this view, the commodity is the element that mediates between production and consumption and through its existence initiates the sentiment of alienation by structurally detaching production from consumption (Dunn, 2008, pp. 24 - 27). The commodity-based view however does not elaborate enough on the manner in which the consumer derives meaning through their relation with the material objects.

Dunn outlines, taking from Grant McCracken, a model called “meaning transfer”, that states how within consumer society meaning can be found in three distinguishable locations: (1) the culturally constituted world; (2) the consumer good and (3) the individual consumer (2008, p. 90). The meaning systems are materialized in concrete objects, according to McCracken, and the material goods also function as a representational medium, more inconspicuous thus effective than language in performing manipulation (Dunn, 2008, p. 90). The power is in the concreteness, while the commodity is also an impoverished 18 cultural symbol. The commodity is in many theories perceived as a sign, a sign that helps the subject shape their

18 It is impoverished as the meaning of the symbol is decided by the industry. The promises made are often not realized. ~ 18 ~

Chapter 1 - We’re All Living in Consumptia Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé identity and position themselves in life and in the social space. Through making use of the commodity as an aesthetic sign, meaning gets inflated and a range of uses or values is promised, again fueling consumer desires. Additionally, Dunn argues that a new way of viewing the relation between the subject and the commodity is necessary to explain the dialectics of consumption (pp. 92 - 95). The dialectics of consumption are another analogy of the cyclical nature of consumption, where the consumer is locked in a continuous state of enchantment and boredom (Migone, 2007, p. 182). Inherently the commodity is not bad, only in the way it is used by the system to manipulate the actors within the system. The real meaning derived from the interaction with and the acquirement of commodities is valuable in itself. We should just be mindful of how we let commodities lure us into a certain desiring which’s satisfaction will not bring about happiness, but merely room for a new kind of desire.

1.2.5 Sub-conclusion

The complex of consumption is one that inconspicuously influences almost all subjects living in a society shaped like Consumptia. It is a condition of being that shapes and molds all different spheres of life, a condition that drives the consumer to shape up into a certain subjectivity, wholly complacent to the mechanisms of advanced consumer capitalism. In discussing the position, subjective experiences and emotional drives of the consumer within Consumptia, we have to move the discussion from the conceptualization of needs and wants to desire, as desire is the central element in shaping the motives and actions of the consumer in Consumptia. Desire is an emotion that has proven to be of cyclical nature, especially in the rapidly changing commodified material existence that is the context for the consumer. Where value is placed on the ‘new’ instead of the durable, fresh commodities are pushed into the lives of the consumer lighting the ‘fire of desire’ over and over again. The commodity, however, is not merely a poisonous and manipulative element in the life of the consumer, as the subjective agency of the consumer does provide space for meaningful identity formation through the practice of consumption. In the next section I will provide a more empirical account of the current consumer society and the political and economic material grounds that fuel the workings of the new form of hedonistic consumer society.

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Chapter 1 - We’re All Living in Consumptia Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé 1.3 The system of Consumptia Hedonistica

1.3.1 Consumptia’s accumulation regime

After the account of the subjective experiences of the consumer within consumer societies, I want to take a more abstracted view of the structural elements that helped constitute the consumer society as it currently is, thus the transformation from ‘classical’ consumerism to the novel form of ‘hedonistic consumerism’. Andrea Migone argues in ‘Hedonistic Consumerism: Patterns of Consumption in Contemporary Capitalism’, that the origin of this form of consumerism can be found in the post-Fordist accumulation regime, dating back to the 1970s. Since this timeframe, systemic consumerism has undergone an important transformation: it became more self-referencing and unequal (Migone, 2007, p. 174). The self-referencing aspects of hedonistic consumerism are also described by Dunn as a tendency of the subject to act in narcissistic ways within modern societies. Within modern neoliberal capitalist society, the individual is of central importance, which means that the tendencies to acquire narcissistic pleasures from consuming the consumable objects are centralized, more so than the social effects of consumption (Dunn, 2008, p. 111). Migone analyses the system of consumerism in the framework of regulation theory, and within this framework differentiates between Fordism and Post-Fordism as accumulation19 regimes with both their different modes of regulation and modes of consumption. The transformation of the accumulation regime from Fordist to post-Fordist contributed to the transformation of consumerism into hedonistic consumerism, from Consumptia to Consumptia Hedonistica.

Both of the accumulation regimes differ from previous accumulation regimes in that they cloud class differences and struggles through offering as a distraction a focus on consumerism instead (Migone, 2007, p. 176). A hegemonic discourse arose, that equated the consumption of material possessions with the essential human need for individual expression (p. 176). The traditional Fordist regime of accumulation, first identified in the 1930s, is signified by a mode of regulation which Migone categorizes to be Fordist and Keynesian. This mode of regulation entails mass-production, Taylorism, high wages, national markets, automatization and stable employment relations for the workers. In this framework of traditional Fordism, the mode of consumption was diffused and relatively egalitarian.

19 An accumulation regime is a regime that functions as a means to make capital accumulate in certain places, thus extracting from other places, these regimes are essentially capitalist. ~ 20 ~

Chapter 1 - We’re All Living in Consumptia Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé

Advertisement and commodification were prevalent in order to install a drive to consume and consequently there was a high level of public debt (p. 177).

With the transformation from Fordism into post-Fordism, the latter characterized by Migone as neoliberal, the mode of regulation prioritizes a flexibilization of work,20 the markets shift from national to globalized international markets, the wages are lower and the production process has to be even more streamlined. The accompanying mode of consumption is segmented and unequal, Migone describes this as ‘Hedonistic Consumerism’. Both the reliance on advertisement and the level of commodification are increased and the debts have shifted from the public sphere to the private (Migone, 2007, p. 177). Hedonistic patterns of excessive consumption additionally extend commodification to incorporate more social elements and create bigger differences between those who are wealthy enough to consume, and those who are not (p. 178). The richest 20 percent of the world population have exhibited growing rates of consumption with 86 percent of the world total private consumption, while the poorest 80 percent only can attribute for 14 percent (p. 179). So, if there hypothetically would be any truth in the idea that happiness could be attained through more consumption,21 even within this system only 20 percent of the world population is allowed to experience this.

Another important element of this form of consumerism, according to Migone, is that we should consider is the ecological problem that we face as a global society, which is mostly created by these patterns of excessive hedonistic consumerism (p. 181). This is the case because the capitalist system is a “growth-only” model, prescribing an impossible route of unlimited growth of consumption. Stagnation will be destructive, or so is argued by the capitalists (p. 182). Through trend-making the consumer is lured into desiring all kinds of fashionable items, leading to an even more unequal distribution of productive resources, both in the form of labor and material resources (p. 182). Thus, not only does Consumptia Hedonistica hold the consuming subjects of the West in its grip, it also leads to an even more unequal distribution and the expropriation of labor and material resources.22

20 This insecurity in work also leads to heightened levels of consumption, as consuming the promises that the industry makes through the commodities will provide a short-lived moment of gratification and distraction from the actual misery that the people are in. 21 This is, as I will show throughout this thesis not the road to happiness. 22 This mostly happens in formerly colonized third world countries in the global south, a process which is in itself also fueled by imperialist ideologies containing racism and classism. ~ 21 ~

Chapter 1 - We’re All Living in Consumptia Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé

1.3.2 Unhappy consumption

Increasing amounts of empirical evidence show that the promise of happiness attainment through consumption is one that will never be fulfilled, just as the desires created by the consumerist hedonic treadmill. The carrot will never really be eaten, the real need not satisfied. This mode of consumerism is actually making the consumer more stressed out and unhappy, through different processes and phenomena.

For instance the phenomenon of ‘Consumer Hyperchoice’; the cycle of consumption and desire combined with the extensive array of consumables on display for the consumer are actually making the consumer more stressed and unhappy, as has been shown by recent empirical data. The mechanism at work in this phenomenon is one that brings much psychological turmoil to the consumer, where the overwhelming number of options to choose from in order to satisfy a need or desire is so great that the actor just casually trying to better their own life feels paralyzed by all the choice and often led to deep feelings of regret after purchase, because they never know if one of the many other options would have satisfied them better (Cherrier & Munoz, 2007, p. 4). This is one of the mechanisms in Consumptia that actually go against the promise of the attainment of happiness for the consumer, as often a limited choice brings more peace of mind. Or think about the phenomenon of ‘Retail Therapy'; the prescribed act of shopping as a cure for our inner turmoil and malaise. It has been proven time and time again that since becoming more affluent humanity did not become happier, to the contrary: there are higher general levels of depression, dissatisfaction and uncertainty. General human fears and anxieties are being cultivated and exploited by the industries, especially the highly psychologized advertisement industry working as a propaganda machine for the producers of consumables (Garvey, 2016, p. 171).

1.3.3 Concluding Consumptia Hedonistica

Consumerism does not deliver on its promise of the ideal of happiness. Instead it makes use of the cyclical nature of human desire, to introduce consumables on the market over and over again. Need creation seemingly brings need satisfaction, but this satisfaction does not bring about real happiness (Cherrier & Munoz, 2007, p. 3). Another essential element of human being is exploited: the fundamental need for individual identity formation, a process which is promised to be found through consumption. This self-expression is provided on a mass scale, preventing the possibilities for actual individual identity expression and formation. ~ 22 ~

Chapter 1 - We’re All Living in Consumptia Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé

The political and social context is also structured in such a way that great injustices and inequalities are a necessary result of the lifestyle adopted by a small minority of the world’s population. Carrying the burden of our excessive amounts of consumption due to the way we are dictated to follow our every desire, are the already disenfranchised workers in third world countries, all animals living extremely endangered lives, the future generations of humans of this planet and the currently living who have to face the dire effects of catastrophic climate change. How do we deploy philosophy in order to illuminate the exact problematic mechanisms in place shaping our desire and exploiting our basic instinctive human quest for happiness? How can we then, through forming a strong critique challenge the deeply engrained consumerist beliefs and replace them with different ones? In short: how can we help to liberate the consumer from their insatiable desire for consumables as means to achieve happiness.

The question remains as to how we as human beings in these complex consumer societies that burden us with the Consumer Complex can achieve happiness, and is this even an option or possibility? In order to find a critical conception of happiness I will in my next chapter discuss a piece of writing written by critical theorist Herbert Marcuse, on hedonism, happiness, freedom and the realization of potentialities. I will also delve out the possible tactics for liberation proposed by Marcuse, as that might be the only route to real happiness.

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Chapter 2 - Let’s get Critical (Theory)! Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé

2. Let’s get Critical (Theory)!23

Figure 2 two physical animals and Marcuse getting Critical

Introduction

As I have explained in the previous chapter, we can see that the consumer as the inhabitant of Consumptia is running along a hedonic treadmill, surrendered to the cycle of continuous consumption of consumables. With the future of the planet and humanity in mind we must consider ways to limit this consumption and seek chances for liberation from this oppressive system. Herbert Marcuse employed Critical Theory in the tradition of the Frankfurt School. Highly inspired by Karl Marx and Martin Heidegger, Marcuse mainly focused his intellectual and activist work on the liberation and emancipation of the administered individuals, liberation from themselves as well as their masters (Alway, 1995, pp. 71, 75). Marcuse has been characterized and is most well known as the spiritual father of the New Left, with his hopeful thought being at the base of many revolutionary movements in the sixties, mainly in the category of utopianism. The specific kind of sixties utopianism influenced by but also influencing Marcuse called for a total transformation of society which was not only political, but necessarily simultaneously in the realm of the psychic, the social and the cultural, where the hope for revolutionary change is located in the transformation of individual consciousness (DeKoven, 2003, pp. 263, 267). His search for new subjectivities has been prevalent throughout his whole body of work. Marcuse’s highly inspired theoretical work has often been overlooked because of his public presence and I believe his thought should be

23 This title is a reference to the 1981 hit-song “Physical” by Olivia Newton John. Even though there is a fair amount of body-shaming in the video, the catchiness of the song and the theme of transformation make me feel like it should be rewritten for emancipatory purposes and we should all be singing ‘let’s get critical’ together. ~ 24 ~

Chapter 2 - Let’s get Critical (Theory)! Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé revitalized in academia as it can serve us with the necessary critical insights needed for the transformation of Consumptia and the consumer living within it.

Who the (...) is Marcuse?

