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IFLA JOURNAL

Ofﬁcial Journal of the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions Volume 31 (2005) No. 1, pp. 1–122. ISSN 0340-0352 SAGE Publications

CONTENTS

Editorial: Fresh from Buenos Aires Stephen Parker ...... 3 ICT Skills for Information Professionals in Developing Countries: perspectives from a study of the electronic information environment in Nigeria Linda Ashcroft and Chris Watts ...... 6 The British Library and E-Learning Lynne Brindley ...... 13 Democracy Building Activities in the Swedish Riksdag; the role of a parliamentary library Margareta Brundin ...... 19 Unreliable Research: are librarians liable? Ann Curry ...... 28 Librarians and Basic Education Teachers in the Context of ‘Digital Literacy’ Emilia Ferreiro ...... 35 NGOs, ICTs and Information Dissemination in Asia and Oceania Elizabeth Reade-Fong and Gary E. Gorman ...... 45 Copyright Protection as Access Barrier for People who Read Differently: the case for an international approach J.W. Roos ...... 52 European Emigration Records, 1820–1925 George R. Ryskamp ...... 68 Citations and Links as a Measure of Effectiveness of Online LIS Journals Alastair G. Smith ...... 76 The Manuscript Collections of Europe: a mirror of migration, separation and reuniﬁcation as seen in the Alexander von Humboldt Collection in Berlin Jutta Weber ...... 85 REPORT The Herzogin Anna Amalia Library after the Fire Michael Knoche ...... 90 NEWS (with separate Table of Contents) ...... 93 INTERNATIONAL CALENDAR ...... 107 ABSTRACTS 109 — SOMMAIRES 111 — ZUSAMMENFASSUNGEN 114 — RESÚMENES 117 — Ρефераты статей 119 ...... 109 Notes for Contributors ...... 122

Visit http://iﬂ.sagepub.com Free access to table of contents and abstracts. Site-wide access to the full text for members of subscribing institutions. IFLA Journal Ofﬁcial Journal of the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions ISSN 0340-0352 [print] 1745-2651 [online]

Published 4 times a year in March, June, October and December

Editor: Stephen Parker, c/o IFPRI-ISNAR Program, ILRI, PO Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Tel. +251 1 463 215; Fax: +251 1 461 252/464 645. E-mail: [email protected] Editorial Committee Ramón Abad Hiraldo (Chair), Biblioteca Universitaria de Zaragoza, Spain. E-mail: [email protected] Charles Batambuze, National Library of Uganda, Kampala, Uganda. E-mail: [email protected] Lis Byberg, Faculty of Journalism, Library and Information Science, Oslo University College, Norway. E-mail: [email protected] Heinz Fuchs, Niedersächsische Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek, Göttingen, Germany. E-mail: [email protected] Yoshitaka Kawasaki, Professor, Library and Information Science, Graduate School of Education, Kyoto University, Japan. E-mail: [email protected] Ludmila F. Kozlova, Department of Foreign Library Science and International Library Relations, Russian State Library, Moscow, Russian Federation. E-mail: [email protected] David Miller, Levin Library Curry College, Milton, MA, USA. E-mail: [email protected] Víctor Federico Torres, Biblioteca Regional del Caribe y de Estudios, Universidad de Puerto Rico, USA. E-mail: [email protected] Maria Witt, 14, rue Thèophraste Renaudot, 75015 Paris, France, E-mail: [email protected] Nancy Gwinn (Chair, Publications Committee, ex ofﬁcio), Smithsonian Institution Libraries, Chevy Chase, MD, USA. E-mail: [email protected] Stephen Parker (United Kingdom) (Editor, ex ofﬁcio) Publisher SAGE Publications, London, Thousands Oaks and New Dehli. Copyright © 2005 International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions. Apart from fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, and only as permitted under the Copyright Designs and Patents Act, 1998, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction, in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside those terms should be sent to the publishers at the address below. Annual subscription (4 issues, 2005) Free to IFLA members. Non-members: full rate (includes electronic version) £158/$269. Prices include postage. Full rate subscriptions include the right for members of the subscribing institution to access the electronic content of the journal at no extra charge from SAGE. The content can be accessed online through a number of electronic journal intermediaries, who may charge for access. Free email alerts of contents listings are also available. For full details visit the SAGE website: www.sagepublications.com Student discounts, single issue rates and advertising details are available from SAGE Publications, 1 Oliver’s Yard, 55 City Road, London EC1Y 1SP, UK. Tel: +44 (0) 20 7324 8500; fax +44 (0) 20 7324 8600; email: [email protected]; website: www.sagepublications.com. In North America from SAGE Publications, 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91359, USA. The IFLA Journal is abstracted/indexed in Multicultural Education Abstracts and PAIS International. Typeset by Type Study, Scarborough, North Yorkshire Printed in Great Britain on acid-free paper by The Cromwell Press Ltd, Trowbridge, Wiltshire EDITORIAL Fresh from Buenos Aires

Stephen Parker of the Library’s approach to e-learning and describes how its online learning resources are Almost 4,000 participants from 121 countries used by different groups of learners. The paper attended the World Library and Information touches on some of the challenges of delivering a Congress, the 70th IFLA General Conference in widely accessible learning programme and poses Buenos Aires, Argentina, in August 2004. From questions which the new possibilities offered by among the nearly 200 papers and presentations e-learning pose for national libraries. at the Congress, Division and Section Commit- tees recommended 50 for consideration by the The third paper, by Margareta Brundin, describes IFLA Journal Editorial Committee for possible the activities of a new office created by the Par- publication in the journal. After carefully review- liament of Sweden (the Riksdag) with the aim of ing all 50 papers, the Editorial Committee increasing knowledge of and interest in the selected 19 for publication during 2005. This Riksdag and its work among the general public — issue contains the first of these papers; others especially young people. The open-door policy will be published in forthcoming issues. and regional activities of the Riksdag Library, and its training programmes for librarians from all The ten Buenos Aires Conference papers in this over Sweden, help to satisfy the need of the issue reflect something of the wide range of topics public for accurate and easily accessible informa- and issues with which IFLA is concerned, and the tion on the work and decisions of the Riksdag wide geographical spread of its membership. The and so contribute to building democracy. papers deal with such diverse topics as education and training of information professionals, the A completely different topic is dealt with in the provision of e-learning services to the general next paper, by Ann Curry, in which she examines public, the work of parliamentary libraries, pro- cases of fraud and deception in research, the fessional liability for the quality of research, reasons why some researchers transgress the digital literacy, information dissemination by accepted rules in this way and the ineffectiveness non-governmental organizations, copyright of publishers and reviewers as gatekeepers. problems affecting the print-disabled, emigration While librarians and LIS researchers seem records, online professional journals and the unlikely to conduct or publish unreliable preservation of manuscript collections, and their research, problems can arise when librarians dis- authors come from the United Kingdom, Sweden, tribute unreliable research in their collections. Canada, Argentina, Fiji, New Zealand, South Nevertheless, withdrawing all unreliable Africa, the United States and Germany. research from library collections may not be desirable, as it may contain grains of truth that The first paper, by Linda Ashcroft and Chris could result in future, reliable research. Watts, deals with ‘ICT Skills for Information Professionals in Developing Countries: perspec- In the next paper, Emilia Ferreiro looks critically tives from a study of the electronic information at the notion of ‘digital literacy’. She contends environment in Nigeria’, and describes a that literacy is not a static notion because literacy research project carried out at Liverpool John requirements change across time and places. Moores University in the UK into the provision While the introduction of ICTs has led to radical of electronic information in Nigeria. The project changes in the ways of producing and dissemi- identified a significant skills gap amongst infor- nating texts, it has not change the conceptual mation professionals in terms of their ability to nature of the literacy process. The paper explores make effective use of information and communi- the relationship between the elementary school cation technologies, and concluded that the and the new technologies, and concludes that it problem might be alleviated through collabora- is too risky to depend only on computers to tion and the strategic management of resources. improve literacy. Librarians can help make more effective use of ICTs in educational contexts, as In the second paper, Lynne Brindley, Chief Exec- they have already adopted these technologies utive of the British Library, provides an overview while teachers are still reluctant to use them.

The next paper, by Elizabeth Reade-Fong and guidance for LIS authors and journal editors to Gary E. Gorman, looks at the way in which help them make effective use of online journals. NGOs in Asia and Oceania use information and ICTs for sustainable capacity building. The The final Buenos Aires Congress paper in this authors suggest that communication strategies issue, by Jutta Weber, notes that manuscripts and that take into account the social nature of access, their creators are subject to the conditions of recognize the interaction between face-to-face history, and shows how the history of the Alexan- and online communications, and combine der von Humboldt Collection in Berlin is a history Internet use with a broad range of other new and of the migration of manuscripts, the separation of old media provide the best opportunities for sus- parts of the collection, and their reunification. This tainable development initiatives through the use leads to some more general observations on the of ICTs. They address this issue through a series safety of the original locations of manuscripts and of questions relating to the barriers to ICT their safe preservation in other locations. The adoption, the most appropriate mix of ICT-based author suggests that there are good reasons to and print-based information, the reactions of build an alliance of institutions willing to cooper- different cultures to information accessed ate with respect to these questions. remotely rather than face-to-face, the extent to which NGOs collaborate in sharing develop- This issue also contains a report by Michael ment-related information, and the facilitators Knoche, describing the fire which destroyed the and barriers to more effective collaboration. historic building and a large part of the book collection of the Herzogin Anna Amalia Library in The next paper, by J.W. Roos, is concerned with Weimar, in Germany in September 2004 and the the access barriers to print which copyright pro- challenge of restoration work which must be tection creates for people with print disabilities. faced. The analysis of this problem should not be confined to Braille and audio materials, but to The Tango Conference? other means of disseminating information to the print-disabled through the use of new technolo- In her report on the Buenos Aires Congress gies. While several countries have attempted to (IFLA Journal Vol. 30, no. 4, 2004) Ia solve the problems of access posed by copyright McIlwaine, Chair of the Professional Commit- protection through legislation, these attempts tee, described it as ‘The Tango Conference’. This have not always given rise to perfect solutions. was the tango . . . ?

The next paper, by George R. Ryskamp, notes that, while European emigration records provide extensive information about individual emigrants, often including their places of origin, no survey of all such records exists and there is not even a complete list of records types and locations for any single European country. The paper describes the work of the Immigrant Ancestors Project at Brigham Young University in the USA and identiﬁes the various record types generated by emigrants in the process of emigration, giving examples from several countries where each type of record may be found.

The paper by Alastair G. Smith examines the use of citation counts and web links to evaluate online LIS journals, and compares the Web Impact Factors of a sample of online LIS journal websites with their conventional citation counts. Links to online journals are often considered to be equivalent to citations, but there are signiﬁcant differences. The paper provides indications of how effective the online medium is for communicating LIS research and offers

4 Fresh from Buenos Aires

Goodbye and Hello! wrought in many countries by the recent tsunami in the Indian Ocean, many libraries of many Exactly one year ago, in IFLA Journal Vol. 30, kind, many books and other materials — and, we no. 1, 2004, the Editorial, by IFLA Secretary fear, many librarians and library workers — have General Ross Shimmon, was entitled ‘Farewell undoubtedly disappeared, along with schools, and Good Luck’. Ross was announcing his clinics, homes and many other buildings — and, impending retirement after some ﬁve years at the worst of all, many thousands of people. helm of IFLA and welcoming his successor, R. Ramachandran. In this issue, we regretfully say We draw the attention of our readers to the goodbye to Mr Ramachandran, and hello to his President’s appeal, on page 94, for all IFLA successor, Peter Lor, who takes up his appoint- members to help their colleagues in the affected ment on 1 February 2005. See the News Section countries in any way possible. One of the worst (‘From the Secretariat’, p. 97) for more details. affected countries, Sri Lanka, has already begun to organize its reconstruction efforts and is appealing for help, both in these pages and via Tsunami News the IFLA-L listserv. Our colleagues in other The News Section opens with a heading which countries hit by the tsunami will doubtless also we are sure has never appeared in IFLA Journal be taking similar actions in the near future, and before, and hope will never have to appear again we join the President in urging all IFLA — ‘Tsunami News’. Among the devastation members to help in any way they can.

5 ICT Skills for Information Professionals in Developing Countries: perspectives from a study of the electronic information environment in Nigeria

Linda Ashcroft and Chris Watts Information Communication Technology (ICT) skills Linda Ashcroft is Reader of Infor- in the Information Age mation Management at the School of Business Information, In recent years, work for the information profession has become Liverpool John Moores University, characterized by fast-paced change and new skills requirements. 98 Mount Pleasant, Liverpool L3 This transformation has been brought about by the constant 5UZ, UK. She manages various emergence of relevant new technologies. Information profession- funded research projects and has als are increasingly required to adapt their skills and practice in developed special expertise in the order to gain an awareness of technological advances. As a result, research area of electronic the profession itself exists in a state of ﬂux alongside these resources. She is involved in a emerging technologies, with traditional roles being increasingly wide range of professional activi- subsumed by new skills and working environments, and, there- ties. She has been Chair of fore, job descriptions (Ashcroft, 2004). BAILER (British Association for Information and Library Education Thus, information professionals are now expected to be aware of and Research), has chaired the and capable of using and demonstrating emerging ICTs Continuing Professional Educa- (Nwakanma, 2003). There is a need for additional training to tion Round Table of IFLA and augment the traditional skills knowledge base with a competency serves on the committee of the in ICT use. Information professionals must be ﬂexible, and adapt IFLA Library and Information traditional skills to incorporate the requirements of technological Science Journals Section. E-mail: advances (Biddiscombe, 2001; Sharp, 2001). Given the current sit- [email protected]. uation, wherein ICTs are being continuously updated or introduced and traditional formats are being replaced or supplemented Chris Watts is a researcher in the by digital formats (such as e-journals and e-books), it seems likely School of Business Information at that there will continue to be a need for regular training for infor- Liverpool John Moores University. mation professionals. His research interests include electronic health care information There is also an increased focus on communication skills, with resources, with an emphasis on more players involved in the electronic information environment. developing environments; social Information professionals are being called upon to work closely inclusion/exclusion; research gov- with ICT users and providers (including IT staff) and to work in ernance; and censorship and collaboration with others in the profession (Wittwer, 2001). Some public Internet access. E-mail: groups of users lack the necessary IT skills to obtain quality [email protected]. information (Stubbings and McNab, 2001) and information professionals will therefore be called upon to act as both educators and intermediaries (Sharp, 2001). Given these circumstances, information professionals are required to have increased teaching and communication skills.

Thus, it is vital for those in management positions to recognize the imperative of continuing professional development (CPD) and ensure that staff are proactive in maintaining up-to-date levels of expertise.

The signiﬁcance of CPD in this climate has been acknowledged by both the United Kingdom’s Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals (CILIP) and the United States’ American Library Association (ALA).

Copyright © 2005 International Federation of Library Associations & Institutions (www.iﬂa.org). IFLA Journal 31(1): 6–12. 6 ISSN: 0340-0352. DOI: 10.1177/0340035205052638 ICT Skills for Information Professionals

CILIP (2004a) advocates pro-active CPD in support and promote a product that included a order to remain in touch with issues relevant to local toolkit for real-time web-based communi- the information profession, and to allow individ- cation, a local interface for managing and uals to take advantage of opportunities that answering enquiries and a network for global arise. CILIP (2004b) has produced a Framework participation. The system includes a knowledge for Continuing Professional Development base with which user enquiries are initially designed to assist in the building of a personal compared. If no answer is found, the question is portfolio, assessing competence and recording then routed to an appropriate institution (based CPD activities and needs. CILIP also offers a on areas of competence, opening hours and number of facilities to support CPD, including similar data). When the question is answered it workshops (in, for example, ICT and Internet is added to the base and sent back to the user. Skills, and Professional and Technical Skills), Collaboration is at the heart of the system, and conferences, a Chartership scheme, and advice the QuestionPoint model requires that libraries on professional practice. use it within local groups or join the global consortium if taking it on an individual basis. Education and Continuous Learning is one of five key action areas for the ALA, with lifelong Davis and Scholfield (2004) discuss the develop- learning seen as being integral to providing high ment of the digital reference services at the Uni- quality information services (ALA, 2004a). In versity of Technology Sydney (UTS) and its response to this, the ALA holds conferences and planned expansion as a part of a global network events that support CPD (ALA, 2004b). On of digital reference partners. They consider the three occasions, ALA has held a Congress for UTS digital reference partnership with the Uni- Professional Education that identified (among versity of Strathclyde, UK, in the light of possible others) appropriate issues concerning CPD for expansion of the consortium. With each institu- information professionals, including core com- tion’s research and teaching profiles being petencies. similar, the pilot stage of the collaboration was for the partner libraries to answer enquiries from the other institution during hours when their tra- ICT Skills and Reference Services ditional library services were closed. Davis and Scholfield found that despite the need to service The use of ICT skills spills over into all aspects the enquiries of a geographically remote institu- of library work, and the explosion of electronic tion, the global real-time consortium approach information delivery has resulted in the need for offers benefits to members, the most obvious electronic user support. Over the past few years benefit being a reduction in costs. They conclude a number of electronic reference services have from their experience that an expanded global developed in response to this need. OCLC’s reference consortium offers the best path QuestionPoint electronic reference system forward, both in terms of value for money and (http://www.questionpoint.org/) arose out of service enhancement. two projects which had been under development. The Collaborative Digital Reference Twenty-four hour global reference services are Service (CDRS) (http://www.loc.gov/rr/digi now increasing in a variety of library services. ref/) became a functional service in 2002, having The UK’s Somerset library service has linked been instigated by the Library of Congress. It with reference librarians in Richland County aimed to test “the potential for developing col- public library service in South Carolina, USA laborative and innovative responses” by using and with Brisbane City Council library service available technologies as a starting point in Queensland, Australia. This connection, (http://loc.gov/rr/digiref/history.htm). National, known as Answers Now (http://www.richland. public and academic libraries participated in the lib.sc.us/answersnow.htm) allows all three testing using the Remedy call management libraries to become global resources in an inno- system (http://remedy.com/) to provide the vative way. Another scheme called Global basis of the system. Questions were routed Librarian (http://www.globallibrarian.info/about. between institutions by an automatic algorithm, php) involves Southampton City Library in which used such criteria as subject and time of the UK, linking with Vaughan Public Libraries day to match the question with a suitable in Ontario, Canada. Links are being added to institution. A second project investigated the British Columbia, Melbourne and Surrey. Each development of services at a regional level. Thus library will be responsible for eight-hour OCLC and the Library of Congress were able to increments, and users access it through the

7 Linda Ashcroft and Chris Watts

libraries’ own websites (24 hour reference, discusses three types of digital divide: social 2002). (within countries), global (between countries) and democratic (those unable to use ICTs to take Whilst good communication skills have tradi- part in public life). The (social) digital divide has tionally been at the heart of reference service, an impact upon information professionals in these developments indicate the importance of developed environments, with many libraries expansion of communication beyond the user lacking resources and technical support, and focus into wider areas of collaboration. The staff needing continuously to acquire appropri- examples also indicate the increasing impor- ate training in order to deliver up-to-date tance of ICT skills. services and troubleshoot equipment (Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, 2004). Furthermore, expanded communication skills are also of importance in relation to free digital Regarding the global digital divide, Lim (1999) reference services (DRS). Lochore (2004) suggests that too much emphasis has been reports on an experiment to assess the perform- placed upon the development of ICT infrastruc- ance of freely available DRS, with three free ture in developing countries, and not enough DRS selected for the experiment: consideration has been given to human resource development. However, in order to understand 1. AllExperts (www.allexperts.com) claims to how ICTs impact upon skills development in be the oldest and largest free question and developing countries, it is necessary to recognize answer service on the Internet and is, in the situation that currently exists regarding the effect, a consortium of individual researchers. ICT infrastructure. For example, in Africa, one 2. Ask a Librarian (www.ask-a-librarian.org.uk) in 100 people have access to a PC; the few is a question and answer service provided by Internet Service Providers are comparatively a consortium of UK public libraries. expensive; power supplies may be unreliable 3. The University of California, Los Angeles e- (even non-existent) and telecommunications are mail reference service (www.library.ucla.edu/ sparse, with the 90 percent of the population contact/e-mail.html) is based within an indi- living in rural areas having only 50 percent of vidual academic library. the telephone lines (Jensen, 2002; Magara, 2002). The findings of this experiment demonstrated that DRS generally deliver accurate information, Steinmueller (2001) suggests that many ICT although the time to do so varies both between users are self-taught, and are capable of develop- services and within a service. Additional infor- ing an understanding of ICTs through the expe- mation provided with responses is often useful. rience of utilizing them. If this is the case, then Lochore concludes that collaboration is likely to countries unable to provide extensive access to continue so as to limit expenses incurred by indi- ICTs are inevitably marginalized, as they are less vidual institutions. Lochore also emphasizes the likely to produce capable self-taught persons. librarian’s user training role, pointing out that However, Steinmueller’s suggestion does indicate a more optimistic scenario for those instructing users on how to find information developing environments progressively provid- independently has always been one of the ing access to ICTs, as it suggests that staff may hallmarks of academic library services, and be able to gain at least some degree of expertise this should be given priority, in a digital through self-learning. environment. (Lochore, 2004, p. 28) A Nigerian Research Project The Impact of the Digital Divide on Skills Development A research project based at Liverpool John Moores University (LJMU) investigated the pro- There has been a great deal of discussion about vision of electronic information resources in the impact of digital information resources, par- Nigerian libraries. Focusing on Nigeria as an ticularly around what has been termed the example of a developing country, the project digital divide, or the split between those that examined existing electronic information have access to digital information resources and resources and identified barriers obstructing the those who do not. In general, the digital divide effective provision of electronic information. applies internationally. However, Norris (2001) The project commenced with a comprehensive 8 ICT Skills for Information Professionals search of secondary data sources to ascertain The collaborative approach is identified as current thinking in the area and also to identify important for digital reference services. The existing resources available online that address development of NUNet could encourage collab- the provision of electronic information in devel- oration between university libraries in Nigeria, oping countries. Following this, fieldwork was which could eventually work towards collabora- carried out in Nigeria by Dr Samuel Jimba, the tive digital reference services. Good communica- Webmaster at the Office of the Governor, whose tion skills are vital in any collaborative or local knowledge and contacts were crucial to the consortium situation in order to ensure that the success of the project. The fieldwork consisted of arrangements work for all involved. a questionnaire survey of information professionals in national and academic libraries that However, the research findings demonstrated are leaders in the provision of electronic infor- other issues that impinge on such developments. mation resources and then follow-up interviews Most responding libraries (university and with a sample of initial respondents. The ques- national) ranked a lack of strategic approach tionnaire responses established the nature of nationally as either significant or highly signifi- digital information within information cant, and all national libraries stated that a lack resources, information providers, awareness and of strategic approach within the organization uptake of national and international initiatives, was significant. In this context it is relevant that digital resource users, expenditure, collabora- policy-making staff formed a small group of tion, and barriers to provision of electronic users of e-resources for university libraries and resources. Interviews examined these issues in policy-making staff were not using e-resources in more depth, as well as looking into strategic all the national libraries surveyed (46.2 percent approaches, promotion and staff and user in total). Thus it seems that the development of training and education. communication skills could also be used to effect with policy makers. Results from the project showed that hardly any respondents had formed or joined a consortium Furthermore, most of the responding libraries for purchasing. A major anticipated benefit of voiced concern about a lack of ICT skills. This being part of a consortium is rationalization and lack permeates all levels. Comments included: cost saving. The consortium culture and strategy for libraries in developed countries is evident, “those at policy level do not have computer and a consortium can comprise both large and literacy” small institutions and both public and academic libraries. For example OhioLink — the Ohio [policy making staff have a] “serious lack of Library and Information Network in the US awareness of computer capabilities and (http://www.ohiolink.edu/) — is a consortium of computer skills are low” college and university libraries in Ohio, as well as the State Library. It serves 600,000 users over “unfortunately this institution does not offer 85 sites. In the UK, the M25 Consortium of official training — staff are however encour- Academic Libraries (http://www.m25lib.ac.uk/) aged to undertake training on their own” has over 50 member institutions and 150 member libraries amongst London-based, higher “in this institution staff are encouraged to education (and related) libraries within and train themselves”. around the M25 orbital motorway region. The consortium also has a group, the CPD25 Other areas included the shortage of technology (http://www.cpd25.ac.uk/index.html), which literate staff in libraries, the lack of skilled delivers training to all staff in academic libraries human resources to install and manage technol- in the London area. ogy and networks and poor funding to attract such staff or to develop such skills in existing Of those Nigerian university libraries surveyed, staff. Responses to questions about the measures only 38.5 percent were using NUNet, which is a required to support future use of e-resources project to connect all the Nigerian universities on demonstrated an overwhelming need for a wide area network and to the Internet. NUNet training/education/skills. Frequently occurring already provides dial-up e-mail services to 27 comments stressed the need for “increased ICT universities and inter-university centres across literacy”, “training and retraining of staff”, etc. the country. Take-up of NUNet is likely to improve as the programme continues to develop.

9 Linda Ashcroft and Chris Watts

In line with Steinmueller’s (2001) suggestion and institutional needs. It goes on to outline the that many ICT users are self taught, it would benefits of enhanced training for users and seem that, whilst free trials of e-resources (avail- measures to control undesirable usage. Librari- able from various suppliers) could facilitate self- ans are encouraged to use training to encourage teaching, so too could the free digital reference appropriate behaviour. This approach shifts the services. Experimentation and competence in emphasis away from managing costs to using such free services could inform strategic managing the consumption of the service itself, proposals for future development of services and so as to maximize its current benefit to users. could also inform user awareness and user edu- Furthermore, the INASP report looks at the cation. questions librarians need to ask of ICT and management in order to ensure their goals are met. In Nigeria, user education in universities has been summarized as uncoordinated, purely There are also opportunities to support training introductory and non-examinable. This scenario and skills needs outside developing environ- is replicated in most universities and other edu- ments. In Australia, a programme at the Univer- cation institutions across Africa. Consequently sity of Queensland Library is designed to meet “the meager information resources that one the skills needs of information professionals in finds in libraries are grossly under-utilized” developing countries. Jordan (2003) suggests (Mutula, 2004). A study at the University of that barriers to adequate ICT skills training in Zambia to determine usage of the campus developing countries arise from both lack of IT intranet and the Internet among academic staff literacy and the fact that many local library revealed that those who were not using the schools fail to integrate ICTs into their curricula. facility cited, among other reasons, lack of Goulding (2000) asserts that teaching depart- guidance on how to use the intranet and lack of ments have a responsibility to support the devel- technical know-how (Chifwepa, 2003). The opment of appropriate skills to deliver modern research found that implications for users were information services by incorporating new skills also recognized, as skills to raise the awareness requirements into syllabi. One solution is to of users were identified as an important impact encourage information professionals from factor, and in terms such as “technical know- developing countries to spend time learning in how of staff to stimulate the interest of users”. libraries in developed countries: This demonstrates the need for development of communication skills in terms of raising aware- They can engage in update courses, under- ness and user education. These skills need to be take targeted work experience placements, expanded towards collaborative ventures and ‘shadow’ library staff who are practitioners of communicating with management and policy the skills they need to acquire, participate in makers. management strategy meetings, observe and teach information skills for users — in short, However, a major problem needs consideration. observe, learn about, and practice any or all The research project found that when question- of the skills they need to acquire, in the en- ing barriers to the provision of e-resources, all vironment of a fully functioning library/ responding libraries cited accessibility problems information resource centre. (Jordan, 2003) as either significant or highly significant in terms of bandwidth and power. There is no easy The University of Queensland runs such a pro- solution to this problem, but a recent report gramme, calling it the Cybrary (www.cybrary. commissioned by the International Network for uq.edu.au), with courses and activities cus- the Availability of Scientific Publications tomized to meet specific user needs. For (INASP, 2003) has sought to address this diffi- example, client libraries may send staff for place- culty. One solution might be to press for less ment experience for up to three months, during costly access through pressure on governments which time they acquire designated, tangible to open telecommunications markets, partner- skills. Training consists of a set of generic ships across academic institutions to negotiate modules as well as hands-on practical experi- best connectivity arrangements, and promoting ence. ‘Train the trainer’ courses assist partici- take-up of Open Source opportunities. Yet the pants to increase their confidence so they can report also suggests a further approach, whereby pass on skills they have learned to colleagues. bandwidth is carefully managed, protected and Jordan stresses the importance of allowing shared, both by users and by staff with appropri- adequate time for participants to learn and ate technical expertise and understanding of user practice new skills, and follow-up training

10 ICT Skills for Information Professionals

(perhaps by e-mail). It is also imperative that loads/libraries/uslibraries/reports/TowardEqualityof participants can communicate their own needs Access.pdf. Accessed 6 May 2004. and goals and are able quickly to implement Chifwepa, V. (2003) The use of the intranet and internet aspects of their training on their return home. by teaching staff of the University of Zambia. African Journal of Library, Archives and Information Science, 13 (2), 119–132. Conclusions CILIP. (2004a) Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals: continuing professional development. Available online at: http://www.cilip. The research identified many free electronic org.uk/qualifications/cpd.html. Accessed 5 May resources made available through international 2004. initiatives. For example, INASP has library CILIP (2004b) Chartered Institute of Library and Infor- support programmes including policy develop- mation Professionals: continuing professional development. Document available online at: http://www. ment, experience sharing and a travelling cilip.org.uk/qualifications/Framework1.doc. Access- workshop for university librarians (providing ed 5 May 2004. training on using e-resources). Yet 77 percent of Davis, Keith and Sally Scholfield (2004) “Beyond the respondents were not using these resources and virtual shore”: an Australian digital reference service only one respondent was using INASP to with a global dimension. Library Review, 53 (1), support services. It was suggested that this was 61–65. because of lack of awareness: Goulding, A. (2001) Never the twain shall meet – Changing syllabi of LIS schools, or, From cat and class to intranet construction and does it matter? “until recently most institutions and libraries Impact, the Journal of the Career Development were not aware of these services” Group, 4 (4), Jul/Aug, 65–6. INASP. (2003) Optimising Internet bandwidth in devel- “initially management was not interested, oping country higher education. Available online probably due to lack of knowledge”. at: http://www.inasp.info/pubs/bandwidth/. Access- ed 13 May 2004. Jensen, M. (2002) African Internet status: a report. However, development of initiatives such as Document available online at: http://www3.sn. NUNet should help raise awareness about free apc.org/africa/afstat.htm. Accessed 6 May 2004. resources. Greater take-up of free resources Jordan, E. (2003) Cybrary skills in the tertiary environ- would allow for experimentation and self- ment: in-service education for librarians from devel- teaching of ICT skills, which, together with oping countries. Australian Library Journal, 52 (1). expanded communication and collaborative Available online at: http://www.alia.org.au/publish skills, may be cascaded to users. ing/alj/52.1/full.text/cybrary.skills.html. Accessed 7 May 2004. Lim, E. (1999) Human resource development for the References information society. Asian Libraries, 8 (5), 82–100. Lochore, Stephen. (2004) How good are the free digital 24-hour reference. (2002) Library + Information Update, reference services? A comparison of library-based 1 (7), 10. and expert services. Library Review, 53 (1), 24–29. ALA. (2004a) American Library Association: continuing Magara, E. (2002) Applications of digital libraries and education. Available online at: http://www.ala.org/ electronic technologies in developing countries: ala/education/educationcareers.htm. Accessed 5 practical experiences in Uganda. Library Review, 51 May 2004. (5), 241–255. ALA. (2004b) American Library Association: continuing Mutula, Stephen. (2004) IT diffusion in Sub-Saharan education. Document available online at: http:// Africa: implications for developing and managing www.ala.org/Template.cfm?Section=home&temp digital libraries. New Library World, 105 (7/8), late=/ContentManagement/ContentDisplay.cfm&C 281–289. ontentID=6490. Accessed 5 May 2004. Norris, P. (2001) Digital divide: civic engagement, infor- Ashcroft, L. (2004) Developing competencies, critical mation poverty and the Internet worldwide. Cam- analysis and personal transferable skills in future bridge University Press, Cambridge, England. information professionals. Library Review, 53 (2), Nwakanma, C.D. (2003) Information technology com- 82–88. petencies: identifying knowledge depths for library Biddiscombe, R. (2001) The development of information and information science education. Canadian professionals’ needs for Internet and IT skills: ex- Journal of Information and Library Science, 27 (4), periences at the University of Birmingham. Program, 75–6. 35 (2), Apr, 157–166. Sharp, K. (2001) Internet librarianship: traditional roles Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. (2004) Towards in a new environment. IFLA Journal, 27 (2), 78–81. equality of access: the role of public libraries in Steinmueller, W.E. (2001) ICTs and the possibilities for addressing the digital divide. Document available leapfrogging by developing countries. International online at: http://www.gatesfoundation.org/nr/Down Labour Review, 140 (2), 193–210.

