DOCSLIB.ORG

Human Rights and Creed Research and Consultation Report

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Human Rights and Creed Research and Consultation Report Human Rights and Creed Research and consultation report ISBN: 978-1-4606-3360-1 (Print) 978-1-4606-3361-8 (HTML) 978-1-4606-3362-5 (PDF) © 2013 Queen’s Printer for Ontario Available in various formats Also available online: www.ohrc.on.ca Disponible en français Human rights and creed research and consultation report Contents I. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1 1. Setting the context................................................................................................... 1 2. The purpose of this report........................................................................................ 2 3. Criteria for assessing and developing human rights policy ...................................... 2 II. Executive summary................................................................................................... 3 III. Background and context ......................................................................................... 7 Key questions .............................................................................................................. 7 1. Current social and demographic trends ................................................................... 7 1.1 Diversity of creed beliefs and practices.............................................................. 7 1.2 Individual belief and practice............................................................................ 10 1.3 Policy and program trends ............................................................................... 10 2. Historical trends..................................................................................................... 11 2.1 Religion and state relations historically in Canada........................................... 11 2.2 Historical forms of discrimination based on creed............................................ 12 2.3 Evolving policy and legal protections for religion and creed............................. 16 3. Current discrimination trends................................................................................. 17 3.1 Profile of HRTO creed applications (2010-2011).............................................. 17 3.1.2 Applications by creed affiliation ................................................................. 19 Intersecting grounds ........................................................................................... 21 3.1.3 Social areas............................................................................................... 22 3.1.4 Accommodation......................................................................................... 23 3.1.5 Sex ............................................................................................................ 24 3.1.6 Geographical distribution........................................................................... 25 3.2 Underlying trends in research and consultation ............................................... 25 3.2.1 Increase of religion-based hate crime........................................................ 25 3.2.2 Polarization of public debate...................................................................... 26 3.2.3 Racializing creed discrimination and prejudice.......................................... 27 3.2.4 Antisemitism .............................................................................................. 27 3.2.5 Islamophobia ............................................................................................. 29 3.2.6 Globalization.............................................................................................. 32 3.2.7 Anti-religion................................................................................................ 33 3.2.8 Inter and intra creed disputes and intersections ........................................ 33 4. Systemic faithism................................................................................................... 34 4.1 Residual Christianity and systemic faithism ..................................................... 34 4.2 Closed secularism and systemic faithism......................................................... 37 4.2.1 History, definition and goals of the secular ................................................ 37 4.2.2 Secular models: open versus closed ......................................................... 38 4.2.3 The Canadian model ................................................................................. 38 4.2.4 Tensions and points of debate about religion in the public sphere ............ 39 Limitations on freedom of religion in the public sphere ................................... 39 Neutrality and its limits .................................................................................... 41 4.3. Consequences of systemic faithism ................................................................ 44 i Human rights and creed research and consultation report IV. Defining creed........................................................................................................ 45 Key questions ............................................................................................................ 45 1. Context .................................................................................................................. 45 1.1 Current OHRC policy definition ........................................................................ 45 1.2 Developments in law ........................................................................................ 46 2. Arguments for not limiting the definition of creed to religion and including secular ethical and moral beliefs ............................................................ 47 2.1. Principles of statutory construction and interpretation..................................... 47 2.1.1 Presumption against tautology and of consistent expression .................... 47 2.1.2 Avoiding logical absurdities ....................................................................... 49 2.1.3 Equal standing of French and English language versions of the Code...... 50 2.1.4 Interpreting the Code consistently with the Charter ................................... 50 2.1.5 Liberal and purposive interpretation of the Code ....................................... 52 2.2 Social trends: secularization and the evolving nature of beliefs ....................... 52 2.2.1 Leaving creed definition open-ended allows us to adapt anti-discrimination legislation to evolving trends in society.............. 54 2.3 Consistency with domestic and international law and jurisprudence................ 