I will present here a short overview of Marcuse’s life and work, as found in The Legacy of Marcuse: A critical reader (2003), by John Abromeit and W. Mark Cobb. Herbert Marcuse’s intellectual work has been vastly overshadowed by his presence as a public intellectual, as most people think of the radical protest era and the left-wing political hopefulness of the 1960s when Marcuse is mentioned (Abromeit & Cobb, 2004, p. 1). I believe it is very admirable and inspiring that Marcuse managed to combine his academic work with the level of activism he practiced, but the members of the youth cultures in which Marcuse was involved lacked the necessary philosophical background to understand precisely what Marcuse was arguing. This lacking has led to a simplification and misunderstanding of Marcuse’s real critical theory (p. 2). Abromeit and Cobb argue that the New Left movement was more guided by emotional sentiments than by a sufficient level of “self-concious theoretical understanding”, especially as most of Marcuse’s work is complex and dense (p. 3). In the 1920s at age 24, Marcuse wrote an extensive work on the German artist-novel genre, in which he analyzed the themes of overcoming alienation in industrialized society taking from theories of Hegel and Lucács. In this work Marcuse laid the foundation for his later body of work, placing upmost importance on “the aesthetic dimension as a source of transcendent social critique, or the search for new radical subjectivities in marginalized groups” (p. 7). Five years later when Martin Heidegger published Being and Time, Marcuse seized the opportunity to study together with Heidegger as he was highly inspired by this work. Marcuse was mostly influenced and inspired by the idea of the conceptualization of the Dasein, the centralized position of the individual and the importance of the awareness of the historical possibilities in order to overcome alienation (p. 7). Marcuse wanted to reconcile the Heideggerian theory of the formation of subjectivities with Hegelian concepts of historicity and self-reflexivity, to put Marxism back on the right track (p. 8). Heidegger’s sympathy and hope for the National Socialist party led Marcuse to part ways with Heidegger, both theoretically and personally (p. 8).24

24 I personally never got into Heidegger for this reason.. ~ 25 ~

Chapter 2 - Let’s get Critical (Theory)! Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé

In the 1930s Marcuse started working together with Horkheimer, taking the role of the house philosopher of the Frankfurt School, writing articles for the journal Zeitschrift für Sozialforschung, it is in this period that he wrote ‘On Hedonism’ of which I will present a close reading. In these articles Marcuse analyzed and identified the ambivalences concerning bourgeois reason and rationality, for bringing about positive change while also continuing capitalist oppression and a stratified society. When the journal had to be discontinued due to financial troubles and Horkheimer wanted to work together with Adorno on the Dialectic of Enlightenment, Marcuse decided to fight fascism in a more practical way and started working for the intelligence branch of the US government (p. 9). In 1955 Marcuse published Eros and Civilization, a work in which Marcuse got into Freud and through which he tried to understand how the atrocities of the second World War could have happened in ‘western civilized society’ (p. 10). Marcuse did no longer regard reason as an ability to identify the potentialities of liberation or the historical possibilities, but as a tool for domination and this led him to look for a qualitatively different concept of reason, which he termed ‘erotic rationality’ found in the instinctual structure of humans (p. 10). Marcuse found that the alienated labor got replaced with new forms of non-repressive sublimation through the “capitalist development of the means of production combined with the advancement of technology” (p.10). In this work he also critiqued Freudian concepts25 that perpetuated and normalized the patriarchy and heteronormativity, critiques that still are relevant and important today, especially in feminist and queer theory (p.10).

At age 66, Marcuse published his most widely known work: One-Dimensional Man (1964), a provocative work on the conditions of highly administered advanced capitalist consumer societies which “catapulted him from the relative obscurity of scholarly life to the forefront of the burgeoining protest movements of the 1960s” (p. 11). In One-Dimensional Man Marcuse argued that society created false needs while at the same time hindering the capacity for critical thought and resistance to these forms of oppression (p. 11). Pessimism was prevalent in this work, but Marcuse seemed hopeful still that historical memory could serve as a force that could subvert the “compulsory amnesia of technological reason” and could lead to the ‘Great Refusal’ 26 (p.12). Marcuse concluded however that the revolutionary class consciousness that was to be found in the working class in Marxist theory was prevented by the integration of the working class by consumerism and the culture industry, thus should be

25 Freud’s theory on phytogenetic and ontogenetic development (Abromeit & Cobb p. 10). 26 More on the Great Refusal at the end of this chapter. ~ 26 ~

Chapter 2 - Let’s get Critical (Theory)! Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé located in other social groups: “those outside of the system and radical students” (p. 12). In ‘An essay on Liberation’ (1969) Marcuse presented his most optimistic and utopian thoughts, presenting the ideal of a socialism that is “rooted in the instinctual structure of men and women whose needs and sensibilities demand a break with the status quo” (p. 13). I will get back to discussing these concepts later in this chapter, after my discussion of Marcuses conception of the function and limits of hedonism.

In this thesis, the time has arrived to get critical, to think about how to transform the individual consciousness of the consumer of Consumptia in order to bring about the radical changes that our world so desperately needs right now. In the first two sections of this chapter I will discuss Marcuse’s 1938 essay ‘On Hedonism’ as found in Negations (2009), which will provide insights into Marcuse’s thoughts regarding hedonism and the achievement of happiness. In the last section of this chapter I will discuss concepts developed in Marcuse’s later works that actually align with concepts found in the hedonist school of Epicureanism, which is initially dismissed by Marcuse. In this way I will have placed all the foundations for my discussion of the liberatory force that we can find in Epicureanism, a form of hedonism that through critical self-reflection will provide a system of hedonist thinking capable of freeing the consumer from the clenching grip of Consumptia Hedonistica.

2.1 On Hedonism

2.1.1 Why study hedonism in critical theory?

As we have learned through the previous chapter of this thesis, hedonism is an important element of Consumptia, especially the way in which the human sentiment of desire is utilized by the capitalist forces to manipulate the consuming mass into spending their hard-earned money in order to attain certain consumables which will in the end not bring them the happiness they are looking for. Hedonism is colloquially understood to be a school of thought mainly occupied by valuing the experience of pleasure as the most important element of human life, as well as an essential element in arriving at happiness (Feldman, 2002, p. 606). But hedonism has different forms and our star Marcuse himself has written an essay on hedonism, titled ‘On Hedonism’ in Negations, in which he tries to define the concepts of freedom and happiness, their relationship and their historical context. Furthermore he tries to find a definition for reasonable needs and wants (Stohs, 1976, p. 329).

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Chapter 2 - Let’s get Critical (Theory)! Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé

For Marcuse it was essential to study hedonism in critical theory as:

“In the principle of hedonism, the demand for the freedom of the individual is extended into the realm of the material conditions of life. Insofar as the materialistic protest of hedonism preserves an otherwise proscribed element of human liberation, it is linked with the interest of critical theory.” (Marcuse, 1968, p. 121)

It seems that Marcuse sees some liberatory possibility in the deployment of hedonism, as a certain form of hedonism applies the demand for freedom to the material conditions of life, thus challenges the unequal organization of society. In the next section I will give an account of Marcuse’s 1938 essay on hedonism and his discussion of hedonism, its function and effect within advanced capitalist society, through discussing the themes of subjectivity, freedom, reason and happiness. The concept and definition of happiness has been discussed in philosophy throughout the whole history of human thought. Many people wonder how they can live a happy life, and many different theories, ideas and solutions are provided, not only in philosophy. Consumptia provides an easy to follow road to happiness: consume and be happy. As I have concluded in the previous chapter this road is paved with deception and lies – consumerism does not deliver on its promise of the attainment of happiness through partaking in this system. To the contrary: the system of consumerism is creating inner turmoil, rather than solving it. I with Marcuse have a feeling that there is more to life than consumerism, and will now investigate the complications surrounding the conceptualization of happiness within Consumptia.

2.1.2 Universality of reason versus happiness

Marcuse starts On Hedonism with a strong critique of liberalism, especially Kantian rooted liberalism. He advances his critique with a description and rejection of the centrality of the universality of reason within the idealist philosophy of the bourgeois era. Through this idealist philosophy the individual becomes an ego isolated from and against others in their manifold of drives, thoughts and interests, a process he terms as ‘isolating individuation’. Concrete individuality is reduced to the subject of mere thought: “the rational ego”. The individual is not able to partake in the system of society with their empirical manifold of needs, wants and capacities leading to a sacrifice of the individual for the universal conception of reason. This process is also to be identified within Consumptia, as I have argued before: mass produced consumables are provided for the consumer, not tending to

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Chapter 2 - Let’s get Critical (Theory)! Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé their specific needs and wants, but artificially creating a desire to obtain the consumables after their production (Bauman, 2007, p. 38). Against this background of the universality of reason, it is almost impossible for the individual to achieve gratification of their own unique wants and capacities. Accordingly, their possibility for happiness is not regarded as a theme of great importance or value, as it is so subjective that it is not understandable in terms of the universalized conception of reason. A subjective and varying feeling experienced by the individual cannot be a foundation for an objectively universal law (Marcuse, 1968, p. 119).

So because it is impractical for the ruling order which ascribes great value to the practicalities of a notion of universality, it is impossible for the individual to attain true happiness within a society ruled by these ideals. Marcuse then quotes Hegel as having distinguished that throughout the history of humans, reason has progressed itself against the interests of humans seeking happiness, as the individual with their subjective wants and needs has to be sacrificed for the sake of progress (p. 120). Hegel also critiques the eudaemonistic27 principle in which the highest good is placed in happiness and pleasure, not stating that it is false in itself, but precisely because within eudaemonistic thought the value is placed in the subjective experience of pleasure and happiness, while the individual is at the same time expected to accept and conform to the norms of society. This acceptance prevents the development and betterment of human reason according to Hegel, and this critique leads Marcuse to argue that human happiness should go beyond mere subjective gratification of particular interests (p. 120). We need an objective account or definition of happiness that respects both the individual and their autonomy of reason, we should no longer let capitalist society provide this definition.

2.1.3 Cyrenaic hedonism, the more the happier

Marcuse then goes on to discuss Cyrenaic hedonism, a school of thought in which the fulfillment of specific wants and instincts of the individual are associated with the feeling of pleasure. Experiencing feelings of pleasure as often as possible will, according to followers of this school, lead to the attainment of happiness. Happiness is the result of the particular pleasures, they are centralized and inherently valuable, they are desirable for their own sake. Happiness itself is not desirable for its own sake, only for the sake of particular pleasures. The individual wants and desires are determined by social customs and social convention and

27 Eudaemonism is a school of ethical hedonistic thought which places the highest moral value in the individual attainment of personal well-being, pleasure and subsequently happiness. ~ 29 ~

Chapter 2 - Let’s get Critical (Theory)! Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé there seems to be no hierarchic differentiation between certain pleasures or the origin of the desire (Marcuse, 1968, p. 121). The only differentiation is that “bodily pleasures are far better than mental pleasures, and bodily pains far worse than mental pains”, a differentiation interpreted by Marcuse as a materialist critique against internalization. But according to Marcuse, this form of hedonism does not differentiate between individuals and their pleasures, meaning that the world should be enjoyed as it is, and because it accords itself with the circumstances located in the structure of antagonistic society itself this leads to a necessary acceptance of the world and everything in it as it appears, hindering radical transformation and revolutionary thought (p. 122). When discussing hedonism in the real world, most people relate the concept of hedonism to the Cyrenaic form, as this is the one most widely used and put to practice (Stohs, 1976, p. 330). The Cyrenaic model of hedonism is ruling Consumptia Hedonistica, this is how the revolutionary thought and struggle against the oppressive workings of the ideology of consumerism is hindered. The focus on the bodily pleasures creates a higher valuation of the external material objects, on the attainment and accumulation of consumables, and thus hinders the necessary personal introspection to arrive at a place where we can ponder on our potentialities. Think of this model as a translucent blueprint that falls over whichever society needs it to keep the subjects docile, think of this model as the model of hedonism that is destructive and exploitative. The model of hedonism that has been contested and should most certainly be contested today.

2.1.4 Happiness in social relations

If the possible achievement of happiness is prevented by the Cyrenaic model of hedonism, could we maybe find the conditions for happiness (as they are so highly subjective in reality) in interpersonal relationships, through which we seem to be able to reflect on our deepest passions and desires? Finding the true interests of individuals through social relations is a complicated task within antagonistic society, because personal relationships that transcend immediate encounter are merely expressed and determined by the economic law of value and are not relations of happiness. Marcuse stresses that this is most certainly true for contractual relationships within the labor process, in which the most important achievable goal is the profit on capital and the production of consumables, rather than the individual wants, needs and interests of the persons involved (Marcuse, 1968, p. 123). This form of advanced industrial consumer capitalist society thus actively, through labor regulation, consumer manipulation, administration, negligence for individuality etc., prevents the development and

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Chapter 2 - Let’s get Critical (Theory)! Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé discovery of the individual potentialities of its subjects, preventing in turn the possibility to realize potentialities in order to attain happiness.

But can happiness be achieved through interpersonal relations when they are not defined through contract? Marcuse does recognize that there are types of relationships prescribed by society through which the realization of the personality is achievable because the individuals are in a personal relationship to each other. Marcuse brings forth several examples of the personal relations to which Western culture has relegated the highest earthly happiness: relations of love, friendship and companionship. These types of relationships however, according to Marcuse, cannot guarantee a good foundation for the formation of a strong community amongst individuals, as there is a lack of ‘comprehending understanding of the other’ (Marcuse, 1968, p. 123). Because certain subjective properties of a person’s essential being are transfigured by culture into ‘ugliness’ 28 , they are not included in the image presented to the other and the feelings29 that should be in reaction to these properties in order to resolve them and bring comfort are also oppressed, an oppression actually leading to unhappiness within personal relations (p. 124). The other should show their essence, as they really are, all ugliness included. The ‘ugly’ parts should not be seen as something to be overcome but should simply be recognized as an effect of the invasion of the social necessities into the personal sphere, necessities that constitute the individual instincts, wants and interests of the person in society. The development of personality which is necessary in order to learn about the individual needs and wants in order to realize individual potentialities and achieve happiness is seems to be almost impossible within the social relations in Consumptia. As the essential element of Marcuse’s ideas on happiness seem to be the discovery of the true interests of individuals and the realization of the potentialities of what they could be, maybe the road to happiness lies in the attainment of knowledge about the self and the context of the self.