11 Linda Ashcroft and Chris Watts

Stubbings, R. and A. McNab. (2001) ‘Why doesn’t it Original paper no. 028 presented at the World Library work?’: managing user expectation in an electronic and Information Congress, 70th IFLA General Confer- environment. In Graham, C., ed. Online Information ence, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 22–27 August 2004, in 2001. Proceedings. Oxford: Learned Information, session 127, Reference Work. English original and 129–133. French and Spanish translations available on IFLANET Wittwer, R. (2001) Special libraries – how to survive the at: http://www.ifla.org/IV/ifla70/prog04.htm. twenty–first century. Electronic Library, 19 (4), 221–225.

12 The British Library and E-Learning

Lynne Brindley Introduction

The British Library is a major international research library, a national cultural institution, an essential resource for science, technology and innovation, and a key component of the UK library system.

Figure 1 gives an overview of our ﬁve key audience groups (researchers; business; libraries; education; public) and a summary of the services we offer each group. As you can see, we are responsible for providing services across a wide spectrum of needs.

As a knowledge institution, the support of learning through our collections and services is a core element of our role, and everyone who uses the Library’s collections and services is in Lynne Brindley has been the Chief some sense a learner, whether: Executive of The British Library since 2000. Since her appoint- • the researcher in a pharmaceutical company who orders a ment, Lynne has led a major journal article from our collection to learn about a new scien- strategic repositioning and mod- tiﬁc development ernisation programme to ensure • the businessman who comes to look at market research reports that the BL continues to provide on our electronic databases to help him write his business plan relevant services to users in the • the schoolchild who visits our public exhibition galleries and is 21st century, and that the library inspired by the historic documents on display. is recognized for its contribution to research, innovation and Advances in technology are helping us to improve access and culture. Lynne came to the BL service provision to all our audience groups — electronic article from the University of Leeds delivery; virtual exhibitions online; improved online catalogues where she was Pro-Vice- and searching facilities, etc. In some sense, all of these could be Chancellor and University Librar- said to be examples of ‘e-learning’. ian. She previously held positions as Librarian and Director of Infor- mation Services at the London School of Economics, Principal Consultant at KPMG, and Pro- Vice-Chancellor and Director of Information Services at Aston University. She may be contacted at: The British Library, 96 Euston Road, London NW1 2DB, UK. Tel. +44 (0)20 7412 7262. E-mail: [email protected].

Figure 1. Our audiences and the services we offer them.

I would like to focus on e-learning in relation to support, but we might want to help learners to our educational programme. This programme is negotiate and make meaning from the informa- designed to support the young learner (second- tion available on our own learning pages. ary level upwards) and the independent adult Flexible study — in practical terms, e-learning learner. enables provision which is oriented to the learner, online/ofﬂine, distance/campus, continuous/interrupted. What Do We Mean When We Talk Tools for teachers — online learning can also About E-Learning? bring customizable resources closer to teachers and lecturers. For example, the BL’s 21st Century Citizen website provides down- The Internet and electronic resources are loadable task sheets and resources for use in opening up new kinds of learning opportunities the classroom. and new models of learning. There are many different forms, ranging from ‘formal’ e-learning closely tied in to school curriculum or university What is our Overall Approach to courses, to more informal learning such as Learning at the British Library? lifelong learners or hobbyists using the Internet to explore topics of interest. Our mission is to:

What Does E-Learning Offer Us That • Be a centre of excellence in source-based and Isn’t Possible With Traditional investigative learning, driving curriculum innovation and supporting creative teaching. Textbook-only Learning? • Inspire students to progress in order to make full and creative use of the British Library’s Individualized learning — technology can enable research resources. a more personalized learning experience to • Help transform the e-learning landscape by help support independent learning — for providing digital images, texts and sounds example, students can elect when to take a test supported by innovative pedagogy. on materials they have been studying to • Be a great place for a group visit, with progress at their own pace, or gather resources engaging displays and with sessions led by related to their own interests to build up a professional cultural educators challenging personal collection of learning materials. The learners to think big and think differently BL’s Collect Britain (which I will describe in about ‘the world’s knowledge’ that is con- more detail later) encourages users to collect tained in our collections. and build their own set of favourite resources from the images and texts on the site. Our expertise at the BL in providing support for Group learning — online learning can incorpo- research informs our e-learning strategy. Our rate discussion forums or spaces for groups to high-level aim is to be a centre for excellence in share their learning experiences. At the BL, research and source-based learning. We feel that our learning site features spaces for groups to this is where we can bring our particular knowl- share their research projects in progress, edge and resources to bear and provide some- perhaps exploring new avenues in response to thing different and valuable to learners. questions from other learners visiting the site. We also have an online teachers forum, which The unique and richly diverse materials in our includes teaching resources, information collections are something that learners cannot about using the library and online discussions. access elsewhere. We are building our online Such group areas can help learners in develop- learning programmes around this unique content ing communication and team skills. (for example historic documents or sound Virtual learning environments — online learning recordings). Building on the diversity of materi- can include virtual learning environments, als in our collections, a common thread running such as e-conferences or access to experts. through our e-learning activities is to inspire Learner support — e-learning can also incorporate thinking about diversity and cultural exchange. advice, guidance, planning. For example, in the UK, the People’s Network is planning a We are using primary sources as the starting National Enquiry Service. At the BL we would point for debate, for individual interpretation need to avoid replicating other kinds of learner and for further research. 14 The British Library and E-Learning

To draw our e-learning programmes back to our sound recordings, including photographs, manu- core identity of a research library, our main scripts, paintings, Victorian ephemera, sound focus is on developing research skills through recordings, maps and newspapers, building a individual research. A focus on self-directed rich picture of the UK’s regional history. For learning is a good fit with the key nature of example, a recent addition to the site has been research, and information literacy, relevant to recordings of dialects from northern England, the BL as a research library. Generic skills that made in the 1950s and today, charting the enable learners to think critically, deal with com- changes in the regional dialect. These can be plexity, identify problems, interpret images, texts enjoyed by academics researching language and sounds, and acknowledge differences of change or by the casual browser. interpretation, surround the engagement with primary resources associated with research Visitors to the site can use the search facility to libraries. By focusing on these core skills, our look for resources relating to a particular place learning materials will be relevant to both young or topic (and results can then be sorted by title, and adult learners. date, genre or collection). Visitors can also explore the resources which have been specially We have a rich collection of e-resources for selected and grouped thematically, including: students, teachers and lifelong learners, which includes an archive of 1000 pages of curriculum Special collections — including 19th century resources – texts, images, sound and maps – to landscape engravings, London street maps, or support the exploration of curriculum topics rare early wax cylinder recordings of song, such as English and History. music and speech from five continents Themed tours — on subjects including ‘Lost Last year we launched a new online learning Gardens’ and ‘the East End of London’. For resource — 21st Century Citizen — to support the example, maps, drawings and eye-witness Citizenship curriculum (www.bl.uk/learning). accounts chart the growth of the East End, The activities encourage an enquiry-based from the villages and green fields where 17th approach to learning and are based on themes century diarist Samuel Pepys took country such as: British origins and movement; walks, to the expansion of the docks and the Language and identity; Democracy and docu- social deprivations of 19th-century industrial- ments; Families; Utopia; Crime and community. ization. The digital images are accompanied by commentary setting them in context and Students are asked to consider a range of his- you can take part in online quizzes to test torical evidence, linked to topical editorials. For your knowledge at the end of each tour. example, in exploring language and identity, Virtual exhibitions — or you can take a tour students can study source extracts such as pam- around one of our virtual exhibitions, such as phlets, adverts and recordings of dialects, to the ‘Literary Landscapes’ exhibition. Contem- explore the role of language in citizenship as porary views and maps are used to bring to well as their own attitudes to the ways others life the topographical backgrounds to works write and speak. by six favourite classic authors, including Chaucer and Wordsworth. Our learning site is also interactive. To support their debates students are also able to take part To give you a flavour of the kinds of resources in online polls and surveys. Students and we will be developing in future, we are about to teachers are encouraged to share their work and begin a project to digitize further materials for ideas through the ‘Showcase’ and ‘Ask a learners. question’ areas. With funding of GBP 3 million from the Joint Another important web-based resource for Information Systems Committee we are able to learners is ‘Collect Britain’ (www.collectbritain. proceed with two major digitization projects. co.uk). The funding will enable us to make available in digital format parts of our newspaper and sound This is the Library’s biggest digitization project collection. to date, made possible with GBP 3.25 million funding from the New Opportunities Fund. This will be a valuable contribution to our web- When the site is complete in autumn 2004 it will based resources, and the items will be of interest contain over 100,000 images and 350 hours of across the learning spectrum, from Higher

15 Lynne Brindley

Education through to Further Education, ongoing education programme, as it focuses on students and lifelong learners. generic research and interpretation skills.

We plan to digitize some 1.8 million pages of We also ran two summer schools on ‘reading 19th century newspapers. This will neatly com- patterns’ for students from a local school. Each plement our digitization of newspapers from our week-long course involved 20 students, aged Burney collection of 17th–19th century news- between 8 and 10 years. The summer schools papers. were part of a larger ‘summer university’ in the local area which aimed to give students an inten- The funding will allow us to digitize nearly 4000 sive learning experience using ‘accelerated hours of music and spoken word from the UK learning’ — a mixture of physical, musical and and overseas. Examples of content to be made visual ways of learning as well as words. available include: performances of Beethoven string quartets, offering the opportunity of We have also developed ‘resource boxes’ for research into the evolution of performance schools (ages 5–18), working in partnership with practice; interviews with UK jazz players and the North East Museums Libraries and Archives promoters and visual art interviews from Council. The resource boxes contain a variety of the1990s. materials inspired by the Lindisfarne Gospels. These include lesson plans, classroom ideas, The final choice of content will be made in con- images, games and even a CD with sounds of sultation with the academic community — we wildlife from Holy Island. They have been have two panels who will advise on the final created and assembled by a North East educa- selection. tion consultant, who worked closely with libraries, museums and schools in the region. Whilst we can reach a wider audience via our online learning programmes, we recognize the The boxes are being distributed to museums and importance of real-world, experiential learning school library services across the North East. and I would like briefly to mention this here. We Any school can borrow them from their local offer onsite education programmes at the resource centre. The project is one of a range of Library, and are also working in partnership to regional programmes whereby we incorporate develop educational resources for use in class- BL expertise with local knowledge to make rooms. resources more accessible and relevant to users in the regions. To take one example, I’d like to tell you about some of the learning activities and resources we To coincide with the exhibition we also developed around the Lindisfarne Gospels. The produced a wonderful facsimile copy of the Gospels is one of Britain’s greatest artistic Gospels which is currently touring around masterpieces. Written between 715 and 720, the public libraries in the North East. Because it is a manuscript was executed in the Monastery of facsimile copy, people can actually handle the Lindisfarne, on Holy Island, off the coast of pages, and it is proving an extremely popular modern-day Northumberland in North-East exhibit. England. It is famous for the superb quality and amazingly intricate design of its decorated We also have a virtual version of the exhibition pages. online (which you can still visit), with images and commentary. Some of the most beautifully Last year we staged a major exhibition on the illustrated pages can be seen on our website and Gospels at the BL. Students were able to visit the pages can be turned in a realistic way with the exhibition and to take part in our onsite work- mouse (using ‘turning the pages’ technology). shops on ‘Reading Patterns’. The workshop develops children’s visual literacy skills by pro- To provide an inclusive learning programme we posing the idea of pattern as code in different need to ensure that we provide learning historical and cultural contexts. Children work resources and experiences which are accessible with an artist to find visual patterns in a range of to a wide range of informal learning groups (see world sources including illustrations in Gospels Figure 2). and Qur’ans, photographs, maps, stamps and music. The workshop was an excellent partner To date, our educational programmes have been to the exhibition, but is a core part of our developed with formal, discrete groupings of

16 The British Library and E-Learning

Figure 2. Challenge of reaching informal groups.

learners in mind — such as primary or secondary The framework is designed to stimulate practi- school children (some of the key groups on the tioners working in museums, archives and learning spectrum are shown at the top of the libraries to focus on and improve the way that diagram). Currently, we provide professionally learning is supported by helping them to: led programmes for schools and our resources are used by the Higher Education community • evaluate what the organization does against a (typically postgraduate researchers and academ- set of best practice processes ics) to underpin their research. • support learning more effectively both on and off site We want to be able to provide education pro- • evaluate the outcomes in terms of the learning grammes that are relevant to a broad spectrum and awareness of users of learners. Inclusivity is high on the agenda of • demonstrate their commitment to supporting government and other funding bodies, so it is and enabling learning as a lever to funding also important that we can demonstrate we are and recognition meeting their objectives if we are to succeed in raising funding for new programmes. Inspiring Learning for All adopts a broad definition of learning: ‘learning’ is not used only in In practical terms this means that we may need sense of formal curriculum, but in the sense of extra resources to develop and run programmes everyone accessing information, cultural for these different groups. We also need to think resources or entertainment in order to develop about how we shape our programmes and as individuals. Inspiring Learning for All rec- materials in order to appeal to these other ognizes that people learn in different ways and learning communities. require a variety of stimuli to engage them in the learning process. It stresses that museums, Something that we think will help us to address libraries and archives need to: remove barriers the question of accessibility is the new frame- to access; cater for individual learning styles work which was launched by the Museums, (not just ages); create exciting environments; Libraries and Archives Council in March this use innovative methods; value learning year. experts, consult with users and reach out to new users. Inspiring Learning for All is a vision for accessible learning in museums, archives and libraries. We are currently assessing how best we can It is founded on four broad and overlapping apply the framework across the Library. It is an principles, which together describe the charac- approach that libraries and museums can apply teristics of an accessible and inclusive museum, to all aspects of their work — whether e-learning archive or library. These are shown in Figure 3. or onsite exhibitions.

17 Lynne Brindley

Figure 3. A framework for accessible learning.

I hope that this has given you a ﬂavour of some Should national libraries interpret their of the activities and programmes that we are heritage collections as museums do? developing at the British Library. All of the We believe that it is important to provide some online resources that I’ve mentioned can be • kind of interpretation and guidance alongside found at our website — www.bl.uk (learning our resources — for example, we arrange resources are at www.bl.uk/learning). materials in themes and topics and also suggest choices of tasks and learning goals. To ﬁnish, I’d like to leave you with some ques- However, we do not want the learning experi- tions which the new e-learning possibilities raise ence to be passive. We want to help the learner for all of us. become an active interrogator.

How does e-learning change the educational Should libraries deliver learning programmes role of national libraries? directly or let others package the library’s • For the BL, e-learning provides us with new resources? opportunities to engage with wider audiences. We believe it is important that we interpret BL We can make the resources we have stretch • • sources in an inspiring way, in order to show further – it is viable for us to reach students, other people what is available and what is lifelong learners and the general public via possible. However, we are also keen to work digital channels, in a way that is not possible in partnership with others to develop educa- through a single physical location. We can tional resources from our content. repurpose work; e.g. the digitization of a By developing our own programmes, we can medieval manuscript — initially for scholarly • shape something distinctive which draws research — can also benefit students who can upon our unique strengths. use the source material online to study We believe that it is important we develop our changing language, or meaning through • own skills in the interpretation of sources, so images. that libraries will be used to the full in future. • Therefore there is a greater responsibility on us to take advantage of these new possibilities to open up the national collection and, Original paper no. 102 presented at the World Library and Information Congress, 70th IFLA General Confer- through appropriate selection or interpreta- ence, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 22–27 August 2004, in tion, make it accessible to a wide range of session 75, National Libraries. English original and people (not just a national audience either, but French and Spanish translations available on IFLANET internationally). at: http://www.ifla.org/IV/ifla70/prog04.htm.

18 Democracy Building Activities in the Swedish Riksdag: the role of a parliamentary library

Margareta Brundin Many forms of Government have been tried, and will be tried in this world of sin and woe. No one pretends that democracy is perfect or all-wise. Indeed, it has been said that democracy is the worst form of Government except all those other forms that have been tried from time to time. Winston Churchill, Speech, House of Commons, November 11, 1947.

Democracy – a Mutual Responsibility

A comprehensive and well-developed system of information about society is a fundamental requirement in a democracy. It is a precondition for an active dialogue between citizens and their elected representatives. As the principal representative of the people, the Parliament has a special responsibility for promoting information about society in general and for providing impartial information without party political bias about Parliament and its work. Knowledge of Parliament and our society is a fundamental Margareta Brundin is Senior prerequisite for citizens in exercising inﬂuence. Good knowledge Librarian and Deputy Head of the of how Parliament and society work is the basis for commitment Ofﬁce for Information and Knowl- and responsibility. The citizen’s trust in the democratic institu- edge Management, Parliament of tions is vital for a democracy to function. Sweden. She has been a member of several groups concerned with The information activities of the Parliament of Sweden, the special libraries, terminology and Riksdag, take their starting-point in the fundamental rights standards in Sweden and a relating to freedom of expression and public access to informa- member of the IFLA Section on tion stipulated in the Swedish Constitution. These laws constitute Library and Research Services for an obligation for the Riksdag to provide information and a right Parliaments, 1999–2003 and for the public (media, organizations, the education system, its Chair 2001–2003. Contact agencies, businesses etc.) to obtain information about the role, the address: Swedish Parliament, work and the decisions of the Riksdag. The Riksdag Administra- SE–100 12 Stockholm, Sweden. tion must therefore be accessible, transparent and service- Tel. +46 8 7864151. Fax: +46 minded. The media and other distributors of information are to 8 786 5871. E-mail: margareta. be actively supported in their task of informing the public. [email protected]. Declining Participation in General Elections

In the western democracies young people tend to take democracy for granted. Democracy has, after many years of struggle, given people a relatively good standard of life. The media — the fourth branch of government — are today the principal source for information about society and the work of the Parliament. But politicians many times are looked upon with criticism and distrust, both by the media and by the electorate.

Swedes have been regarded as ﬁrm keepers of democracy. We haven’t had a war since 1809. The general right to vote for all citizens alike was obtained in 1921. But in the last general elections in Sweden (2002) voter participation declined to 80 percent

— the lowest figure since 1958. Voter participa- • to contribute actively to increasing the public’s tion has been declining gradually since 1979. — and especially young people’s — knowledge The number of young persons voting for the first of and interest in the Riksdag and its work time has decreased even more. The lower the • to satisfy the need among different segments level of education these young persons have the of the public for accurate and easily accessible less interest they show to go to the polls. And the information about the work and decisions of elections for the Parliament of the European the Riksdag. Union (EU) in May this year gave a severe shock to Swedish politicians — only 37.8 percent of The organization of democracy-enabling activi- eligible Swedes voted, less than the 41.6 percent ties varies from one country’s parliament to who voted the last time. Sweden has been a another’s. In many parliaments the Library member of the European Union since 1995, but organizes nearly all public relations contacts still this fact is not really accepted by many with the surrounding world — one good example citizens. But is the best course of action for the is the Parliamentary Library of Canada, another citizen really to ignore politics and elections? is the House of Commons Library in the UK. In Sweden this is not the case. Many of the democ- What can be done to change these trends? What racy-building activities of the Riksdag are organ- can Parliament do? And are these problems ized by the Information Department. Indeed, the really something for the Parliamentary Library first public relations activities of our parliament and the rest of the administration to tackle? Per- were started in the 1960s by the Secretariat of sonally, I think so. Parliament has an important the Chamber, and an information department supporting role to play in the education of was set up only in the early 1980s. citizens and the training of distributors of information like journalists, teachers and librarians. The Information Department today is responsible for In what follows I will describe the activities of the Library and the other departments of the • a telephone service for the general public, Riksdag in this field. I will also mention what media, organizations, companies, public some other Parliaments do to enhance com- authorities and educational establishments munication with the public. • press contacts and service to the media • advertisements in the press • courses and training for teachers, journalists, Information and Communication information officers, etc. Activities of the Riksdag • school visits, primarily from upper secondary school and adult education classes The Swedish Riksdag is a single chamber with • guided tours for the public 349 members from seven political parties. It has • study visits from organizations, public author- sixteen committees plus a special committee for ities, etc. EU issues. Around 550 non-political staff • work experience programmes for school work for the Parliament. The party secretariats pupils employ around 400 persons, mostly political • exhibitions, fairs, open days, Youth Parliament secretaries. etc. • production of information materials for One year ago, in 2003, the Library and other external and internal users, including teaching departments of the Riksdag working with infor- materials, fact sheets, books, brochures, a staff mation and knowledge were reorganized and journal etc. taken out from under the parliamentary Admin- • electronic publication of the Riksdag’s docu- istrative Office. They now form a new office ments, databases and other information about directly under the Riksdag’s General Secretary: the Riksdag. the Office for Information and Knowledge Man- agement. This gives the Library and the other Press and Information Services related departments a more prominent part to play towards external groups of special interest The Press and Information Office answers over to the Riksdag. One of the goals of the Riksdag 25,000 telephone enquiries per year from the is to be as open as possible towards the media public, media, authorities, organizations and and the public, and this is also one of the main companies. The section’s information officers objectives for the new office: respond to questions about current business in 20 Democracy Building Activities in the Swedish Riksdag the Riksdag, the scheduling of debates, results of ists receive services aimed at facilitating their votes in the Chamber and the implications of work in the Riksdag. decisions. Other questions may for example concern the Riksdag’s working procedures, the School and Visiting Services formation of Government, referendums, elections and distribution of seats. The telephone The goal for which the Riksdag’s School and service is open on weekdays. Most questions are Visiting Services strive is to give visitors, answered over the telephone but an increasing especially young people, knowledge of how to number are answered by e-mail. influence decisions before they are taken in the Swedish Parliament. They are also informed The section is responsible for issuing press about the democratic process and about the releases, dealing mainly with current business, work and conditions of being an MP. committee reports, forthcoming activities in the Chamber and the engagements of the Speaker. Activities of one kind or another are organized by the booking office for around 100,000 visitors A brief summary of the decisions taken in the a year. These activities cover educational pro- Chamber is compiled and sent at regular inter- grammes and include guided tours. vals via fax or e-mail, primarily to the media. School groups Every Friday the Press and Information Office compiles the Riksdag business agenda with In the school unit former teachers work as information about forthcoming business in the school information officers. They work with Chamber, new Government bills, public commit- students from the age of 16, but also with adult tee hearings, etc. The Riksdag business agenda is students. The visiting class receives lessons distributed internally and externally to Govern- about the Constitution, the historical back- ment offices, public authorities, the media, etc. ground of the Swedish Parliament, the law- making process, etc. in a specially equipped Press releases, the summary of decisions and the classroom. Sometimes they look at a video and Riksdag business agenda are all available in after that they visit the chamber from the public Swedish on the Riksdag website. gallery and listen to a debate; often they also get a chance to speak to a Member for about half an Twice a year a two-day course about the work of hour. The whole visit takes about 1.5 hours. The the Riksdag is held for journalists. Courses are Riksdag usually receives 20 classes a week. also arranged for journalism students and public sector information officers. For younger students (14–15 years old), special programmes of about 40 minutes are arranged. A telephone service with a voice answer-back They get basic information about the work of the function provides extensive information about Parliament and they visit the public gallery. activities in the Riksdag. Among other things, it There are six to eight classes of younger students is possible to listen directly to debates in the per week. Chamber, to public committee hearings or to press conferences. Recorded messages also give Special groups up-to-date information about current business in the Chamber, etc. Via a fax-on-demand service it For other groups, guided tours through the dif- is possible to order agendas and lists of speakers ferent parts of Parliament are arranged. Fifteen for the current week, the Riksdag business part-time guides are employed to take care of agenda, summaries of decisions, press releases, these tours. Some days of the week are reserved etc. Service to the media is available on a for assistance to MPs’ privately booked visitors. separate number — journalists can simply phone in free of charge and listen to the debate in General public progress in the Chamber. Various television channels use the parliamentary recordings of the During the parliamentary session guided tours plenary proceedings free of charge. for the general public are arranged on Saturdays and Sundays both in Swedish and in English. Some 30 journalists representing the major There are also special ‘art-in-the-Riksdag’ tours newspaper, radio, television and news com- on Mondays. During the summer, guided tours panies have offices in the Riksdag. The journal- for Stockholm tourists are arranged every

21 Margareta Brundin

weekday in Swedish, English, German and school students from all parts of Sweden met in French. the Riksdag for the fourth Swedish Youth Parlia- ment. These delegates were gathered to practise as members of Parliament for one day. They had Educational material been preparing themselves for this day together Different kinds of educational materials, such as with their teachers and fellow students for half a books, fact sheets, brochures, overhead trans- year beforehand. After the Speaker had parencies, videos and CD-ROMs, are published, welcomed them to the Riksdag, they gathered in especially for upper secondary schools. The aim parliamentary committees to discuss the differ- is to provide schoolteachers with educational ent subjects on the agenda. Under the guidance resources to increase pupils’ interest in politics of one MP and one officer from each committee and democracy. Law-making is often a complex they discussed the motions sent in to the Youth process and requires pedagogically designed Parliament from schools all over Sweden. A educational materials to be properly understood. debate and voting in the Chamber followed. Then they had an opportunity to ask questions to Members of the Government. An opportunity Training to meet with Members of Parliament concluded Courses about the organization and work of Par- the day. liament are arranged for teachers and university students. About 1,200 persons participate every Educational Centre year. The courses for teachers are very popular and there are always lots of applications to participate. An interactive educational centre will open in The courses are inexpensive for the participants the Riksdag next year. The idea has been because the Parliament considers teachers a borrowed from the Danish Parliament, the primary target group and subsidizes these courses. Folketing, where the program is called ‘Poli- A course can last one day, three days or even four tician for a Day’. The Centre in the Folketing is days. Half-day courses are often arranged for situated in the basement of the Parliament, and students at university level. The course program is a high technology mini-parliament with consists mainly of lectures, talks and discussions chamber, committee rooms, library, MPs offices, with MPs and listening to debates in the chamber. etc. Here pupils from grades 8 and 9 can take part in an advanced role-play reflecting the political life of an MP. Exhibitions Generally one or two big educational exhibitions Publications and Electronic Information are created every year. The Publications and Electronic Information Section is responsible for the Riksdag website, Student trainees the public databases (Rixlex), the Riksdag’s Each year about 60 upper secondary school Intranet, graphic design, electronic information pupils can accompany MPs in their work for a and production of the Citizens’ Guide. week or two. In cooperation with the MP and with regard to the trainee’s age and interests, the The Riksdag website (www.riksdagen.se) contains Information Department arranges study information about the work of the Riksdag, programs, to take place when the MPs are current business, members, the Riksdag and the occupied with their work in the standing com- EU, etc. Much of this information is also available mittees. The sessions in the committees are not in English. A subscription service is available for open to the public and the trainees are conse- members of the public wishing to receive press quently not allowed to be present. The Library releases, the Riksdag business agenda and a takes part in these programs by arranging summary of decisions taken by the Riksdag. historic political walks in the Old Town of When the Riksdag is in session, the website has Stockholm. The young trainees really appreciate an average of 180,000 visitors per month. the opportunity of being in the centre of politics. The Riksdag’s public databases (Rixlex) are available via the website. Rixlex contains full- Youth Parliament text databases dating back as far as the late Many Parliaments arrange Youth Parliaments. 1980s. It also contains a directory of all the On the 19th of March this year, 349 young high members of the Riksdag.