55 2.3.1 International human rights law................................................................... 55 2.3.2 Domestic case law..................................................................................... 55 3. Arguments for maintaining the OHRC’s 1996 policy definition of creed as “religion”............................................................................... 57 3.1 Equality focus and purpose of human rights legislation ................................... 57 3.2 Uniqueness of religion merits distinct protections ............................................ 59 3.3 Distinction between rights based on conscience and religion and existing protections irrespective of belief....................................................................... 60 3.4 Floodgate and impact arguments..................................................................... 61 3.5 Legislative intent .............................................................................................. 62 4. Potential threshold criteria for qualifying as a creed .............................................. 64 4.1 United Kingdom example: the Grainger test..................................................... 65 5. Possible impact and repercussions of expanding the definition of creed............... 66 V. Creed accommodation and inclusive design ....................................................... 67 Key questions ............................................................................................................ 67 1. Context .................................................................................................................. 67 1.1 Purpose and aim of accommodation................................................................ 67 2. Legal framework .................................................................................................... 68 2.1 Prima facie discrimination and appropriateness analysis................................. 69 2.2 Critiques of “accommodation” discourse and framework ................................. 71 2.3 Continuum of accommodation: from systemic to individual.............................. 71 2.4 Accommodation and competing rights ............................................................. 73 3. Issues unique to creed accommodation ................................................................ 74 3.1 Unique dimensions of creed: perspectives from the ground ............................ 74 3.2 Collective creed accommodations: accommodating the needs of the group.... 75 3.3 Establishing the existence of a creed............................................................... 76 3.4. Observances versus practices ........................................................................ 77 3.5 Applying Charter analyses in the Code context...............................................
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Unravelling the Indian Conception of Secularism: Tremors of the Pandemic and Beyond
    Katrak, N and Kulkarni, S. 2021. Unravelling the Indian Conception of Secularism: Tremors of the Pandemic and Beyond. Secularism and Nonreligion, 10: 4, pp. 1–12. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5334/snr.145 RESEARCH ARTICLE Unravelling the Indian Conception of Secularism: Tremors of the Pandemic and Beyond Malcolm Katrak* and Shardool Kulkarni† The State’s engagement with religion has formed one of the recurring themes of conflict in India’s demo- cratic experiment. The Indian model of secularism, which evolved in an attempt to resolve this conflict, has distinguished itself from separation-model secularism. This paper seeks to analyse the impact of the measures undertaken during the COVID-19 pandemic on the Indian understanding of secularism. To this end, it provides an overview of the nature and evolution of Indian secularism. Thereafter, it encapsulates the steps taken by the State to meet the exigencies of the present contagion and attempts to gauge the impact of the said steps on the jurisprudence on religious freedoms. It then seeks to contextualise this impact by using it to inform the Indian conception of secularism and, thereby, promote a richer, more holistic understanding of how a deeply divided society has functioned as a secular State for seven decades. 1 Introduction much of the globe in crisis, chaos and panic, has not left Religion has frequently formed the bone of socio-politi- India untouched. The pandemic is not only a public health cal contention in India; a country whose social milieu is crisis of monumental proportions but has had cascading characterised in equal parts by its multicultural diver- effects on almost all aspects of public life across the globe sity and inter-religious strife.
    [Show full text]
  • Islam and Justice AAIMS Inaugural Conference on the Study of Islam and Muslim Societies
    Islam and Justice AAIMS Inaugural Conference on the Study of Islam and Muslim Societies Date: 18-19 December 2017 Venue: Copland Theatre, 198 Berkeley Street, The University of Melbourne Parkville, VIC 3010 Sponsors National Centre of Excellence for Islamic Studies Asia Institute School of Historical and Philosophical Studies, Faculty of Arts University of Melbourne Alfred Deakin Institute for Citizenship and Globalisation Deakin University Institute for Religion, Politics and Society Australian Catholic University Routledge Taylor and Francis Group Conference Conveners Professor Abdullah Saeed AM Sultan of Oman Chair in Islamic Studies | 3 Director, National Centre of Excellence for Islamic Studies University of Melbourne Professor Vedi Hadiz Deputy Director, Asia Institute University of Melbourne Conference Committee Professor Shahram Akbarzadeh Deputy Director (International), Alfred Deakin Institute for Citizenship and Globalisation Deakin University Associate Professor Richard Pennell Al-Tajir Lecturer in Middle Eastern & Islamic History School of Historical and Philosophical Studies University of Melbourne Dr Joshua Roose Director, Institute for Religion Politics and Society The Australian Catholic University National Centre of Excellence for Islamic Studies (NCEIS) The National Centre of Excellence for Islamic Studies aims to advance the knowledge and | 4 understanding of the rich traditions and modern complexities of Islam, and to profile Australia's strengths in the field of Islamic studies. The Centre's activities will focus on issues of significance and relevance to Islam and Muslims in the contemporary period with a special focus on Australia. The Centre's courses aim to provide a knowledge and skill foundation for students aspiring to religious and community leadership roles in Australia and will provide opportunities for professional development in relevant areas.