2.1.5 Knowledge and happiness

Gaining knowledge about the society and the structures of the reality in which we live is certainly a part of personal development, but not a way to arrive at happiness, so argues Marcuse. Within a capitalist consumer society, if the person attaining the knowledge would

28 “Ugliness, injustice, inconstancy, decay and epheremality” (Marcuse, 1968, p. 123) 29 “Feelings of disappointment, concern, sympathy, anxiety, indfidelity, jealousy and sorrow” (Marcuse, 1968, p. 124) ~ 31 ~

Chapter 2 - Let’s get Critical (Theory)! Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé really act on it, they would either be led to struggle against the status quo or to acceptance, both options provide little room for attaining happiness according to Marcuse (Marcuse, 1968, p. 124). It is however important to attain the knowledge, because otherwise the individual will have to revert to reified existence, which is a form of strongly alienated commodified existence within social relations in consumer capitalist society. Reification is a process through which elements of life that are in the power of the individual are considered to be brought about by supernatural powers outside of the power of the individual, hindering the possibility for revolutionary consciousness to arise. For instance how the consumer in Consumptia believes that the free market is a sort of deity creating all conditions and working in favor of the consumer, while in truth the system of consumerism with the built-in dependency on the external objects - the consumables is destroying many lives as well as nature. Marcuse describes this as being an “inescapable dilemma”, as knowing the truth cannot be aligned with a form of enjoyment, and the essential relations of individuals do not lead to happiness. Marcuse goes on to argue that hedonism is useless as ideology, as it does not try to hide any kind of sacrifice of the individual, to the contrary: through hedonism the individual and their pleasure is valued greatly. Happiness is advocated equally for all individuals, which is still better than the ideal of universal reason promoted by the philosophy of reason in which individual pleasure and happiness is sacrificed. At least through hedonism there is a possibility for some kind of general happiness, as this does not exist without particular happiness (p. 124). It should however be mentioned that in the reigning Cyrenaic form, hedonism places particular value on the relation between the individual and the external material objects - the consumables, leading to the search of individual happiness in the external material realm, while the search for potentialities prescribed by Marcuse is an inward and individual quest.

Marcuse does argue that we could find in hedonism an antidote to Kantian philosophy of reason, as they are on opposite poles. Hedonism is focused on the individual and the fulfillment and unfolding of individual wants and needs, emancipation and “liberation of the world for the purposes of enjoyment” (Marcuse, 1968, p. 125). Because the idea of reason valuing the universality of interests, a cancellation of the particular interests of ‘empirical’ individuals is needed, this is how alienation comes about. It could be that by coincidence the particular and general interests seem to be aligned, but in this case Marcuse argues strongly that the individual is under an illusion. This illusion is again created by the power of reason and its need for universality (p. 125). Hedonism is however not the road to liberation

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Chapter 2 - Let’s get Critical (Theory)! Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé according to Marcuse, because happiness is valued as something exclusively subjective, which again leads to isolation within society, preventing the creation of a wholesome community. This isolation happens through a lack of understanding of the historical forces that helped shape the society, a lack of historical consciousness, and because of this the particular interest, or better said: the particular desire of the consumer created by the manipulation of the capitalists in order to serve their particular interests, is valued over the interest of the community. Marcuse argues convincingly that the attachment of hedonism to the individualism of competition is precisely the limit of hedonism, as in the Cyrenaic model the interest of the individual is “affirmed as a true interest and justified against every and all community” (p. 125). In Consumptia Hedonistica we can see that at all costs the fulfillment of the desire to consume of every individual consumer is valued above the protection of our world community and ecology. But Marcuse’s rejection of hedonism is most importantly still based on the lack of distinction between true and false wants and interests and enjoyment in the Cyrenaic model, resulting in the negation of the possibility for alienated needs and desires and consequently a necessary resignation with the status quo. The combination of the subjectivity of hedonistic thought, the lack of distinction between desires and the focus on the competition between individuals and the gratification of their false needs makes hedonism inapplicable for making a conception of general happiness according to Marcuse (p. 126).

2.1.6 Epicureanism through Marcuse’s eyes

The solution for the lacking of Cyrenaic hedonism has been introduced by Epicurus, as he devised the differentiation between true and false needs and enjoyment. Epicureanism is a school of hedonist thought in which the gratification of the wants given by social norms is overshadowed by the importance of avoiding the pains that are brought on by the process of gratifying these desires. This brings a ground on which we can differentiate between certain desires and pleasures. It is also, according to Marcuse, an attempt to reconcile reason and hedonism, as the subject is expected to use reason to reflect on their desires (Marcuse, 1968, p. 126). Through making use of reason people can then experience moderate enjoyment with reduced risks, offering the prospect of perfectly balanced mental health. Marcuse, however, characterizes this type of hedonism as negative, as it centralizes around the avoidance of pain and the fear of experiencing pain. Marcuse mostly critiques the Epicurean style of hedonism because of the ideal of ‘the satisfied sage’ who will distance themselves from the political struggle of society to remain peaceful on the inside:

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Chapter 2 - Let’s get Critical (Theory)! Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé

”It appears only as subjective cunning and private expertise, calmly acquiescing in the persistence of general unreason and enjoying not so much what is allotted or occurs to it as itself.” (Marcuse, 1968, p. 127)

In the next chapter I will counter this argument and show how a reinterpretation of Epicureanism is actually very much aligned with the thoughts of the Frankfurt School and the later Marcuse himself, and how a new form of hedonism can help transform Consumptia, through transforming it’s subjects and their desires, into a new more utopian form of society, one Marcuse could only have dreamt of.

2.1.7 Table of Hedonisms

In this table I clarify the position of Marcuse on the two types of hedonism he distinguishes. At the end of this thesis I will present a table of hedonisms with an addition of my third-way hedonism that combines Marcuse’s thought with Epicureanism and the more contemporary thoughts of Kate Soper.

Hedonism Cyrenaic Epicurean Highest good Pleasure Pleasure Living a life of maximized peaks Living a life of moderate Objective of enjoyment. enjoyment. Maximizing the particular Minimizing mental or bodily bodily pleasures of the pains and fears through individual, resulting in a distinguishing between true and limitless accumulation of Method false desires by reflecting with consumable objects. Making no reason on the origin of the qualitative distinction between desires and the effect of their sorts of gratification or potential gratification. manipulation. Opposing Universality Through focus on particular Using reason to find ‘true’ of Reason pleasures of the individual. pleasure for the individual. Relation to the status Renunciation Refusal quo Relation to the external More is the best Asceticism objects No room for revolutionary The ‘satisfied sage’ will not struggle or consciousness of the struggle against status quo and Fault according to historical conditions that shaped will privately grow and Marcuse society. No possibility for real transform without transforming happiness. society, while being happy.

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Chapter 2 - Let’s get Critical (Theory)! Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé

2.1.8 Conclusion

Within Consumptia, pleasure is limited to the sphere of consumption. Where before pleasure was to be found in the performance of labor, as we have learned through discussing Bauman, the transformation from the society of production with its work ethics into a society in which the aesthetics of consumption are centralized, also the attainment of pleasure shifts from the realm of labor to the sphere of consumption (Marcuse, 1968, p. 129). Marcuse notes that there is no rational relation between production and consumption, no unity between the process of production and the consumption of the goods. The subjects within consumer society are alienated from the production process, while at the same time conditioned to uphold a Cyrenaic version of hedonism as the guide in finding happiness in the sphere of consumption, never being able to step out of the hedonic treadmill of Consumptia. We have to keep in mind that this work was written in times where Consumptia was still regular Consumptia, the subjects were still primarily producers, the work ethic was reigning, to keep within Bauman’s terminology. In Marcuse’s later work, which I will be discussing at the end of this chapter, the context is different: Consumptia has transformed into Consumptia Hedonistica, Marcuse had learned through his extensive scholarly work about one- dimensionality and the struggle for freedom through our relation to material objects appeared to be impossible, to the contrary: the ideology of Cyrenaic hedonism has now been implemented in consumer capitalism, installing false desires onto its subjects again and again. Marcuse’s initial rejection of Epicurean hedonism was based on his image of the satisfied sage, who would not revolt against the dominant powers, and who would completely asceticize in order to arrive at happiness. In the last chapter of this thesis I will strongly argue against this interpretation, as Epicureanism entails much more effective theory and practice rather than a meagre ascetic hedonism. I will propose a “third-way” hedonism, a reasonable hedonism, in which the deployment of the universality of reason can be used to help realize potentialities and have people live more free and happy lives that will not hurt others and the environment.

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Chapter 2 - Let’s get Critical (Theory)! Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé

2.2 Freedom is happiness

2.2.1 Introduction

As I have already mentioned in the previous section of this chapter, Marcuse’s view on happiness is closely connected to the freedom to discover individual potentialities and the supplementary freedom to be able to realize those individualized potentialities. In other words: to follow with passion that what we do well and that what we want to do. In this section I will continue and conclude my discussion and interpretation of Marcuse’s On Hedonism text, first discussing the role of the potentialities, second discussing the role of enjoyment and in the last section I will discuss the relation between freedom, happiness and knowledge.

2.2.2 Potentialities

For Marcuse one of the most important elements through which the individual can live a happy life is through identifying and realizing their potentialities, meaning a discovery of what they want to be, what they can grow to be, how to live up to their potential: a discovery of what really lights their fire. Marcuse argues that within traditional Aristotelian and Platonic ethics responsibility for the achievement of human potentialities was found both in the society and the individual, but that since the Reformation the responsibility for society to help the individual achieve their human potentialities has diminished, as the focus on the individual responsibility for their own achievements has grown and the potentialities are mainly to be found in the subject’s personal autonomy. Marcuse describes this structure as unconditioned freedom, the abstract conceptualization of freedom that entails radical responsibility for the subject to either succeed or fail, and is tightly linked with the freedom in the neoliberal form of hedonistic consumerism we see in Consumptia. When this (neo)liberal form of freedom is put into the context of Consumptia today, it coexists with unfreedom and unhappiness, thus is programmatically separated from happiness and is not real freedom. The separation of freedom and happiness leads to the degradation of happiness into the realm of the irrational, mere bodily gratifications and enjoyments, and thereby into inferiority (Marcuse, 1968, p. 134). The placement of happiness into this realm, I think, also has led to the adoption of the aesthetics of consumption that Bauman has described.

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Chapter 2 - Let’s get Critical (Theory)! Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé

Marcuse states that real freedom and real happiness are ultimately conceptually identical, as the fulfillment of all potentialities presupposes freedom. And happiness can only be found through the fulfillment of human potentialities. However, because of the internalization of the abstract unconditioned freedom that accompanies social unfreedom, and because of the exclusion of happiness in this whole equation, the subjects within this society are “not easily induced, even under extreme wretchedness and injustice, to struggle against the established order” in order to attain the freedom they need to attain happiness (Marcuse, 1968, p. 135). This point by Marcuse rings true to our current organization of society and the world order, as through the global power structures of consumer capitalism which entail a fair share of all “wretchedness and injustices” through the exploitation of our natural resources and of course the exploitation of human laborers. Even though many of the consumers today are seemingly to an extent aware of these facts, or at least somehow know about the injustices, they are en masse failing to struggle against this, as they have internalized the universal aesthetic commands of consumer society.

2.2.3 Enjoyment

The internalization of the commands of the ruling society often goes hand in hand with gratifying the need for enjoyment in the aesthetic realm. Let me start this topic with Marcuse’s own words:

“In a social organization that opposes atomized individuals to one another in classes and leaves their particular freedom to the mechanism of an uncontrolled economic system, unfreedom is already operative in the needs and wants themselves: how much more so in enjoyment.” (Marcuse, 1968, p. 136)

Marcuse argues that through the increase of consumer capitalism, new possibilities for enjoyment have arisen, but the lower class will still through their class placement and their individual disciplining not be capable of these enjoyments.30 Enjoyment has a class character, that what can be afforded is enjoyed together. The rich go to the opera together, the poor go

30 I would like to add to this that since 1938 we have seen (as I have shown in chapter 1 also) the rise of mass- production leading to mass-consumption, even among the lower classes. As nowadays third-world labor is exploited to produce throw away stuff for the lower classes in the west to enjoy, we can ask ourselves if this specific part of Marcuse’s analysis is still correct. If we take a global view and regard the workers of the neocolonies as the “new proletariat” while we could regard the western lower to middle class to be relatively bourgeois, this could still be relevant. ~ 37 ~

Chapter 2 - Let’s get Critical (Theory)! Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé to see a soccer match, or consume popular entertainment for their gratification of their need for enjoyment. Within Consumptia we see various forms of popular entertainment fulfilling these strata of gratification and seemingly bringing about a level of enjoyment, very much similar to the use of the Roman gladiator games (Marcuse, 1968, p. 138). 31 We see for instance in popular television today a multitude of all kinds of different competitions, with winners and losers, reproducing the essentially capitalist ideology of competition as a central aspect of life, while at the same time bringing entertainment to the masses and satisfy their need for enjoyment (pp. 136 -137). The consumer is mostly unaware of the great number of advertisements that are secretly smeared in between this enjoyable sandwich of entertainment. These advertisements are an aestheticized tool for deceiving the masses and installing into them the false desires on which Consumptia thrives.

2.2.4 Freedom and Happiness and knowledge

In order to consume, one must work. Marcuse argues, completely in line with Bauman’s analysis I have presented in chapter 1, that work is not meant to be enjoyed in itself, but only to be used as a means to gain monetary rewards and through the monetary rewards be able to consume (1968, p. 141). A diversion or repression of the instincts and wants that could hinder the organization of the social order is realized through the creation of false forms of satisfaction. These false forms of satisfaction of those wants and instincts make the subject unhappy, especially as the level of development in society would easily allow the true gratification of the needs. It seems however according to Marcuse that the individuals who have been raised to live within Consumptia cannot be judges of their own happiness. Through the labor process in antagonistic society, the subjects are systematically prevented to discover their own true interests or potentialities. Through the upholding of the universal as the highest good, the subject within Consumptia has mainly been taught that their interest is going along with the given order of society. It is the conformity of the consumer, their accepting of this interest as their own, preventing revolutionary change and reproducing the power structures of Consumptia Hedonistica (p. 143).

31 Marcuse additionally argues that through limiting the development of the sensuousness of the lower strata through the detrimental workings of the labor process - this is also happening still in the third world countries, where through the holding back of the availability of education for laborers, but also by their total suppression and physical abuse and erosion of the body will prevent them from being able to experience sensuality – happiness through experiences of enjoyment is already limited as such (Marcuse, 1968, p. 138). ~ 38 ~

Chapter 2 - Let’s get Critical (Theory)! Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé

Marcuse argues that the true interest of all people is freedom, freedom is the only state in which it is possible to realize the potentialities (1968, p. 144).32 The true collective interest of freedom must be preserved and recognized, if the majority of individuals reject certain wants or pleasures as bad, this would be founded on the recognition of this true interest of the preservation of general freedom. General freedom will then bring a truth to which the individual can relate their happiness as being both general and particular, so overcoming the isolating individuation brought about by the ideal of universal reason (p. 145).