22 Democracy Building Activities in the Swedish Riksdag

All printed and electronic information material and electronic form. The ambition is to make it is given a special graphic design. The Section possible to access all needed information on the often functions as an internal consultant for website. Some of the material is also available in other departments when they wish to produce English. The Centre publishes fact sheets, information material. Material for external target brochures and other types of publications. groups includes a presentation brochure about the Riksdag in several languages, fact sheets and Från Riksdag & Departement a directory of the members of the Riksdag. A brochure entitled Schools and the Riksdag Från Riksdag & Departement is a special journal presents teaching materials for different school containing news about the business of the levels. Much, but not all, of the Riksdag’s infor- Riksdag and the Government and is published mation material is free of charge. Information every week when Parliament is sitting. It is material and parliamentary documents, i.e. intended to keep central and local government Government bills, private members’ motions, employees, the private sector, organizations and committee reports, records, etc. can be pur- the public abreast of what is going on in the chased from the Riksdag’s Information Centre in Riksdag, the Government ofﬁces and the EU. It Stockholm or ordered via the website. covers topics of current interest, inquiries and Government bills. It also describes the progress The Citizens’ Guide is an easily comprehensible of various proposals in the Riksdag, parliamen- guide to the rights and obligations, laws and tary debates and decisions, and how affairs regulations that apply in Swedish society. It also relating to the EU are being dealt with. Experi- provides practical information on topics such as enced journalists write the articles. Från Riksdag how to start a business, how to apply for a & Departement has around 20,000 subscribers, building permit, what rules apply in the case of and is also issued in audio format as a talking industrial injury etc. It is continuously updated. newspaper. The Citizens’ Guide is available in Swedish on the Internet: www.samhallsguiden.riksdagen.se. The Research Service The Research Service of the Riksdag has no The EU Information Centre of the Riksdag special activities directed towards the public. Of The task of the EU Information Centre is to keep course they do a lot of research work for MPs the general public informed about the European that these can use in their contacts with their Union and Sweden as a member state. The activ- constituencies, but the research reports and ities are focused on answering questions about InfoPMs are not available to the public. the EU from the general public. Responsibilities also consist in producing and distributing infor- People with Special Needs mation material. The information concerns both basic facts and issues of current importance. The For many years the Riksdag has tried to improve information provided by the EU Information the general public’s access to the work of the Centre must be non-partisan and politically Parliament. A couple of years ago a discussion impartial, in accordance with requirements laid started as how to help persons with special down in the parliamentary guidelines for all needs, i.e. persons with physical handicaps like information activities. blindness or deafness, but also people with dyslexia and other learning problems, to under- The public can contact the EU Information stand and follow the work of the Parliament. Centre in several ways. The most common way Also, Sweden has an immigrant population of is via the Riksdag website or by telephone. The around 10 percent, many of whom have difﬁcul- telephone service is open weekdays for 5 hours ties understanding the Swedish language. What every day. Information material can also be could be done for these groups? For many years ordered via a 24-hour answering machine some of the Riksdag material has been published service. The call is free of charge when phoning on cassettes, but what more would be needed to within Sweden. The number of questions reach these groups? received by fax and e-mail is growing every year. Questions can also be forwarded by post. Discussions started with the Ombudsman for disabled people, with immigrant and handi- The material produced by the EU Information capped persons’ organizations. These were given Centre is in most cases available in both printed the opportunity to go through the website and

23 Margareta Brundin

the printed material of the Riksdag, to criticize members of the public the opportunity to meet and give advice. This led the Riksdag to change and discuss with politicians. The reading corner the formats and versions of the information both also has current information about the party on its website and in its print publications. groups in the Riksdag. Program activities and exhibitions concerning the work of the Riksdag As a result, all staff of the Riksdag working with are also arranged at the Information Centre. information have been educated in intercultural communication and how to present material for And, finally, what does the Library of the persons with special needs. Easy-to-read Riksdag do to build democracy? In my opinion versions of the brochures about Parliament and the most important democracy-enabling activity its work were published and special areas for of the Library is its open door policy towards the easy-to-read information and information in sign public. language were added to the website. A special audio function that lets the user listen to the A Riksdag Library open to the public information on the website was created. Text was added to the videocassettes of the Riksdag The function of the Riksdag Library when it was and some of the guided tours were led by inter- founded in 1851 was initially to serve only preters of sign language. All televised broadcasts members of the Riksdag and their staff, together of debates in the chamber include interpretation with the committees and agencies of the Riksdag. in sign language, and there have been requests At the end of the 19th century, representatives of for subtitled debates in the future. Furthermore, the governmental bodies were granted permis- a project to publish all information brochures of sion to use the services. Over the years, close the Parliament in some of the immigrant lan- contacts developed with the libraries of the min- guages has started this year (2004). istries, all situated in the near neighbourhood. As the collections of the library to some extent lacked a counterpart in other Swedish libraries, Information Centre the Riksdag decided that scholars should be The Information Centre of the Riksdag was allowed access to the library. In 1918, when the created in 1995 and used to be located close to library became one of the agencies of the the main entrance of the Riksdag. As of August Riksdag, it was formally declared open to 2004 the Information Centre has been reopened researchers and advanced students. This has in a new form and in a new place — the entrance always been interpreted in a broad sense and in hall of the Library. This will make it possible for reality it meant that the library was open to the the Information Centre and the Library to work public. The Riksdag Library participates in close very closely together and easier for the public to cooperation with university libraries, special follow the work of the Riksdag. We hope both to libraries of various kinds and the public libraries spark a greater interest in the activities of the of Sweden. The Riksdag Library is furthermore a Riksdag and to create a new meeting point for depository library for documents of many inter- the public and members of the Riksdag. The national organizations and has agreed to keep Information Centre has up till now received this material available to the public. Thus the approximately 45,000 visits per year. The Library library is a parliamentary library, but it also has has more than 100,000 visitors per year, so the obligations towards other groups and the general cooperation will probably be fruitful. public. In 1983 direct access for the public from the street into the library was opened. The new Information Centre will sell parliamentary documents, official government reports and The Riksdag Library is, of course, first of all souvenirs. The public can follow the debates in responsible for the provision of information and the Chamber on a wide-screen television and knowledge to members of the Riksdag and to multimedia work stations are available for their staff, by acquiring and making available accessing the Riksdag website and for searching factual and briefing material. But it also has as the Riksdag’s collection of public databases, one of its aims to help to create openness and Rixlex, or viewing presentations about the access to the work of the Swedish Parliament, Riksdag and its history. and to promote greater knowledge of and interest in the Riksdag and its work. The Library Once a week when the Riksdag is in session an is responsible for informing the general public informal meeting is to be held in the reading about the official materials it holds and for corner of the Information Centre, giving keeping them accessible to the public.

24 Democracy Building Activities in the Swedish Riksdag

Many parliamentary libraries say that they are Riksdag Library did a survey among the people open to the public, but very few are open to all visiting it from outside. members of the public without any previous application or notiﬁcation. Being paid for by tax Mainly the visitors are young people: 48 percent money, parliamentary libraries should, in my are students between 20 and 30 years of age, 27 mind, be open to those who are paying for them. percent are between 30 and 40. A total of 71 And nowhere are librarians with a deeper percent come to the Library on account of their knowledge about parliamentary affairs and university studies. 18 percent come to solve politics to be found! Five hours every weekday problems related to their work (lawyers and the public may use the Riksdag library. To the employees of the courts in the neighbourhood) Riksdag it is, of course, open all day. and 12 percent use the Library for research purposes. About one-third — 33 percent — of the The Finnish Eduskunta Library, the Library of external visitors come to the Library every the Italian Camara dei Deputati and the month and as many as 27 percent come once a National Assembly Library of South Korea are week or more. The remaining 40 percent visit other parliamentary libraries that I know work the Riksdag Library once or twice a year. with the same model. The Finnish Eduskunta Library is an excellent example: it is open from What information do they seek? 0900–1800 Mondays and Fridays and the rest of the week from 0900–2000. It is even open to the As many as 43 percent seek information about public 0900–1500 on Saturdays! I think this is a older parliamentary documents and decisions, model for the rest of our parliamentary libraries while 28 percent are looking for information to follow! about current parliamentary issues. Some 39 percent of the public visitors are looking for In March this year (2004) I had the great general information about society: on environ- pleasure to visit the Italian Parliament and its mental matters, about the European Union, wonderful library. The Library is completely about Swedish social issues, about international open to the public, with direct access, and offers politics and laws; or just want to read the peri- truly beautiful surroundings for students and odicals. Only a very few are interested in facts other members of the public to study the parlia- about how Parliament works. As few as 6 mentary documents and other subjects of the percent come to borrow a certain book. Mostly collections. The Italian Parliament opened its the students are looking for course books, law library to the general public in December 1988. books, case law, historical material and research They have developed and gradually extended the reports. Some of the outside visitors simply use following services to the general public: the Riksdag Library as their working place when in Stockholm. • guidance to legislative research and to Italian, foreign and EU documents Website and information • assistance in bibliographic research, catalogue consultation and using the databases and the The Library has invested much more effort in the CD-ROM service of the Library Intranet than in the extranet, its public website. • Internet access and assistance in searching I am quite proud of the Riksdag Library’s networked electronic resources Intranet and all the digital information our • training sessions on legislative and juridical members and staff can ﬁnd there, but that lies research, with special reference to the parlia- outside the scope of this presentation. There is a mentary documentation available on Internet special smaller Intranet for visitors from the • photocopying and reproduction services public to use in the library. They can search and order from the library catalogue, of course, but And an extensive assistance is available in the they also have access to some of the major law reading rooms from the entire staff working databases of Sweden. rotating shifts. The Riksdag Library’s public Internet site will be renewed at the end of this year. There is a big Library user analysis project going on to update all the websites of the Who are the visitors to a parliamentary library Riksdag, and the Library web is part of this from the public and how often and why do they work. Already today the public can search and visit? Only two months ago, in Spring 2004, the order material, so that it is waiting for them

25 Margareta Brundin

when they arrive, and they can also extend their the country had been suggested in private loans. The website gives all of Sweden access to members’ bills. This led us to investigate how to the Library, and that is quite democratic. realize the idea at a low cost to the Riksdag. Every city of Sweden has a very good public library. As a librarian I thought that using these Indexing public libraries would be the best solution. We Librarians index all ofﬁcial documents of the selected three major cities, one in the very south, Riksdag. The Library publishes one of the one in the west and one in the north, for this public’s most important gates to the Riksdag regional Riksdag Information Centre project, documents — the printed index. At the moment which will run for two years. If all turns out well, a project for automatic indexing of the docu- some new cities will be selected, and the project ments with the help of the search system will be transformed into a current activity of the Autonomy is in its ﬁnal stages. Riksdag.

The public library selected as host has to offer a Training of librarians good space where the Riksdag can set up a Libraries and librarians in Sweden are a very regional centre. The Riksdag pays for the equip- important target group for parliamentary informa- ment, hardware, furniture, etc. and the public tion delivery. The staff of the Riksdag Library library puts staff at the centre’s disposal. This consists of only 40 persons, and very few of the staff — two librarians from each library — is citizens of Sweden have the opportunity to use invited to the Riksdag for two or three days twice the Library personally. We have to use other a year. They get a thorough education in how the libraries and librarians as retail dealers of infor- Riksdag works and they meet with MPs from the mation about the Riksdag. That is why we twice a constituency. They also learn all about the pub- year arrange training courses for librarians from lications of the Riksdag and they get to practise all over Sweden. The duration of the course is both in the Riksdag Library and at the Informa- three days. The Riksdag pays for the stay: two tion Department. They meet a special contact nights at a hotel in Stockholm. We also arrange a person at the Riksdag, whom they can call on for dinner for the participants and members of Par- help whenever they need it. The Riksdag pays for liament in the Riksdag restaurant. But the main their stay in Stockholm during the training objective is that when the librarians leave Stock- sessions. The public library is in charge of the holm, they shall know everything that is worth local marketing of the centre. During weekends knowing about the Parliament, the building, the Members of Parliament from the region are history, the documents, the proceedings. Librari- invited to use the centre as their meeting point ans from all types of libraries (public, university, with their constituency. special) can apply for the course, but librarians working with the social sciences and with parlia- On 9 February 2004 the three regional Riksdag mentary documents have the best chance to get information centres were inaugurated. Many selected. The Riksdag Library training course is other public libraries from different parts of looked upon as one of the best educational oppor- Sweden are waiting for their chance to be part tunities for librarians in Sweden, and it helped us of this project. get the ‘Library of the Year’ award in 2002. Conclusion Regional information services In January 2004 the Riksdag Library in Stock- These are some of the ideas practised in the holm started regional Riksdag Information Swedish Parliament and I am eager to hear Centres in three other major cities of Sweden: about the experiences of other parliaments and Malmö, Gothenburg and Sundsvall. The Riksdag their libraries in activities that enable democ- Library picked up this idea from the Finnish par- racy. liamentary library, which did something similar as a project with several Finnish provinces some And remember that this work of democracy- years ago, but we have tried to polish and reﬁne building which we do is no small matter. A wise the concept. man observed, “You can never have a revolution in order to establish a democracy. You must have For several years the opening of regional a democracy in order to have a revolution.” Riksdag Information Centres in other parts of (G.K. Chesterton, Tremendous Triﬂes, 1955.)

26 Democracy Building Activities in the Swedish Riksdag

When we work to build democracy through our Original paper no. 166 presented at the World Library parliamentary libraries, we are working to help and Information Congress, 70th IFLA General Confer- citizens change their world. ence, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 22–27 August 2004, in session 73, Library and Research Services for Parlia- ments. English original and Spanish translation available on IFLANET at: http://www.iﬂa.org/IV/iﬂa70/prog 04.htm.

27 Unreliable Research: are librarians liable?

Ann Curry This paper is concerned with unreliable research, which might also be called fraudulent, false, spurious, unethical, or many other names that indicate that the research is defective. It addresses two types of research: that done by librarians about aspects of their work, and that done by others, which we as librarians disseminate in our libraries.

Background

Ptolemy The phenomenon of unreliable research is certainly not new. The highly respected Greek scientist Claudius Ptolemy who lived in the second century B.C. is now suspected of conducting unreliable research. When astronomers of the 1800s re-examined his Dr. Ann Curry is an Associate Pro- data that would predict the positions of the planets, they found fessor and Chair of Doctoral that many of the calculations were very wrong — and that Ptolemy Studies in the School of Library, had lifted his data from an earlier astronomer. Ptolemy is also Archival and Information Studies accused not only of the ancient crime of plagiarism, but the more at the University of British modern crime of ‘creating’ results to fit a theory of planetary Columbia. Her research and movement that he was championing. teaching areas include censorship and access to information, Galileo public libraries, history of libraries and librarianship, library architec- Galileo in the 1600s also conducted research that was highly ture and planning, collection suspect, despite the fact that he is known as the father of empiri- management and research cism — basing theories on empirical evidence. Modern scientists methods. She has worked in have proved that the results he obtained from dropping stones off school, special, college and the Leaning Tower of Pisa to investigate gravity could not have public libraries in Malaysia, been obtained, not surprising, considering Galileo’s fondness for Canada, and Australia. She pub- conducting ‘thought experiments’, in which the brilliant man liked lishes extensively in professional to imagine an outcome rather than actually performing the ex- journals and her book The Limits periment. When he was asked about the outcome of an experi- of Tolerance: Censorship and ment that he had previously reported, and whether he had Intellectual Freedom in Public conducted the experiment himself, Galileo replied “No, and I do Libraries (1997) continues to not need to, as without any experience I can affirm that it is so, provide guidance for those because it cannot be otherwise” (Broad 1982, 27). engaged in censorship-related research. She may be contacted Newton at School of Library, Archival and Information Studies, University of Even Isaac Newton was not above ‘tweaking’ his data to fit his British Columbia, #301 – 6190 theories. Historian Richard Westfall says that Newton “‘adjusted’ Agronomy Road, Vancouver, his calculations on the velocity of sound and on the precession of British Columbia, Canada V6T the equinoxes, and altered the correlation of the variable in his 1Z3. Tel. +1 604–822–4250. theory of gravitation so that it would agree precisely with his Fax: +1 604–822–6006. E-mail: theory.” According to Westfall, in his experiments Newton “manip- [email protected]. ulated the fudge factor with unparalleled skill” (Westfall 1973, 751).

Babbage’s categories Being ‘creative’ with scientiﬁc results was so common in the 1800s that Charles Babbage, the inventor of the calculating

Copyright © 2005 International Federation of Library Associations & Institutions (www.ifla.org). IFLA Journal 31(1): 28–34. 28 ISSN: 0340-0352. DOI: 10.1177/0340035205052640 Unreliable Research: are librarians liable? machine that evolved into our modern com- for the transmission of scientific truth and for puters, wrote a book in 1830 about this careless, speculation on the workings of nature, but today some would call, criminal, type of creativity. He its importance has been diminished as it more catalogued different types of fraudulent research and more has become a tool of the careerist” into three areas, which remain relevant almost (Broad 1982, 56). two hundred years later: The curricula vitae of many researchers today Trimming — clipping off little bits here and there include 30 or 40 pages of listed publications, as from those observations which differ most in those researchers strive for promotions and excess from the mean, and sticking them on increasing numbers of grants, both of which are to those which are too small. dependent on publication record. The pressure Cooking — an art of various forms, the object of to publish is enormous; perhaps there is too little which is to give ordinary observations the time to actually ‘do’ the experiment. Who will appearance and character of those of the know if, like Galileo, one just does a quick highest degree of accuracy. One of its ‘thought’ experiment, rather than actually taking numerous processes is to make multitudes of the time to test all the compounds, or ask all the observations, and out of these to select only questions of every person in the sample popula- those which agree, or nearly agree. We call tion of library customers, or analyze all those this now ‘selective reporting’. records of Internet searches? Forging — “The forger is one who, wishing to acquire a reputation for science, records Getting caught observations which he has never made.” This creation of results out of thin air Babbage The propensity for dishonesty amongst considered the most heinous scientific fraud researchers appears to be influenced by three (Babbage 1969). factors: the rewards, which in some fields are very high; the perceived chance of being caught; and the personal ethics of the researchers. The Why Do Researchers ‘Cheat’ and What chance of being caught is surprisingly low. The are the Consequences? literature is replete with stories of researchers who carried on for years, publishing falsified data in numerous journals. Two ‘over the top’ Greater reputation medical cases in the 1980s are that of John In his third category, that of forging, Babbage Roland Darsee from the Harvard Medical touches on one reason why researchers cheat — School, who falsified heart research findings for to obtain a greater reputation. Charles Darwin years in over 100 medical articles (Kochan and himself acknowledged that this was the main Budd 1992), and Elias Alsabti, who practiced as reason why he was less than fully honest about a cancer specialist (with forged credentials) at his research. Darwin based his theory of evolu- numerous leading United States teaching hospi- tion on the work of several zoologists who had tals for almost 5 years, and published almost 50 speculated for decades about the phenomenon papers, most of which were partial or complete of natural selection, but he was loth to acknowl- plagiarisms of papers published by others (Kohn edge his intellectual debt, some would say his 1986, 147). Darsee’s research assistants were plagiarized ideas, to others, even when pressed very fearful of turning him in, as he was a super- to do so. He said, “I wish I could set less value star at Harvard; even when they did raise doubts on the bauble fame, either present or posthum- about the reliability of their supervisor’s results ous, than I do . . .” (Merton 1973, 306). with new heart drugs, they were not believed. Much of the heart research at Harvard during Darsee’s tenure had to be scrapped, as it was Career advancement based on his work. Darsee was caught only Allied with fame and glory — possession of the when a persistent official from the grants depart- shiny bauble — is the need for career advancement of the US National Institutes of Health ment. Published research is the currency of the insisted that Darsee’s numerical calculations careerist, who needs to acquire a richness of regarding drug-testing results were incorrect, publications to climb up the ladder within the and an investigation began. Alsabti was fingered research institution, the university, or within the several times by authors who were horrified to academic library. According to William Broad, see their work ‘republished’ by someone else, but “The scientific paper at one time was a vehicle when cornered with the evidence of his stolen 29 Ann Curry

results or copied prose, Alsabti just resigned penalty. How ‘widespread’ will the news of his quickly and moved on to another hospital in or her notoriety be? Research on this topic indi- another state. The teaching hospitals and cates that the news remains quite localized research institutions that Alsabti disappeared unless the case becomes a ‘cause unceleb’. from certainly did not want their credibility Journals are loth to publish letters from authors damaged, so very little publicity about his who are furious that their work has been plagia- duplicity was ever released. rized in that journal, and almost as reluctant to publish articles or letters that challenge the veracity of data or conclusions. Such ‘admis- Responsibility of the publishers? sions’ that they and their reviewers have In both the Darsee and Alsabti cases, neither the stumbled mean only that the journal’s reputa- editors of the refereed journals, nor the reviewers tion is damaged and subscribers are lost. Only if of the articles, caught the crimes. The British honor and ethics prevail over economics will a Medical Journal claims that with the great retraction be published. The exception to retrac- number of medical journals published world-wide tion avoidance occurs with medical journals, — nearly 8,000 — “it is well nigh onto impossible where the fear of a lawsuit resulting from patient to check whether a paper has been published harm appears to prevail. But even then, a retrac- before” (Broad 1982, 56). And analysis of citation tion printed in the same journal may never rates shows that the articles in many small reach the eyes of the person who accessed the research journals of all disciplines, including first, unreliable article, and therefore the unreli- library science, are rarely cited. Which perhaps able or misrepresented data live on, cited over means that they are rarely read? So if the publish- and over. ers are shirking the responsibility for catching fraudulent research, what about the reviewers? As shown by both the Darsee and Alsabti cases, unethical researchers are also unlikely to be publicly vilified by their institution, their Responsibility of the reviewers? employer. It appears that most medical institu- It appears that the reviewing system works, but tions just want the dishonored researcher to not that well, mainly because reviewers are not slink quietly away, and most universities shun suspicious enough. Researchers who review the publicity about the debacle. I would imagine that work of other researchers have faith in their a university library would do the same if it were colleagues. Suspicion is considered slightly determined that one of their librarians con- unseemly and perhaps a trait of someone unfaith- ducted or published fraudulent research, and ful to the subject or not part of the discipline dismissal would depend on how the conduct team. After all it is a ‘peer review’ process, and affected the ability of the librarian to do his or ‘peer’ is defined as a person of the same rank, her job. ability, or qualities as another, an equal. Scientists generally believe that the only people who falsify, Replication fabricate, or plagiarize research findings are unbalanced and irrational, traits that the scientist The research and publishing arenas also have would definitely have noticed in a colleague at faith that unreliable research will be caught the last conference they attended. Reviewers through replication, but this is largely a false need to search more widely for plagiarized results hope. In all disciplines, including library — an activity that most claim they do not have research, there is no glory in repeating research, time for and hope that someone else (who?) will in going where someone else has gone before. do, and to be more skeptical. As Broad says: The rewards of large research grants and publication in well-respected journals go to original Scientists are not different from other people. work, not to steady, careful repeating of a project In donning the white coat at the laboratory that confirms the results of work already done. door, they do not step aside from the Replication is hampered, as well, by the difficulty passions, ambitions, and failings that animate of obtaining the original data — they are often those in other walks of life. (Broad 1982, 19) lost, misplaced, or inadvertently destroyed when the first researcher moves on to other projects. Replication research also carries with it the Severity of the penalty? implication of challenge to the original The cheating researcher weighs the chances of researcher, a sense of cynicism about the original getting caught, and also the severity of the results or conclusions. The cause of unveiling

30 Unreliable Research: are librarians liable? unreliable research would be much better served Information Science Research (LISR) (Fraud if replication research were viewed as a compli- and Misconduct . . . , 1996, 199). The primary ment to the original research whose results were reason for our honesty would be that the stakes considered so important that the project was are too low. The multi-million dollar research worth repeating and checking. But this is usually grants, high salaries, ultra-prestigious positions, not the case. and press recognition that are awarded to medical or other science researchers who Electronic publishing and fraud publish many articles per year are largely absent from the library and information field. Accord- According to Marcel LaFollette writing in the ing to these editors, we’re honest because the Journal of the American Society for Information ‘bauble’ spotlight that Charles Darwin coveted is Science (2000, 1337), the consequences of pub- not a reward that would be ours. lishing unreliable research have increased con- siderably with the development of electronic It would be folly, however, to assume that librar- publishing, but our ability to retrieve or retract ians and LIS researchers will be forever research information has decreased. I quote: saints, so speculation about when we might be liable to conduct unreliable research is prudent. At one time, a scientific publisher could The pressures of careerism, publish or perish, safely assume that a journal’s readers came have become much more intense in LIS schools from the same narrow professional com- in the past 20 years, and this same pressure is munity as its editors. Journals were not now affecting academic librarians who have marketed outside that circle, and rarely sold faculty status within their universities and for on newsstands. Isolated in the science [or whom advancement depends on published library science (my addition)] sections of research. But are we likely to be more vigilant libraries and hidden behind bland covers, about reviewing material for journals now that they presented a stodgy and uninviting face the pressure to publish has intensified? I think to non-specialists. Web-based publication — increased scrutiny of our peers will be difficult and the jazzy new graphics developed for because the LIS community worldwide is quite interactive presentation of scientific data — small, leading us to think that putting the work have attracted all sorts of new readers to of our peers under intense examination is an scientific journals. People who have never insult and a waste of time. It is likely that we will seen an actual printed copy of the Journal of follow the lead of other researchers in assuming the American Medical Association have the absolute honesty of our peers, and presume now accessed its Web pages. Even those that only an ‘unbalanced’ researcher would who do not read the technical articles on a cheat. This was the case in Canada regarding a journal’s Website may read the general sum- fraudulent article in a 1990 issue of the maries, news, and commentaries; others Canadian Journal of Physics: Canada’s small have easier access to journal information research physics community could not believe through a host of new Web intermediaries that one of their ‘own’ had been dishonest (Mon- that summarize medical and scientific news tagnes, 1993). and provide links to the journals themselves. The speed with which information Although no specific fraudulent LIS research moves in cyberspace has alerted specialists could be identified, the LISR editors believed to the need for accuracy and reliability for that some unreliable research in Babbage’s first the sake of their colleagues and their pro- category — fudging — was likely slipping through fessional reputation. The spread of informa- the editorial and reviewing process. They felt tion now makes accuracy and reliability that librarians were just as vulnerable as other essential for all of society. researchers to slightly altering data to make results ‘cleaner’ and conclusions more com- Are Librarians Likely (or Liable) to pelling. Fudging might also result from the tendency of inexperienced researchers to Conduct Fraudulent Research? manipulate results in inappropriate ways in order to obtain the results they want to see. Sta- No, they are not – according to the only article tistical magic can seem to be a very logical that could be found on this topic, the transcript process if one really wants to obtain certain of a brainstorming session held in 1996 by answers from a survey of customers or an the editorial staff of the journal Library and analysis of online journal use. This fudging of 31 Ann Curry

figures is not forgivable, but at least it is due to Are We Liable for Unreliable Research ineptitude and not malice. Another source of in Our Libraries? unreliable research done by librarians could be an investigation that breaks or bends ethical guidelines. For example, research concerned I could find no cases in which librarians had with the rapidly evolving area of Internet been found guilty or liable for distributing un- research — how people search the Web, how reliable research in their libraries. But the they communicate through e-mail, what com- question of culpability is inextricably entwined munication patterns exist on electronic discus- with intellectual freedom questions, of course. sion forums (listservs) — involves numerous Do libraries, particularly university libraries, ethical issues related to privacy. Questions arise have a responsibility to maintain unreliable such as: What identification markers can we use research on their shelves, so that there is a when we describe the messages and search record of this research, and so that it can be strategies we are researching? Must we use studied? How can we, or should we, mark mate- pseudonyms for everyone? Is it an invasion of rials to indicate that they are unreliable? privacy to quote a message from a listserv, even when no personal names are used? Will Librarians can receive little guidance on this research with no identifying characteristics of issue from the literature — few relevant articles the message author nor the message itself be of could be located. One by Sidney Berger, ‘Forg- limited use and unable to be replicated? Typical eries and their detection in the rare book world’, of a research project that encountered ethical discusses the financial and reputation damage roadblocks was the doctoral research of Eino that forged books can cause to universities and Sierpe, whose thesis is entitled ‘Gender and its to dealers, and reveals the tricks of those who relationship to perception in computer- create and sell expensive spurious documents mediated communication’ (Sierpe 2003). Dr. (Berger 1992). Steven Sowards, in ‘Historical Sierpe navigated the ethical shoals very well, but fabrications in library collections’, discusses his research results were muted by privacy what he calls “problematic historical writings”, concerns. When he described the messages which include books purported to be diaries that posted on a listserv, he (of course) did not are actually pure fiction, and books based on identify the poster, but he also could not say questionable or refuted World War II evidence what the messages were! The ethical issues sur- that are often characterized as Holocaust rounding this area of research and a report on revisionist materials. After weighing the options, the topic by the Association of Internet Sowards recommends against labeling or Researchers are described by Jeffrey Young in stamping all such problematic material: the Chronicle of Higher Education (2001). . . . to begin such labeling is a doubtful undertaking; once begun, it requires us to An ethical misstep can indeed result in data col- conclusively weigh the worth of every book lection that is tainted and unreliable: the in the collection, lest we imply approval of offense may be due to lack of ability and not a those left without warnings. This is not only deliberate oversight, but we are still liable for a gigantic task, but a controversial one; it censure because of the transgression. Unfortu- asks librarians to come to unequivocal judg- nately, not all LIS schools have required ments where subject specialists and expert research methods courses. And even some of scholars have often been unable to do so. the required courses concentrate almost solely (Sowards 1988, 85) on teaching librarians to be perceptive consumers of research rather than skilled The issue of ‘problematic historical writing’ has researchers themselves. As well, exploration of erupted just recently with the book Arming good ethical practice sometimes receives short America: The Origins of the National Gun shrift in research courses, sidelined by the many Culture, in which facts are disputed. This book hours required to explore various methodolo- has been pulled from the shelves of many gies. So if we are to decrease our liability to do American libraries, making it the fourth most unreliable research, a greater emphasis on challenged book in the US for 2003, according to ethical research practices should appear in our the American Library Association (Homan 2003). courses, and we must make certain that our discussion of information ethics as it relates to Carol Hughes (1998) conducted a survey on the practice, also relates to research. policies and procedures followed by medical

32 Unreliable Research: are librarians liable? libraries when they discover that research in unreliability in everyday life. It is a time of over- their collections is fraudulent. Fifty-nine percent whelming amounts of unsubstantiated and of libraries had no policies for calling the atten- erroneous data on the Web that mixes with tion of the library user to retracted information manipulated political information presented as in publications. Those libraries that did, either truth on the television. It is an age of computer stamped the article — e.g. “all or a portion of this images of people and places that look like article has been retracted — contact reference photographs but that are completely imaginary desk for assistance” or tipped in a message about and digital, an age in which an actual photo- the retraction. With almost all medical journal graph can be changed with free software to show literature now disseminated electronically, the something completely fabricated, an age in US National Library of Medicine’s MEDLINE which popular ‘reality’ shows like Survivor claim publication of errata and retraction notices, to be real, but are later proven to be completely which are linked to the original online article, staged. It appears to me that the concept of makes it much easier for readers to become ‘unreliable’ may now be slightly hazy for society aware of unreliable research (United States. in general, and perhaps for librarians and LIS National Library of Medicine, n.d.). This service researchers as well. But if we remember the also eliminates the need for medical librarians to research misdemeanors of Ptolemy, Galileo and continue with their previous method of ﬁnding Newton, perhaps we can take heart when we retractions — searching through individual acknowledge that this area is a difﬁcult one, with journals for retraction notices. no easy answers.