    [Show full text]
  • Why Are You “Active”? - Voices of Young Muslim Women Post-9/11
    WHY ARE YOU “ACTIVE”? - VOICES OF YOUNG MUSLIM WOMEN POST-9/11 by Jabeen Aslam A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Masters of Arts Graduate Department of Sociology and Equity Studies in Education Ontario Institute for Studies in Education University of Toronto © Copyright by Jabeen Aslam (2011) WHY ARE YOU “ACTIVE”? - VOICES OF YOUNG MUSLIM WOMEN POST-9/11 Master of Arts 2011 Jabeen Aslam Department of Sociology and Equity Studies in Education University of Toronto Abstract Contributing to the literature on the Muslim experience post-9/11, the purpose of this study was to engage with a group that is often talked about, but not with: Muslim youth. Using an integrative anti-racist and anti-colonial approach with an emphasis on a spiritual way of knowing, this study gives voice to young Muslim activists in Toronto who have made the choice to “do something”. The study aims to understand what motivates these young activists, particularly in the context of post-9/11 Islamophobia, with the goal being to challenge stereotypical perceptions of Muslims, while contributing to the body of knowledge that aims to disrupt dominant notions of what “Canadian” identity is. The following analysis helps answer this question, which includes the role of spirituality, the attachment to Canadian identity and the desire to educate. Key challenges and what these youth prescribe for Canada’s future are also discussed. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank the numerous individuals who have been instrumental in completing this project. First, to the seven young women interviewed in this paper – for your willingness to participate I am forever grateful.
    [Show full text]
  • Canadian Muslim Voting Guide: Federal Election 2019
    Wilfrid Laurier University Scholars Commons @ Laurier Sociology Faculty Publications Sociology Fall 2019 Canadian Muslim Voting Guide: Federal Election 2019 Jasmin Zine Wilfrid Laurier University, [email protected] Fatima Chakroun Wilfrid Laurier University Shifa Abbas Wilfrid Laurier University Follow this and additional works at: https://scholars.wlu.ca/soci_faculty Part of the Islamic Studies Commons, and the Sociology Commons Recommended Citation Zine, Jasmin; Chakroun, Fatima; and Abbas, Shifa, "Canadian Muslim Voting Guide: Federal Election 2019" (2019). Sociology Faculty Publications. 12. https://scholars.wlu.ca/soci_faculty/12 This Report is brought to you for free and open access by the Sociology at Scholars Commons @ Laurier. It has been accepted for inclusion in Sociology Faculty Publications by an authorized administrator of Scholars Commons @ Laurier. For more information, please contact [email protected]. PREPARED BY CANADIAN ISLAMOPHOBIA INDUSTRY RESEARCH PROJECT TABLE OF C ONTENTS Summary of Federal Party Grades 1 How to Use this Guide 1 Introduction 2 Muslim Canadian Voters 2 Key Issues 2 Key Issues 1 Alt-Right Groups & Islamophobia 1 Motion 103 4 Religious Freedom and Dress in Quebec (BILL 21 & BILL 62) 3 Immigration/Refugees 4 Boycott, Divestment, Sanctions (BDS) Movement 5 Foreign Policy 4 Conclusion 4 References by Section 5 The Canadian Muslim Voting Guide is led by Dr. Jasmin Zine, Professor, Wilfrid Laurier University. This guide was made possible with support from Hassina Alizai, Ryan Anningson, Sahver Kuzucuoglu, Doaa Shalabi, Ryan Hopkins and Phillip Oddi. The guide was designed by Fatima Chakroun and Shifa Abba. PAGE 01 S UMMARY OF FEDERAL PARTY GRADES Grades: P – Pass; N - Needs Improvement; F – Fail.