“The individual can relate to others as equals and to the world as their world, no longer alienated from them. Mutual understanding will no longer be permeated by unhappiness, since insight and passion will no longer come into conflict with a reified form of human relationship.” (p. 145)

To achieve a sense of general happiness, the individuals in society must have knowledge of their true interests, a connection that has been obscured by the structuring of antagonistic society, so argues Marcuse (1968, p. 145). The drive or passion for the quest into this knowledge is, according to Hegel, to be found in the particular interest of the individual. This is where hedonism has a role to play, even though Marcuse is skeptical about the functionality of hedonism. Marcuse argues then that a reconstruction of the production process is the necessary precondition for the liberation of the general reason that cunningly determines the particular interests of the consumer (p. 146). Marcuse envisions a society in which general concern for the individual potentialities of the subjects is made a priority, meaning that a general happiness is possible to achieve when the needs and wants of the individuals are liberated as they are aligned with the free realization of the potentialities (p. 147). In order to achieve this level of freedom, thus happiness, knowledge is needed. Although Marcuse has argued earlier on that knowledge will not bring happiness in itself, he seems to argue that a correct knowledge is required for the attainable form of happiness (p. 147). The particular interest 33 that will liberate society when generalized “requires its ideology as a veil over the structure of truth in order to justify itself as a general interest”, a

32 Marcuse notes that the belief that the individual freedom and the general freedom cannot coincide is founded in the belief that man is in a struggle with nature. He proposes that in order to liberate the masses we need to devise a new economic reality, the Marxist approach of giving back the means of production to the community, shorter work days and an increase of active participation in the administration of society by the subjects themselves. He argues that through this approach the individual subjects will be liberated and be able to finally identify their true interests (Marcuse, 1968, p. 144). 33 This is the particular interest of “the social strata whose liberation leads not to the domination of particular interests over the community, but to the general liberation of society ~ 39 ~

Chapter 2 - Let’s get Critical (Theory)! Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé statement which seems to be leading towards the idea that we need a kind of larger ideological tool in order to bring about the liberation of the consumer and society, to install onto them the right kind of particular interest, with the corresponding right desires (p. 147). Marcuse then argues that knowledge will no longer be disturbing pleasure, when the society has been transformed, as then knowledge of the conditions of society will not bring about feelings of despair and injustice, but will be filled with happiness as in this utopian dream all are able to discover and realize their potentialities (p. 148). This guiltless knowledge will allow the opening of the most personal relationship to happiness, making possible the “free community in life of which idealist morality had expected the highest unfolding of individuality” (p. 149). Pleasure will no longer be disturbed by knowledge; Marcuse even carefully tries to imagine that knowledge could become pleasure.

2.2.5 Conclusion

According to Marcuse, we can find the possibility for happiness in the identification and realization of the individual potentialities, which will create particular wants and needs that will lead to happiness when fulfilled. The experience of enjoyment under this organization of society does not bring about happiness, as the subjects of the society are still unfree and the means of gratifying their need for enjoyment is mostly being used to manipulate them. In order to come to a point in society where the process of finding and realizing potentialities is natural, real freedom must be prioritized. It seems that real happiness is difficult to attain under advanced capitalist administered societies such as Consumptia. Marcuse is an idealist utopian at heart, but does he offer any pragmatic solutions to the complex problems he elucidates? How then can we really liberate the mass of consumers from the grip of hedonistic consumerism and the installed false desires that fuel their patterns of consumption?

2.3 One-dimensionality, alienation and liberation

2.3.1 Introduction

After this discussion of Marcuse’s classic text on hedonism, through which it has become apparent that the attainment of freedom is one of the most important concepts and aims of Marcuse’s great body of work also of ‘marcuse’s hedonism’, I will now discuss the concepts and methods introduced by Marcuse throughout his later career. Through discussing these

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Chapter 2 - Let’s get Critical (Theory)! Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé

Marcusian concepts I will propose ways in which the oppressed in Consumptia, the consumer, could possibly liberate themselves from the system of consumerism and find true happiness. I will first discuss some basic Marcusian concepts. Then I will go into discussing the road to liberation as proposed by Marcuse, taking from an interpretation by Joan Alway. I will lastly show how Marcuse’s later work is in some ways conflicting with, but mostly an enrichment of the theory presented in On Hedonism.

2.3.2 One-Dimensional Consciousness

Marcuse advocated, even more than his colleagues of the Frankfurt School, for a total psychic-social-political-cultural transformation of society. The total transformation is necessary as the slight non-complete cultural transformations will be immediately absorbed and coopted by One-Dimensional society, cancelling the dialectic that could lead to liberation (DeKoven, 2003, p. 264). Marcuse argues that within the totality of society there is a possibility for either domination or revolution, as within one-dimensional society the oppositional cultural forces are quickly dissolved and incorporated into the established order, a process termed 'Repressive Desublimation'. We could for instance nowadays in Consumptia see a way in which feminism is co-opted by mass-producing industries, first serving as a counter-cultural and progressive movement which actually liberated a lot of women, but now also being used as a tool by company owners who exploit millions of women themselves, while at the same time bringing comfort to the masses.34 One of the outcomes of the comfort caused by repressive desublimation is described by Marcuse as the 'Happy Consciousness',35 an inauthentic thus alienated form of consciousness that brings about an illusory form of happiness for the subject in society, making them content with their life, but mainly with their context – the socio-economic conditions (2003, p. 265). From this place of happy consciousness, the consumer is manipulated into being dissatisfied with their material conditions, and magically the solution arises in the shape of conveniently offered consumables. Through oppressive mechanisms, like public space advertising, mass-media (hidden under the guise of ‘popular enjoyment’) the society installs onto its subjects the false

34 This kind of co-optation of identity politics and social movements is something that the industries have been doing for a long time, but now has found heightened frequency in the context of neoliberalism, as “liberal” culture demands these kinds of standpoints, but only superficially as the masses have not gained critical capacity to look further than the façade brought forward by the industry. 35 The Happy Consciousness is liberated from any kind of guilt, and especially for Marcuse it is free to participate guiltlessly in murder and mass-destruction (or mass-consumerism having these detrimental effects on humans and the planet) (DeKoven, 2003, p. 266). ~ 41 ~

Chapter 2 - Let’s get Critical (Theory)! Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé needs that characterize the alienation of the consumer, needs that “perpetuate toil, aggressiveness, misery and injustice” (Marcuse, 1964, p. 7). The primary goal for Marcuse was to envision an opposite to the one-dimensional man, an individual who is free and lives an unalienated life (DeKoven, 2003, p. 264).

2.3.3 Authentic existence – awareness, consciousness and liberation

Marcuse applies much importance to the concepts of authenticity and alienation. Based on Heideggerian36 phenomenology, Marcuse posed a theory in which authentic existence can only be realized through realizing the essence of the being (Alway, 1995, p. 75). Authentic existence can only happen through complete consciousness, consciousness of what it means to be in the present, but also awareness of the past and most important of all, as pointed out in On Hedonism: to be aware of one’s potentialities (p. 75). Marcuse proposes a normative ideal of authentic existence, valuing this existence as more worthy than the inauthentic existence, which is necessarily alienated and only to be overcome through radical transformation of the basic conditions of human existence (p. 75). The liberation of the alienated existence caused by the Happy Consciousness within one-dimensional society can be attained through the evolution into a new reality principle not based on domination, also termed as ‘The Pacification of Existence’ (DeKoven, 2003, p. 264). Marcuse himself describes the pacified existence of man and nature as possibly being realized through the free play of thought and imagination, leading to the recognition of the truths of justice, freedom and humanity on the ground of the satisfaction of the basic human needs and a truly rational organization of the realm of necessity (Marcuse, 1964, p. 239). According to Marcuse this reality principle could be brought about by technological advancements, enabling an authentically liberatory form of desublimation (DeKoven, 2003, p. 264).

Together with the Pacification of Existence another important element is stressed by Marcuse as being essential in the struggle for liberation from the oppressive advanced industrial society 37, a strategy named 'the Great Refusal' (Alway, 1995, p. 93). The Great Refusal focuses mainly on individual resistance and revolt, through which individuals take a stance against the seductions of the comfortable Happy Consciousness within the capitalist system,

36 Especially the idea of being thrown into a world populated by objects and others, confronted with pre-given existential choices and possibilities (Alway, 1995, p. 74). 37 Which is of course Consumptia in this regard ~ 42 ~

Chapter 2 - Let’s get Critical (Theory)! Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé and through this develop a new kind of sensibility 38 which creates uniquely personal experiences (p. 93). The Great Refusal is the obverse of the Happy Consciousness, and should come from a position that is possibly outside ideology and social construction, a position most likely located according to Marcuse in the realms of the radical avant-garde, the outcasts and outsiders who exist outside the democratic process and refuse to play the game (DeKoven, 2003, p. 265). In the context of Consumptia, we could imagine a form of Great Refusal to be performed by an artist who deliberately places oneself outside of the cycle of consumerism, for instance by living on a squatted industrial terrain, and creates art that incorporates the remains and expresses the magnitude of the material trash that results from the workings of this society. In this way the actor actively refuses to take part in the mechanisms of Consumptia, while at the same time performing critique which could install moments of self-reflection in others, so widening the possibility for broad cultural transformation.

In the conceptualization of The Great Refusal a great emphasis is put on the importance of individual self-transformation, which is a “deeply rooted aspect” of Marcuse’s thought (Alway, 1995, p. 93). In this line of emphasis on individual self-transformation another concept is introduced in one of Marcuse’s latest works, the concept of “The Journey Inwards”: a form of radical introspective action leading to overcoming alienation (p. 93). Joan Always argues that According to Marcuse, The Journey Inwards is an indispensable component in the process of overcoming alienation, it is not a means of escape through turning to the ego, but rather a necessary process that “serves to politicize surplus consciousness and imagination” (p. 93). Surplus consciousness will be transformed into a ‘new sensibility’, a transformation that is not a necessary consequence of the workings of the capitalist system, but a consequence of individual introspection and the subsequent self- transformation (p. 94). Joan Always has put it nicely, while also quoting Marcuse:

“The new sensibility that will pave the way for a revolutionary transformation of society expresses the radical rejection of dominant values; it represents the “negation of the needs that sustain the present system and the negation of the values on which they are based.” (Alway, 1995, p. 92)

We could for example imagine a person that learns about the atrocities of the fast-fashion industry, the exploitation of nature and the laborers, to arrive at a point in their knowing from

38 I will explain this concept on the following page. ~ 43 ~

Chapter 2 - Let’s get Critical (Theory)! Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé which a boycott of these companies will be the logical next step. They will reject the ‘needs’ created by the advertisement propaganda machine and replace them with more wholesome needs, such as buying clothes second-hand the next time they need something, or even more radically eradicating material needs and enjoying a barefoot walk through the forest instead. The individual that has attained the new sensibility through the Journey Inwards will also practice the Great Refusal inevitably, meaning that the Journey Inwards is not merely a practice of isolated introspection leading to a sort of asceticism, but a necessary base for the arrival at revolutionary consciousness. Through discussing these different concepts it has become evident that Marcuse regards the power of individual transformation through introspection or spiritual reflection as a necessary element in the transformation of society (p. 94).

2.3.4 Ecology

Of great importance to Marcuse’s work in general is the relationship between humans, society and nature. In any movement that aims to radically transform society, ecology needs to be of utmost importance according to Marcuse, and the liberation of the subjects of the oppressed society also simultaneously needs a liberation of nature of the oppression of the capitalist system exploiting her (Abromeit & Cobb, 2004, p. 23). He does not, however, argue for a return to a predeveloped era, but for making use of the technological advancements that we have seen in the last two centuries in order to actually heal the natural world of the destruction that the exploitation of nature by consumerist humanity brings. Also in relation to the natural world, a new sensibility should arise – one that considers nature no longer as “utilitarian stuff” to be exploited, but as a “life force in its own right, as subject-object” a life- giving entity that should be respected deeply (p. 23).

2.3.5 Conclusion New Marcuse versus Old Marcuse

It seems to be that the early Marcuse in On Hedonism strongly argues that happiness is unattainable within administered societies like Consumptia, for a multiplicity of reasons. Marcuse also argues that knowledge does not lead to happiness, as knowing the miserable conditions of the world will certainly bring feelings of deep sadness, while he later argues that knowledge in a certain form, in the form of a historical consciousness of the conditions of existence are essential in the quest for liberation. The later Marcuse, aligning his views

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Chapter 2 - Let’s get Critical (Theory)! Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé more with Epicureanism than he would have thought himself in the early years, argues for a state of authentic existence, which can only be reached through adopting a new reality principle: a new way of looking at the world.

While before it seemed that happiness was unattainable without transforming the whole of society, it seems that through The Great Refusal the individual can come closer to a practice of detachment, while still critiquing the conditions of existence, after gaining the necessary consciousness that brings insight into the socio-economic material reality. The individual practicing the Great Refusal is to a certain extent free, so could be considered happier than the totally administered individual. In the next chapter I will introduce Epicurus, the ancient Greek philosopher, most known for his “ascetic” hedonism, as also described by Marcuse. I will show that Marcuse and Epicurus actually have many similar thoughts on how to liberate people from their false desires, and I will argue that the practical applicability of Epicureanism for liberating the consumer in Consumptia from their false desires is in line with Marcuse’s ideas on happiness and liberation.