Fraudulent research mounted on websites has So, are we liable for unreliable research? For become a new nightmare for librarians as self- errors either malicious or inept in the research service Internet access in our libraries continues projects that we conduct, yes. But we are liable to grow and as we increasingly direct customers no more than researchers in other disciplines, to websites when answering reference questions. and that means that our ‘sentence’ will be light, An article in Searcher magazine titled ‘Better if we are discovered at all! We will likely be sen- read that again: web hoaxes and misinformation’ tenced to censure by our peers, but this censure (Piper 2000) details different categories of will not likely be widely known. hoaxes on the Internet — including counterfeit sites, parody and spoof sites, malicious sites and For the research of others? Not likely, particu- false product sites — but offers no solutions to larly if we make every effort to provide retrac- librarians about how to deal with this misinfor- tion information for the material that has been mation, other than becoming more astute and withdrawn by the publisher. With regard to cynical searchers. material not retracted but still unreliable, solid collection management policies and practices One other area of unreliable research needs to that address selection should protect us. The jury be touched upon, that of libraries containing is still out, however, regarding alleged libelous or material that is alleged to be slanderous or defamatory material, as we may be liable for libelous. Are we liable for continuing to carry ‘repeating’ the defamatory words. Although libel that material after we have been alerted to the laws vary in each country, and sometimes in alleged libel, even though the material has not each state or province, the law regarding libel been proven in court to be libelous? A recent generally says that as soon as a secondary dis- and ongoing case in Canada (Warman v. British tributor (bookstore, newspaper) discovers that Columbia Library Association, 2004) indicates material is alleged to be libelous, the material that repeating an alleged libel in your library must be pulled from distribution. The best we books or in audio form may indeed be action- can do is be aware of the laws in our jurisdiction able, although no evidence could be found of a and practice ‘due diligence’. successful libel case against a library in recent years. For librarians, however, a larger question lurks behind this exploration of unreliable research when we examine it in the context of intellectual Conclusions freedom philosophies as expressed by Article 19 (n.d.) and FAIFE (Libraries 2004). Should we The question of unreliable research must be really make all unreliable research disappear? If viewed in the context of our strange 21st century we do remove it from our libraries, how can age in which we expect a kind of fraud and anyone know what the fraudulent research said?

33 Ann Curry

Many times, research from the past that was and procedures for notifying library users of alleged to be untrue, either because it was retracted scientific publications. Medical Reference claimed to be slanderous or fabricated, fudged or Services Quarterly, 17 (2), 37–42. fraudulent, turned out to have a grain of truth Kochan, C.A. and Budd, J. (1992) The persistence of fraud in the literature: the Darsee case. Journal of the within it, a grain that grew through further American Society for Information Science, 43 (7), research into solid results. John Stuart Mill in On 488–493. Liberty stated four reasons in support of freedom Kohn, A. (1986) False prophets. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. of expression, the second of which said: LaFollette, M. (2000) Observations on fraud and scientific integrity in a digital environment. Journal of the Though the silenced opinion be an error, it American Society for Information Science, 51 (14), may, and very commonly does, contain a 1334–1337. portion of truth, and since the general pre- Libraries and intellectual freedom (February 26, 2004 — last update). IFLANET. Available: http://www.ifla. vailing opinion on any subject is rarely or org/faife/faife/presen.htm (Accessed October 3, never the whole truth, it is only by the col- 2004). lision of adverse opinions that the remain- Merton, R. (1973) The sociology of science: theoretical der of the truth has any chance of being and empirical investigations. Chicago: University of supplied. (Mill 1985, 116) Chicago Press. Mill, J.S. (1985) On liberty. London: Penguin. (First pub- So let us try to do reliable research ourselves, so lished 1859) Montagnes, I. (1993) Introduction to the issue: the that we are not liable for censure, and let us Freeman affair. Scholarly Publishing, 24 (July), provide for our customers the reliable research 193–203. that they seek, but let us not destroy without Piper, P. (2000) Better read that again: web hoaxes and question the unreliable research — it’s liable to misinformation. Searcher, 8 (8), 40–50. provide a very interesting story, and perhaps, just Sierpe, E. (2003) Gender and its relationship to percep- perhaps, a grain of truth. tion to computer-mediated communication. Unpub- lished PhD diss. McGill University. Montreal. Sowards, S.W. (1988) Historical fabrications in library References collections. Collection Management, 10(3/4), 81–88. United States. National Library of Medicine. (n.d.) Fact Article 19: The United Nations’ Declaration of Human Sheet: Errata, retraction, duplicate publication and Rights. (n.d.) (IFLA/FAIFE), Available: http://www. comment policy for MEDLINE. Available: http:// ifla.org/faife/art19.htm. (Accessed: October 1, 2004) www.nlm.nih.gov/pubs/factsheets/errata.html (Ac- Babbage, C. (1969) Reflections on the decline of science cessed August 11, 2004). in England. Farnborough: Gregg. (First published Warman v. British Columbia Library Association. 1830) (2004). Ontario Superior Court of Justice. Berger, S. (1992) Forgeries and their detection in the rare Westfall, R. (1973) Newton and the fudge factor. Science, book world. Libraries and Culture, 27 (1), 59–69. 179, 751–58. Broad, W. (1982) Betrayers of the truth. New York: Young, J.R. (2001) Committee of scholars proposes Simon and Schuster. ethics guidelines for research in cyberspace. Chron- Fraud and Misconduct in Library and Information icle of Higher Education, November 2, 51. Science Research. (1996) Library and Information Science Research, 18, 199–206. Homan, P. (2003) A record enriched: a case for a library Expanded version of original paper no 187 presented at catalog note for Michael Bellesiles’s Arming the World Library and Information Congress, 70th IFLA America: the origins of a national gun culture. Part General Conference, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 22–27 2. Idaho Librarian, 54 (4). Available: http:// August 2004, in session 139, Library Theory and www.idaholibraries.org/newidaholibrarian/200305/ Research. English original and French and Spanish RecordEnrichedII.htm (Accessed August 12, 2004). translations available on IFLANET at: http://www. Hughes, C. (1998) Academic medical libraries’ policies ifla.org/IV/ifla70/prog04.htm

34 Librarians and Basic Education Teachers in the Context of ‘Digital Literacy’

Emilia Ferreiro I will present some thoughts on the role of libraries in the so- called ‘digital literacy’ context. I will try, from the start, to question this name — ‘digital literacy’ — by trying to reveal what is hidden behind a name everybody seems to accept without further questioning. I will deal with the role of libraries in school performance, speciﬁcally focusing on basic tuition and poorly developed countries, which help to enlarge the so-called ‘digital gap’.

I will always wonder, regarding the most popular slogans, what are we talking about?

Before I start, it would be convenient to justify the approach chosen. Of all the professions involved with the production, circulation, cataloguing and distribution of written messages, probably the library community is the one which has better reacted to technological changes. On the other hand, the school as an institution shows all kinds of fears and reticence, and abruptly shifts from locking up the few computers available, to claiming for more machines, as magical agents for the promotion of new learning. Emilia Ferreiro was born in Argentina. She obtained her PhD I shall speak of education as a social institution, formally organ- at the University of Geneva under ized. Of course, I am aware that school is far from being the only the advisorship of Jean Piaget. educational environment, but in these times there are phenomena Since 1979 she has resided in which have magniﬁed the ‘school effect’: on the one hand, the Mexico, where she is full profes- entrance age has become progressively lower — in highly devel- sor at the Center for Advanced oped countries, practically all children attend school by the age Studies of the National Polytech- of three. On the other hand, the so-called mandatory basic edu- nicum Institute. Dra Ferreiro is cation has been extended to the age of 15, absorbing part of what internationally known by her con- before was called ‘secondary school’ or ‘second grade school’. tributions to early literacy Also, the growing importance of diplomas is such that it justiﬁes research. She may be contacted the recent and controversial declaration by the OECD [Organiz- at: [email protected]. ation for Economic Cooperation and Development], saying that education has become ‘a service which is an object of commerce’.

For obvious reasons, I am not going to talk about higher education. At that level, intensive use of new technologies is evident, whether at online courses level, or in the renewal of libraries, research networks working jointly in several countries, trans- mittal of specialized techniques by means of virtual reality, and a long list of etceteras.

I will focus my presentation in the existing tension between libraries and librarians linked to the less sophisticated users on the one hand, and mandatory school and teachers on the other. Both institutions and professions are summoned to help achieve the ‘digital literacy’.

***

Personal computers (PCs) are already 20 years the written text. This is undeniable. The said old (I am speaking of PCs, not of computers). revolution was prepared by writing by means of The idea of a ‘personal computer’ seemed a keyboard, an invention that has been available unusual at the beginning. Twenty years later, we since 1874, when the Remington company (a speak very naturally about the computer at weapons manufacturer), offered in the market home, at my office, my notebook. That is to say, the first typing machines. we think it is natural for a person to have three different computers, for uses that partially Writing by means of a keyboard is over a century coincide. old. But the keyboard becomes a privileged writing tool when it is associated with a Ten years ago, a computer could be inherited. computer. This is very interesting, because it Nowadays, youngsters in the family ask for shows that, sometimes, there is a considerable powerful processors and high speed. The adults’ time gap between the availability of a certain computers are no longer inheritable. Recycling technology and its social impact. of computers — for obvious market economy reasons — is underdeveloped and, to my knowl- How long did it take for some of the recent com- edge, limited to a few non-governmental organ- munication techniques to become popular? izations (NGOs) supporting the wrongly called ‘Third World’, and to some computing projects in In its 1999 report, the United Nations Develop- a few countries. ment Programme (UNDP) gives the following information: We already have, at basic education level, ‘computerized children’, as before we used to have • The radio took 38 years to finally have 50 ‘television children’. By this I mean: children million users. who were born and grew up knowing this tech- • TV took 13 years to reach the same number of nology was present in society. For some, that users. technology existed and was visible at their • The Internet reached that figure in only 4 years. homes (though not necessarily available to them). For others (the great majority) it was one (Computers, the Internet’s fundamental support, of the many technologies that are objects of took 16 years to reach 50 million users.) desire, but out of reach. In both cases, and this is what I am concerned with, they were born Of course, information and communication with this technology already installed in society. technologies (ICTs) are much more than a It is not the same to see a certain technology keyboard. But they incorporate the keyboard, coming to life, as being born with it already and this is not always emphasized. I think it is there. All those present here, at least most of us, important, because over the last few years, and in spite of the obvious age differences, writing by means of a keyboard has shifted from belong to the generation that watched this tech- being a job to being part of the ‘writer’s skills’. In nology ‘coming to life’. Ours is the surprise, the the past, the keyboard defined a specific learning amazement, the not knowing if ‘that’ would be instance called ‘typewriting’. Today, no private an object of curiosity or necessity; later, there institute — not even the lowest quality ones — was the compulsory learning, and now, the real- promotes ‘typewriting’. The school does not ization that we have established a new techno- tackle this — because it never considered the logical dependency relationship. keyboard as a writing element.

None of this for the computerized children and Of course, the computer revolution is much youths of the new generation. To this new gen- more than writing by means of a keyboard. The eration, the verb ‘to communicate’ means main issue is that everything changes at the same making a phone call (preferably, on a cell time: the text production method, the ways of phone), or chatting. The verb ‘to communicate’ disseminating the texts, and the material of the no longer spontaneously conveys the idea of supporting objects of written signs. writing on paper. Let’s bear this in mind. *** *** Current production methods involve a concen- We are witnessing a revolution in the practices tration of tasks on one single person, which related to the production, use and publicizing of before were divided into several specialized jobs.

36 Librarians and Basic Education Teachers

At one point in history, in classical antiquity and In terms of social practices related to the written for a great part of the Middle Ages, the work of text, what is new and what is a return to past author and scribe were dissociated. The author times? On screen, the texts scroll vertically. This of the text was not the author of the signs; the vertical shifting text is, in a certain way, a return author of the signs carried out a manual job. For to the scroll (prior to the codex). There is the text to circulate, the copyists had to take part nothing similar to the gesture of ‘leafing through’ in the process. If the text needed any particular in the new technologies, a gesture caused by the graphics, a new character would also intervene: joined pages of the codex. The text’s instability the illuminator. can be conceived as a return to medieval practices, as well as authorship’s frailty. Before the As technology improved and advanced (technol- press, there was no necessary unity of subject ogy for the preparation of surfaces and for the matter in the codices. On the contrary, the instruments to make the signs — i.e. writing — on codices were usually anthologies, a group of those surfaces), the author of the texts and the texts brought together for different reasons, author of the signs became one single person. without a necessary topic unity. The loss of subject matter unity in electronic formats would But for the circulation of the texts, many differ- not be then an attack on books, but a return to ent types of professionals, with very different the codex prior to the press. Historically consid- skills, had to take part in the process. As cen- ered, then, the ICTs acquire a new dimension.2 turies went by, all those publishing professionals were grouped under the name of a publishing Is the relation between images and text com- house. Now, for the first time, the time is ripe for pletely new? Yes, because it is possible to add an the disappearance of all those characters. (I am image to a text, as easily as never before. Yes, not saying they will actually disappear, but that because it is possible to tackle a text as an image, there is a possibility of their disappearing that and digitize both. However, we should not exag- concerns them.) gerate. Since medieval times, and very strongly since the Enlightenment, images go with texts and Nowadays, for the first time, an author can be sometimes replace them. (After all, during the his own editor/publisher: first, because he can conquest of America, Catholic doctrine was often give his text a graphic format at will (including transmitted by means of images, as shown by the the addition of sounds and moving images); Catechism in pictograms by Friar Pedro de Gante, secondly, because he can distribute his text inspired in the pre-Hispanic Mexico codices.3) through the Internet. (It is more difficult to ensure that he will get any financial income Are we witnessing then an improvement, dis- through this distribution, but that is another appearance, or a rupture of linearity? Once problem, related to copyright, of which I will not again, what are we talking about? Searching for speak.) information in a book, a dictionary, an encyclo- pedia, a phone directory, or whatever, was never From the monastic organization of copyists to linear. It was always a process of going to and the mercantile organization of publishing after fro, gathering information bits ‘in leaps and the press was created, there was a qualitative bounds’ and, with that fragmented information, leap. Another qualitative leap is taking place making decisions. But the moment the required now, and it should not be disregarded. The text information has been found, and if that informa- production and distribution methods change tion appears in the shape of continuous written completely in each of these periods. text, as brief as it might be, reading is linear. The Internet circulates texts without transforming The ideas of ‘work unity’ and ‘author identity’ them into non-texts. are also changing. Both are closely related to a material support that helps to make such notions Are there resources available that might allow tangible. Even though the title page has included the addition into writing of elements that were the author’s name since the 17th century, the absent from alphabetical writing? Sure. But this juridical status of author would only be is not totally new either. Commercial advertising acknowledged by the late 18th century. As has explored many of these resources very long strong as such idea of author may seem to us, it ago. has only been strongly established for two centuries. The idea of author ‘is not a medieval The newest thing is, maybe, the possibility of frag- idea’.1 mentation, with everything this entails. Video

37 Emilia Ferreiro

experimented with the fragmentation and super- baseball, but to someone having a certain degree imposition of images with great success. The of proficiency in the practical skills related to remote control gave users, particularly youths, that sport. the possibility of changing channels or tracks rapidly and continuously, with a minimum explo- What meanings are we trying to convey when, in ration of visual image or sound stimuli. English, we speak about ‘computer, digital, or Computer resources allow us to fragment and multi-media literacy’? In the library field5 there superimpose images and texts at will. Maybe, is less difficulty in using these expressions, without our knowing it, we are witnesses to new because it is assumed that they are related to text aesthetics, where the traditional analysis in information search, and the methods of search- terms of coherence and cohesion no longer make ing for information have drastically changed. sense. I cannot assure this. But I am convinced Information is no longer looked for in book that some peripheral technologies — such as the indexes, in encyclopedias or dictionaries – still remote control — have had a stronger impact on less in card indexes which have been or are new generations than was expected at first. being destroyed. Information is searched for in digital databases, and we have to learn to use We must remember that, together with the juridi- ‘keywords’ and basic logical operators in order cal acknowledgement of the ‘author’, the idea of to guide the search. In the library field, it is a a closed, finished, published work was also matter for debate to define which are the skills established. The author’s copyright could only required for a computer search, but it is much be attributed to a work with those characteris- simpler than when we apparently want to talk tics. Are we going back to the instability of the about the same issue in the educational field. medieval text? Cerquiglini, in his challenging work ‘Eloge de la variante’, discusses the effects In education, it is not only a matter of searching brought about by the modern publishing of for information, but also of doing something medieval texts, especially regarding word seg- with it, transforming information into knowl- mentation, punctuation and the search for ONE edge. In principle, a librarian is not concerned original, of which the rest would only be copies with what the user will do with the information with different levels of fidelity or falsity. The obtained. He doesn’t even care if the informa- essential thing in medieval texts would be varia- tion the user got, and which seems to satisfy him, tion, precisely because of the lack of the idea of is that which is really required for the problem an author.4 he is trying to solve.

*** For the educator, instead, the information search process is but a stage between two crucial We are in a ﬁeld where things are ﬁrst said in moments: making a question that will result in English, and are then translated, with good luck, the search, and ending up by building new or none at all, into other languages. However, knowledge (new at least from the learner’s point words name what the users, always changing, of view).6 make with them. An Internet search will rapidly inform us that the term ‘literacy’ often appears *** associated with expressions related to ICTs: In the educational context, what can we under- information literacy; computer literacy; stand by ‘computer, digital, or multimedia digital literacy; media literacy; web literacy. literacy’?

(Fairly interchangeable terms, even though We know that, at the level of basic education, some differentiation systematizations have there are difficulties, opposition, in any case little been tried, which are not yet being used). use, including in the most advanced countries. On October 2003 in France, the Ministry of But we also find: Education was concerned because only 20 percent of the teachers used multimedia tools in technology literacy; environmental literacy; class.7In 2001, Larry Cuban published a book financial literacy; baseball literacy. with Harvard University Press, which right away became a text for debate. The book is called For example, the expression ‘baseball literacy’ ‘Oversold, underused’, and its subtitle is ‘Reform- does not refer to someone who reads a lot about ing schools through technology, 1980–2000’. The

38 Librarians and Basic Education Teachers author’s thesis is that in the USA, computers do today sound ridiculous: the new instrument (the not have a significant role in the teaching prac- ball-point pen) would ‘ruin’ the students’ hand- tices of teachers. writing. Of course, by then we were in the transition between calligraphy as a school objective, The detailed information we are starting to have and the legible italicized handwriting that finally about developed countries contrasts with the prevailed. huge propaganda by international agencies about the immediate educational benefits that Schools often wage battles that have been lost could result from using new technologies, and beforehand, but they face them in order to the equally huge investments made by govern- maintain ‘their own technologies’, and this has to ments. (All ministers of education in Latin be taken into account. They also fought against America agree: the Internet in all schools is a pocket calculators, and for the same reason: they priority. These ministers declare equipment would ‘ruin’ the students’ calculation skills. purchase goals on solemn occasions such as, for Sadly, and to their regret, they had to accept example, at the beginning of the school year.8) them. And they learnt to used them cleverly when it was discovered that calculation mechan- *** ics could be delegated to that instrument, but that the student was always in charge of the Maybe it would be useful to look into the intelligent approximate calculation, as he was relation between technological innovations and the only one capable of assessing if the result the school, as an institution, in order to better was possible or absurd, through an error in place the debate on the effect of ICTs on basic pressing the keys. The reintroduction of esti- education. mated calculation as an intelligent activity, and the delegation of exact calculation as a mechan- School has its own technologies, inherited by ical activity, is still today characteristic of good tradition, which it maintains as if they were schools in some places of the world, and in no patriotic symbols: the blackboard, where chalk is way a distinctive sign of the adoption of a new used to write on; and the school notebook tech- technology on the school’s part. nology, heir to the small individual slates. Another one of the writing technologies I have School adopted (along with innovations in its mentioned — the so-called ‘typing machines’ own organization), technologies foreign to it: the (mechanical or electrical) — were never accepted metal quill, successfully replacing the bird quill, by the school as an institution. Surveys among which has to be sharpened constantly. I suspect Latin American teachers have always resulted in that the pen’s success, which drastically reduced the same answer: ‘they are too noisy’, reason the age of being able to write in ink, was related enough to keep them away from schools. to its similarity to the previous instrument. For Actually, typing machines entered the school some reason both are known as ‘quill’, though bureaucracy, but not the classrooms. Although the second one no longer even resembles a bird’s typing machines are undoubtedly very powerful feather. The inkwell remained. The gesture of writing tools, they were kept away from the going with the quill to the page with extreme teaching field (even though they were used in the care so as to avoid a blot that would spoil every- school bureaucracy). The increasing need to fill thing, was still there. The change was, actually, forms in typewriting was not reason enough for the proscription of a weapon within the school: the school to tackle this technology, which was the instrument called penknife. And on prohibit- never allowed to actually enter the elemental or ing weapons within school, there is full agree- basic teaching field, in spite of its countless ment in advance. advantages.

But that same institution reacted negatively to In brief, the relationship between the develop- the appearance of the following technological ment of socially used technologies and the advance: the ball-point pen, a writing instrument school as an institution, is a very complex issue. that carried the ink within itself, which pre- In general, technologies related to the act of vented the risky gesture of going from the writing had an impact (not always positive, as in inkwell to the paper, which actually made the the case of the ball-point pen and the typing holes on desks for inkwells redundant. To all machine). But school is highly conservative, these advantages, the school institution reacted reticent about incorporating new technologies with a categorical NO, and for reasons which that imply a drastic change from prior practices.

39 Emilia Ferreiro

PC technologies and the Internet give access to community or municipal libraries. ‘The Internet an uncertain and out of control space: screen in all libraries’, starting with those in school, and keyboard can be used to see, read, write, would be a very reasonable demand. . . . listen, play . . . Too many simultaneous changes for an institution as conservative as school. Few teachers are ready to allow books (in the plural, i.e. a classroom library) to enter the class- I mentioned before that ‘of all the professions room; still fewer are those who will allow a involved with the production, circulation, cata- computer in the classroom (a distracting loguing and distribution of written messages, element, like books). It is already a cliché . . . to probably the library community is the one which say that the teacher feels left aside by an attrac- has better reacted to technological changes’. This tive technology that generates — we already can be said of big libraries, but is it by any chance know — playful attitudes, and not necessarily true about small libraries and school libraries? learning attitudes. On the contrary, librarians How is the library system at its primary level don’t feel that conflict: the computer is an instru- doing, where the users are less sophisticated, but ment to request and search for information, more promising in terms of the future? which replaces card files. Less occupied space, and more functions. Ideal for a librarian. *** *** The situation is highly conflicting because, as I have mentioned, there are huge social expecta- It is fashionable now to build ‘scenarios’. Let us tions about education being the key to solve all see, then, several short-term ‘possible scenarios’. sorts of things which, obviously, no educational system by itself can solve, as long as social Scenario 1 (thought up by Microsoft) — All inequalities exist, while poverty in the wrongly children will attend school with their notebook called ‘developing South’ increases, while unem- computer (many of them donated by the Bill ployment or underemployment is one of the Gates Foundation). They will load all the biblio- most realistic expectations in spite of any collec- graphy of every subject into their notebooks, thus tion of diplomas, while the list of the chosen by putting an end to the hideous photocopies, a tech- Forbes informs us that only one family (or one nology which ruined the taste for books, which person) has an income higher than the GDP of gave all pages the same physical aspect, and several of the small countries in the planet, while which fragmented texts, long before the Internet international experts live to issue reports and did. Also, it attacked the authors’ identity, which ‘domestic evaluations’ which will have little or disappeared in the photocopies of photocopies no impact on the phenomena they deal with: circulating in poorly developed countries. poverty reduction, education quality, equity, transparency, efficiency and effectiveness of edu- Teachers will be tutors, advisors, consultants . . . cational systems. They will do plenty of things, except give lessons. The true ‘teachers’ will be absent or, to put it Poor countries, the ‘poorly developed ones’, tied more accurately, virtually present. The librarian to the reproduction mechanisms of foreign debt, will probably have a virtual presence too. The go on indebting themselves to ‘give a computer ‘face to face’ and ‘body to body’ situations, that to every school’, without the least proper educa- have played a very important role in educational tional debate about what that implies. It is not contacts of the past, tend to disappear. Thus we the same to ‘give desks and toilet bowls to every shall also avoid the potentially dangerous body school’, as to give a computer to every school. contacts among members of the educational Computers need permanent technical support; community. The only classroom learning courses they require continuous software updating, they will be introductory leveling courses, to ensure require a telephone line or wiring that will guar- all students have similar computer knowledge. antee the Internet connection. To give a (Though it would be reasonable to expect that computer to every school without thinking of kindergarten and the first school years will be the essential infrastructure is to put in something classroom learning courses, at least until it is dis- useless which will become obsolete a few covered how to teach reading and writing months after being installed. without the presence of a human being. . . .)