    [Show full text]
  • Religious Freedom As Equality 133 Frederick Mark Gedicks
    Routledge Handbook of Law and Religion The field of law and religion studies has undergone a profound transformation over the last 30 years, looking beyond traditional relationships between State and religious communities to include rights of religious liberty and the role of religion in the public space. This handbook features new, specially commissioned papers by a range of eminent scholars that offer a comprehensive overview of the field of law and religion. The book takes on an interdisciplinary approach, drawing from anthropology, sociology, theology and political science in order to explore how laws and court decisions concerning religion contribute to the shape of the public space. Key themes within the book include: • religious symbols in the public space; • religion and security; • freedom of religion and cultural rights; • defamation and hate speech; and • gender, religion and law. This advanced level reference work is essential reading for students, researchers and scholars of law and religion, as well as policy makers in the field. Silvio Ferrari is professor of Law and Religion at the University of Milan. He is Life Honorary President of the International Consortium for Law and Religion Studies and is an Editor-in- Chief of the Oxford Journal of Law and Religion. He received the 2012 Distinguished Service Award from the International Center for Law and Religion Studies. ‘Few areas of contemporary legal scholarship have developed so exponentially in so short a space of time as the interface between law and religion. This outstanding Handbook not only synthesises and systematises that body of scholarship but firmly anchors it within those broader interdisciplinary frameworks which are essential to its understanding.
    [Show full text]
  • Conflict Between Freedom of Expression and Religion in India—A Case Study
    Article Conflict between Freedom of Expression and Religion in India—A Case Study Amit Singh Centre for Social Studies, University of Coimbra, Colégio de S. Jerónimo Apartado 3087, 3000-995 Coimbra, Portugal; [email protected] Received: 24 March 2018; Accepted: 27 June 2018; Published: 29 June 2018 Abstract: The tussle between freedom of expression and religious intolerance is intensely manifested in Indian society where the State, through censoring of books, movies and other forms of critical expression, victimizes writers, film directors, and academics in order to appease Hindu religious-nationalist and Muslim fundamentalist groups. Against this background, this study explores some of the perceptions of Hindu and Muslim graduate students on the conflict between freedom of expression and religious intolerance in India. Conceptually, the author approaches the tussle between freedom of expression and religion by applying a contextual approach of secular- multiculturalism. This study applies qualitative research methods; specifically in-depth interviews, desk research, and narrative analysis. The findings of this study help demonstrate how to manage conflict between freedom of expression and religion in Indian society, while exploring concepts of Western secularism and the need to contextualize the right to freedom of expression. Keywords: freedom of expression; Hindu-Muslim; religious-intolerance; secularism; India 1. Background Ancient India is known for its skepticism towards religion and its toleration to opposing views (Sen 2005; Upadhyaya 2009), However, the alarming rise of Hindu religious nationalism and Islamic fundamentalism, and consequently, increasing conflict between freedom of expression and religion, have been well noted by both academic (Thapar 2015) and public intellectuals (Sorabjee 2018; Dhavan 2008).
    [Show full text]
  • A Comparative Reading of Taylor and Gandhi on Holistic Identity
    The Metaphysics of Diversity and Authenticity: A Comparative Reading of Taylor and Gandhi on Holistic Identity Author: Joshy P. Varghese Persistent link: http://hdl.handle.net/2345/bc-ir:104265 This work is posted on eScholarship@BC, Boston College University Libraries. Boston College Electronic Thesis or Dissertation, 2013 Copyright is held by the author, with all rights reserved, unless otherwise noted. Boston College Graduate School of Arts and Science Department of Philosophy THE METAPHYSICS OF DIVERSITY AND AUTHENTICITY: A COMPARATIVE READING OF TAYLOR AND GANDHI ON HOLISTIC IDENTITY a dissertation by JOSHY P. VARGHESE Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy April, 2013 ©Copy Right by JOSHY P. VARGHESE 2013 ABSTRACT THE METAPHYSICS OF DIVERSITY AND AUTHENTICITY: A COMPARATIVE READING OF TAYLOR AND GANDHI ON HOLISTIC IDENTITY By Joshy P. Varghese Director: Prof. Jeffrey Bloechl The human self and society in general have always been in transition and transformation. Our senses of ourselves and of our society are in dialectical relation with our sense of whether or to what degree we feel part of important dimensions such as religion and politics, which are both an expression of our identity and factors that may sometimes change our identity. In modern western society it seems that identity has shifted from what Charles Taylor calls “embeddedness” in religion to a mode of life where religion is, to a great extent, expected to be a personal matter and even a personal choice. This is not impossible to understand, and historical work shows us that there are important continuities between the modern reason that rejects religion and the religion that it rejects.