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Chapter 3 - The Age of Epicurius Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé

3. The Age of Epicurius39

“A free man cannot acquire many possessions, because this is no easy feat without becoming a hireling of mobs or dynasts. And yet he has a constant abundance of everything, and if he should chance to gain many possessions, he could easily portion them out so as to win his neighbors’ good will.” (Epicurus, Vatican Sayings 67)

Introduction

As we are reaching the limits of our finite natural resources, we need to set sail for the transformation from Consumptia Hedonistica to a new age: the Age of Epicurius. Through my discussion of Bauman we have learned that Consumptia is highly aestheticized, meaning a focus is on the attainment of pleasurable experiences, and in itself hedonistic, it occurred to me that the way to counter this exploitative system of unnecessary production and consumption could be by re-introducing Epicurean hedonism to the consumer. This will help with Marcuse’s ideal of creating a new sensibility through which society can be transformed. Epicureanism is, as Marcuse explained, a hedonist school that distinguishes between true and false desires, thus will help pave the road for liberation from these desires. I would like to argue that a re-introduction of elements of Epicurean ethics into Consumptia could bring about the necessary consciousness needed to liberate the consumer and help them live happier lives. Also his ideas on placing community versus individuality could and should be interpreted as a critique on the highly individualized mode of capitalist organization of society today. The philosophy of Epicurus has through history40 often been understood as a one-dimensional hedonist school of thought, either as only propagating a peaceful asceticism,

39 This title is a reference to the 1969 rock-opera song The Age of Aquarius from the musical ‘Hair’, as performed by the group 5th dimension. The lyrics talk about the dawning of a new era, in which: Harmony and understanding Sympathy and trust abounding No more falsehoods or derisions Golden living dreams of visions Mystic crystal revelation And the mind's true liberation 40 Except by Karl Marx, who wrote his dissertation on the Epicurean Philosophy of Nature and argued, like me, that Epicureanism could be a liberatory force for the masses, and I cannot ignore the similarities I am noticing, for instance in the Vatican Saying on the top of this page (Warren, 2009, p. 1). ~ 46 ~

Chapter 3 - The Age of Epicurius Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé or propagating excessive pleasures, while in fact his philosophy is very comprehensive and discusses many themes and topics, as well as offering critiques on predecessors. In light of this thesis the hedonism aspect will be the main focus of my research, but in order to truly revalue Epicurus and his work, I will first give a short overview of the history of his life and thought, based on Norman W. DeWitt’s “Epicurus and His Philosophy” and some other secondary sources, to show that this thinker was much more than a simple ascetic hedonist. DeWitt’s work is nowadays considered to be the guide on Epicureanism by modern Epicureans, as he manages to provide a very detailed and extensive defense of Epicurus in the light of many centuries of criticisms and misunderstandings. I will thereafter expound on the Epicurean principal doctrines as well as the most relevant aspects of his doctrine with regard to the consumer in Consumptia and their problems. In the second section of this chapter I will elucidate how Marcuse and Epicurus have very similar concepts in their thinking, both aimed at revolutionary change, uniting both of these brilliant thinkers through their quest for the liberation of humankind. I will also introduce my carefully self-crafted table from which will arise with clearness that Marcuse and Epicurus show many similarities in their thinking. In the third and last section of this chapter and my thesis I will introduce a contemporary thinker, Kate Soper, who proposes a new form of “alternative hedonism”, which closely resembles a combination of Marcusian and Epicurean tactics to resolve the hedonistic consumerism that reigns Consumptia today. Through aesthetic revisioning of what brings happiness, she argues, we could bring about liberation from the oppression of consumer society. Get ready to move into the Age of Epicurius!

3.1 Meet Epicurus

To sketch a comprehensive yet concise image of Epicureanism and the way in which this doctrine has historically been misinterpreted, I will first introduce Epicurus and shortly discuss the development of his thought and methods. Thereafter I will present a more theoretical overview of the main Epicurean doctrines which have shaped centuries of leading philosophical thought, mainly influencing Christianity, and still live on in many philosophical and theological schools today. Using a selection of these doctrines I will show how Epicurus was actually a revolutionary thinker and could even be regarded as one of the first critical theorists in Western philosophy, who with his method of using a dogmatic and pragmatic approach managed to reach a widespread following, as well as a great amount of philosophical, theological and political opponents.

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3.1.1 Life of Epicurus

Epicurus was born in 341 BC, seven years after the death of Plato, in Samos to a family of Athenian colonists with a schoolteacher for a father (DeWitt, 1954, p. 8). Epicurus was eager and quick to learn and received education from a variety of teachers,41 all of which he did not pay any acknowledgement to, as he later claims to be self-taught (p. 64). This has in the eye of critics positioned Epicurus as an impostor, because he rebelled against the ruling norm of paying debt to previous teachers. After his primary but extensive education, Epicurus received the mandatory Greek military training for a few years (323-322 BC), after which he became a teacher himself (Clay, 2009, p. 27). Epicurus accused philosophers who were trying to formulate a political philosophy to be used in existing city-states that they were only on the quest to gain power and fame. Contrary to these political philosophers, Epicurus set out to formulate a social philosophy of the happy life for the people living in the Greek colonies (DeWitt, 1954, p. 49). Philosophically he simultaneously continued from and critiqued Plato’s theories on the good life and organization of society, as well as critiquing Plato’s use of dialectic 42 , resulting in the fact that half of his forty authorized doctrines are direct contradictions of Platonic teachings (p. 12). DeWitt characterizes Epicurus as “not only a man of comprehensive learning but also an ambitious organizer of knowledge”, because he did not only pose critiques on Platonism, but on almost all ruling philosophical schools43 at the time (p. 14). Departing from his comprehensive knowledge on philosophical theory, Epicurus went on to formulate his own philosophical doctrines. Based in the Democritian atomic theory, Epicurus managed to formulate a comprehensive doctrine which entailed not only philosophy, but also a variety of knowledge of the natural sciences. Everything is built up from atoms, also human beings and their soul, with the soul being of elemental importance in causing sensations. This leads to the argumentation that the best and most natural state is a state of calmness or ataraxia, for disturbed atoms in movement cause a state of chaos.

41 Epicurus reportedly cornered his teacher as a schoolboy on the topic of chaos, dissatisfied with the explanation provided by the teacher. He also early on defined the importance of pain and pleasure in life, making foundations for his later theory on the good life. This evidence points to his early use of intellect and critical thought, important elements in the development of a great philosopher (DeWitt, 1954, p. 63). 42 Traditional Platonian dialectic is rejected as a deceptive method by Epicurus, it should be enough for the natural philosopher to just use the names of things and compose a theory in a well-ordered manner to arrive at truth (Epicurus, et al., 2012, p. 85). 43 He had some disciples doing the work: Metrodorus was assigned to propose the critique on the sophists, the dialecticians and physicians. Hermarchus, one of Epicurus’ oldest friends, was assigned to critique Empedocles. Epicurus himself wrote against the physicists and the Megarians (DeWitt, 1954, p. 14). ~ 48 ~

Chapter 3 - The Age of Epicurius Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé

Contrary to his predecessors Epicurus thought it to be of great importance that philosophy has practical implications to heal some “malady of mankind”, hence his pragmatic and dogmatic approach (p. 67). In order to have a function of increasing human happiness, philosophical skepticism should be rejected and faith in the certainty of the truth of knowledge is needed (p. 20). The purpose of this knowledge is to arrive at a state of ataraxia, a mental state which is free from irrational fears and anxieties (Epicurus, et al., 2012, p. 27). Epicurus believed that health of mind is equally important to health of body and the teacher or philosopher fulfills the function of a healer for the mental peace, philosophy is the medicine for the soul and should be available for all human beings, regardless of age, class or sex (DeWitt, 1954, pp. 68-69).

Epicurus set out to devise a Canon of Truth, consisting of three parts: The Sensations, Anticipations and Feelings. The first are evidences furnished by the five senses, the second are a category of innate ideas, such as justice, which are crafted in anticipation of experience. The feelings are most important for the ethical doctrine, as they entail the two feelings of pleasure and pain, according to Epicurus these have to be regarded as nature’s educators, her ‘stop and go signals’ (DeWitt, 1954, p. 21). In the Canon of truth Epicurus initiated a shift of attention from the inorganic or the cosmic realm to the organic or natural realm, probably inspired by the work of Aristotle on these matters (p. 10). Not a form of Platonic absolute reason was the guiding force to attain knowledge, but Nature was the norm by which the student can develop knowledge of the world, with the help of reason as a tool (p. 13). This insight is one of the reasons why Epicurus considered himself self-taught, as the elevation of nature above reason is not something that was taught by teachers, but came to Epicurus through reading and reflection (p. 65).

Epicurus was a materialist, and therefore rejected the Platonic notion of the theory of ideas; Epicurus believed in the advancement from the theological and metaphysical stages, which are highly inexact and speculative, to the method of exact science in order to arrive at truth, a position that could now be considered positivist (DeWitt, pp. 17 - 19). According to DeWitt Epicurus has achieved to produce a complete synthesis of philosophy and his project and methods could be compared to those of Auguste Comte (p. 18). Epicurus combined the natural sciences with philosophical considerations in order to reach a level of practical applicability. So contrarily to popular belief, Epicurus was not a woolly hippie-philosopher bathing in pleasure in his garden, but a serious and devout thinker who based his beliefs in

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Chapter 3 - The Age of Epicurius Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé strong applicable scientific knowledge, which would in turn help emancipate the people from acting upon the fears that resulted from false opinions.

3.1.2 The Doctrine - The Four Fold Remedy

After having studied in a variety of schools, Epicurus moved to Colophon to develop his doctrine from practicing independent studies (DeWitt, 1954, p. 63). The central thesis of the Epicurean teachings is that the highest goal in life is pleasure, while interpreters disagree on the exact definition of this pleasure (Gordon, 2015, p. 3). Epicurus believed that in order to be able to live a pleasant life, one must first eliminate all irrational anxieties through using reason and by meditating on his four elemental doctrines, later termed by his Roman interpreters the Tetrapharmakos or “fourfold remedy” (p. 3). It is important to apply some mental flexibility while interpreting these doctrines, as of course Epicurus’ time was different from ours in Consumptia; however I am convinced that these aphoristic rules are applicable and useful in these times. It has been argued by Hiram Crespo,44 that these rules are now apparent in cognitive therapy, that the core ideas of the Epicurean Tetrapharmakos are being used to heal people from their depressions and anxieties (2014). They boil down to these four short rules: (1) Don’t fear god, (2) don’t worry about death, (3) what is good is easy to attain, (4) what is terrible is easy to endure (Gordon, 2012, pp. 3, 4). The Tetrapharmakos can be traced back to the first four principal leading doctrines, which I will now expound in Epicurus’ wording and explain in my own:

1. The blessed and indestructible being of the divine has no concerns of its own, nor does it make trouble for others. It is not affected by feelings of anger or benevolence, because these are found where there is lack of strength.

This rule helps eliminate the fear of a supernatural deity and the superstition connected to religious beliefs, plus negating the “false opinions” brought about by religious schooling.45

44 Hiram Crespo is the founder of societyofepicurus.com and a writer of many humanism related articles. The source I am using is not scientific, but rather interesting. I have delved more into his writings but it seems that he has some anti-islamic sentiments which I do not agree with, and of which I feel that Epicurus would also not condone. I do find the link between the Tetrapharmakos and current practices of cognitive therapy very striking and interesting, as this is also what I am trying to argue for in this thesis and what I have experienced through my own life and adoption of the Tetrapharmakos. 45 We could translate this to current society and proclaim the system of free market consumerism as the supernatural deity in Consumptia, through which the consumer is lured into the shops as the places where the religion of consumerism is practiced – through making this analogy we can apply this fundamental rule to current times. ~ 50 ~

Chapter 3 - The Age of Epicurius Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé

When already free from fear of the gods, this rule should be applied as something like: have no fear for that what you do not control, as it brings about unnecessary suffering.

2. Death means nothing to us, because that which has been broken down into atoms has no sensation and that which has no sensation is no concern of ours.

This rule helps eliminate the fear of death, a fear which commonly brings much mental disturbance into life. It follows from the logic that we do not have any memory of the time before we are born, so why should we be concerned with the time after we die? (Crespo, 2014)

3. The quantitative limit of pleasure is the elimination of all feelings of pain. Wherever the pleasurable state exists, there is neither bodily pain nor mental pain nor both together, so long as the state continues.

This rule stresses the importance of static pleasure as being of the upmost importance. Stating that the pleasurable state is easy to attain by a change of mind-set, that a different appreciation of that what is easily attainable around us will bring more pleasure than initiating stress-laden quests to attain some kind of peak in pleasure. This rule teaches us that “the best things in life are free”, thus radically challenging the paradigm reigning Consumptia that tells us that the best things in life are for sale (Crespo, 2014).