Oddly enough, we don’t hear as often or as Scenario 2 (conservative) — Some children will strongly a similar demand regarding school, have their ICT spaces away from school. School

40 Librarians and Basic Education Teachers will take for granted that ‘out-of-school’ knowl- When we read the ‘Information Literacy Stan- edge (as it assumes all students know how to dards’10 which are being promoted in the USA — handle a TV set, record a program, etc.). After from Pre-K to Grade 12 — it is evident that they all, school never explicitly taught how to use a are not thinking about schools such as the ones cellphone, and any child has learnt it at home or in Latin America, where students attend classes with his friends. Neither did it teach how to use only 4 hours a day: all the school time would be a TV remote control. At most, school just says, devoted to learning those communication tech- ‘Today at 6 pm watch a program on channel 11, niques, with no time available for the curricula on polar bears; tomorrow we shall comment (and assuming there were only 20 students per about it in class.’ School does not teach ‘the class, instead of the 30 or 40 there are today; language of images’. Likewise, it can ask students assuming there were many machines available, to search for information on a given subject on free access to the Internet, technical support, the Internet, recommending a couple of sites, machines and program updates, and all the rest). and implicitly assuming that the rapid spread of this technology exempts school from teaching a *** purely technological know-how. What about the digital gap? School did not create it; it is just one This scenario 3 often comes together with a pro- more of the many social evils affecting its own gressive and well-thought discourse; sometimes, performance, but it is not within its capacity to simply with the implacable futurism of visionar- modify these social problems. How can we ies. But whatever the kind of discourse, the truth expect that the majority of teachers, badly paid is that it matches well the ideology of the ‘knowl- and worse trained, can teach children to surf the edge society’, promoted by the World Bank and over 50 million websites identified in April associated agencies. And here we must stop to 2004? Librarians would just give access to infor- think a little. mation sites previously identified, with general satisfaction from teachers, families . . . and even New economics is described as knowledge eco- users not very skilled in computers. nomics. In fact, James Wolfensohn, President of the World Bank (WB), proposed back in 1996 Scenario 3 (dangerously idealistic) — The ICTs (and repeated in 1999), that the WB be rede- are such a huge revolution that they radically fined as a ‘knowledge bank’. The expression change the reading and writing processes and knowledge management regularly appears in especially mark the disappearance of ‘alphabeti- recent documents produced by that agency and cal linearity’. Knowledge will no longer be trans- others, such as the OECD. What ‘knowledge’ are mitted through written language, but through they referring to? To a practical, immediately complex relationships between images (prefer- applicable, rapidly becoming obsolete (they are ably moving ones), graphs, information capsules convinced that this knowledge will have an (in audio or in writing). The most important thing average 3-year life cycle), merchandise like any is to learn to interpret messages conveyed other, with a market value. Of course, everybody through all these media at once, but also to says knowledge should not be mistaken for produce messages using state of the art technol- information but, in their discourse, all terms get ogy. School takes as its fundamental goal this new mixed up and, oddly enough, learning is some- ‘digital multimedia literacy’, and relegates tradi- times totally dissociated from knowledge. tional teaching content to the background, since the speed of changes in knowledge to be incorpo- Institutions traditionally associated with knowl- rated ‘for life’ makes any curriculum rapidly edge (i.e. universities), are left aside unless they obsolete. Also, speed in changes in technologies adjust to this model, which of course is happen- themselves requires devoting considerable time to ing in many places. In principle, this new knowl- the permanent recycling of the users (including edge will be available in other places, and experts). Teachers will be replaced by computer already is in the computer highways. technicians with training in communication since, as some of their promoters say, “multimedia Where shall we get the knowledge required for literacy (. . .) teaches to read and write with text, this new economic dynamics? The key expres- sound and images, in non linear interactive doc- sion is learning communities. This expression is uments”.9 Something similar can be applied, in extremely ambiguous and maybe deliberately this scenario, to librarians, more concerned with ambiguous. A learning community can have computer knowledge than with the knowledge local existence (a company, a family, a rural that can be accessed by means of computers. community, whatever), or can have virtual

41 Emilia Ferreiro

existence (groups connected by the Internet). for long. We are in the decade of literacy accord- Also, a school could be described as a learning ing to UNESCO, whose current Director General community. But school ceases to be the learning has had the peculiar idea of appointing Mrs. Bush place par excellence, and that is what matters. as ‘special ambassador’ of the said decade, no doubt to celebrate the re-entrance of USA to Let us not fool ourselves: it is not scientific UNESCO after about 20 years of absence. knowledge, that which aims at intelligibility, which creates comprehensive systems (which we But at the famous 1990 meeting at Jomtien, call theories), which demands demonstrations, Thailand, when the World Bank signed with contrast and discussion, which gives proof of the UNESCO the declaration giving absolute priority validity of its statements and constantly asks to basic education, the goals for the last ten years questions according to ‘intelligibility gaps’. That of the 20th century had already been set: educa- knowledge is not included in this new knowl- tion for all and, of course, literacy for all. edge. We are not discussing whether scientific knowledge is supplementary, opposite, or And long before, in 1979, the ministers of edu- whatever, with regard to other knowledge cation and those in charge of economic planning (popular knowledge, technological knowledge, in Latin America and the Caribbean were etc.). The serious thing here is word monopoly. summoned by UNESCO itself to Mexico City, New economists have taken the word knowl- where they committed themselves to achieve, edge as theirs. This knowledge is conceived as before the year 2000, school for all children, a encapsulated and liable to be so; disposable, general basic education of eight to ten years, and liable to become obsolete. Therefore, learning to the elimination of illiteracy. It was the beginning throw away information is, to some ideologists, of what was known as the Major Project of Edu- as important as learning to ‘load information’; cation in Latin America and the Caribbean. Of human individuals are not fitted with a ‘delete’ course, similar meetings were held in other key, and so they talk about the need for training regions. in forgetting abilities. And thus we go, from declaration to declaration, In this discussion, there is a great absentee: the from celebration to celebration, while strong notion itself of learning that is being used. What sums of money are used for ‘external’ assess- is the maximum speed at which learning can ments and certifications, which guarantee the occur? What can be learnt through the screens? homogenization of politics, much more than the Learning is a process, and a process that takes renowned ‘transparency’. its time. It is probable that the traditional age to start a given kind of learning should be revised. Thus we go from a previous unfulfilled commit- But most surely, there is learning that demands ment to the next one, without acknowledging ‘face to face and body to body’, as well as there the history of our own failures, while Europe is fundamental learning that requires effective and the North of the American continent are contact with the objects. Both psychology and being invaded by undesired immigrants, while psycho-pedagogy have a big task ahead in the the AIDS and new ‘preventive wars’ orphans near future: to discover which are the learnings clamor for justice, wide-eyed, while the number that cannot be carried out by means of a screen. grows of those surviving (and living badly) with less than a daily dollar, while the increase in ICTs have appeared surrounded by an ideology- wealth concentration among a few families and prone discourse, of which we shall have to strip among a few companies is as outrageous as the them in order to value them for themselves. number of children being born with a life expectation of under five years.11 *** How can we bring universal literacy into this The digital gap does indeed exist. But it is not the unequal world? What are we talking about? Is only existing gap. It is outrageous that there are digital literacy the answer? more Internet connections in Manhattan than in the whole of Africa, but not more outrageous *** than other inequalities which we have lived with since decades ago. In particular, the digital gap As a researcher, I have been struggling for the overlaps with the literacy gap we already knew, past 25 years to extend the concept of ‘literacy’, that eternal debt that has been hanging over us with an approach that is at once evolutionary,

42 Librarians and Basic Education Teachers social and historical. I can say and maintain, with To make my position clear, let me summarize it empirical evidence, that to introduce literacy is as follows: not to go across the ‘code barrier’. It is not, first, because no serious linguistic analysis leads to the I cannot speak about literacy in the void, but conclusion that writings historically developed within a specific space-time. When computers are codes (in the sense that some artificial were but just appearing, and being sure of the language are indeed, such as the Morse code or power of the keyboard in developing technolo- the binary code). Secondly, because what is gies, I started a campaign for the recovery of old essential in the literacy process is a conceptual mechanical typing machines in order to give re-conversion: language, learnt as a communica- them to rural schools in Mexico. Now I am tion instrument, should become an object inde- struggling for access to books and ICTs in all pendent from the elocution act, an object about those schools and in every school.13 which we can think, which can be analyzed. Thirdly, because historically, writing is not a I have promoted the creation of a website for reflection of spoken communication, but a repre- all Spanish-speaking children,14 and I have sentation system at various levels, which leaves produced — with a team of young technicians — aside — i.e. does not represent — fundamental dis- a multimedia CD in order to better make my tinctions of oral communication (emphasis, own scientific production known.15 intonation, repetitions, intentional pauses, rectifi- cations), and introduces characteristics foreign to But I don’t speak about digital education or spoken communication (e.g. words that ‘sound’ digital literacy, because I think it is not proper to the same are written differently if there is a speak of them. I speak about literacy by itself. change of reference or syntactic significance). The one corresponding to our space and time. Fourthly, because between ‘the language that is written’ and spoken communication there are We need critical readers, who doubt the truth of evident differences at every level (pragmatic, what they see in print on paper, or displayed on lexical, syntactic and phonological). And I stop screen, text or image; readers who seek to under- here, because I could go on with the list.12 stand other languages (how much easier it is now with the Internet!) without underestimating The difficulties in shifting from spoken to written or magnifying the hegemonic English language. communication are still there, with or without ICTs. What the ICTs help us to do, unaware, is: Readers who will have a global vision of social and political problems (how much easier it is • To render obsolete the idea of promoting now with the Internet!) without sticking to literacy with only one text (but for decades, narrow localisms. there have been many of us who insist on the advantage of a diversity of texts from the Intelligent, alert, critical readers and producers beginning and, in that sense, libraries and of written language. What we have always librarians are an essential aid). searched for. Difficult task, and now, the • To render obsolete the pedagogical obsession Internet helps, no doubt. Books and libraries with spelling (we must learn to use spell cor- too. rectors with intelligence, the same as pocket calculators). As opposed to the conservative school insti- • To render obsolete the idea of a unique source tution, libraries and librarians can play an of information: the teacher or the textbook avant-garde role, quite different from the supple- (but for decades, good libraries and good mentary role some attribute to them. Librarians librarians have been working towards this must have a major space within the planning goal). and execution of school tasks. It is not just a matter of encouraging children to go to the In brief, there are multiple convergence points library. It is about including library research as between what is claimed as ‘novelties introduced an integral part of educational projects, where by ICTs’ (in educational terms), and what pro- the person responsible for the library has his or gressive tendencies in literacy (to give them a her own voice: informing the teachers about the name) have been demanding for decades. In this resources available, about the intelligent use of sense, welcome the ICTs! new technologies, helping — having a ‘quieter’ relationship with them — incorporate a tech- *** nique to help learning.

43 Emilia Ferreiro

In view of the fears and uncertainties on the 3. Cortes Castellanos, J. (1987) El catecismo en teachers’ part, school library services have a role pictogramas de Fray Pedro de Gante. Madrid: of vital importance to fulfill. They are not asking Fundación Universitaria Española. for ‘training courses’, as teachers do as a ‘protec- 4. According to this vision, the seven conserved complete manuscripts of the Chanson de Roland tive shield’ against unavoidable changes. Librar- are so many other versions or realizations of the ians have been trained out of need, as any other epic poem. “It is difficult to accept the idea that profession. there is more than one Chanson de Roland, all of them authentic”, rightly says Cerquiglini. (Eloge de Librarians have not stopped at the semantic root la variante. Paris: Ed. du Seuil, 1989, p. 63). of the word defining them. It is clear that their 5. See website of the American Library Association original job is to catalogue and make books and and links. printed documents available. But they have been 6. The building of knowledge is not limited to ‘making sense’ of fragments of information. Trying to make able to add recorded and video-recorded docu- sense of information is typical of human cognition. ments without much ‘professional trauma’. They But, to put it in Piaget’s theory terms, the pure have also been able to incorporate all sorts of assimilation without accommodation is not enough. digital sources of access to information. They This is evident in the case of historical knowledge, have already done so, while basic education where attempts to link dispersed pieces of vaguely teachers are still afraid, precisely because they related information result in the greatest are being summoned to bring about ‘digital absurdities. 7. Dossier ‘L’Édition scolaire numérique’, supplement literacy’, without necessarily understanding what de La lettre de l’éducation N° 426, October 6 2003, we are talking about — and for a good reason, Le Monde newspaper. because the discourse is extremely ambiguous — 8. At the beginning of the school year, September while curricula changes are being imposed on 2003, the Secretary of Education of Mexico them, in which they have had no participation. announced the government plan to buy 815,000 computers. Also at the beginning of the school year, We need children and youths who can express March 2004, the Minister of Education of Argentina announced a plan to purchase 50,000 computers in themselves in writing in a convincing manner the next 3 years. The difference in figures is related (how much easier it is now with the Internet!) to the size of the school population, not to their who not simply communicate because ‘one has to intentions. See both countries’ websites. be in permanent communication’, but because 9. The quotation is from p. 65 of A. Gutierrez Martin’s they have something to communicate; the book, Alfabetización digital (Barcelona: Gedisa, content of the message should be at least as 2003). Of course, there is an overabundance of texts important as the format. We need particularly devoted to this subject, and it is not my intention to creative new generations. They will be in charge, make a critical bibliographical revision. 10. http://cnets.iste.org/currstands/cstands-il.html. no more, no less, of inventing a new world order, 11. UNICEF annual report, submitted in Berlin on May where life will be worth living. It is the teachers’ 7 2004: “Chronic extreme poverty kills a million duty, but also that of librarians and all professions and a half children before they reach 5 years of age, involved in transmitting and spreading knowl- in the 10 most needy countries in the world”. In edge. Professions that believe that it still makes Afghanistan, for example, 25% of children do not sense to transmit human knowledge, whatever its reach 5 years of age. origin. Professions that believe in humanity as a 12. See Ferreiro, E. (Comp.) Relaciones de (in)dependencia entre oralidad y escritura. pluralistic entity. Without hegemonic domina- Barcelona: Gedisa, 2002. tion. Let us struggle for this to be so. 13. To struggle for access to the ICTs also means to start the debate: how many computers in each school? In what type of webs? Fitted with what kind of Notes and references software? And so on. 1. Cerquiglini, B. (1989) Éloge de la variante. Histoire 14. www.chicosyescritores.org critique de la philologie. Paris: Éditions du Seuil. 15. Ferreiro, E. (2003) Los niños piensan sobre la Chartier, R. (1992) Libros, lecturas y lectores en la escritura. CD-Multimedia, México: Siglo XXI Edad Moderna. (Chap. 3: « ¿Qué es un autor ?»). Editores. Barcelona: Alianza Universidad. Chartier, R. (2000) Entre poder y placer. (Chap. V: ‘La invención del autor’) Madrid: Ediciones Cátedra. Revised translation of original paper no. 178 presented 2. See Ferreiro, E. (2001) Pasado y presente de los at the World Library and Information Congress, 70th verbos ‘Leer’ y ‘Escribir’. Buenos Aires and Mexico: IFLA General Conference, Buenos Aires, Argentina, Fondo de Cultura Económica. (English translation: 22–27 August 2004, in session 140, Plenary Session III. Past and present of the verbs to read and to write. Spanish original available on IFLANET at: http://www. Toronto: Groundwood Press, 2003). ifla.org/IV/ifla70/prog04.htm.

44 NGOs, ICTs and Information Dissemination in Asia and Oceania

Elizabeth Reade-Fong and It can be no accident that there is today no wealthy developed Gary E. Gorman country that is information-poor, and no information-rich country that is poor and underdeveloped. Dr Mahathir Mohammed

Introduction

Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) working in developing countries are engaged in information dissemination at two levels. One is purely informational, the sharing of information within the organization in order for the organization to function. The other is more directly developmental: the use of information for sustainable capacity-building initiatives in a range of ﬁelds, including education, health, housing and agriculture. Focusing on the situation in Asia and Oceania, this paper looks at the way in which NGOs utilize information, and to some extent information and communication technologies (ICTs), for sustainable capacity building.

The Questions Asked

It is hypothesized that communication strategies that take into account the social nature of access, recognize the interaction between face-to-face and online communications, and combine Internet use with a broad range of other new and old media provide the best opportunities for sustainable development initiatives through the use of ICT.

To address this hypothesis, we ask a series of questions in the paper: How have NGOs’ roles changed in the creation, validation and dissemination of information? What are the barriers to ICT adoption, and how might its potential be realized? What is an appropriate mix of ICT-based information dissemination and tra- About the authors: page 51 ditional print-based information? How do different cultures react when information is accessed remotely rather than face-to-face?

We also ask some potentially embarrassing questions, based primarily on our experience of the development scene in our region. Speciﬁcally, how well do NGOs collaborate with one another in sharing development-related information? What are some of the facilitators and barriers to more effective collaboration?

‘NGO’ Deﬁned

For purposes of this paper we deﬁne ‘nongovernmental organization’ or NGO as the third sector of development activity, that is, non-state, non-business, not-for-proﬁt organizations with a

Copyright © 2005 International Federation of Library Associations & Institutions (www.iﬂa.org). IFLA Journal 31(1): 45–51. ISSN: 0340-0352. DOI: 10.1177/0340035205052643 45 Elizabeth Reade-Fong and Gary E. Gorman

global or regional outreach. According to some organizations have collaborated to assist the commentators, these NGOs have themselves development of countries in the region. Among developed at a phenomenal rate, especially in the notable outcomes of these initiatives are the the final decades of the 20th century. This may rapid development of the telecommunications be a kind of global revolution for NGOs; industry and the emergence of new ICT and whether this is the case is a matter of interpreta- multimedia industries. tion, but certainly the NGO has become incredibly influential and significant in development In Asia and Oceania, where country populations activities worldwide. Indeed, anyone who range from significantly overpopulated (India, spends time in some of the most needful coun- Indonesia) to small isolated island states with tries in our region, Cambodia as an example, low per capita incomes (Tonga, Tokelau) and may be forgiven for thinking that NGOs have with urban populations growing through rural- taken over the world – every vehicle, most office urban migration, information acquisition and premises and even a number of hotels bear the dissemination is, or at least should be, a princi- logo of an NGO, ranging from the genuine pal tool of sustainable development for NGOs. heavyweights to some of the very small organiz- In the process of achieving sustainable develop- ations engaged in a single project of short ment utilizing ICTs, NGOs have had to critically duration. examine (1) issues of access (2) the forms of ICT that are relevant and sustainable vis-à-vis local resources and (3) the availability of information NGOs in Asia-Oceania and technology skills to sustain any system implemented. These NGOs have evolved in the Asia-Oceania region against a rich backdrop of varied ethnic, NGOs with a Focus on Women as an economic, political systems (democracy, monarchy, communism, military rule) and Example indigenous values and philosophical traditions (Buddhism, Hinduism, Confucianism, Islam and The women’s movement, amongst others associ- Christianity). NGOs were initially established in ated with human rights, social justice, repro- response to emergency relief provision and ductive health and gender issues, has been a welfare services. Over time, this changed, and dynamic force in the ICT awareness raising arena by NGOs, through the employment of a many [NGOs] subsequently moved into dynamic mix of ICT strategies based on increasingly multi-sectoral, development- technical assistance and advice, supporting com- oriented programmes aimed at promoting munity access, sharing best practices, advocating the self-reliance [sustainable development] information standards and low-cost technologies of their disadvantaged target groups. and supporting local innovations. (ESCAP 1994, 1) The number of websites established by women’s The establishment of telecommunication infra- NGOs and national machinery for the advance- structures that formed the basis of ICT development of women has increased rapidly in recent ment in Asia and Oceania was the result of the years. Through new information technology, work of colonial powers and their efforts toward women’s organizations are now able to network the advancement and perpetuation of their with one another beyond national boundaries interests. This was later reinforced by national and share information and resources with less development and the brand of economic develop- expense. Local groups have become part of ment labelled ‘globalization’ that is advocated in regional and international group networks, and the 21st century. have strategized networks, thus strengthening their capacity for sustainable institution building. From wireless and radio or radio telephone, to the message services of Morse code, cable and For example, of the 83 NGOs which regis- telex, to video and TV and satellite communica- tered in 1999 for a regional high-level inter- tions, the Internet and CD-ROM technology, governmental meeting to review regional mobile telephony, with the advent of the ICT implementation of the Beijing Platform for revolution, national governments, multilateral Action in the Asian and Pacific region, 68 agencies, regional development agencies, private had their own e-mail address, which was corporations as well as non-governmental used for communication with ESCAP, the 46 NGOs, ICTs and Information Dissemination

meeting organizer. Considering that in of ICT as an advocacy tool by Pacific women in 1995, at the time of the Fourth World Con- both government and civil society is limited. ference on Women, e-mail communication (Cass and Williams 2002) among the majority of women NGOs in the Asian and Pacific region was virtually non- Elizabeth Cass, a member of the survey team existent, that number is significant. At the reported that time, of the entire United Nations system, only the United Nations Development Pro- the survey also highlighted a need, outlined gramme (UNDP) maintained a server with by the respondent countries, to provide ICT web and gopher sites. The Beijing Confer- training in order to improve the use of ICT ence was the first UN world conference to so that advocacy and networking on gender actively use online information dissemina- inequality could be achieved with multi- tion. (Horie 2003, 1) layered spin-off benefits such as the creation of online networking and proactive use by On the other hand, while new information tech- Pacific women of electronic/online media. nology has given women the opportunity to The publication assessed the use of ICTs by share information and interact on a scale that women’s groups in Asia & 8 Pacific Island was hard to imagine at the time of the Beijing countries (Federated States of Micronesia, Conference, in terms of political, economic and New Caledonia, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, social participation women’s worldwide Solomon Islands, Tonga, Vanuatu & Fiji). presence in this new information technology The survey found that very few Pacific remains low. Women in developing countries, women’s organizations used the Internet as among other minority groups, are especially a networking tool and highlighted the need challenged in terms of effectively accessing the to improve the capacity of women in the information highway to reach alternative Pacific to make full use of ICT to support sources of information. their policy & advocacy work. High cost of access, and skills & training were factors that The Asian Women’s Resource Center (AWORC), prevented women’s groups from using ICTs. the United Nations Economic and Social Com- Three phases: research, train the trainers and mission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) and two week online advocacy workshop for Isis International Manila are conducting Pacific women who meet the selection research which seeks to assess the situation of criteria: i.e. are in information roles, which women’s organized groups in Asia, the Central can best benefit from ICT technology and Asian Republics, and the Pacific; their level of share online advocacy through information ICT use, how ICT is used in their work, and and innovative use of ICT and content. what their training and networking needs are, (Cass, e-mail communication, 2004) towards furthering women’s empowerment through the use of ICT. For countries in the The NGO DAWN (Development Alternatives for Central Asian Republics and the Pacific sub- Women in a New Era), whose base was in the regions, which are less developed than other Pacific from 1998-2002, is composed of women subregions in terms of Internet accessibility for in academia from Africa, Asia, the Pacific and the women’s organizations, indepth subregional Caribbean. DAWN analyses economic develop- studies have been conducted to make a situation ment policies and their implications for women. analysis on Internet use and access among It has a strong information power base that women’s groups. Women’s organizations in this includes research as a normal part of its activity. research are defined as non-profit and non- DAWN has four themes: the Political Economy of government women’s groups at grassroots and Globalization; Sexual and Reproductive Health national levels which work on any aspect of and Rights; Political Restructuring and Social women in development. Transformation; and Sustainable Livelihoods and Environmental Justice. Its target audience is gov- In 2001, the Secretariat of the Pacific Com- ernment and the international arena, and its role munity Pacific Women’s Bureau, in collabora- is to determine and recommend alternatives for tion with AWORC, conducted the Pacific the development of women. The DAWN website section of the baseline survey which revealed is well developed and its links with other online that within the national women’s machinery in advocacy units through DAWN’s association and each of the 22 Pacific Island member countries strategic partnerships with specific development and territories of the Pacific Community, the use networks and organizations that work on similar

47 Elizabeth Reade-Fong and Gary E. Gorman

issues as DAWN are important to the achieve- owners are now required to report any ‘suspi- ment of the network’s goals. These working part- cious’ use of the Internet by their customers (as nerships, through ICT links, provide a wider reported in Viet Nam News in June 2004). One outreach for DAWN, and the opportunity of could list several other countries where Internet focused impacts. Through such partnerships, use is heavily proscribed, and where alleged DAWN seeks to engender influential develop- misuse can lead to serious consequences. Whilst ment organizations. NGOs may feel safely outside this net, they may be rather surprised about how much is known of The Ecumenical Centre for Advocacy and their Internet traffic, and how various govern- Research in Fiji (ECREA) and the Pacific ment authorities regard them as a result. Concerns Research Centre obtained funds for an automated integrated library system (Alice for ICT development is largely an urban phenome- Windows) for their resource centres. This is an non. Nearly all Internet users are located in excellent example of collaboration between capital cities and a handful of secondary urban NGOs in terms of funding and personnel expert- areas. In rural Viet Nam, for example the more ise. The resource centre is accessible through the remote villages often have no electricity, or a website at http://www.ecrea.org.fj. very sporadic power supply, and about 40 percent of the population is without a telephone. In terms of affordability, Pacific islanders as an Internet Access and ICTs in the Region example typically face connectivity charges that are among the highest in the world. Subscription The World Summit on the Information Society and usage charges for dialup access to the (WSIS) in 2003 was an opportunity for govern- Internet range from USD 3.00 to USD 175.00 per ment and NGOs, institutions and private and month, with an average of USD 50.00. (PIFS business sector organizations to take stock of 2003a, 4) On an annual basis this amounts to ICT development goals. This exercise confirmed one quarter to one half of the average annual per the degree to which certain barriers to ICT exist, capita GDP in many countries and is clearly and the extent to which NGOs are caught unaffordable by the majority of people. This behind these barriers. scenario differs from region to region.

It must be remembered that in developing coun- The price of full-time Internet access via a 64 tries of Asia and the Pacific Internet access has kbps leased line varies much more widely than become available only recently. In the Pacific, does that of dialup access, from USD 700 to for example, the Internet arrived as a viable USD 5000 per month. (PIFS 2003a, 4). These communications technology in Fiji in 1995, and prices are, on average, five times higher and in Tuvalu in 2000. At present approximately 25 range to as much as 20 times higher, than in Asia- percent of Pacific islanders have regular access Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) devel- to ICTs, primarily through their workplaces, a oped countries. (PIFS 2003a, 4) Where aid is few secondary and tertiary educational institu- involved in access, many developing countries tions and a few public centres and Internet cafes. have problems with continuation of the project. (PIFS 2003a, 3) Projects often lock countries into technology and equipment brands that may hinder development. The proportion of Internet subscribers ranges from very high (on average 1:5) in Australia, Institutional use of the Internet in the Pacific falls Hong Kong, Japan New Zealand, Niue (where behind the Association of Southeast Asian access is free) and Singapore, to very low Nations (ASEAN) countries but is more in line (1:1000) in countries such as the Solomon with the South Asian Association for Regional Islands. (PIFS 2003a, 3) Users in only three Cooperation (SAARC) countries and is slowly Pacific countries (Papua New Guinea, Samoa catching up with the rest of the world. Neverthe- and Tonga) have a choice of ISPs, while users in less, it is not uncommon for government depart- other Asia-Pacific countries are served by ments to lack access to basic e-mail, and to monopoly ISPs. And then there is the matter of continue to rely exclusively on fax and phone control, with Viet Nam as a good example – there services. As a rule, telecommunication links are the government has recently introduced even poor (e.g. inadequate bandwidth). Whilst the links stricter controls over what may be accessed on may exist, the quality and speed vary throughout the Internet, and the general public have been the region, and it is these variations that prevent enlisted as observers of Internet use. Internet café access to and the exchange of information.

48 NGOs, ICTs and Information Dissemination

All of this is exacerbated by an often negative quality information to their constituents. This government view of ICT developments, and can be observed in every field in which NGOs efforts to hinder these developments. This might are engaged, from agricultural development to include, depending on the country, the deliber- housing, clean water, health care, education and ate application of outdated regulatory frame- family planning. They recognize the value of works, or the failure to introduce appropriate information in formats accessible by their con- legislation guiding ICT developments. stituents and work very hard to provide this information in the form of pamphlets, videos, Furthermore, there is a lack of trained personnel radio broadcasts, training sessions — whatever is with knowledge of ICTs for the organization and effective in their specific circumstances. In many dissemination of information. This also is more countries this is the only information available to applicable to some developing countries in the people, especially in rural and remote areas, and Asia-Oceania region than others. Viet Nam now in general it is well received because it has been has a very energetic and well-trained cadre of geared to the literacy and comprehension levels computer and ICT professionals, whereas for the of the local population. Pacific the lack of trained personnel and the migration of such personnel are significant On the other hand, NGOs have an abysmal problems — this is equally true of many countries record when it comes to inter-agency information in Southeast and South Asia, such as Cambodia, sharing and dissemination. In most instances Laos, Myanmar and Sri Lanka. with which we are familiar the NGOs working in the same field and same countries never share Zwimpfer (1999), commenting on trained per- information beyond the most superficial level. sonnel, stated that there was a notable change in This applies to the largest agencies and the this arena in the presence of information officers smallest single-issue NGOs. In Viet Nam, as an and the like who are responsible for information example, there are several agencies involved in acquisition, validation and dissemination. Those development programmes for children. In some NGOs fortunate to have donor agency funding of the largest agencies there is an intensely com- are the ones who have been able to include such petitive spirit, which mitigates against any sharing a position in their structure. This means quali- of information. This strikes us as unreasonable fied personnel in information provision, which and a waste of resources; since these are not com- has enhanced the capacity of many NGOs to mercial enterprises, they should not regard their meet their information and advocacy needs. information as restricted or commercially sensi- Awareness of the activities of NGOs has tive, but rather should be sharing in order to increased a hundred-fold in developing coun- strengthen what they do through the better tries in the last 10 years. quality information that results from cooperation. The smaller organizations often do not share What we have, then, is a set of pretty effective information because, in their view, they lack per- barriers to more widespread ICT use by NGOs sonnel and cannot afford the time involved in in the region, as well as by government depart- collaboration. The returns of sharing, of course, ments and the general population. To sum- may include more efficient delivery of services, marise, these are: and therefore a saving in both time and money.

• urban focus of ICT development What the NGOs must do is reassess their view • high cost of access of information sharing and come to an under- • limited bandwidth standing that by collaborating with one another • unreliable/limited electricity supplies there can be significant gains in service delivery • lack of trained personnel without loss of autonomy. This is a key priority • national priorities in other areas of basic need for them. And one good source of information to • government suspicion of the Internet, and help achieve this priority is Fahamu (http:// • repressive controls www.fahamu.org.uk/index.html), an NGO dedi- cated to strengthening the work of not-for-profit and other non-governmental organizations Information Dissemination by NGOs through the use of information and communications technologies. Fahamu produces and No one with any experience of NGOs in the Asia publishes CD-ROM-based learning materials Pacific region will doubt that, for the most part, especially for this sector, designs and manages they do an excellent job of disseminating high websites, runs training courses (including online

49 Elizabeth Reade-Fong and Gary E. Gorman

courses), and provides support for Internet- There would be a minimum of one full-time, related work. multi-skilled staff member plus a combination of part-time and voluntary workers with ICT and information experience. Goal: 70 percent print- The Information Mix in NGOs based, 30 percent ICT-based.