    [Show full text]
  • The Enduring Ambiguities of Japan's Postwar Secularism
    THE ENDURING AMBIGUITIES OF JAPAN’S POSTWAR SECULARISM David Rangdrol Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctorate in Philosophy degree in Political Science School of Political Studies Faculty of Social Sciences University of Ottawa © David Rangdrol, Ottawa, Canada, 2018 ABSTRACT Following decades of state control of religion, a secular constitution was introduced in Japan in 1947, presenting favourable prospects for safeguarding freedom of conscience and equality. However, the vague language used in Articles 20 and 89 of the constitution arguably complicated the task of creating a strong, liberal secular regime. This thesis, therefore, will describe how institutional flaws have compounded the secularism-related challenges linked to the revival of Shinto’s public role in the postwar era, as well as the controversies surrounding the creation of a powerful Buddhism-based political party, the Komeito. In this regard, the Japanese case provides an opportunity to reflect on similar issues elsewhere in the world. Indeed, attempts at fostering citizens’ civic cohesion are being challenged in nation-states worldwide; on one hand, by the absolutist goals of religio-political movements, and on the other, by state-led constructions of national and religious identities. The Japanese case can especially contribute to the debates concerning the introduction of secularism in non-Western societies – notably where the notions used to articulate secularism, such as the religion–state dichotomy, either are absent or lack deep cultural and historical roots. By focusing on the impact of key ambiguities found at the core of Japan’s secular rules, the thesis will argue that institutional design choices, rather than cultural barriers, are responsible for some of the most important challenges confronting secularism in Japan today.
    [Show full text]
  • Post 9/11 Challenges: a Study Into Conceptions of Controversy and Islam By
    University of Alberta Post 9/11 Challenges: A Study into Conceptions of Controversy and Islam by Zahra Nooruddin Kasamali A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Education Department of Secondary Education ©Zahra Nooruddin Kasamali Spring 2012 Edmonton, Alberta Permission is hereby granted to the University of Alberta Libraries to reproduce single copies of this thesis and to lend or sell such copies for private, scholarly or scientific research purposes only. Where the thesis is converted to, or otherwise made available in digital form, the University of Alberta will advise potential users of the thesis of these terms. The author reserves all other publication and other rights in association with the copyright in the thesis and, except as herein before provided, neither the thesis nor any substantial portion thereof may be printed or otherwise reproduced in any material form whatsoever without the author's prior written permission. Abstract One of the primary aims of education is assisting students in shaping their world- views through the presentation of multiple perspectives on many topics. Teachers have the responsibility to foster thought-provoking questions, insights and dialogue amongst their students. Within the context of post 9/11 education, it is rather challenging for many teachers to address controversial topics that they believe may be distastefully welcomed and invoke much discomfort amongst some students, parents and administrators. This study explores how two Religious Studies professors conceptualized controversy and the discussion of controversial topics in their religion courses. Further, notions gathered from participants were utilized to facilitate how secondary Social Studies teachers approach controversial topics, especially about religion and Islam specifically, with their students.