4. Bodily pain does not last continuously. The peak is present for a very brief period, and pains that barely exceed the state of bodily pleasure do not continue for many days. On the other hand, protracted illnesses show a balance of bodily pleasure over pain. (Epicurus, et al., 2012, p. 173)

This rule helps to relativize the experiences of physical pain, in order to not arrive at a point of high mental pain due to the physical pain, but could also apply to mental pains. This too shall pass. We could relate this rule to the current popularity of the practice of ‘mindfulness’ or of cognitive behavioral therapy.46

46 Mindfulness is currently practiced and consumed in the west as a tradition or practice stemming from Buddhism, while we can of course count different forms of functional introspection and spiritual reflection in all kinds of different religious and philosophical traditions. I think that due to the popularity of mindfulness today, these thoughts of Epicureanism will resonate with the modern consumer in Consumptia, as mindfulness and yoga are also widely consumed and practiced and considered helpful. ~ 51 ~

Chapter 3 - The Age of Epicurius Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé

Pleasure and pain

Because Epicurus thought of Nature as being the guideline to all knowledge, observation of animate creatures and their behavior was esteemed to be a trustworthy method of attaining information. Through studying animals and their behavior, Epicurus found that their natural predisposition is the avoidance of pain and the attainment of pleasure (DeWitt, 1954, p. 134). This leads to the assertion that there are two feelings, pleasure and pain, from which the first is pleasant and the latter is naturally foreign (Epicurus, et al., 2012, p. 87). DeWitt states “Epicurus would have concurred: all creatures seek pleasure as if food; they avoid pain as if poison” (DeWitt, 1954, p. 223). As we can see in the third elemental doctrine, Epicurus strongly believed that the limit of pleasure is the removal of pain. This leads to the distinction between two kinds of pleasure, kinetic pleasure and static pleasure. Kinetic pleasures are those which are experienced in the moment, for instance the pleasure of gratifying thirst by drinking a glass of water. Static pleasures are introduced by Epicurus and are in close connection to the idea that pain should be avoided, they entail a more continuous state in which thirst is not experienced (DeWitt, 1954, p. 217). Before Epicurus all hedonist schools and all other philosophical contemplation on the topic of pleasure had been focused on kinetic pleasures, so Epicurus’ distinction and valuation of static pleasure as being equal or even more desirable than the kinetic pleasures was quite revolutionary (DeWitt, 1954, p. 217).

Within the realms of pleasure and pain as feelings, there is also a distinction to be made between mental and physical pleasures and pains as can be seen in the fourth elemental doctrine. Epicurus argues that bodily pains are only experienced in the moment and never long-lasting, while mental pains can still be experienced in the future. 47 Not only did Epicurus invent the distinction between kinetic and static pleasure, he also placed a newfound emphasis on the importance of a peaceful mental state. A way to avoid a troubled mental state is to distinguish and reflect on the desires that we experience, in order to make balanced decisions leading to a life filled with static pleasure and mental peace.

47 For instance when someone has experienced a phase of depression or trauma, they will be able to relive those thoughts throughout their lives. That is why the mental state is so important: a general life of mental peace will provide the person with good memories to look back on as well. ~ 52 ~

Chapter 3 - The Age of Epicurius Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé

Typology of desires

As also mentioned in my discussion of Marcuse’s discussion of Epicurus, one of the more revolutionary additions in the field of hedonism stemming from Epicurean teachings is the differentiation of desires. This differentiation is important because still all pleasures are good in itself for the sake of pleasure, but we need to be able to reflect on the pains that might be brought on in the future by the pursuit of the desire for a pleasure (Sharples, 1996, p. 86). Epicurus designed a differentiation into three different categories of desires: (1) natural and necessary desires, (2) natural and non-necessary desires and (3) unnatural and non-necessary desires. The first category contains those desires for things that remove bodily discomfort, such as basic foods, drinks and shelter, but also supposedly the desire for sex. In order to achieve happiness we can interpret the desire for being free from mental anxiety to also be a natural and necessary desire (Sharples, 1996, p. 87). The second category contains those desires for more luxurious foods and drinks, which will bring happiness if we could get them. The last category of unnatural and non-necessary desires contains those desires which according to Epicurus should not be pursued, as the road to attain them will certainly cause more pain then pleasure. As Epicurus states in Elemental Doctrine 26:

“All desires that do not lead to physical pain if not satisfied are unnecessary, and involve cravings that are easily resolved when they appear to entail harm or when the object of desire is hard to get” (Epicurus, et al., 2012, p. 177).

In this category we find the desires for fame, wealth and power, which are based in a need to feel secure in their prospect of attaining a continued life of lavish luxuries (Sharples, 1996, p. 87). This sense of security is however according to Epicurus not to be found in the chase for power, wealth or fame, as the mental anxieties accompanying this chase cause more discomfort in the long run as explained by Elemental Doctrine 7:

“Some men have desired to gain reputation and to be well regarded, thinking in this way to gain protection from other people. If the lives of such men are secure, they have acquired a natural blessing; but if they are not, they do not possess what they originally reached for by natural instinct” (Epicurus, et al., 2012)

It is of utmost importance that the experienced desires are reflected on with reason, in order to identify what category of desire they belong to, and whether or not the fulfillment of the desire will bring pleasure or pain. This results in a process of detaching from the need ~ 53 ~

Chapter 3 - The Age of Epicurius Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé prescribed by society to endlessly run along the hedonic treadmill of Consumptia. It is, however, not necessary to always avoid all forms of non-necessary enjoyment that life brings, as encountering them within a life of moderation will actually bring a boost of extra pleasure, thus more happiness (Woolf, 2009, p. 151).

3.1.3 Garden of Epicurus

Stranger, here you will do well to linger; here our highest good is pleasure.48

The pleasurable life filled with happiness was put into practice in ‘The Garden of Epicurus’, a garden community founded in 306 BC when Epicurus was around 35 years old and had created the essence of his doctrine (DeWitt, 1954, p. 89). Within the Epicurean garden the residents adhered to the philosophical way of life prescribed by the Epicurean doctrines. One of the most important elemental doctrines in this sense is number 27:

“Of all the things that wisdom provides for the happiness of the whole man, by far the most important is the acquisition of friendship” (Epicurus, et al., 2012, p. 177).

The importance of friendship and community was central and also instrumental to alleviate pains (Brown, 2009, p. 182). Friendship and community will bring the security that people need, knowing they have someone who will support them, listen to them, help them financially or with some kind of labor brings peace of mind for the individual. The security one can feel through knowing that a friend will be ready to help alleviate future pains removes the disturbance of the fear of future pains (idem, p. 182). Friendship and community fulfill the function that has been placed by capitalist society in the attainment of power, wealth or fame. As written by Epicurus in the Vatican Sayings, number 34:

“It is not so much friends’ services that we find serviceable as the assurance of their services” (Epicurus, et al., 2012, p. 181)

To translate that to the current state of Consumptia, also with the discussion of Bauman in mind, we can imagine how a centrality of friendship can help bring the security and stability that the consumer is so frantically looking for in their attainment of the consumables.

48 This is one of the translations of the proverb that was inscribed on the gate of the Garden of Epicurus. It signifies the welcoming attitude of the Epicurean creed, as well as the high regard for pleasure. It also signifies how this garden was so different from all the other Athenian philosophical schools, as for instance Plato’s very elitist inscription is said to have read “Let no one unversed in geometry enter here” (Clay, 2009, p. 9). ~ 54 ~

Chapter 3 - The Age of Epicurius Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé

Additionally, Epicurus argues that through friendship we can better reflect on our desires, as our friends can help us distinguish whether or not our desires stem from our own ‘authentic being’ and our authentic needs and desires, or whether they are informed by a form of false opinion or manipulation. A good friend will always ask us if we really need to indulge in that night out two days before an important deadline, a good friend will watch out for us so we do not fall prey to unnecessary desires that cause us more pain in the end. This of course means that being a friend also means fulfilling these functions for others, and sometimes also taking some temporary pain in order to assist them, in order to be sure of being assisted in the future (Brown, 2009, p. 184). Epicurus has thus been falsely categorized as an “egoistic hedonist”, because while his teachings seem to proclaim personal pleasure as the greatest good and the attainment of friendship as serving personal advantage, Epicurean theory was first and foremost based in humanity, as signified by the writing of one of his devotees:

“The whole earth is just one country, the native land of all, and the whole world is just one household” (DeWitt, 1954, p. 30).

Epicurus’ humanist approach can be signified by the diversity of the people who were allowed to join the Epicurean garden community to learn and practice philosophy. The garden was a place where women, children and slaves were welcome to join the lifestyle prescribed by Epicurean teachings (Clay, 2009, p. 27). So instead of considering Epicurus to be an egoistic hedonist, we should really revalue the progressive and socialist elements that are apparent in the way of life adopted by this altruistic hedonist. Epicurus’ altruistic hedonism can be considered to be the first dogmatic philosophy prescribing an individual moral reform. His dogmatism is of an open-ended variety, meaning that there is no prefabricated goal or telos of the teachings, but the practice of studying philosophy is deemed valuable in itself as a manner of experiencing pleasure (DeWitt, 1954, pp. 20-22).

Life in the Garden is based on a simple lifestyle, with respect for nature and the fulfilment of necessary and natural desires. As taught by Elemental Doctrine 15:

“Nature’s wealth is restricted and easily won, while that of empty convention runs on to infinity.” (Epicurus, et al., 2012, p. 175)

Also, the respect and centrality of nature resulted in “living according to nature”, as nature brings us the laws of our being which we can then adhere to in order to live pleasurably (DeWitt, 1954, p. 23).

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Chapter 3 - The Age of Epicurius Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé

3.1.4 Conclusion

Epicurus has not only produced a far more comprehensive body of work than he is mostly being recognized for, he also held a far more revolutionary and counter-cultural position than is accredited to him. Through his teachings and the creation of his garden Epicurus has challenged the status quo throughout his life, not through violence or prescribing uprisings, but by adopting a ‘practice-what-you-preach’ mentality and inviting people to join his style of living pleasurably. The pleasurable life according to Epicurus is the result of sober thinking, an “investigation of the reasons for every act of choice and aversion and elimination of those false ideas about the gods and death which are the chief source of mental disturbances (Epicurus, et al., 2012, p. 160).” This prescribed style of life accords very much with a combination of the concepts of The Journey Inwards and The Great Refusal as offered by Marcuse. I believe that Marcuse would value the use of the Tetrapharmakos greatly, as it provides the remedy for the soul and could instigate and aid the individual in their move into a new sensibility. Marcuse’s fault when investigating Epicureanism was not understanding the psychological power of this highly functional psychophilosophical device. It is about enjoying the things in life that are easy to come by, thus about letting go of the unnecessary struggle for monetary rewards that would only help us to attain more consumables.

3.2 A Unity of Critical Happiness

3.2.1 An unsurprising kinship

Throughout my thesis so far, it has become evident that Marcuse and Epicurus actually share a lot of theoretical viewpoints as well as similarities in their attitudes towards life and society. In this section I will first shortly go over a selection of the similarities I have found, and then propose my Epicusean table for easy reference.

Critical Philosophy

Epicurus produced a range of ‘refutative writings’ in which satire was used to offer critiques on leading schools of philosophy. For instance by satirically dubbing Plato as ‘the golden’, as a critique on Plato’s division of members of the polis into gold, silver and iron, which according to Epicurus was highly undemocratic (DeWitt, 1954, p. 116). This is also evidence that shows Epicurus’ quite progressive and egalitarian point of view. Because the Platonic

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Chapter 3 - The Age of Epicurius Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé school was the school of orthodoxy in Epicurus’ years of being a student, his critique of this school and its doctrines should be regarded as a practice of critical philosophy avant-la-lettre (p. 43). Within the taxonomy of desires proposed by Epicurus, as I have explained in the first part of this chapter, the distinction between the unnatural and natural desires is of great importance. As we also see in Marcuse, the false desires in the consumer are based on the false consciousness/ideological oppression from within Consumptia. For Epicurus, the unnatural non-necessary desires are based on a set of “false opinions” which are taught through systems of education. Epicurus considered everyone slaves who by pursuing the conventional education surrendered their freedom for the pursuit of power, fame, or wealth (p. 63). As the ideological creation of false wants and needs is central in Marcuse’s work, we cannot ignore this similarity.

Liberation and Knowledge

The Epicureans saw the direct correlation between ignorance of the natural processes that cause certain events and a vulnerability for religious superstition and manipulation (Epicurus, et al., 2012, p. 35). This can also be connected to the Epicurean idea that people should be relieved of the false opinions they attained through receiving education in a society which rather keeps them ignorant (DeWitt, 1954, p. 297). Even though Marcuse argues that knowledge of the situation for the ideologically oppressed will not lead to happiness, it will lead to a struggle for freedom, I want to assert that it is important to at least be in the know of the socio-economic structures causing troubling situations in Consumptia, because with Epicurus I think this will lead to more peace of mind. Not precisely because we can then be happy with the situation, in this I stand wholeheartedly with Marcuse, but because this knowledge will make the consumer aware of the real reasons of why they consume, this knowledge could bring them to a place of Great Refusal, this knowledge could fuel the resistance against the oppressive workings of Consumptia. The retreat into the garden was Epicurus’ way of performing the Great Refusal prescribed by Marcuse, spreading his doctrine and growing a movement of self-reflection and spiritual growth through the study of philosophy is what could really liberate the individuals in Epicurean times.

Happiness and Freedom

Both Marcuse and Epicurus are convinced that the good and happy life contains many pleasures, both of the body and mind. Marcuse has argued so in Eros and Civilization, in ~ 57 ~

Chapter 3 - The Age of Epicurius Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé stating that the essence of human being is the quest for pleasure, and Epicurus has argued that pleasure is the natural end human beings strive for. Both thinkers accredit much importance to freedom as a prerequisite for achieving happiness, Marcuse states that happiness can only be achieved through knowing and realizing individual potentialities, and that freedom is a necessary condition for doing so. Epicurus has argued similarly that “man must be free to plan his life (...) freedom is essential for living a happy life (DeWitt, 1954, p. 69)”.

Politics

If Epicurus would be involved in politics or political theory he would certainly advance a classless and equal society, as is also proven by his organization of the Epicurean garden. Epicurus is an utopian in this sense, just like Herbert Marcuse. The critical position of Epicurus also highlights how the image of the “satisfied sage” proposed by many of the contemporary critics, including Marcuse, of Epicurean hedonism is not completely correct. Contrary to popular understanding, Epicurus was not opposed to holding public office in a democracy, but he was primarily opposed to making a career out of it, because the empty desires for power, fame and wealth are involved (p. 87).49 Eric Brown argues that Seneca has written on Epicureanism that “the sage will not engage in politics, unless something intervenes” (2009, p. 181). We could imagine the impending climate catastrophes as a certain intervening in the continuation of the pleasant life, meaning that Epicurus would completely agree with modern Epicureans making efforts for a better planet all together.