What the current picture demonstrates in the Low level capability Asia-Pacific region is a wide diversity in the use and application of ICT initiatives for sustainable Here we are looking at totally rural-based development. Whilst for some, access and use of informal NGOs operating with voluntary per- ICT is integral to achieving their development sonnel. They may or may not have access to any goals and objectives, there are those NGOs for ICT, and if so this is likely to be shared — e.g. which this is a purely hypothetical issue. In the phone and fax. There is a very limited (files and middle are those who have access and use ICT a few pamphlet boxes of handouts or brochures) and are much in need of training, financial assis- collection of print and multimedia works, if any. tance, changes in national and regional telecom- Goal: 80–100 percent print-based, 20 percent munications policies, etc. Regardless of the ICT-based. category into which an NGO falls, due consideration and thought needs to be given to this The degree of combination of ICT and print issue and reflected in plans for ICT development resources will affect the attitude of information of the countries of the Asia-Pacific Region seekers and users. The reaction of people to the through a set of guidelines. different forms of information disseminated by NGOs will, amongst other issues, be strongly In discussions on the development of availabil- influenced by cultural factors in their preference ity of and access to ICTs for NGO information for face-to-face or remote access communica- dissemination in the Asia-Oceania region, an tion. For the larger sectors of populations in Asia appropriate mix of ICT and traditional modes of and Oceania ICTs are both daunting and information dissemination must be undertaken exciting. In some cultural settings the face-to- in order to fit both the local situation and the face can often be more comforting, but this is information dissemination needs of the NGOs. dependent on the subject of the issue and the Based on what we know of NGOs and on our context in which the information is being experience in the region, the following are some accessed or shared. In certain instances, the possible scenarios. face-to-face can be culturally uncomfortable, and remote access is the preferred way of dealing with a sensitive or difficult issue at hand. On the High level capability other hand, for cultures where the face-to-face In this scenario NGOs are linked to inter- may lead to stigma of a sort — e.g. a man seeking national networks and donor agencies. There is counselling for violent tendencies – the remote regular funding with qualified full-time access format of advice (using audiotape, film (paid/volunteer) and/or part-time personnel and e-mail) may be more appreciated. An NGO with specialist skills (e.g. research skills and focussing on domestic violence issues is likely to management knowledge of NGOs). ICTs (e-mail use a combination of the two — remote access to and limited Internet) are an accepted part of disseminate information generally, combined daily work for database management of office with face-to-face counselling for greatest effect. resources and an organized information resource collection of print and multi-media. Examples in this category are UN-associated Conclusion NGOs, DAWN and ECREA. Goal: 50 percent print-based, 50 percent ICT-based. Non-governmental organizations are vital com- ponents in the development process. Their ability to communicate with those whom they Medium level capability serve, and with national governments and local, This category applies to many national and local regional and international organizations, is urban-based NGOs that rely on a combination heavily dependent on their capacity to inform all of local and overseas funding. They might use stakeholders of issues related to their objectives PCs for office management, and have a working and purpose. ICTs are a means to facilitate this. collection of print and multimedia materials. However, in acknowledging the different levels

50 NGOs, ICTs and Information Dissemination

of development of ICT capability of NGOs, the Conference for the WSIS, Tokyo 13–15 January best opportunities for sustainable development 2003. [Suva: Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat.] initiatives rest with a combination of ICT- and Taylor, Vivene. (2000) Marketisation of governance: print-based initiatives. The presence of qualified critical feminist perspectives from the South. Suva: DAWN (Development Alternatives with Women for information providers in NGOs is no longer a a New Era). luxury but an essential part of their personnel United Nations Asia Pacific Development Information needs. For many NGOs this is a reality, for some Programme. [n.d.] http://www.apdip.net/projects/ a dream that could come true and for many not prog/access. Accessed 10 July 2004. even something that they can dream about. Our Zwimpfer Communications Ltd. (1999) Electronic con- responsibility is to try and bring all NGOs on to nectedness in Pacific island countries: a survey on a level playing field. the use of computers, e-mail and the Internet in education, culture and communication. Prepared for Unesco by Zwimpfer Communications Limited, References Wellington, New Zealand. [Wellington: Zwimpfer Communications.] Ali, Afshana. (1999) Aid, NGOs and gender development. MA Thesis. Suva, University of the South Pacific. About the Authors Asia-Pacific NGO Symposium. (2000) Final Report of the Asia-Pacific NGO Symposium: Part B. Asia-Pacific Elizabeth Reade Fong is Deputy University Librarian Women 2000: Gender equality, development and (Customer Services) at the University of the South peace. [no place]: Asia-Pacific NGO Symposium. Pacific (USP), where she is responsible for customer Cass, Elizabeth. (2004) E-mail communication, 4 August services, human resource development and the 2004. implementation of the Library’s strategic plan. She Cass, Elizabeth and Williams, Lisa. (2002) Online and e- is Coordinator for the Pacific Population Information advocacy for Pacific women: ICT capacity building Network, Chair of the Network for Women in Higher project. Noumea: Secretariat of the Pacific Com- munity, Pacific Women’s Bureau. Education in the Pacific (NetWHEP), a member of ESCAP (United Nations Economic and Social Com- the USP Gender Advisory Committee and a Pacific mission for Asia and the Pacific.) (1994) Fiscal member of the IFLA Asia and Oceania Section. incentives and other measure to support the growth Contact address: The Library, University of the South and viability of NGOS for HRD. Bangkok: ESCAP. Pacific, GPO Suva, Fiji. Tel. +679 3212363 or ESCAP (United Nations Economic and Social Commis- 3313900 x2363. Direct line: +679 3270177. sion for Asia and the Pacific). (1996) Support or Fax: (679) 3300830. E-mail: [email protected]. control? registration of NGOs working for HRD in Asia and the Pacific. Bangkok: ESCAP. Website: http://www.library.usp.ac.fj. Horie, Yukie. (2003) Status of women’s organisations in their use of information and communication tech- Gary E. Gorman is Professor of Library and Informa- nology in Asia and the Pacific: a research proposal. tion Management at Victoria University of Welling- http://www.aworc.org/research/proposal.html. Acc- ton. His main interest is in developing countries, and essed 10 July 2004. he has long experience in South and Southeast Hou, Tony. (1999) NGOs and rural development in the Asia, most recently as manager of a New Zealand Solomon Islands: a case of the Solomon Islands Development Trust (SIDT). MA Thesis. Suva, Uni- government-funded project in Viet Nam, Information versity of the South Pacific. Networks for the Future. He is also engaged in a Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Develop- number of LIS educational development activities in ment. (1993) The role of non-governmental organisa- Viet Nam, Thailand, Laos and Cambodia. He is Chair tions in development cooperation. Paris: OECD. of the IFLA Asia and Oceania Section and a member Pacific Islands Information and Communication Tech- of the IFLA Action for Development through Libraries nologies. (2002) Policy and Strategic Plan: informa- (ALP) Advisory Board. Contact address: School of tion and communication technologies for every Information Management, Victoria University of Pacific islander. Suva: Pacific Islands Information and Communication Technologies. April. Wellington, PO Box 600, Wellington 6015, New PIFS (Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat). (2002) Pacific Zealand. Tel. +64 (4) 463 5782. Fax: +64 (4) 463 ICT capacity and prospects working paper. [Suva: 5184. E-mail: [email protected]. Website: Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat.] http://www.vuw.ac.nz/~gormang/ PIFS (Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat). (2003a) Pacific Islands Regional ICT Consultation: a Pacific Islands response to the WSIS Framework, Suva, Fiji, 9–11 Original paper no. 186 presented at the World Library April 2003. [Suva: Pacific Islands Forum Secre- and Information Congress, 70th IFLA General Con- tariat.] ference, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 22–27 August 2004, in PIFS (Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat). (2003b) Pacific session 47. Social Science Libraries with Division VIII. Islands Regional Input Paper, Pacific Islands — Regional Activities. English original available on Forum Secretariat. Prepared for the Asian Regional IFLANET at: http://www.ifla.org/IV/ifla70/prog04.htm. 51 Copyright Protection as Access Barrier for People who Read Differently: the case for an international approach

J.W. Roos Introduction1

Most contemporary public discussions concerning copyright protection are not concerned with the legitimacy of copyright as a form of protection of intellectual property. They centre around protection measures, whether legal or physical, and the degree of copyright protection that such measures should or should not afford. The public debate is fascinating. It provides very important perspectives on the society we live in now. The advent of the information age has given rise to new opportunities for the exploitation of the labour of others and to new challenges of control over, and the exploitation of, property. As Robert S. Boynton2 has observed:

Once a dry and seemingly mechanical area of the American J. W. Roos is an Advocate of the legal system, intellectual property law can now be found at High Court of South Africa and the center of major disputes in the arts, sciences and . . . Director of the South African politics. Library for the Blind. He qualified as a lawyer in 1983 and started The reason for these developments is not difficult to understand. his professional career as an As Boynton3 points out: academic, specialising in commercial, labour and property law. Not long ago, the Internet’s ability to provide instant, inex- He then practised as a human pensive and perfect copies of text, sound and images was rights lawyer, focusing on social heralded with the phrase ‘information wants to be free.’ Yet welfare law and cases dealing the implications of this freedom have frightened some with land restitution and tenure creators — particularly those in the recording, publishing and protection of previously dis- movie industries — who argue that the greater ease of copying possessed South African com- and distribution increases the need for more stringent intel- munities. He is currently a lectual property laws. The movie and music industries have member of the IFLA Standing succeeded in lobbying lawmakers to allow them to tighten Committee of the Libraries for the their grips on their creations by lengthening copyright terms. Blind Section. A blind person The law has also extended the scope of copyright protection, himself, he does not view this creating what critics have called a ‘paracopyright,’ which career change as fundamentally prohibits not only duplicating protected material but in some different from his prior pursuits in cases even gaining access to it in the first place. . . . In less the area of human rights. As than a decade, the much-ballyhooed liberating potential of librarian to the South African blind the Internet seems to have given way to something of an community his focus has merely intellectual land grab, presided over by legislators and shifted to addressing information lawyers for the media industries. needs. He may be contacted at: South African Library for the Boynton’s article goes on to explore the development of a school Blind, PO Box 115, Grahamstown of thought — sometimes referred to as the free culture movement 6140, South Africa. Tel: +27 46 (also the title of a forthcoming book by Lawrence Lessig) — 6227226. Fax: +27 46 which, although it is not a coherent theoretical movement, is 6224645. E-mail: johan.roos@ using its joint intellectual powers to set itself against this land blindlib.org.za. grab. Very significantly, it is using the tools of moral philosophy and historic analysis to develop culture- and research-oriented

Copyright © 2005 International Federation of Library Associations & Institutions (www.ifla.org). IFLA Journal 31(1): 52–67. 52 ISSN: 0340-0352. DOI: 10.1177/0340035205052647 Copyright Protection as Access Barrier arguments in favour of the need to erode existing in an alternative format is permissible in terms property claims of copyright holders. We need, of that principle, even if such production permits so the argument goes, to reassert a modern day the normal exploitation of a book which is notion of the knowledge commons. Christopher otherwise inaccessible to the print-disabled May4 summarizes the argument thus: people who need access to it via a library. Free access to library books is as ancient an idea as At the centre of the protection of intellec- libraries themselves.6 tual property rights (IPRs) is a long history of political bargains struck between private But this idea does not extend to access by the rights to reward and the social benefit of print-disabled community at large. Libraries for information/knowledge diffusion. The his- the blind and their book production agents have torical dynamic of politics in this policy area therefore been dependent on the cooperation of has been to expand the rights of owners publishers and authors to provide their permis- while circumscribing the public realm of sion for the production of accessible literature information and knowledge. In recent without the payment of royalty. decades the public domain has become merely a residual, all that is left when all Although the need to obtain this type of cooper- other rights (as constructed by IPRs) have ation does not routinely hamper the provision of been exercised. The advent of digital rights an effective library service in accessible formats, management (DRM) technologies has dis- the needless trouble it causes is considerable turbed a reasonably legitimate politico-legal and, in some cases, almost insurmountable. settlement over ‘fair use,’ challenging the existing balance between the rights of • First, a significant time delay means that ‘creators’ and the interests of users. The people with print-disabilities — if they gain breakdown of the norms underpinning IPRs access to a book at all — must wait even longer has prompted renewed debate regarding than it takes for the conversion process to be their legitimacy. Although it is technological completed. change that has enhanced not only the • Second, the routine administrative burden ability to copy but also the potential to that this type of copyright management entails control the distribution of content, . . . this adds to the overall conversion cost. argument will not be won or lost in the • Third, this administrative process becomes realm of technology. Rather, new technolo- even more complex as soon as the original gies return the question of the control of copyright holder transfers those rights knowledge and information (content) to the pursuant to a merger or take-over or if, in the realm of politics.5 case of smaller commercial concerns, they are wound up and the rights are not disposed of (Swahili proverb: ‘Ndovu wawili wakipanga, in a manner which makes it possible to trace ziumiazoni nyasi’: ‘When two elephants fight, it the current holder. This is not an infrequent is the grass that suffers’) occurrence in developing countries. • Fourth, of particular concern in most coun- These intensely political aspects of copyright- tries is the fact that student literature cannot related discussions and their moral-philosophi- be converted by libraries for the blind or their cal overtones are of great importance to people agents at a rate which does justice to the needs with print and perceptual disabilities. Notwith- of the intended end-users thereof. To impose standing the legitimate interests of copyright the additional administrative burden and holders, copyright protection constitutes an delay factor on producers of student materials access barrier for them. They cannot access print is, therefore, unacceptable if the state has the materials in their original format. legislative means at its disposal to prevent them. This consideration becomes particularly In the ordinary course, not all copying is pro- pressing when the state opts for an inclusive hibited in all cases. It is nowadays commonly education model which permits children with accepted that the so-called fair use or fair disabilities to attend so-called mainstream dealing principle permits copying which is con- schools which, in the ordinary course, find it sistent with the normal exploitation of a partic- difficult enough to convert printed materials ular document. But it is striking that no library for use by blind children. for the blind or publishing unit that supports it • Fifth, the production of magazines for the use has ever asserted that the production of a book of people with print-disabilities is impossible

53 J.W. Roos

where, as is often the case, those magazines perceptual disabilities. But it remains to be seen carry syndicated materials over which the whether copyright holders will become so dis- magazine publisher may not have further tracted by the larger debate that the accommo- rights of disposition. dation remains an ideal, or whether they will use • Sixth, the administrative burden is further the opportunities presented by the need for such complicated by the fact that permissions to an accommodation to advance the proposition reproduce in alternative formats are almost that for the publishing industry, the debate never standard. They may, for example, be focuses on legitimate protection concerns and limited as to the number of permissible copies, not on protectionism that tramples genuine aspi- the format in which the reproduction may be rations for short-term goals. To be sure, there is done, be renewable from time to time and so much potential for distraction. Each technologi- on. What makes those potential differences so cal advance which opens up opportunities for hazardous is that, from time to time, the per- the erosion of access barriers seems to carry with missions granted must again and again be con- it a potential threat. This is why, from the per- sulted and analysed to do work which is spective of those who seek to eliminate access necessary. Whether the book needs to be barriers, Christopher May’s thesis that “new restored by replacing torn or missing pages; technologies return the question of the control whether a particular educational institution of knowledge and information (content) to the wishes to buy a copy for a student; or a parent realm of politics” is right. Without political inter- wishes to buy a book for a child, the per- vention, the access barriers with which this mission obtained requires examination. Of paper is concerned cannot be removed com- particular relevance in this regard is the pletely. But from the perspective of the owners development of the DAISY standard7 for of content, a measure of cooperation may yield digitally recorded books for people with print beneficial returns on the investment, namely the disabilities. Especially audio books will, as the elimination of political mistakes, increased result of the international adoption of this access to control and, dare one postulate it, the standard, eventually be regenerated from moral high ground.8 analogue to digital format. In each case, the copyright regime applicable to that particular In any event, the means to digitize print already audio book would require careful considera- exists. For practical reasons, it makes sense to tion and, if necessary, it must be revisited. work with libraries for the blind, who are committed enough to providing quality reader Deaf persons, similarly, have never been confi- services, to obviate the need for the unlawful dent that they could rely on the support of the sharing of digital documents subject to copyright legal system if they claimed that it would be fair protection. dealing or fair use if an interpreter were to translate a literary work or a play or a television broadcast for the benefit of deaf persons. On the Print-Disabilities other hand, though, it is hard to imagine a publisher asserting the contrary in a court of law. People with print-disabilities are those who, due But no person with a perceptual disability, nor to blindness, partial sight, dyslexia or physical an institution serving the interests of such impairments, cannot access visually represented persons, really benefits from this twilight zone information in the ordinary course. They require between strict legalism and public morality. the conversion of such information into an alter- Libraries for the blind depend for their survival native format which renders it accessible via on the perception that they respect the copyright their remaining senses, either through touch, of others absolutely. They depend on public hearing or increased visibility. Formats which funding. They employ professionals. If they are are currently accessible are Braille, audio, larger perceived to be anything other than scrupulous print or digital text in some formats, but we in their dealing with the rights of others, they should not try to list them more accurately, since may lose the ability to attract the finances, the we may blindfold ourselves before a proper skills and the international respect without examination of the problem. which they cannot serve their constituencies. The foregoing formulation has been made with An accommodation that would balance access some caution. Technology changes so rapidly needs with protection needs is therefore of great that the accuracy of today’s definition may be- potential importance to people with print and come the basis for tomorrow’s misunderstanding

54 Copyright Protection as Access Barrier because of changed circumstances. For example, with a print-disability. Print-disability has to do restricting the problem to print access only, with access to visual information; not with ignores the point that a computer screen is not access to audio materials through, say, Sign. The made of paper, but the access problem may be media are different; the applicable technology equally real if the technology in use at any given is different; the issues may therefore well be time renders access impossible at that stage. different. During 2003 technology that enables access to cellular telephones became readily available to This paper is concerned with access barriers blind people for the first time, although by then chiefly to print posed by copyright protection, by many of them had been using computer technol- successes as well as unfortunate by-products of ogy on other platforms since the early to mid- previous attempts to deal with those barriers, by 1980s with a considerable measure of success. technological developments that affect copyright What seems impossible today may, therefore, protection, and it tries to isolate lessons learnt become perfectly possible due to an unforeseen so far. technological development. It is therefore a potential mistake to circumscribe with the In a number of countries the problems outlined benefit of contemporary understanding, those above have received legislative attention in the means by which tomorrow’s generation of blind form of attempts to remove these access barriers people may be able to read. This point is not that have been recognized as such by govern- academic. Care should always be taken not to ments who take seriously the needs of disabled assume that contemporary practical solutions persons. Those attempts are impressive insofar are all that is needed. Future developments may as they reflect a public commitment to deal with create new possibilities. The ideal attitude is a the problem, but they have not always given rise positive attitude. As has been observed with to perfect solutions. They affect the intended reference to the accessibility of the Internet:9 beneficiaries, the institutions who must provide for their interests and publishers in different Many people assume that web accessibility ways. One gets the impression that much more is an issue only for blind people, but Higher work needs to be done in order to come up with Education Statistics Agency data show that a dispensation that, even if it will not satisfy the largest group of students declaring them- everyone, is not manifestly made of the stuff of selves as disabled are those with dyslexia. So compromises that satisfy fewer, rather than more there is a danger of assuming that accessibil- people. ity is associated with a single disability, when all are equally important and all A brief consideration of some of those measures access needs must be addressed. illustrates the trends, both favourable and negative. It may provide some indication as to For present purposes, therefore, it bears what developing countries should consider emphasis that the problem faced by people with when implementing similar types of solutions. a print disability is one of barriers to access, But it may also provide some factual basis for the plain and simple. Access issues may differ in belief that an international arrangement is space in time, but ‘access’ and ‘barriers’ remain needed to standardize these matters. Without it, the analytical constants and overcoming barriers pressing issues are resolved nationally, while remains the problem to which an appropriate others are created at the international level, to solution remains necessary. the detriment of readers.

Access barriers are not experienced by people with print-disabilities only. In the Canadian Overview of Statutory Exceptions Copyright Act this has been recognized by particular provisions that provide for the removal of The United States Congress adopted a law,11 access barriers posed by copyright protection generally known as the Chafee Amendment,12 to people with perceptual, rather than print- which provides in effect for a blanket licence to disabilities.10 certain entities to reproduce certain previously published literary works for the beneﬁt of people The use of the term ‘perceptual disability’ works with print-disabilities. Since the coming into well within the conceptual framework of the operation of this measure, it is not an infringe- Canadian Copyright Act. But it would be a ment of copyright if certain entities either repro- mistake to use it more generally as synonymous duce or distribute copies or phonorecords of

55 J.W. Roos

previously published non-dramatic literary protected work for a visually impaired person works, provided that those activities comply who has the master copy in his or her lawful pos- with certain requirements.13 session or use,22 save for certain exceptions.23 It also permits approved organizations to make In Canada non-profit organizations acting for multiple copies for use by visually impaired the benefit of persons with perceptual disabilities persons,24 subject to exceptions.25 and even persons at the request of persons with perceptual disabilities, may (in terms of the already mentioned legislative amendment), Authorized Entities make copies or sound recordings of literary, musical or artistic or dramatic works, other than Typically, only some entities may reproduce and cinematographic works. The legislature provided distribute such works. They may be referred to that doing so is not an infringement of copyright. as authorized entities. In all of the jurisdictions What is more, such non-profit organizations or considered here, those entities are either of a individuals may translate, adapt or reproduce in non-profit character, or the fee that may be Sign language a literary or dramatic work, other charged for work done may not include a profit than a cinematographic work at the request of or margin. for the benefit of persons with perceptual disabilities or they may perform in public a literary In Canada, as has already been pointed out, or dramatic work, other than a cinematographic authorized entities are either non-profit organiz- work, in Sign language, either live or in a format ations acting for the benefit of people with specially designed for persons with perceptual perceptual disabilities, or individuals.26 The disabilities. Canadian statute does not expressly prohibit individuals from doing this kind of work for In Australia the Copyright Act of 196814 was others for profit. But in the UK, “[i]f a person amended to permit institutions assisting people makes an accessible copy on behalf of a visually with print disabilities to make sound recordings, impaired person . . . and charges for it, the sum Braille versions, large-print versions, photo- charged must not exceed the cost of making and graphic and electronic versions of copyright pro- supplying the copy”.27 tected works under certain conditions, without infringing copyright.15 Those institutions are In the UK, an approved institution authorized to afforded a statutory licence, subject to certain make multiple copies is either an educational qualifications,16 if they register with a collecting institution or a body which is not conducted for society approved by the attorney general of Aus- profit.28 tralia to administer such statutory licence. Under Australian law the sale or supply of A directive of the European Union17 (‘the EU otherwise licensed copies for profit, constitutes Directive’), provides18 that member states of the unauthorized use of such copies.29 European Union may in their legislation provide for exceptions or limitations to copyright for In the US, an authorized entity is a non-profit “uses, for the benefit of people with a disability, organization or governmental agency that has a which are directly related to the disability and of primary mission to provide specialized services a non-commercial nature, to the extent required relating to training, education or adaptive by the specific disability”. Those exceptions may reading or information access needs of blind also relate to distribution, to the extent neces- persons or other persons with disabilities.30 This sary.19 It is not compulsory for member states to conceivably covers a large number of non-profit enact such exceptions or limitations. organizations serving people with print- disabilities in a variety of ways. But the Chafee Pursuant to this Directive, the United Kingdom Amendment does not seem to authorize such has enacted a law,20 which amends the Copy- reproductions by educational institutions like right, Designs and Patents Act,21 “to permit, schools or universities which, although they without infringement of copyright, the transfer educate people with print-disabilities, do not of copyright works to formats accessible to have the education of such persons as their visually impaired persons”. primary mission. Indeed, the law seems to postulate that unless the institution concerned The Copyright, Designs and Patents Act now serves such people primarily — presumably if permits anyone to make a single copy of a they are in the majority and if the institution’s

56 Copyright Protection as Access Barrier activities are so structured as to meet those them, with the aid of optical character recogni- people’s needs in some demonstrable way — the tion software, to computer readable text, ready law will not benefit it. This thinking runs counter for output in either Braille or synthetic voice. to the idea of social inclusivity and it postulates Nor is a partially sighted person expressly per- that the needs of people with print-disabilities mitted to photocopy his or her own books so as must be served separately. A public library to enlarge their typefaces.31 would therefore not be permitted by that law to reproduce a book, even if it had the technology The so-called one-for-one exception that was to do so, for use by a blind person. introduced into the law of the UK32 is therefore worth noting. As has been pointed out, if a In the US the problems arising out of the visually impaired person has lawful possession ‘primary mission’ requirement have been or use of a book or part of a book, it is not an ameliorated by laws in different states which infringement of copyright for an accessible copy mandate the provision of study materials by pub- to be made for use by that person if the master lishers to educational institutions in digital copy would be otherwise inaccessible. This law formats. It is beyond the scope of this paper to does not identify the agency permitted to make examine those laws in detail. But it is worth the accessible copy under these circumstances noting that those laws are by no means uniform and it would therefore be lawful for a blind with regard to the educational level of institu- person to do so himself or herself. tions to which they refer; and they tend to refer to so-called textbooks only. So students partici- Private enterprise is not totally excluded by way pating in courses in popular culture may be less of those exceptions, but private entities may well provided for (if their books are not gener- work either for libraries for the blind or for indi- ally regarded as textbooks); a university student viduals on a not-for-profit basis. It is not entirely in one state may not benefit from the law while clear why this should be so. The making of a a school learner in the same state may. The profit for work done does not seem to bear any anomalies arising out of fragmentary exceptions relation to any of the exceptions under consid- are obviously undesirable. eration here. The one-for-one exception makes it possible for one person to make an accessible The Canadian law, as has already been noted, copy for another, but such a person cannot make appears to take the broader, more realistic view a career out of producing, for example, Braille of the type of problem that is to be addressed. for professionals who need it to do their work. Typically, specialized institutions cannot realisti- They must presumably either make their copies cally meet each and every accessibility need. themselves, or turn to non-profit institutions to Typically, countless individuals are prominent in do it for them, where they may not be able to the social support infrastructure of a (perceptu- claim preferential treatment on the basis that ally) disabled person, from paid educational or they are prepared to pay, because they need to therapeutic professionals with Braille skills, sign make money in their turn. Likewise, one needs language skills and the like, to a volunteer who to think carefully about how the means are can read and operate a sound recorder. Persons procured to educate children with print-disabil- with perceptual disabilities are able to turn for ities in an inclusive education environment. assistance with their access needs, even to an While education authorities are usually non- individual who is prepared to facilitate their profit public agencies, parents who take an access. So even if, at the institutional level, the active interest in providing their children with Canadian exception has not been cast widely, reading materials are also just required to join the law of Canada admirably identifies not only the queue, or to learn how to make accessible the types of disability that may pose access copies themselves. Their possibly being prepared barriers in the library-related world, but most of to pay for quicker access to books for their the types of solutions commonly required and children does not seem to count for much in any implemented so as to enable access. jurisdiction examined here.

Neither in the United States nor in Canada does If the idea is that people who work on a not-for- the law expressly permit the people affected proﬁt basis are less likely to abuse the exception thereby to use technology to eliminate their own for their ﬁnancial advantage, it ought to be con- access barriers. In particular, no blind person is sidered that people who stand to lose personally expressly permitted by law to scan the printed from their abuse are as likely as others to take images in his or her own books and to convert care not to do so.

57 J.W. Roos

In any event the phrase used by the UK excep- Canadian statute to “format specially designed” tion “the cost of making and supplying the appears to be unfortunate. copy”33 is readily capable of being interpreted to mean that A’s cost, if A does it for profit, ought In some countries audio library services for to include a profit margin, because A’s produc- people with print-disabilities are provided in tion time may be a costing factor, although this both analogue and digital formats that are not phrase was probably not intended to convey that commercially accessible and which can be meaning. accessed by way of adaptive equipment only. The South African Library for the Blind is one such institution. So, too, are certain institutions in Restrictions regarding Format North America and the United Kingdom. The experience in South Africa has been that the In the US, the reproduction must be done in a specialized equipment required to access such so-called specialized format. Specialized formats materials had proved expensive, in the end first are “Braille, audio or digital text which is exclu- difficult and then impossible to source and that, sively for use by blind or other persons with in the final analysis, served as a significant disabilities”.34 The reference to digital text is to barrier to print access for the poorest of the poor be welcomed because, as has been pointed out with print-disabilities. Since the equipment that earlier, technological developments have added enabled the reproductions was of necessity also to the range of accessible media available to highly specialized and therefore expensive, the people with print-disabilities. The phrase “which scale of reproduction was limited even further. is exclusively for use by blind or other persons with disabilities” is puzzling, particularly in From a developing world perspective, restricting relation to digital text. One wonders whether the reproductions to specialized formats seems an “exclusive use” requirement refers to the indefensible practice. In a number of countries intended use of the materials or whether it audio books were for years distributed in suggests that the medium itself must, objectively analogue format on commercially accessible cas- speaking, lend itself to such exclusive use only. settes, without serious repercussions for the pub- The latter interpretation would be downright lishing industry. Specialized formats require nonsensical, given the extent to which digital specialized equipment to access those formats. text can nowadays be accessed by way of not The higher the level of specialization, the more only refreshable Braille displays, but synthetic expensive the equipment required for access. voice also. The UK formulation, relying on the idea of the accessibility of the reproduction, is therefore to In Australia reproductions are limited to sound be preferred. recordings made by or on behalf of institutions assisting persons with disabilities, or Braille, Large numbers of persons are identifiable as large print or photographic versions.35 Digital having print-disabilities on the grounds that they text does not appear to be covered by this pro- cannot read a particular size typeface. Some of vision. those persons are able to deal with the problem by acquiring expensive magnifying equipment, The Copyright (Visually Impaired Persons) Act but in less severe cases an enlarged photocopy of the UK makes a reference to an “accessible may suffice. The Chafee Amendment does not copy” only. Accessibility is therefore always a permit the making of such reproductions; the question of fact; not of law.36 Australian statute does; it expressly refers to large print, while the UK law probably does, The Canadian Copyright Act refers to ‘a format because it works with the concept of accessibil- specially designed’ for persons with perceptual ity without defining it. Such reproductions are disabilities.37 expressly prohibited under Canadian law.39

The DAISY standard to which reference has The UK concept of accessibility of the reproduc- already been made, is not a ‘format’, but rather a tion is again preferable. The adoption of Exten- standard, incorporating different commercial or sible Markup Language for computer-based proprietary formats,38 together with a degree of book production purposes will, in all likelihood, encryption capability. Since Canada is one of the render the production of different formats, leading players with regard to the implementa- whether Braille, synthetic speech or enlarged tion of this standard, the reference in the typefaces, potentially available on demand.