    [Show full text]
  • “Secularism, Religion and Multicultural Citizenship”
    ˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉˉ UDK: 299.5 316.74:2 Geoffrey Brahm Levey and Tariq Modood (eds.): “SECULARISM, RELIGION AND MULTICULTURAL CITIZENSHIP” Cambridge University Press; Cambridge, 2009. What is the optimum relationship between a state and the religions to which its citizens adhere? Does secularism constitute a viable paradigm for the organisation of contemporary multicultural, multi-faith societies? Do Muslims represent a specific type of challenge to Western, liberal democracies in this regard? These questions, first forced into public, political and academic consciousness by the controversy surrounding Salman Rushdie’s Satanic Verses, are here re-addressed on the twentieth anniversary of its publication. Amongst a myriad of significant developments in the intervening years, an increase in religiosity and mobilisation on the basis of religiously grounded social identities and the global, national and local repercussions of 9/11 have ensured that they remain salient. This volume is the product of a symposium on Religion and Multicultural Citi- zenship held at the University of NSW, Sydney in 2005. Its academic contributors write from a variety of disciplinary perspectives across the social and political sciences. The four chapters which comprise the first of two parts examine the history, terms and limits of Western secularism. Each, in its way, mounts a critique of hegemonic conceptualisations of secularism as liberal monolith and posits, in stead, an understanding of secularism (or better, secularisms) as historically contingent. The logic underpinning the collective project of re-imagining secularism as both de-and prescriptively multiplex is twofold. Firstly, it facilitates a rediscovery (and recovery) of the ‘principled pragmatism’ inherent in original attempts to separate the temporal (state) and spiritual (religious) realms in the interest of civil peace.
    [Show full text]
  • RELIGIOUS FREEDOM Sahla Farsana Ck1
    Volume 2nd Issue 2nd December 2018 ISSN: 2456-9666 RELIGIOUS FREEDOM Sahla Farsana Ck1 In a multi-religious and spiritually advanced country like India, Freedom of Religion guaranteed as a fundamental right under Article 25 and Article 26 of the constitution of India. This right is a matter of spiritual significance. India does not accept any religion as state religion and it maintains absolute neutrality and impartiality towards all religions. Hence India is a perfect example of a secular state-flanked by theocracies in the East and West. Right to Religion guarantees to every person, and not merely the citizens of India, the freedom of conscience and the right freely to profess, practise and propagate religion. This is subject, in every case, to public order, health and morality. Thus, subject to the restrictions which the article imposes, every person has a fundamental right not merely to entertain such religious belief as may be approved of by his judgment or conscience but to exhibit his belief and ideas in such overt acts as are enjoined or sanctioned by his religion and further to propagate his religious views for edification of others. Conscience and religious matters are intensely personal. But, when such faith and belief manifest themselves into “outer acts” like customs, observances, rituals and practices under and /or in the name of religion, they get separated from the universality of conscience, which is the core of religion and when pitted against social order-degenerate into religionism or freedom to follow a name or designated religion, identifiable with and /or followed by a particular caste, community named after it.
    [Show full text]
  • The Future of Muslims in Canada
    A Delicate Mosaic: The Future of Muslims in Canada Sahar Khelifa* Abstract Islam has had a long and, recently, very contested history in Canada. Studies after 9/11 show an increasingly negative view towards Islam and Muslims in Canada. The presence of Canadian Muslim diaspora, supposed clashes between Islam and the West, and the rise of Islamophobia and counter anti-Islamophobia movements have strained Muslim integration efforts and challenged Islam’s place in Canadian society, testing long-standing Canadian values and beliefs about multiculturalism, democracy and pluralism. This paper addresses the question of Canadian-Muslim integration, looking briefly at the history of Muslims in Canada, the issues they face today, and current events regarding Islam’s place in Canadian society, including Bill 94 and the niqab debate during the 2015 Canadian election. The paper also proposes a process where Muslim communities, the Canadian government and the public can work together to build understanding and resolve differences in order to move forward as a country. Keywords: Islam, Muslims, Canada, Canadian Muslims, integration, multiculturalism, immigrants, Islamophobia, anti- Islamophobia, policy of recognition, Islam vs. the West, Bill 94, niqab “It is not our differences that divide us. It is our inability to percent of Quebecers held unfavourable views of Islam recognize, accept, and celebrate those differences.” (Geddes). Four years later in 2013, the same study was -Audre Lorde conducted and found 54 percent of Canadians and 69 percent of Quebecers held unfavourable views of Islam, an Preamble increase of nearly 10 percent for Canadians outside of Quebec; Canada’s view on Islam is getting worse (Geddes).
    [Show full text]