Epicurus has throughout his life and writings also put a lot of effort in criticizing thinkers, society and the status quo in general. Epicurus’ quest to eliminate ‘false opinions’ is still relevant in the political context of today and I believe that by reintroducing Epicurean concepts, the false opinions brought about by Consumptia could be eliminated (DeWitt, 1954, p. 297). Even though Epicurus argued that the political contract is of less value than social contract, we could distill from this valuation that Epicurus was actually a socialist, discontent with the conditions of his time (p. 29).

49 We should also keep in mind the historical context of Epicurus’ developing years – there was a lot of societal turmoil and war, Epicurus did not agree with war (like Marcuse) and decided to abstain from mingling in these affairs. He did not per se condemn those who did participate in politics, only the intentions must be right. ~ 58 ~

Chapter 3 - The Age of Epicurius Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé

Here I present two of Epicurus’ Vatican Sayings illustrating the importance of sober living, sharing, self-sufficiency and freedom:

Vatican Saying number 44:

“The wise man, after adjusting himself to the bare necessities of life, understands better how to share than to take – so large is the fund of self-sufficiency that he has discovered”

Vatican Saying number 77:

“The most important consequence of self-sufficiency is freedom”

Friendship

If we go back to Marcuse’s discussion of happiness and social relations, I think we can see that through adopting an Epicurean view of the attainment and practices of friendship as helping us find security and ataraxia in our lives, and even Marcuse himself argues in the end that happiness could be found in social relations, if the conditions are right. In the garden of Epicurus there is no knowledge of atrocities, no pressures of society and so forth. The Garden resembles very much the ideal society imagined by Marcuse, a place where all members are allowed and free to realize their potentialities, while studying and practicing philosophy. The garden would also be a place where happiness can be found through social relations, even when applying the Marcusian conditions.

3.2.2 The Epicusean table

In order to present to you, the reader, my findings about the similarities between Marcuse and Epicurus, I have devised and present to you on the next page The Epicusean Table, in which I have organized the ways in which I have found through my research that Marcuse and Epicurus actually are spiritual twins. This table sums up the main arguments I have discussed in this thesis, but is not nearly complete as to elucidating the real similarities between these two impressive thinkers.

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Chapter 3 - The Age of Epicurius Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé

Marcuse Epicurus

Good Looks

Liberation from the false wants and Liberation from false/unnecessary Quest needs brought about by the false desires brought about by society consciousness within totally and “false opinions”. administered society.

Individual transformation through Individual transformation by Method the “journey inwards” – leading to reflecting with reason on desires to pacification of existence. achieve inner calmness or ataraxia.

Counter- The Great Refusal. No longer partaking in society. cultural

Authentic existence only possible The Happy Life only possible when How to be through complete consciousness of knowledge of the world (which happy the conditions of life. arguably is also consciousness of the conditions).

“purpose of Being human = the quest for Being human = the quest for life” pleasure pleasure

Relation to Should be liberated from human Nature is the guide; nature brings Nature exploitation, promoting its life- us all we need in life, if we treat it enhancing forces. respectfully. A liberated society without liberated ecology is a no-deal.

The art of living: great refusal + The art of happiness: detaching knowledge + pacification of from society + knowledge and existence (through developing new philosophy + reflecting on desires. Life art sensibility through the journey Freedom = happiness inwards). Freedom = happiness

The function The transformation of society and Healing maladies of mankind. of philosophy finding a new way of being in the world. (healing maladies of mankind)

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Chapter 3 - The Age of Epicurius Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé Conclusion

While Epicureanism has widely been interpreted as a form of asceticism, which the devout Epicurean will possibly be, it is not the goal of Epicurus, nor me, to turn all people into ascetic sages. Epicurus wanted to heal maladies of mankind, to aid the people suffering from mental anxieties. It is not so that all people should stop participating in society all together, but more so that they gain insight in the way they are being manipulated, just like Marcuse would also want them to. Like Marcuse and many other revolutionary thinkers, Epicurus has an extensive body of work, the refutative writings, in which he offers critiques on philosophers before him, also on the topic of politics. Epicurus practiced the great refusal with creating his garden to inspire people into thinking about another way of life. It was not a method to transform all people into philosophers. It was however very much so that the futile organization of life, the working for “mobs and dynasts” in order to gain monetary rewards with which you could attain the stuff you are prescribed to attain by the ruling society seemed futile for Epicurus, hence the refusal. Actually, Karl Marx has written his dissertation on Epicurus and I cannot imagine that he was not inspired by the words of this great thinker, and then it is no surprise that Marcuse (as a Marxist humanist) actually has more in common with Epicurean thought than he might have realized himself. Especially by the quote I have offered at the beginning of this chapter. We should refute the orders of this society.

Epicurus would also not prescribe a life that would be completely happy, he understood the reality of life and that downfalls were unavoidable. But in such cases we have our friends to come to our aid. A life free of mental anxieties does not exist, but could we could alleviate as many unnecessary anxieties as possible by meditating on the Epicurean aphorisms. We can make use of reason to rationalize our fears away, rationalize our desires away, minimize those that are unnecessary, also so we have more room to deal with the real issues in life and society, like climate change for instance. Epicurus would completely agree, as he was a nature lover and wants humanity to live in accordance to nature, that people putting effort in mitigating climate change are doing the right thing, and they would most certainly benefit from reducing their mental struggles by adopting the Epicurean doctrine. Epicureanism is not negative, as it is argued to be a form of positive cognitive therapy. It makes us free from within, not unloving to the world, not without care, but actually more connected to ourselves, our communities, to nature – ready for a post-Consumptia age of Epicurius. After bringing to light the many similarities between Epicurus and Marcuse in quest, personality, practice,

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Chapter 3 - The Age of Epicurius Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé theory and outlook on life, I will now bring to light the way we can use a combination of their theories to instigate the fall of Consumptia, the transformation of the consumer into the New Sage and an opportunity for the radical change our society needs so desperately today.

3.3 The Fall of Consumptia

3.3.1 Introduction

In order to create a cultural transformation of Consumptia, in which the structures are no longer aimed at maximizing profits and economic growth, we need to envision a new subject living in this new society. The consumer will have to liberate and transform themselves, just as Marcuse and the Frankfurt School have prescribed, in order to attain the total transformation of society. In the last section I will introduce this new subjectivity, the new sage, who is practicing Epicurean Hedonism 2.0. I will argue for the necessity of an aesthetic revisioning of happiness and pleasure, as prescribed by Kate Soper, and I will present empirical proof collected by Helene Cherrier that the Epicurean way of life is a guarantee for more happiness, based on three concepts that actually bring happiness, Spiritual reflection, Care for Others and Financial Detachment.

3.3.2 From the aesthetic of consumption, to an anti-consumerist aesthetic

Kate Soper calls for “an ‘alternative hedonist’ disenchantment with consumerism” to be implemented politically (Soper, 2008, p. 571). She argues for this call based on two claims: (1) The model of consumption in western Consumptias has become the model of the ‘good life’ and so widely accepted that there needs to be a seductive alternative of a ‘high standard of living’, we need to develop new modes of thinking about human pleasure and self-realization, especially on the part of the global elites. This should not be based in altruistic or environmental concerns, but more so in the “self-regarding gratifications of consuming differently: to a new erotics of consumption, or hedonist ‘imaginary’”. (2) Soper claims that we are seeing the beginnings of a counter-consumerist trend, in other words: more consumers are becoming aware of the detrimental effects of consumerism and alternative visions of ‘the good life’ are being adopted, not only motivated from environmental, but also from self-interested concerns (Soper, 2008, p. 571).

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Chapter 3 - The Age of Epicurius Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé

The role played by hedonism in this development is that there is not only pleasure to be attained through avoiding the detrimental effects of the consumption habits prescribed by Consumptia, but more so that the consumer recognizes that there are sensual pleasures to be experienced just in consuming differently, for instance how a bike-ride brings more joy than standing in traffic with a motorized vehicle, or how a home cooked meal will be more satisfying than consuming a non-nutritious fast-food meal. Soper argues that individuals who adopt this mind-set, possibly also inspired by the combined ideas of Marcuse and Epicurus presented by yours truly, will make better decisions in regard to the environment because of the intrinsic pleasures they will bring, combined with the longer term benefits for the social order and the environment (Soper, 2008, p. 572). The opposition to the status quo is thus found in an appeal to self-interest of the affluent consumer50, Soper argues that this seems to be an unorthodox method of transforming society, but as the consumption practices of the affluent consumer (as we have seen in the analysis of Migone in chapter 1) account for most of the horrible impending catastrophes awaiting our planet, and the capitalist ideology predisposes the subjects into thinking of self-interest as a virtue, this approach might be considered most pragmatic of all. Soper also touches on Bauman’s terminology, explaining how the consumer is not ‘repressed’ like they are considered to be in more traditional Marxist theory, but rather ‘seduced’, as I have explained with Bauman and Dunn in my first chapter as well (Soper, 2008, p. 573). To link back to Marxist theory, Soper revisions a new class, which replaces the location for class consciousness from the proletariat to the ‘disillusioned seduced’, the trans-class class of affluent consumers who are gaining insight in the material conditions shaping their life, who are inspired to search for happiness and pleasure in different realms, who will pave the way for the real ‘repressed’ to attain more freedom and restore their possibility for pleasure and happiness (2008, p. 573).

The anti-consumerist aesthetic – The approach

How then should we envision this new aesthetic to look like, what elements should compose it? The ‘alternative hedonist’ critique is focused on the elements of everyday practice, the critique sets out to highlight the lies and ambiguities of Consumptia already known and experienced by the consumer. In other words: this critique sets out to spread true knowledge.

50 The affluent consumer is that consumer who has met their basic material needs, or in Epicurean terms: who has fulfilled their natural and necessary desires. We could consider of course most of the consumers within Consumptia to be of this category. Consumables are mostly not necessary to fulfil basic material needs for sustenance. ~ 63 ~

Chapter 3 - The Age of Epicurius Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé

As the failures of the promises of Consumptia are felt by the consumer, the critique can make legitimized claims on the futility and destructiveness of this system. Soper argues that the anti-consumerist aesthetic should be considered as an essential instrument of militant anti- capitalism and of the new political imaginary (Soper, 2008, p. 579). The new ethical valuation of values will expose the ‘sanity’ of the consumption of more and more consumables as a pathological form of madness, as a Cyrenaic Consumer Complex, as I have also described the current condition of the consumer in the first chapter of this thesis. According to Soper, there is a need to pay more attention to the “profoundly reflexive and permanently achieved insights on personal need, whose impact at the level of consumption may well be altogether more complex than is recognized in the idea of consumer goods and services being ‘used’ to ‘signal’ an ephemeral and transient self” (Soper, 2008, p. 580). She then compares the personal change within the consumer to the anti-consumerist aesthetic as one that is similar to the personal change within women when they were confronted with feminist theory that helped them raise their consciousness (Soper, 2008, p. 580). This raised consciousness will bring forth a range of epiphanies that will change the individual’s experience of the world – a sort of gestalt switch. This very much resembles Marcuse’s description of the Journey Inwards with the consequential Great Refusal. Similar experiences are noted when people are confronted with the realities of the bio-industry, making them never see their consumption of meat the same again; or when they are confronted with the atrocious human labor exploitation practices happening in the production of disposable items of clothing. Soper argues that in order to bring about a gestalt switch like this, we need to uphold “an aesthetic suspension and reordering” of the experience of certain dimensions of the commodities, where the item first perceived as glamorous and desirable will now be connected with the ugliness they bring about in reality (Soper, 2008, p. 580). The anti- consumerist ethic and aesthetic will have to find place in discourses brought about through forms of art, mass-culture and on the internet (Soper, 2008, p. 581).

3.3.3 Get ready for the New Sage

Through deploying the anti-consumerist aesthetic, combined with an updated version of Epicureanism, a new subject will come to live in the post-Consumptia utopian society in the Age of Epicurius. I call this subject the New Sage, as the adoption of Epicureanism will bring

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Chapter 3 - The Age of Epicurius Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé about qualities of the satisfied sage, while still living in modern context and adopting a new sensibility like Marcuse envisioned. The disillusioned seduced described by Soper will be ready to adopt this new subjectivity as their own, as they are becoming more and more aware of the dire conditions of our society and planet. The new sage is not a person who is in complete unknowing of the conditions of the world, as Epicurus prescribes knowledge of truth to be elemental in the pursuit of a happy life. The attainment of knowledge is not a goal, but pleasurable thus valuable in itself (DeWitt, 1954, p. 22). The new sage, like the Epicurean sage, does not cultivate indifference. Feelings are very much compatible with wisdom, more likely actually important to the process of obtaining it (1954, p. 225). Ataraxia is not a state of emotionless being, but rather a calm and peaceful state in which feelings of gratitude are most important. The new sage is also not avoiding all pleasurable luxuries, thus living a barren and boring life as suggested by many who criticize Epicureanism. Static pleasure is centralized, but this does not eliminate the possible enjoyment of kinetic pleasures that result from gratifying unnecessary natural desires. The enjoyment of luxuries is not forbidden in the Epicurean doctrine, but should be enjoyed to the fullest, and should not be the aim of your life’s endeavors (Woolf, 2009). The New Sage finds inspiration for life in the lifestyle practiced in the Garden of Epicurus, placing most principal value on friendship, contemplation and reflection on the desires and a sober life without chasing excesses.