58 Copyright Protection as Access Barrier

Beneficiaries of Statutory Exceptions Excluded under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are instances where musical works are to be copied, but where doing so would In the US the beneficiaries are restricted. They involve a performance thereof, or of part thereof. are persons who are blind or have other disabil- Also excluded are instances where the master ities. This seems an inoffensive requirement, copy is a database, or a part of a database, and until one examines the background legislative where copying would infringe copyright in the context. Those persons are identified and database.47 rendered eligible to receive books and other publications produced in specialized formats It is unfortunate that certain types of materials under United States law. In other words, only are excluded from some exceptions and not from those persons who may benefit from United others. A more unified approach is obviously States special programmes to provide books desirable. accessible to persons with print-disabilities, may benefit from this statutory limitation on exclusive copyright.40 Partially sighted persons are not Commercially Available Accessible included in these programmes. Versions

With the benefit of hindsight, and in the light of In Australia, if a sound recording, Braille subsequent legislative developments in es- version, large print version, photographic or pecially the UK and Australia (to which refer- electronic version of a work has been separately ence has already been made), it is unwise to published, the provisions permitting reproduc- restrict the beneficiaries of statutory exceptions tion of print materials do not apply unless the of this kind unduly. person who wishes to make that version (or caused that version to be made) is satisfied, after Exclusions from the Scope of Statutory reasonable investigation, that no new copy of the Exceptions version of the work can be obtained within a reasonable time at an ordinary commercial price.48 Exceptions of this type are often characterized by qualifications or exclusions. The Chafee That particular provision is peculiar to the Amendment applies to previously published Australian statute where, with reference to the non-dramatic literary works only.41 The principle of ‘fair dealing’, it is used repeatedly National Library Service for the Blind and throughout the Act (commencing with section 40). Physically Handicapped of the Library of Congress (NLS) interprets this to mean that the But it is by no means unique. In the UK Copy- published scripts of plays are therefore not right, Designs and Patents Act it is also laid included as reproducible under this particular down that this type of exception permitting the provision.42 This seems a qualification which is reproduction of a work to make it accessible is difficult to understand and it has not been not applicable “if, or to the extent that, copies of echoed in any of the other legal systems con- the copyright work are commercially available, sidered here. The Chafee Amendment refers to by or with the authority of the copyright owner, previously published non-dramatic literary in a form that is accessible to the same or sub- works only; it therefore by necessary implica- stantially the same degree”.49 The same principle tion also disqualifies sheet music. The Library of is also applied in Canada if “the work or sound Congress appears to regard sheet music as also recording is commercially available in a format excluded.43 specially designed to meet the needs of any person” whom the exception is meant to The Canadian Copyright Act44 expressly benefit.50 includes music, as does the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act.45 These provisions appear fair from the perspective of an apparently flourishing audio book Because the Australian Copyright Act includes industry: if books are available in audio format, music in the category of “works”, together with why permit their reproduction for people with literary, dramatic and artistic works, sheet music print disabilities without more? The publishers does not appear to be excluded by Australian of such materials have an interest in having them law.46 purchased, rather than reproduced yet again. 59 J.W. Roos

But the Canadian formulation of the principle by under which the document is being reproduced. no means guarantees this outcome. The When it is to be produced in terms of the multiple emphasis on format, rather than accessibility, copies provision, the document may not be suggests a far more restrictive interpretation of produced without permission if, in addition to it what may not be produced under statutory being commercially available, it is “in a form that licence. A commercially available audio book, is accessible to the same or substantially the same whether on CD or on audio cassette, is not, after degree”.51 If it is to be reproduced in terms of the all, published in a specially designed format one-for-one exception, it would qualify for the which is calculated to render it accessible to exception only if it is not commercially available people with print-disabilities. Canadians repro- “in a form that is accessible to that person”.52 The ducing materials for people with such disabilities deaf-blind person would therefore not be preju- may therefore not have to be too circumspect diced if the reproduction is required in Braille, regarding compliance with this provision in each but in terms of the one-for-one exception only. case where it is decided that a particular book But what is meant by “the same or substantially ought to become part of a special collection. the same degree”, is by no means settled. To com- plicate matters further, the “substantially the With its emphasis on accessibility, the UK pro- same degree” provision in the multiple copies vision also appears to miss the point, but here it section is followed by an exact replication of the is the potential reader, not the publisher who “accessible to that person” provision.53 The stands to lose. What renders a book accessible? purpose it serves there, is not at all clear. If, for example, a book is to be published in Braille but it is available in an accessible audio Regrettably, the answers to the foregoing ques- format, does its commercial availability oblige tions appear to suggest that the UK commercial the potential Braille producer to apply for per- availability requirement, just like the Canadian mission from the copyright holder? Or does the one, creates more problems than it solves. intended format make a difference to the test that is to be applied? That seems a fanciful sug- It would seem that the Australian provisions, gestion, because in the statutory provision itself, because they are directly related to the question the accessibility factor is not expressed in terms whether it is a sound recording, Braille version, that suggest it to be relative to the intended large print version, photographic or electronic format. Still, a commonsense approach to the version that is to be produced, best achieves the UK provisions probably justiﬁes the conclusion purpose of the qualiﬁcation the legislature that, whether or not this has been made clear in sought to impose on the statutory exception. the provisions laying down the exception, the position was meant to be similar to that in Australia. Notice Provisions

The Australian provisions are clearly related to Most statutory exceptions are characterized by the medium of publication in issue in each case. the fact that, if a publication is produced or a reproduction is made in accordance therewith, The only instance when an audio book would the resulting document must bear a notice rec- not be accessible to a blind person is when that ognizing the original copyright in the materials person also happens to be deaf; but that renders concerned, as well as a notice that it has been the book inaccessible to that person only; not produced in terms of the applicable exception.54 inaccessible to library users in general. Does it make a difference if the book was initially It would seem that the notices contemplated requested by a deaf-blind reader? And must it must at least be in the format in which the then, for the sake of consistency, be produced document has been made available, but the under the one-for-one exception, rather than legislation is by no means clear in this regard. A under the provision dealing with multiple printed notice in some form or other is probably copies? And if it has been produced under the also desirable. Not much turns on those notice one-for-one exception, is an application for per- provisions, so they are not considered here in mission required if it is intended, subsequently, any detail. Two observations are however impor- to produce multiple copies of the same book? tant in this context.

The UK provisions attempt to relate the commer- It is important to note here that individuals who cial availability requirement to the circumstances wish to beneﬁt from the one-for-one exception

60 Copyright Protection as Access Barrier in the UK ought to comply with the notice pro- production of aesthetic effects by means of para- vision associated with the UK statutory excep- graph styles, fonts, graphic symbols, borders and tion.55 It seems prudent to require such so on. It is at this stage still difficult and costly to compliance, even if it adds some burden to the accompany text with graphic representations. In individual concerned, because it may be impor- addition, Braille is a bulky medium. tant to identify legal copies in certain cases. The UK Copyright, Patents and Designs Act The contents of those notices are important for makes provision for the fact that the accessible another reason. When a work is produced in an copy does not infringe the typographic arrange- alternative format, the question ought to arise ment of the original,56 but it does not appear to whether the result is a mere reproduction of an have expressly taken cognisance of the fact that existing publication or whether it is an edition in pictures, photographs and the like may be its own right. The answer to this question has omitted from the accessible copy; nor of the important implications for whether, in jurisdic- practice of adding, in appropriate cases, descriptions where publications must be deposited tive captions to pictures. It is true that accessible centrally, the alternative format publication copies may be made of “a literary, dramatic, needs to be deposited in terms of the law prevail- musical or artistic work”,57 but it is doubtful ing in the country concerned. It also raises the whether this permits insertions of text into a question whether obvious mistakes may be cor- literary work to make photographs, for example, rected or, to put it differently, whether they need accessible as “artistic works” within “literary to be perpetuated; or whether regional differ- works”). ences that require different spelling may be respected when the reproduction is made of materials not published in the country where Intermediate (Source) Files Generated they are reproduced in alternative formats. If the by Alternative Format Production accessible format publication is a reproduction only, mistakes ought logically to be perpetuated; Processes if it is a publication in its own right, the position may be different. In each country the answer is The digital environment in which books are one of law, not of fact. produced in alternative formats is not a static one. Reference has already been made to the The legislation considered in this paper appears, possibilities that arise out of the use of Ex- throughout, to be based on the legal premise that tensible Markup Language, which permit among the accessible alternative format documents per- others, the production of a book in more than mitted to be made for the benefit of people with one format from one digital source. In the devel- print disabilities are copies only; not separate oped world, some libraries for the blind are publications. already making use of streaming audio technology and others are considering doing so. In any event, Braille has for some years now been Enforcement Provisions produced from digital source files by a variety of institutions serving people with print-disabilities. As is the case regarding notices, not much turns Those files, once created, are extremely useful on enforcement provisions in the case of a for the purposes of maintaining the integrity of breach of statutory exceptions. This is not collections. Books may be restored using them; because they are not important, but because they schools may reuse them year on year. In some are best framed in terms of the existing legal cases they may even serve as the collection itself: framework of the country to which they apply. Materials can simply be archived and hardcopies can be produced on demand only, while the electronic files may be delivered instantly to Copies or Alternative Publications? readers via the web.

If the accessible version is a copy and not an In short, what ever the use to which they are put, alternative publication, how true to the original properly archiving source ﬁles and sound should it be? The medium chosen as appropriate recordings has become an indispensable alternative format often necessitates changes to standard operating procedure in most leading layout. Braille is not a graphic medium. It simply libraries for the blind and production houses is not as versatile as print when it comes to the that support those libraries. 61 J.W. Roos

Only in the UK does the statutory exception deal effective operation of an exception system, save directly with this important issue. It permits where it forms an essential component of the approved bodies to hold intermediate copies manner in which the system itself operates, as in which are necessarily created during the produc- Australia. tion of accessible copies. Such intermediate copies may be held only for the purpose of making further accessible copies and only for as Reproduction of Extracts long as the approved institution remains entitled to do so.58 This provision does not apply to indi- Reference works pose the problem that, typi- vidual accessible copies;59 individuals therefore cally, students do not require access to them in do not benefit from it. their entirety. It is therefore in their interests that the reproduction of extracts from such works The so-called one-for-one exception deserved should be eligible for protection under statutory closer consideration. Individuals are permitted exceptions. to make accessible copies for themselves or have such copies made for them, but if the process The Chafee Amendment contains no provision gave rise to an intermediate copy, its retention is that seems to permit this, though the position not permitted. The omission of this provision (in under state laws may be different.60 some form or other) from the one-for-one exception creates potentially serious compliance The Canadian Copyright Act also does not problems for people with print-disabilities who appear to make provision for this type of situa- typically use more than one access medium, tion. depending on what their circumstances require. A potential source file which enables the pro- In Australia, making an accessible copy of part duction of a Braille print-out may be accessed of a work for the benefit of a person with a print- directly from a computer by way of screen disability or a person with an intellectual disabil- reader software that provides synthetic speech ity, is permissible.61 output. In terms of the one-for-one exception, that type of access is legally acceptable. But it The UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act seems that once hardcopy Braille has been gen- makes express provision for the making of an erated from the source file, its retention becomes accessible copy of a “master copy”, which may impermissible, even if the hardcopy had been also be part of a copy.62 created for the purpose of single use only. The result is that, for example, blind parents cannot read poetry to their children in their own voices Territorial Jurisdiction from Braille printouts if they prefer to archive their literature primarily in electronic format, It is important to stress that the beneficiaries of because according to the one-for-one exception, these statutory exceptions are people who read it is either Braille or bust for them. It seems differently, not their libraries or those institu- more realistic to take account of how people live tions that produce alternative format materials. their lives and then to enact control measures Regrettably, however, production houses and on that basis. libraries who had instigated the reforms that culminated in the legal provisions under discussion paid little, if any, attention to the con- Record-Keeping sequences of those reforms for the interlending system. The already mentioned notice provisions serve, apart from the purpose of acknowledging the At face value, the statutory exceptions under dis- author’s copyright, as a mechanism to guard cussion here constitute drastic inroads on the against unauthorized copying. So, too, do the rights of authors. They need not be consulted if records of those institutions that do the copying their works are reproduced for the benefit of or for whom it is done. The Australian licensing readers of alternative format materials in terms system makes provision for central records to be of those laws. The Berne Convention63 vests the kept of such copying. Modern libraries keep exclusive right to authorize the reproduction of records, both of their holdings and of produc- literary and artistic works in their authors,64 but tion. An additional record keeping system is it also sanctions statutory exceptions of the kind therefore probably not a sine qua non for the under consideration here:65

62 Copyright Protection as Access Barrier

It shall be a matter for legislation in the contained in its currently prevailing exception, countries of the Union to permit the repro- also to alternative format materials or accessible duction of such works in certain special copies produced in terms of laws permitting such cases, provided that such reproduction production beyond the jurisdiction of the does not conflict with a normal exploita- country concerned, which are distributed on a tion of the work and does not unreason- non-profit basis in such country. ably prejudice the legitimate interests of the author. The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) is in the process of compiling a draft Members of the Berne union who enact such copyright law for countries in need of inter- statutory exceptions therefore do not violate national assistance with the formulation of such their international law obligations by imposing a laws. In it, that formulation is suggested in the form of quasi-expropriation on literary works of following terms: foreign authors who publish in the countries where such exceptions apply. It would appear to . . . it shall be permitted without the author- be reasonable to permit reproductions of ization of the author or other owner of existing publications in alternative formats, as copyright to reproduce a published work for long as the process is controlled. No doubt visually impaired persons in an alternative libraries for the blind and their production manner or form which enables their percep- houses play a crucially important part in the tion of the work, and to distribute the copies operation of such control measures. exclusively to those persons, provided that the work is not reasonably available in an But does it follow that a book which is lawfully identical or largely equivalent form enabling produced in one country in accordance with an its perception by the visually impaired; and exception that prevails there, may be regarded as the reproduction and distribution are made having been published lawfully in another on a non-profit basis. country which is also a member of the Berne Union? Do the enabling provisions in the Berne The distribution is also permitted in case Convention that permit the curtailment of the copies have been made abroad and the authors’ rights apply internationally, so as to conditions mentioned above have been protect books that travel across borders for fulfilled. interlending purposes? It should be noted that this provision is in draft The parties to this treaty are states. It is therefore form only and therefore subject to review. It the state, not the individual, that derives the would seem less complex to provide that the dis- right to curtail, by legislation, the rights of tribution of any work which has been lawfully authors within the area of its sovereignty; not the produced in its country of origin will be lawful individual or his or her library. In other words, in the country in which the exception contain- the Berne Convention is facultative in its opera- ing this enabling provision, applies, provided tion, permitting members of the Berne Union to such distribution is undertaken by a library or make certain laws, but it does not confer its like institution, to its registered members. Such benefits without more on the individuals who a formulation would avoid any debate concern- reside or the institutions who are domiciled ing the efficacy of controls designed to protect within a given member state’s area of sover- the publishers of commercially available audio eignty. books. If not, the WIPO draft provision amounts to saying that a book held by a library in one The exceptions therefore appear to apply within country cannot be lent to a library in another the territories of the states that enacted them country if that book is commercially available in and therefore not internationally. the country of the lender. That, with respect, is nonsense. And so what is to be done then, to restore to people who read differently, the full benefits of a The draft provision ought also to contain a properly functioning interlending system? further clause regarding prima facie proof of lawful publication which, it is suggested, The solution is not particularly complex. Each should be provided by the notice prescribed country that has already enacted an exception in the country in which the work was repro- could, it is submitted, extend the protection duced.

63 J.W. Roos

Cooperation Between Beneﬁciaries and “there are reasonable grounds for preventing or Copyright Holders — Publishers’ Files restricting the making of accessible copies of the work”.71

As has been pointed out earlier, it is not manda- Those provisions are impressive. They permit tory for members of the EU to provide for statu- licensing schemes to operate, notwithstanding tory exceptions of the type discussed here. the statutory exception, but they make it plain Importantly, however, the EU Directive provides that licensing schemes may not be used to that, in cases where such exceptions are indeed subvert the exception. enacted, members are obliged to enact further 66 measures. The UK statute probably falls short of the EU Directive, inasmuch as rightholders are not Member states shall take appropriate required by it to cooperate with the beneficiaries measures to ensure that rightholders make of the exception. available to the beneficiary of an exception or limitation provided for in national law in What sort of cooperation is it that the EU Direc- accordance with Article . . . 5(3)(b) . . . the tive requires? Reference has already been made means of benefiting from that exception or to the fact that Braille may be generated by way limitation, to the extent necessary to benefit of a computer-assisted process and to the fact from that exception or limitation and where that screen reader software can enable blind that beneficiary has legal access to the pro- persons to access digital files. Access to publish- tected work or subject-matter concerned. ers’ or printers’ files would therefore facilitate the production of accessible copies, whether in This means that where statutory exceptions Braille or in audio formats, immensely. Publish- exist, member states should also ensure that ers are often loath to part with those. The fear those rightholders that can enable access to the seems to be either that they will be put to means to benefit from such exceptions, must do unlawful use by libraries for the blind or, more so to the extent necessary. This provision does likely, that those institutions do not have digital not bind member states where rightholders have asset management regimes in place that would taken voluntary measures, including agreements serve as guarantees against their unlawful use by with those parties concerned, to achieve the unauthorized persons. That apprehension is all same object. the more acute in cases concerning digital media, in respect of which perfect copies may This provision does not seem to require that the be made if mechanisms to guard against un- pre-existing voluntary measures must comply authorized copying are not utilized. with any particular standard. The standard set is a high one: rightholders must cooperate with To that end, the UK Copyright, Designs and beneficiaries to the extent necessary to enable Patents Act provides:72 them to benefit from the exception or limitation concerned. The question therefore arises whether If the master copy is in copy-protected elec- licensing arrangements that do not meet that tronic form, any accessible copy made of it standard, exonerate member states from having under this section must, so far as it is to enact the provisions contemplated. reasonably practicable to do so, incorporate the same, or equally effective, copy protec- The Parliament of the UK, when it enacted the tion (unless the copyright owner agrees Copyright (Visually Impaired Persons) Act of otherwise). 2002, adopted a prudent measure in this regard. The statutory exception that regulates the The Act contains no provision obliging the copy- making of multiple copies,67 does not apply to right owner to cooperate with regard to the dis- the making of accessible copies if a licensing abling of the copy protection in question, but scheme operated by a licensing body is in force since the copyright owner is entitled to have under which licenses may be granted by the similar copy protection incorporated into the licensing body, which permit the making and accessible copy, the Act appears to imply such supply of accessible copies.68 But then the an obligation.73 scheme is not permitted to be unreasonably restrictive.69 The scheme is unreasonably restric- But can member states go so far as to oblige tive if it limits the statutory exception,70 unless copyright owners to part with their digital files 64 Copyright Protection as Access Barrier in order to facilitate the speedy production of energy will have been wasted, primarily because accessible copies in alternative formats for the digital talking books will not be exchanged freely benefit of people who read differently? Strictly by way of interlibrary loan and the world will speaking, if the production process is not have been shrunk by the very media that could actually dependent on access to those files, the have enlarged it. answer is probably in the negative. But publishers would do well to start paying attention to this None of this is necessary. Libraries for the blind problem and to cooperate with libraries for the should, for their part, promote sound digital blind in order to make digital files available to asset management practices by agreeing stan- them.74 If under the EU Directive they can be dards among themselves. If they don’t do so, obliged to cooperate in respect of access to elec- individual libraries may resort to digital rights tronic media in copy protected form, it would be management practices that may be detrimental to their advantage to cooperate further and to to increased cooperation between them. One reach agreements with such libraries regarding such library that is likely to become a major what would satisfy publishers’ requirements for player in the digital talking books arena has acceptable digital asset management standards. already introduced a copy protection mechan- This need is an all the more pressing one, ism which is questionable in terms of legislation because of what has been said with regard to regulating anti-competitive practices. intermediate copies or digital copies, the making of which authorized by most of the exceptions Talking Book programs in the United States analysed here. have historically used some kind of technology that is not commonly available to the general public, such as recording cassettes Libraries Serving People with Print- at half the speed of commercial recordings Disabilities and Digital Rights so that they cannot be copied and played on commercial machines by nondisabled Management readers. In addition, until 1996, organizations like NLS [National Library Service of Increased cooperation between libraries for the the Library of Congress for the Blind and blind and publishers is also in the interests of Print-Handicapped] and RFB&D [Record- readers. Libraries for the blind themselves tend ings for the Blind and Dyslexic] first had to to be fearful of the freedom and the responsibil- obtain explicit permission from the copy- ities conferred on them by those exceptions. And right holders to produce any titles as where the accessible media are digital media, Talking Books. Beginning in 1996, a new they tend to be extra cautious, for the same amendment to U.S. copyright law (known reasons as publishers. There is therefore a very as the Chafee Amendment) gave these real risk that interlibrary loan operating pro- agencies blanket permission to make any cedures and increasing cooperation between title available, as long as it was produced in libraries for the blind may not provide readers a format that is not generally available to with the potentially increased access to books the public. that recent technological advances make all the more possible. Since DAISY titles are essentially HTML and MP3 files, RFB&D uses something it The DAISY Consortium75 was established to calls intellectual property protection (IPP) promote an internationally recognized standard to make sure that only RFB&D subscribers for digital books that is to enhance access for all read the organization’s books. If you insert people with print-disabilities.76 Unless a measure an RFB&D DAISY book CD into an of international consensus can be achieved fairly approved player, you are asked to enter your soon with regard to the acceptable management personal identification number (PIN) to of the digital assets this development was verify that you are an RFB&D subscriber. supposed to have produced at the international Once you enter your PIN on the player’s level, this Consortium will become transformed keypad, you can listen to any book from into a club of developers and audio recording RFB&D until you turn the player off. When technicians which exists for its own sake only; you power the player on again, you must the impetus for the developing world to join the enter your PIN again. Players that have not technological revolution it represents will have been approved by RFB&D will not play dissipated and large investments of time and RFB&D books.

65 J.W. Roos

While the process of authorizing a player because combating it is unlikely to be a popular involves installing a software key in the cause. player’s permanent memory, it can no longer be accomplished by users because In April 2004 the General Assembly of the Inter- RFB&D has stopped sending out keys on national Council on English Braille, meeting in CD. Instead, subscribers must now either Toronto, adopted the following resolution: buy their players directly from RFB&D or ship their players to RFB&D to have This General Assembly affirms the principle authorizations installed. In addition, of unrestricted international interlending of RFB&D now requires subscribers to sign reading materials in alternative formats copyright agreements (available at http:// among recognized blindness agencies. www.rfbd.org/copyright%20indiv.htm). Therefore the Executive Committee of ICEB should work through the Braille Authority Why is RFB&D doing all this? There is of North America and with other relevant rampant fear among publishers that people non-governmental organizations and gov- will start to post books online illegally, just ernmental agencies to give non-citizens of as they have done with music on Napster the United States access to Braille and other and elsewhere. These issues are now also accessible format materials produced in the covered under a U.S. law known as the United States through the development of Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998, appropriate international protocols and which is the result of an international treaty legislative change if necessary. under the World Intellectual Property Organization. Of course, it is not legal or This resolution is unfortunate. It unjustifiably appropriate for people to redistribute targets the US, while other libraries for the blind, RFB&D or other titles. However, we hope probably unbeknown to their members, labour that the benefits to users of DAISY technol- under constraints no different from those that ogy will not be overshadowed by anticopy- inhibit interlending practices in the US itself. But ing concerns, even if the process seems to be it highlights two key points: the first is that it is excessive or burdensome on consumers.77 essential that misunderstandings are eradicated before they become totally entrenched; the second is that this ought to happen at the inter- The Need for International Cooperation national level so that all who read differently, may benefit. An international effort to standardize statutory exceptions to copyright protection will be an Notes and references important step towards affirming international trust in what libraries for the blind and those 1. The term “people who read differently” has been borrowed from http://www.andersleezen.nl. serving disadvantaged communities do. It will 2. Robert S. Boynton. The tyranny of copyright? New also contribute much towards a framework that York Times, January 25, 2004. can assist those countries that have not as yet 3. op. cit. enacted such exceptions in their own jurisdic- 4. Christopher May, Digital rights management and tions, but who might want to do so. Once a the breakdown of social norms. First Monday, degree of international cooperation has been volume 8, number 11 (November 2003). http://first established, the legitimacy of what many are monday.org/issues/issue8_11/may/index.html. trying to achieve ought also to become evident 5. See also David Marquand. The decline of the public. Marston Book Services Ltd., 2004; Siva to the publishing industry. If that stage can be Vaidhyanathan. The state of copyright activism. reached, it will no doubt pave the way for First Monday, volume 9, number 4 (April 2004), increased access to the means that should both and the authorities there cited. speed up the production of accessible format 6. IFLA. The Glasgow Declaration on Libraries, books and increase the amount of books to Information Services and Intellectual Freedom. which people with print-disabilities may have August 2002. http://www.ifla.org/faife/policy/ access. iflastat/gldeclar-e.html. (Feb 23, 2004) 7. http://www.daisy.org. 8. See in this regard Richard Poynder. The inevitable 78 The alternative is file sharing for a good cause. and the optimal. Information Today, Vol. 21, No. 4, To the reader, the results will be second rate; to April 2004. http://www.infotoday.com/it/apr04/ the publishers, the results may be disastrous, poynder.shtml.

66 Copyright Protection as Access Barrier

9. Neil Witt and David Sloan. Access as the norm, not Copyright, Designs and Patents Act section 31A(4) as an add-on. Times Higher Education Supplement, and section 31B(5) in the UK; Copyright Act, Friday, April 30, 2004. section 135ZQ(4) in Australia. 10. Copyright Act. (R.S., 1985, c. C-42, s. 32; R.S., 1985, 55. Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, section 31A(4). c. 10 (4th Supp.), s. 7; 1997, c. 24, s. 19). 56. Section 31A(1) and 31B(1). 11. Public Law 104 of 1997. 57. Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, section 12. After the senator that introduced the measure. 31A(1)(a) and 31B(1)(a). 13. The Chafee amendment to chapter 1 of title 17, 58. Section 31C of the Copyright, Designs and Patents United States Code, adds section 121 thereto. Act. 14. Act no. 63 of 1968. 59. Made under section 31A. 15. Sections 135ZN, 135ZP, 135ZQ. 60. See the remarks concerning the US dispensation in 16. Subsections (3) and (4) of section 135ZP. section 4 above. 17. Directive 2001/29/EC, of the European Parliament 61. Copyright Act, section 112(a)(ii) and (b)(ii) and of the Council of 22 May 2001 on the regarding intellectual disabilities; section 135ZQ(1) harmonization of certain aspects of copyright and regarding print-disabilities. related rights in the information society. 62. Section 31A(1) and section 31B(a). 18. In article 5(3)(b). 63. Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and 19. Article 5(4) and 5(5). Artistic Works of September 9, 1886, completed at 20. Copyright (Visually Impaired Persons) Act of 2002. Paris on May 4, 1896, revised at Berlin on 21. 1988 (c. 48). November 13, 1908, completed at Berne on March 22. Section 31A(1). 20, 1914, and revised at Rome on June 2, 1928, at 23. Section 31A(2) and (3). Brussels on June 26, 1948, at Stockholm on July 14, 24. Section 31B(1). 1967, and at Paris on July 24, 1971 and amended on 25. Section 31B(2) and (3). October 2, 1979. 26. Copyright Act, section 32(1). 64. Article 9(1). 27. Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, section 31A(5). 65. Article 9(2). 28. Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, section 66. Article 6(4). 31B(12). 67. Section 31B of the Copyright, Designs and Patents 29. Copyright Act, section 135ZZH(1) and (2), read Act. with Section 135ZP(1) and (2). 68. Section 35D(1)(a). 30. USC Title 17 section 121(a). 69. Section 35D(1)(b) A. 31. Large print is expressly excluded from the Canadian 70. Section 31D(2). exception; Copyright Act, section 32(2). See also the 71. Section 31D(3)(b). remarks below, concerning the definition of 72. In section 35B(8). “specialised formats” in US law. 73. For an excellent discussion of this problem, see 32. See text to note 22 above. George Kerscher and Jim Fruchterman. The 33. See text to note 27 above. soundproof book: exploration of rights conflict and 34. USC Title 17 section 121(c)(3) access to commercial ebooks for people with 35. Copyright Act, 1968, section 10(3)(h). disabilities. http://www.daisy.org/publications/ 36. Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, section 31F(2) docs/soundproof/sound_proof_book.html. and (3). 74. See George Kerscher. DAISY for all: publishers’ 37. Section 32(1)(a). collaboration enabling print access. 38. http://www.daisy.org/about_us/default.asp. http://www.daisy.org/publications/docs/pub_print_ 39. Copyright Act, section 32(2). access/ITD-2003.htm. 40. Section 121(c)(2). 75. http://www.daisy.org/. 41. Section 121(a). 76. http://www.daisy.org/about_us/default.asp. 42. http://www.loc.gov/nls/reference/factsheets/ 77. Jay Leventhal and Janina Sajka. A rosy future for copyright.html. DAISY books. Access World, Volume 5 Number 1, 43. Ibid. January 2004. http://www.afb.org/afbpress/pub.asp 44. Section 32(1)(a). ?DocID=aw050103. 45. Section 31A(1)(a) and 31B(1)(a). 78. That this is already happening is apparently general 46. http://www.copyright.com.au/institutions_assisting_ knowledge; see Sandeep Junnarkar. In the virtual print.htm. stacks, pirated books find eager thumbs. New York 47. Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, section 31A(2) Times, June 3, 2004. and 31B(2). 48. Copyright Act, 1968, section 135ZP. Original paper no. 147 presented at the World Library 49. Section 31B(3) and 31A(3). and Information Congress, 70th IFLA General Con- 50. Copyright Act, section 32(3). ference, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 22–27 August 2004, in 51. Section 31B(3). session 129. Libraries for the Blind with Libraries 52. Section 31A(3). Serving Disadvantaged Persons. English original avail- 53. section 31B(4). able on IFLANET at: http://www.ifla.org/IV/ifla70/prog 54. USC title 17 section 121(b)(1)(b) and (c) in the US; 04.htm.