In a 2007 study carried out by Helene Cherrier51 into consumer happiness, Cherrier identified the relation between consumer happiness and the three interconnected topics of (1) Care For Others, (2) Spiritual Reflection and most importantly (3) Financial Detachment. Through this study Cherrier has found increases of consumer happiness after the consumers had incorporated and these three elements in their practical life. The study challenges the reigning dogma in marketing theory that need anticipation/creation and need satisfaction bring happiness for the consumer (Cherrier, 2007, p. 3). Cherrier argues that the happiness of the consumer is not only determined by the positive emotion experienced when consuming, but also influenced by the feelings of regret and disappointment, meaning that the satisfaction of material needs is not the only requirement for a stable happiness. She also mentions that when the individual’s income grows, their material aspirations grow as well, resulting in

51 Hélène Cherrier is a researcher combining different disciplines of research in order to gain insight into the lived experiences of the consumer in consumer societies. Cherrier has published many very intriguing and controversial works that challenge the way in which we consume in Consumptia. I would certainly recommend to check out her work some more. ~ 65 ~

Chapter 3 - The Age of Epicurius Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé heightened frustrations, thus not more happiness (p. 3). In line with Epicurean thinking, Cherrier argues that

“In opposition to the theory of financial progress and capital, other researchers emphasize that the desire for money/wealth is exhausting and can relegate people to, among other things, a state of perpetual unhappiness and increased levels of stress.” (Cherrier, 2007, p. 5)

As Epicurus most surely would want us to trust science on this - we should. The new sage will be happy, it’s already scientifically proven! And through adopting this life will not only be happiness gained for the consumer, the Marcusian dream of a complete transformation of society could come close to becoming a reality. We have grand opportunities to mitigate climate change, but the consumer must start with themselves - the conditions must be so that they will experience a smooth transition into becoming the New Sage and living in the post- Consumptia utopia, where all potentialities are realized. Through providing a hedonism filled with aphoristic wisdom, subjects in today’s world can gain knowledge in order to liberate themselves and be able to step out of the hedonic treadmill of consumption. They can grow their own carrot in the garden and eat it whenever the natural desire to do so arises, without having to do some stupid production job that pays low wages so the consumer can buy consumables again and again and again.

3.3.4 The Table of Hedonisms according to Robin H.

On the following page I present to you the third and final table in this thesis. The new hedonism as prescribed by Kate Soper seems to entail a combination of Marcusian refusal tactics, as well as the core elements of Epicureanism. In third-way hedonism the pragmatic use of universal reason is combined with the arrival at a new sensibility, finally uniting the universality of reason with the individualistic tendencies of hedonism. This is very important as the universality of reason is widely accepted, as is the focus on individualism. Making use of these two seemingly contradictory aspects in society we can apply this third-way hedonism in order to make some real steps into consumer liberation.

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Chapter 3 - The Age of Epicurius Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé

Third-way Alternative Cyrenaic Ascetic Epicureanism Revolutionary Consumerist (as interpreted by Epicurean Hedonism Hedonism Epicurus’ critics) As proposed by Robin H. Should be considered, reflected on, experienced as such (as being Should be always Should always be a pleasurable experience) and Desire gratified. scrutinized. only gratified if the gratification does no harm to the self or to others52. Maximizing Finding enjoyment in doing good Stoic stance – distancing enjoyment, as for the world and people. Finding Enjoyment from the material material and external enjoyment in experiencing nature enjoyments. as possible. – the pleasurable is easy to attain

Subject The Consumer The Satisfied Sage The New Sage

After a Journey Inwards arrives at a point of Great Refusal, Taking part in the Placing themselves rejecting the needs that sustain ruling ideology of outside of society in all the dominant order and replacing consumerism, serving contentment. Live them with wholesome ones, Place in as fuel for the motor secluded in a community which spring from the aesthetic society of capitalist of friends, without paying revisioning as proposed by Kate accumulation. Totally much attention to the state Soper. Still involved in society accepting of the of society or the possibility but with a different sort of prescribed way of life for change. practice, a practice that could serve as the blueprint for a new subjectivity and a new society. Meditating on the Spiritual Reflection (philosophy) Going shopping Tetrapharmakos Financial Detachment Working Philosophizing with Care for Others (socialism) Practice Consuming nightlife friends Translates into minimizing Working Living in Accordance with consumption – taking action to Shopping Nature save the planet. Knowledge of the natural Knowledge is enjoyable in itself, Knowledge of the world is paramount to knowledge will lead to a Knowledge conditions of society relieve mental anxieties, consciousness that will is prevented. but will not be applied necessarily lead to the Great practically. Refusal Philosophy is the means through which we as humans are able to Philosophy is the highest Philosophy What?! envision a new and better world, good in itself with new and better people living in it.

52 This includes no harm to animals, ecosystems and the like. I would like to consider the whole planet as an entity worthy of respect and worthy of not being harmed by the actions of humanity. Of course the state we have arrived at right now inevitably makes us harm future generations by almost all actions we do, and that is exactly why the aesthetic revisioning of what happiness contains is so important. ~ 67 ~

Chapter 3 - The Age of Epicurius Freed From Desire MA-Thesis Robin Habbé

3.3.5 Conclusion

I believe that the anti-consumerist aesthetic can be very much strengthened by a discourse that will introduce Epicureanism and the main thoughts that I have collected here in this chapter, even though it is just a beginning and I would have liked to share even more of Epicurus’ unbelievably genius aphorisms. I believe that, as it has been in my personal experience through studying Epicureanism, the gestalt switches that are necessary and prescribed by Soper, as well as by Marcuse, can be brought about by introducing Epicurus to the disillusioned seduced consumers of Consumptia. The doctrines will resonate with the feelings of discontent and catch on and the Tetrapharmakos can surely aid those who experience distress in the cyclical rat race of the hedonic treadmill of Consumptia Hedonistica.

For Epicurus living a just life is pleasurable in itself, like Kate Soper argues with her conception of an aesthetic revisioning of what is considered pleasurable, we can connect this to the philosophy of Epicurus and see the similarities and the practical results the adoption of Epicureanism into mainstream thinking could deliver us. And even though we live in an age where, as Marcuse has argued, the domination of the philosophy of universalized reason prevents us from being individually able to realize our potentialities, this universality of reason will also allow Epicureanism to gain traction, as this school of thought places great importance on the faculty of reason, precisely in order to find liberation from false desires brought about by the universality of Consumptia. Greek philosophy of ethics of ‘personal happiness’ is more practically applicable than Kantian ethics of duty, as the practice of an ethical life is so closely linked to living a pleasurable and happy life of freedom and enjoyment, while the ethics of duty propagated by Kantians are rigid and do not leave questions open for interpretation (Sharples, 1996, p. 83). Greek philosophy of the classical period is easier to understand for modern people, and especially Epicureanism, as it is by design a dogmatic doctrine for the masses with the meditative aphorisms that are deeply touching and transformative (DeWitt, 1954, p. 21.).

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CONCLUSION

In accordance with the thoughts of the Frankfurt School I believe that in order to change society, we necessarily need to instigate a psychological transformation of the subjects shaping that society. Through my investigations into Consumptia, the Consumer and Hedonism I have found that we can and must find room to emancipate and transform the consumer into a New Sage. One who will take part in the essential new society and who will experience a greater degree of happiness in doing so.

In this thesis I have identified the crucial problem of Consumptia: the aestheticized reality that leads to the adoption and acceptance of the Cyrenaic form of hedonism prevalent in modern societies. This is a form of hedonism used and exploited with great enthusiasm by industries that install false desires onto the consumer – the subject within Consumptia. The consumer tries in vain, yet fails to find the promised happiness. In order to discuss the motivations and the quest for happiness of the consumer, we should reject discussion of needs and wants, which the advertising industry focuses on. We should alternatively focus on the cyclical nature of human desiring. The consumer is partly under ideological confusion, under psychological rule of the Consumer Complex I have identified. The consumer does partly derive meaning, thus a sort of happiness, through attaining consumables. The societal organization based in the Cyrenaic form of hedonism combined with the cyclical nature of desire creates a dangerous cocktail. One that intoxicates the consumer, leaving them exploited for their monetary rewards. Meanwhile the owners of the industries gladly close their eyes and profit off of the structural injustices that are apparent throughout the world today. Instead of placing trust into politics or businesses to change their ways, I wanted to explore how we as individual consumers can break free as a mass; to realize that the promise of finding happiness through consumption is a false one and to see new ways to happiness. This act of breaking free should not be a neoliberal way of putting responsibility for climate policies onto the individual consumer, but more a step in the direction of, for instance, more widespread refusal of the attainment of unnecessary consumables which will lead to the diminishing of power for big corporations producing these consumables. We should lead by example and show that a life detached from this Cyrenaic Consumerism is attainable, even bringing more happiness and transforming our own consciousness first.

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To find the possibility for the necessary cultural transformation in order to prevent catastrophic climate change through individual transformation aided by a reconception of hedonism, I wanted to use the great work of Herbert Marcuse, as his critical attitude and his extensive body of radical philosophical work has greatly inspired me, as well as many others before me. For Marcuse one can only be happy when they are able to identify and realize their potentialities, thus they should be free to design their life.53 According to Marcuse the study of hedonism can be fruitful within critical theory because it is a quest for liberation – the Cyrenaic liberates from mental strains through finding happiness in the material world while the Epicurean liberates from the material through going into the mental realm. This instinctual quest for liberation can be used to drive the individual to struggle for change, but this is prevented through both forms of hedonism according to Marcuse. I discovered however, this interpretation of Epicureanism was not completely what I had found it out to be throughout my own research into Epicureanism. Marcuse and Epicurus actually have thoughts and visions that align very much,54 it even seems that they have led similar lives, on which I could not expound too much in this thesis but a finding that would be interesting to work out later. Especially the concepts introduced in Marcuse’s later works adopted by the New Left movement align very much with Epicurean teachings.

I strongly believe and conclude from my research that Marcuse would agree that Epicureanism can be the remedy for the addiction to desire that reigns within the consumer’s life. Through critical self-reflection, through taking a Journey Inwards, we can step out of the hedonic treadmill, assess our desires and see the real harm that comes from the habits of consumption that are so common nowadays. We can reject the needs that are imposed onto us by Consumptia, replace them with different ones that will not harm us or the planet. The teachings of Epicurus will inspire many more people, they will help people to live a more balanced life, with less stress and anxiety, fewer ‘false opinions’, with less stuff, hate and competition. Epicureanism necessarily counters the consumer capitalist ideology and its subsequent behavioral patterns – the Consumer Complex. Through a further conceptualization of the New Sage a new subject and consequentially a new society could emerge.

53 I have a serious hunch that this outlook can be very much united with the Foucauldian concept of the painting of life as a resistance technique against neoliberal governmentalities, I am at the moment writing a paper on this. 54 Which is actually no surprise because they both inspire me and align with my thinking as well. ~ 70 ~

We can live lighter and happier lives without needing to work so many hours in order to consume so many consumables. We can live in accordance with nature and our fellow humans, we can be free to identify and realize our potentialities. We can build a new society together, based on not only but mainly the three aspects that Hélène Cherrier identified in accordance with Epicurean teachings: Spiritual Reflection, Care for Others and Financial Detachment. We can imagine a different ideal of happiness. One alike what Kate Soper proposes, an aesthetic revision of hedonism, based in Epicureanism. The work is however, not yet done and I have thought throughout this research about related possible research topics or questions that should be worked out in order to help humanity prevent the catastrophes of climate change. The faith of humanity is in the hands of the humanities and we should be struggling and fighting until the last breath.

 Here I will propose some ideas for further research which could be interesting and inspiring:

I would firstly want to perform a more thorough research on Norman DeWitt’s work on Epicurus, as this phenomenal book has guided and inspired me very much. DeWitt proves how throughout history the misconceptions guided by cultural ‘false opinions’ have slaughtered and mutilated Epicurus’ work, reduced it to a school of thought that merely promotes either asceticism or a life of vulgarity. DeWitt meticulously counters the arguments and elucidates the true greatness of the timeless philosophy of Epicurus. I would like to take Epicurus out of the realm of the invisible and, maybe inspired by Malabou, take part in the new philosophical praxis that is actually trying to move the world forward. This study could be aided by a book I have found recently by Pamela Gordon, titled ‘The invention and Gendering of Epicurus’. Secondly I would like to propose some more subcultural research into communities that practice a Great Refusal, for instance free-living squat communities, or Osho communities and of course modern Epicureans – how can we turn their Great Refusals into a wholesome political quest that will lead to the total transformation of society (as they often seem to, from my experience, practice such radical discourses that the mass will not accept their message or regard their way of life as something attainable). Also to locate the legacy of Epicureanism in the current practices of Great Refusal. How can we then make these practices function politically? Thirdly I would love to see some psychological research into the Tetrapharmakon and its applicability – of course combining this with a more diverse collection of Epicurean teachings. I want to find real scientific proof for my intuition and the ~ 71 ~

small first steps made by modern Epicureans that seem to point to the real liberatory and therapeutical function of the Epicurean doctrines. As political philosophy is one of my main interests I would also fourthly want to perform more research into the political vision of Epicurus, in order to find the political possibilities of a form of New Epicurean socialism. Will the focus on the individual and their happiness, with the simultaneous focus on the community and friendship lead to a pragmatically attainable growth of the left that could be sustainable and lead the way into the new society? Fifthly a project already in the making, as I am at this moment writing a paper on Neoliberal Governmentality and resistance tactics as proposed by Michel Foucault, and I think that his theory on considering life as art and the art of critique as a way of life can be of great value in the discussion of new subjectivity creation, especially thinking of how the New Sage will take form. In order to solve the extremely complex issues at hand today I think it is important and necessary to take from all possible genius in history and combine them into pragmatic plans to counter the oppressive workings of modern neoliberal Consumptias. I would also like to see some kind of comparative analysis of Epicureanism and non-western philosophies such as Buddhism. They instinctively seem very similar, but could Epicureanism be more effective in combating consumer society as the faculty of reason is more widely accepted in the Western stream of thought? Lastly I would love to commence with building a greater framework of Marcusian and Epicurean teachings, maybe combined with Foucault, to envision a new utopian free and happy way of life – I have only just begun!

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