67 European Emigration Records, 1820–1925

George R. Ryskamp In one of the greatest migrations the world has seen, approximately 55 million Europeans emigrated between 1821 and 1924. George R. Ryskamp, JD, AG, The vast majority went to the Americas — 33 million to the United Associate Professor of History, States, 5.4 million to Argentina, 4.5 million to Canada, 3.8 million Brigham Young University, is the to Brazil and the rest in smaller, but significant numbers to coun- author of Finding Your Hispanic tries from Chile to Mexico — melding with indigenous and Roots (Baltimore: GPC, 1997) previous immigrants to enrich and forever change the recipient and other books and articles, as countries and their cultures. While Ireland, Germany, Italy and well as a frequent speaker at England top the list in terms of numbers departing, every country national and international in Europe contributed to the flow. These statistics and associated genealogical and library confer- studies are only a black and white sketch of the rich tapestry of ences. His onsite research during individual emigrant experiences that make up this great migra- the last 30 years in local, provin- tion. cial and national archives in Spain, Portugal, Italy and France, For the social historians and genealogists the stories of individual as well as in a half dozen Latin emigrants are more important than the statistics. They tell indi- American countries, has in the vidual stories like that of Manuel Roso. In 1839 Spanish immi- last three years been expanded to grant Pedro Roso was becoming commercially successful as a include immigration records as baker in Puerto Rico, his adopted homeland. Earning money in Director of the Immigrant Ances- Puerto Rico was so much easier than in the village of Puerto de tors Project. He is currently the Santa Maria in southern Spain that he sent a letter to his father Director of the Center for Family requesting that his younger brother, Manuel, join him in Puerto History and Genealogy at BYU and Rico. On 17 August 1839, Manuel Roso was issued a passport by Vice Chair of the International the municipal authorities to travel the short distance to Cádiz. Commission for Accreditation of There he applied for and was granted another passport that Professional Genealogists. He allowed him to continue his journey to meet his older brother, may be contacted at: 2105 JFSB, Pedro, in Puerto Rico. The passport that allowed him to make the Brigham Young University, Provo, first section of his journey is now found in the Provincial His- Utah 84602, USA; ryskamp@ torical Archives of Cádiz. byu.edu In addition to that original passport, his file contains other documents that tell even more about Manuel Roso and his brother Pedro. In a letter of permission to the civil authority in the Puerto de Santa Maria written by the Rosos’ father, also named Pedro Roso, the elder Roso identifies himself as a baker who resides in the Puerto de Santa Maria. He states that he regrets having to part with his younger son, but explains that it is in the boy’s best interest and asks that the passport be issued to allow his son to join his older brother. The passport file also includes a copy of the baptismal record of Manuel Roso, giving his exact birth date and place as well as his parents and their marriage place. Manuel was 17 years old when he left his home in Puerto de Santa Maria and traveled to Puerto Rico.

Stories like that of Manuel Roso’s can be found throughout Europe during the nineteenth century. Under a wide variety of circumstances, rich, poor, convict, free, single, married, seeking economic opportunity or ﬂeeing political or religious oppression, emigrants left homes and often families to go to the New World. The records exist to tell those emigration stories, not only collec- tively, but also individually. This paper will look at the types of record that exist to document the individual emigrant’s story and

Copyright © 2005 International Federation of Library Associations & Institutions (www.ifla.org). IFLA Journal 31(1): 68–75. 68 ISSN: 0340-0352. DOI: 10.1177/0340035205052648 European Emigration Records, 1820–1925 how and where to find them. Of interest are tions and practical applications that produced a those that name specific persons and give details wide variety of records documenting the emigra- about their unique experiences. tion experience of individual emigrants as they worked through requirements imposed on them Especially valuable for the genealogists are those before they could emigrate. that give the particular place of origin of the emigrant, as that allows for the tracing of ances- Passenger lists tral lines in the country of origin. Just as passengers were recorded in most ports as they disembarked, so they were often listed as Arrival Records they sailed from the ports of Europe. In all five of the largest mass emigration ports lists were The best-known records for telling the emigra- maintained: Hamburg, Bremen, Liverpool, Le tion story are the passenger lists prepared at the Havre and Naples. Sadly only those of Hamburg time of the arrival of the ship in the destination have survived the ravages of war and bureau- country. Perhaps most famous are those of Ellis cratic archival cleansing. The Hamburg records Island, but many others exist, not only for other have been microfilmed and indexed. ports and times in the United States, but for other countries and ports, such as those at the Existing passenger lists have been found for Hotel de Inmigrantes in Buenos Aires. The best smaller ports, such as Lisbon and Porto, of these offer extensive detail about each immi- Portugal; Llanes, Spain; and Bordeaux and La grant, including the key place of birth. Many are Rochelle, France; and even, for scattered years accessible in published accounts and Internet before mass migration, in Naples. The informa- sites. tion in these records varies from only the name, age and port of destination to more detailed For those tracing the story of an individual descriptions of passengers including their places immigrant, even the best passenger lists tell only of birth. At this time, practically none of these part of the story, and most do not even do that. have been indexed and many have only been Over half of those in the United States do not recently identified and have not been the subject give key details such as place of birth, and few of academic study. Finding others that may exist give story details such as reasons for emigrating. will require visits to municipal and provincial In Latin America, even where arrival records are archives in port cities in each European country. preserved, the information given is even less. For example, in passenger lists for the years Other port of departure records 1891–1930 for the port of Buenos Aires, Argentina, during only 4 years was the place of Often, one of the greatest challenges that birth for the immigrant given. For all of these confront genealogists is to locate the birthplaces reasons the records of emigration, generally of immigrant ancestors. Of the 55 million Euro- found in Europe, need to be consulted to give a peans who emigrated between 1820 and 1920 more complete understanding of the emigration only about 14 percent can be found in passenger process and its individual stories. lists, arrival or departure, that tell their birthplace. Practically none of the 17 million who went to Latin America appear on such records. Departure Records The best place to go to find the unknown birthplaces of immigrants is the emigration records in As part of the Immigrant Ancestors Project, the home country. sponsored by the Center for Family History and Genealogy at Brigham Young University, Provo, Passenger lists were only one form, albeit the Utah, work has been done to identify records most common, to control passenger departures. produced in Europe that document the emigra- Other types of records found at the port of tion experience and provide the place of birth of departure included: the emigrant. Records have been located in municipal, provincial, state and national govern- Passports. Often prepared on printed forms or in ment archives, as well as in university and register books, these show that the emigrant private archives in Germany, Spain, Italy, received a passport, often identifying the France, Portugal and the United Kingdom. This specific ship of departure. The forms include research has revealed a mosaic of laws, regula- the emigrant’s name, destination, profession,

69 George R. Ryskamp

Figure 1. Page from a Passport Register. Santander, Cantabria, Spain.

birthplace, age and physical description. of such passengers, as was the case in Porto, These collections often precede or are merged Portugal and Naples, Italy by the mid-1880s. into the passports issued by provincial author- Health records. In some ports the only require- ities, as described below. Passport books ment or one significant requirement was a found in Genoa, Italy are of this type. health check performed by a port physician or Passengers in transit. In many cases ships by one provided by the shipping company. stopped to pick up passengers at intermediate These checks may have resulted in a single ports before sailing for the Americas. Ships’ page certificate of good health, that is, free captains may have been required to file a list from diseases such as tuberculosis or 70 European Emigration Records, 1820–1925

glaucoma, the same as were checked by documentation that proved that the emigrant Untied States port authorities before admit- met the requirements discussed above. To ting immigrants. accomplish this, a file was created for each Passenger contracts. A unique record so far emigrant or emigrant family with types of docu- located only in Spain was the contract mentation such as the following: between the ship’s captain or owners and the passengers. Beginning in 1853 a royal order Certificate of Personal Identification — this is stipulated that each of these contracts had to similar to our identification cards today, lay out exactly the quality of transportation to including a description of the emigrant, his be provided, including exact quantity and address of residence, his birthplace, age and quality for food and water rations, as well as other identifying information. the destination of the ship and what the Parent/Spouse Authorization — each emigrant payment terms were for each passenger. These may have required to show authorization had to be written before a notary and from his/her spouse if married and from approved by the subgobernador. Unfortu- his/her parent if single and under the age of nately they did not have to be placed in the majority, usually 25 or 30 years. notary’s register, although many were. The Baptismal Record or Certification of Freedom to company was required to keep a copy, as was Emigrate — the baptismal record might only the local provincial government and a copy be required if the emigrant was under a was sent with the ship to be filed upon arrival. certain age and those over that age could While scattered examples are found in simply have an authorized statement of their notarial registers in port cities, in most cases eligibility to emigrate. the companies kept these in their own Criminal Record — or in most cases the emigrant archives. The Transatlantic Company, by far needed a document certified by a judge, police the largest providing passenger service, kept or civil authority of his home or last residence its contracts filed in its central archive in district, that certified that he had no criminal Madrid. Much of that archive, including all of record. the contracts, was ‘lost’ during a transfer of Certificate of Completion of Military Service — a company headquarters in the 1970s. man was required to have a statement by a judge, police or civil authority of his home district that certified that he had met his Approval to emigrate before departure military obligation, either by service or by Governments, for paternalistic reasons and/or having stood for the draft and not been taken. for control of population movement, enacted procedures to regulate emigration. Requirements Often these passport records come in two parts, to emigrate that existed in most, if not all, coun- a register book of all passports issued (or applied tries at some time included: for) and a collection of individual files, one for each applicant or applicant family, containing 1. that the emigrant have completed military the documentation discussed above. Without responsibilities doubt the researcher should try to go to the file 2. that he or she was not wanted for criminal and not stop at the register book, even when it offences or trying to flee any authority gives the place of birth. The file will contain the 3. that he or she was not trying to abandon his most interesting material about the emigrant, family, and often including statements as to reasons for emi- 4. that he or she, if under age, had permission grating. Records of this type have thus far been from father or other family authority. found in Germany, Spain and Italy, but were likely required at least at some time period in all The gathering of this documentation was continental European countries. handled by the port authorities, the local provincial governments or by a provincial level police Published Announcements authority such as the Questura in Italy or the Prefeture in France. At certain time periods, the way in which municipal authorities were able or required to ascer- The key difference from the passports required tain that the proposed emigrant was qualified to for movement internally in most countries, as emigrate was to publish a notice of the intended well as those issued at the port for population emigration in the official provincial government movement control, was the preparation of bulletin. In Spain and Italy, where some of these

71 George R. Ryskamp

Figure 2. Pages from an Italian Passport Application ﬁle. Naples, Italy.

have been found, the bulletins were issued After Arrival Records weekly or more frequently. Again, the time period during which this procedure was used is limited and their use not fully studied. Consular records All European countries maintained consulates British and Irish Pre-Departure Records working to meet the needs and often to protect the interests of their citizens. Many of these con- In the British Isles the attitude toward emigration sulates kept records of transactions undertaken was different from that in the rest of Europe. by their citizens residing in the destination coun- Aside from passenger lists, other forms of emigra- tries. Most commonly these appear to record tion control used on the continent do not appear requests for passports, identiﬁcation proofs, reg- among British records. Rather than attempting to istration of births, or assistance with an inheri- prevent the departure of those with criminal tance or other legal problem in the country of records or who were in debt, the authorities in origin. On occasion the consul appears to go these countries encouraged emigration as a way beyond this to an effort to identify all emigrants. of dealing with the poor. Vestry minutes and In either case these records identify emigrants estate records exist that identify those whose and provide more of the story of the emigration passage was paid as a means of meeting local process. obligations imposed by the poor laws. Trans- portation to colonies appears regularly in quarter Home town censuses and emigrant lists sessions records as a sentence for criminal activity. A variety of records exist relating to Even after emigration the emigrants were still indentured servitude and other similar ways of considered residents of their home towns. As acquiring passage. For these reasons the search such they are often listed in local censuses, with for emigration records in the British Isles offers a an annotation as to where they are living and the series of challenges and potential solutions not date of emigration. Some municipalities also found in the rest of Europe kept register books of those who had emigrated. 72 European Emigration Records, 1820–1925

Figure 3. Published notice of intent to emigrate, Oviedo, Asturias, Spain.

Little has been done to identify these types of done of illegal emigration during this period, the records and less to extract the information that largest group of illegal emigrants was most likely they contain. young men of conscription age. In Italy, provincial conscription lists often identify missing youths as having emigrated. In Spain, lists of Military absence records those who did not report for draft registration Both youth of the age for military service and were published in the provincial bulletins dis- local authorities responsible for the draft recog- cussed above, which identiﬁed the countries nized that emigration was a means of avoiding where the men were thought to have gone or that military service. Although little study has been they were thought to be in a port city such as

73 George R. Ryskamp

Cadiz, apparently a euphemism for indicating that provinces the records are available on microfilm they had emigrated or were likely trying to do so. through the LDS Family History Centers. Lists identifying the provincial level archives exist for each country, often with website addresses. Finding Emigration Records Some emigration records are found at the Arrival passenger lists in the United States have national archives level, such as consular records been available on microfilm for decades. at the Archivo General de la Administración in Numerous published sources have provided Alcala de Henares, passenger lists at the Arquivo indexes to specific ports for specific time periods Nacional Torre do Tombo in Lisbon. Informa- or specific ethnicities. During the last three tion for specific archives can be found at http:// years, beginning with the Ellis Island website, www.unesco.org/webworld/portal_archives/pag online indexes to these records have been avail- es/Archives/, which lists all national archives in able. Recent developments on sites such as Europe. www.stevemorse.org and www.ancestry.com have further opened the possibilities for searching arrival passenger lists and other immigrant Illegal or Extralegal Emigration sources in this country. Work on Canadian immigration records has recently begun, but is Recognition must be made that in addition to the limited so far primarily to the early years of the problems with locating records and significant 20th century. Little has been done to index missing or destroyed emigration records, there arrival lists in Latin America, although the work were those who went without meeting legal done by the Centro de Estudios Migratorios requirements or registering on the passenger Latinoamericanos (Avenida Independencia 20, lists. The number of draft age youths who are 1099 Buenos Aires, Argentina) which has identified as having emigrated is indicative of indexed arrivals at the port of Buenos Aires, this problem. Likewise in port authority or Argentina 1882–1926, offers hope that such police records there are discussions of actions records will be more readily available in the such as unscheduled ship inspections taken to future. At this time, however, even a comprehen- identify illegal emigrants who are on board. sive list of where such arrival records can be Another manifestation of this problem are ship found would be most helpful, especially where crew members who deserted upon arrival in the many Latin American immigrants arrived in one Americas. country but ultimately settled in another.

Finding European emigration records can be The Immigrants Ancestors Project at more challenging. Except for the Hamburg pas- Brigham Young University senger departure lists, which are available on microfilm with indexes and with indexes Emigration records, such as passport files, pas- currently being placed online, no other major senger contracts, vestry minutes, consular collection of departure lists exists and only a records are rich in genealogical information, but handful of those for smaller ports are currently largely untouched simply because they are not being indexed. To find the wide variety of easily available. Few are microfilmed. Most are records discussed above one must turn to the accessible only by visiting the archives contain- original records still to be found in archives in ing the records and are rarely indexed or sorted. the home country. The Immigrants Ancestors Project at Brigham Young University (IAP) looks for emigration The vast majority of the European emigration records in European home countries. records described above are to be found in the provincial level archives in Europe. Obviously to The IAP goals center on those hard-to-find emi- make it possible to search those, one must know gration records: the province or department from which the emigrant came or the port from which he sailed. 1. Identify emigration records Once that is known, perhaps from arrival pas- 2. Acquire copies of those records senger lists, then there must be a search through 3. Extract data on individuals who appear in the bundles for those years. This is a task that those records can generally only be done on site, although in 4. Place extracted data in an online index/ some instances such as certain German database available free on the Internet. 74 European Emigration Records, 1820–1925

Work is progressing well on the first two goals. researchers, provide copies of identified records, In addition to German emigration files that have and support computer program development been microfilmed, passport records from Cadiz and maintenance. and Santander in Spain for the middle years of the 19th century have been identified, copied Notes and partially extracted. Major collections from Spanish consular offices all over the world have 1. Archivo Histórico Provincial de Cadiz, Gobierno been identified and arrangements for copying Civil, Pasaportes. are being made. Emigration records from munic- 2. Passenger and Immigration Lists Index: A guide to published records of more than 2,923,000 immigrants ipal archives in Galicia and Asturias have been who came to the New World between the sixteenth copied and await extraction. This spring, student and the mid-twentieth centuries. (Detroit: Gale interns worked with great success finding and Group, 1998.): John Philip Colletta. They came in copying more of these in several archives in the ships. (Baltimore, Genealogical Publishing Co., British Isles and the Spanish Basque provinces, 1997). as well as in Rome and Naples in Italy and 3. See for example: www.ellisisland.org, Lisbon and Porto in Portugal. In all cases copies www.stevemorse.org, www.ancestry.com, of emigration record collections identified have http://home.stt.net/~wee-monster/ei.html, www.immigrantships.net, been or are being acquired. www.olivetreegenelgy.com/ships/search_ships.shtml . 4. See immigrants.byu.edu and familyhistory.byu.edu. The copies are then digitized and arranged in 5. The Hamburg Passenger Lists, 1850–1934 resource small batches. Extraction by volunteers is the guide at www.familysearch.org. key to success for the Project. Utilizing software 6. Access to many archives throughout Europe can be created for the Project, volunteers all over the made through http://www.unesco.org/webworld/ portal_archives/pages/Archives/or through world, working via the Internet, are sent the individual national archival sites such as the small batches of emigration records to extract. following: http://aer.mcu.es/sgae/index_aer.jsp, The extracted data is then sent back to the www.iantt.pt, http://www.archivesnationales. Center for Family History and Genealogy, culture.gouv.fr/, http://www.bundesarchiv.de/, where trained student supervisors check extrac- http://www.archivesdefrance.culture.gouv.fr/. tions for accuracy before they are added to the http://www.pro.gov.uk/. database. The data from those small extracted 7. The following are some of the archives in Spain, Italy and Portugal where students from the Center for batches will be continually added to create the Family History and Genealogy at Brigham Young online database until there will be millions of University worked in the Spring of 2004 gathering immigrants with their places of origin. The records for the Immigrant Ancestors Project: Archivo initial database with thousands of names is General de la Administración — Alcalá de Henares, found at http://immigrants.byu.edu. Also found Archivo Nacional de Cataluña, Archivo del Reino de there are lists of archives, research tools and an Galicia, Archivo General de la Administración del extensive bibliography of books and articles Principado de Asturias, Archivo Histórico Provincial about immigrants and the immigration experi- de Asturias, Archivo Histórico Provincial de Cáceres, Archivo Histórico Provincial de Cádiz, Archivo ence. Histórico Provincial de Cantabria, Archivo Histórico Provincial de Toledo, Archivo Histórico Provincial de At present the project focuses on emigrants from Vizcaya, Archivo Histórico Municipal de Llanes, Germany, Spain, Ireland, England, Scotland, Archivo de Protocolos de Guipúzcoa, Archivo Foral Wales, Italy and France, but plans are to add de Vizcaya, Archivo de la Diputación Provincial de other countries as resources permit. The IAP Cáceres, Archivo de la Diputación Provincial de Barcelona, Archivo Histórico de la Biblioteca de needs large numbers of volunteers to extract Cantabria, Hemeroteca Municipal de Santander, records. Volunteers receive online training in Archivio del Minutero degle Afari Esseri d’Italia, reading the records and research resources to Roma, Archivio di Stato di Napoi, Instituto Nacional help in the extraction process. Volunteers may Torre de Tombo, Lisboa and Arquivo Distrital de sign up on line at http://immigrants.byu.edu. Oporto.

Even with generous support of time and effort Original paper no. 117 presented at the World Library and Information Congress, 70th IFLA General Con- from volunteer extractors and of office space, ference, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 22–27 August 2004, in personnel and faculty time from BYU, a project session 84, Genealogy and Local History. English of this magnitude needs donated funds. Dona- original available on IFLANET at: http://www.ifla.org/ tions made to the IAP pay wages for student IV/ifla70/prog 04.htm.

75 Citations and Links as a Measure of Effectiveness of Online LIS Journals

Alastair G. Smith Introduction

How important are LIS e-journals, and how can they be evaluated? Traditionally, measures based on citation counts such as ISI’s Journal Impact Factor have been important in measuring the success of journals. The growth of publishing on the web has raised the possibility of new measures. A number of writers have seen an analogy between citations in print sources, and links between web sites. Ingwersen (1998) proposed the Web Impact Factor (WIF) as the online equivalent of the ISI Journal Impact Factor. The Journal Impact Factor is based on the citation counts of a journal over a speciﬁed period of time, compared with the citable articles published in the journal. In contrast, the Web Impact Factor is based on the number of links made to a web site, compared with the size (usually the number of pages) of the website.

The term ‘e-journal’ can have narrower and wider meanings. A wide interpretation includes any journal available electronically, including online versions of conventional print journals available for subscription from publishers or aggregators. However for the Alastair G. Smith is Senior purpose of this study, e-journals are open access periodicals only Lecturer, School of Information available over the Internet that include a review process for at Management, Victoria University least part of their content. of Wellington. Prior to entering academia, he worked in database This exploratory study examines counts for conventional citations development at the National and links to a sample of LIS e-journal websites, and calculates Library of New Zealand, as a WIFs for the e-journals. The differences between these measures special librarian and as a sci/tech of e-journal impact are discussed. reference librarian. His research interests are in the use of online In the second part of the study, samples of links to the e-journals learning and the evaluation of are studied to determine the extent to which they are similar to Internet information resources conventional citations, and to what extent they serve different and Web search engines. Contact functions. address: School of Information Management, Victoria University Literature Review of Wellington PO Box 600, Wellington, New Zealand. Tel. + 64 (4) 463 5785. Fax: +64 (4) Studies of electronic publishing, and metrics for the web, have 463 5446. E-mail: Alastair.Smith been widespread in the last decade. A sub-discipline of bibliomet- @vuw.ac.nz. rics, called variously ‘webometrics’ or ‘cybermetrics’, has emerged.

A number of studies examine the increasing importance of electronic sources in research dissemination. Bar-Ilan, Peritza and Wolman (2003) found that electronic sources are indispensable in modern university scholarship. Herring (2002) noted a greater use of electronic resources in a study of citation patterns in scholarly electronic journals. Lawrence (2001) found online articles were more highly cited, indicating both that online availability encouraged use, and also implies that online citations are

Copyright © 2005 International Federation of Library Associations & Institutions (www.ifla.org). IFLA Journal 31(1): 76–84. 76 ISSN: 0340-0352. DOI: 10.1177/0340035205052651 Citations and Links as a Measure of Effectiveness important as research linkages. However web communication. However Vaughan and Hysen citations can be ephemeral: Casserly and Bird (2002) found a relationship between external (2003) found that slightly more than half the links and the Journal Impact Factor of LIS web citations in a sample of LIS articles were journals. Vaughan and Shaw (2003) compared still available; although searching the web bibliographic and web citations to articles in LIS increased the availability to almost 90 percent. journals. Many of the web citations represented Oppenheim and Smith (2001) noted an increas- ‘intellectual impact’, and journals with tables of ing tendency by LIS students to cite Internet contents available on the web had more web sources in their dissertations. Shin (2003) found citations. An and Qiu (2003) found a correlation that the impact factor of journals increased between impact factors of Chinese engineering when they became available in electronic form, journals and the WIFs of the journal web sites. indicating that the greater availability of the electronic format lead to more citations. Rousseau (2002) argues that care must be exercised when using impact factors, and that a The growth of e-journals in information science battery of different impact factors should be was examined by Hawkins (2001) who found evaluated. This implies that WIFs or a similar that the number of articles per year had risen web based impact factor could be valuable in from 26 in 1995 to 250 in 2001. Koehler, Aguilar supplementing evaluation of LIS e-journals. and Finarelli (2000) compared a small sample of Marek and Valauskas (2002) have also explored e-journals in LIS with a paper journal, and found the use of web logs, recording hits, to evaluate differences in the characteristics of articles. the use of electronic journal articles, and identify Although more women had articles in the elec- ‘classic’ articles. tronic forms, these authors felt that whether a journal was electronic did not affect its presence There are valid arguments about the reliability of or behaviour as an information science journal. using commercial search engines to evaluate web links for bibliometric studies. Bar-Ilan Are web links equivalent to journal citations? (2001) found disparities in the coverage of links Both Kim (2000) and Prime, Bassecoulard and to the home page of the online journal Cyber- Zitt (2002) found that citations and ‘sitations’ metrics. (web links) are made for very different reasons. A survey of 414 links between websites in the ac.uk domain by Wilkinson et al. (2003) found Methodology only two links that were equivalent to journal citations. On the other hand Smith (2003) in a LIS e-journals studied in this paper were those study of research oriented websites, found that that were open access (non-charged subscrip- about 20 percent of links were broadly equiva- tion) periodicals only available over the Internet, lent to research citations. Chu (2003) investi- with articles that underwent some kind of peer gated 1400 links to academic websites, and review process. A selected list was taken from found that about 25 percent were made from Hawkins (2001) and other sources. teaching/learning motivations. Vaughan and Thelwall (2003) used sites in the disciplines of The ISI databases were searched for citations to LIS and law to investigate factors influencing LIS e-journals. Those that had citations were the creation of links to a site. They found that then searched on AltaVista, to determine the age and content were important factors. overall number of links, and their Web Impact Thelwall (2003) investigated 100 random inter- Factor. A sample of links to the e-journals was site links to UK university home pages, and examined, to determine whether the links were found four types of motivation for linking: own- similar to conventional citations, or whether ership, social, general navigational, and gratu- they served different purposes. itous. Institute of Scientific Information citation There is some evidence of a link between Journal counts Impact Factor and WIF. An early study of e- journal links by Harter and Ford (2000) found Bibliometric studies of conventional journals are no correlation between links to e-journal articles often done using the Journal Impact Factor cal- and conventional ISI citation measures, culated by ISI and published in their Journal although they suggested that links to e-journal Citation Reports. However few LIS e-journals home pages might be a new measure of scholarly are included in the Journal Citation Reports.

77 Alastair G. Smith

Instead, the Dialog version of ISI’s citation Web links and Web Impact Factors indexes Science Citation Index (1990–), Social As a comparison with the citation counts from Sciences Citation Index (1972–) and Arts and ISI databases, links from websites to the e- Humanities Citation Index (1980–) was used to journals were measured. In addition, the Web ﬁnd total citation counts, using the ‘cited work’ Impact Factor, a measure analogous with the search. These indicate the number of times a Journal Impact Factor, was calculated. This journal has been cited by the journals indexed by measure, proposed by Ingwersen (1998), is the ISI. An initial version of this study used the Web ratio of the number of links made to a web site, of Knowledge version of the ISI databases, but divided by the number of pages at the web site. this appears to be less comprehensive for bibliometric versions than the Dialog version (I am Although as noted in the literature review, there indebted to Ronald Rousseau for pointing out are reservations about the use of commercial inconsistencies in the data in an initial version of search engines for studying web phenomena, this paper). Dialog was searched in August 2004. they provide coverage of the web that is not available elsewhere. While several web search A limitation with using the ISI databases is that engines can provide counts of links to a site, and citation data is dependent on the accuracy with the number pages present at the site, in the which original authors entered the citation data. current study the AltaVista advanced search Consequently journals can appear under differ- engine (http://www.altavista.com/web/adv) was ent forms (e.g. DLIB and D-Lib), and different used, since it provides for the use of Boolean journals can be cited similarly (e.g. JEP is the operators, and appears to apply these with abbreviation for both the Journal of Electronic greater consistency than other search engines. Publishing and the Journal of Economic Searches were carried out in March 2004. Progress). In the current study, the ISI guide to Shortly after this the AltaVista database was citation formats was consulted, but other likely replaced by a different version that no longer abbreviations were searched. Where citations counts link in the same way. were likely to be to other journals, the full article record was retrieved to determine if the subject For each of the e-journals, a search was carried matter, volume and issue numbering, etc. was out to determine the number of external links, consistent with a citation to the required e- and the number of pages at the site. The number journal. of external links to the e-journal website was determined by: The ten LIS e-journals for which citations were found in the ISI databases, and which were included in the study, were: link:xxx and not host:xxx

Ariadne: http://www.ariadne.ac.uk Where xxx is the URL of the e-journal website. Cybermetrics: http://www.cindoc.csic.es/cyber metrics/ In the current study, only external links were D-Lib Magazine: http://www.dlib.org/ counted, since this excludes internal navigation First Monday: http://firstmonday.org links and overcomes differences in whether links Information Research: http://InformationR.net/ir/ within the site are made relatively (e.g. a Journal of Digital Information: http://jodi.ecs. href=“file.htm”) or absolutely (e.g. a href=http:// soton.ac.uk ejournal.org/file.htm). Arguably, links between Journal of Electronic Publishing: http://www. articles in the same e-journal should be counted, press.umich.edu/jep since these are analogous to citations, but it was Journal of Information, Law and Technology: assumed that these would be a small proportion http://elj.warwick.ac.uk/jilt of the total links. This assumption was supported LIBRES: Library and Information Science by the examination of a sample of e-journal links Research Electronic Journal: http://libres.cur undertaken in the current study (see below). tin.edu.au/ PACS-R: Public Access Computer Systems Where the e-journal resided in a subdirectory Review: http://info.lib.uh.edu/pr/pacsrev.html rather than having its own domain (for example Information Research is located in a subdirec- PACS-R has in fact ceased publication, but had tory at InformationR.net/ir/, while D-Lib has its sufficient links in both the ISI databases and in own domain dlib.org) the URL: command was the Web to be worthy of study. used instead of the host: command, i.e.

78 Citations and Links as a Measure of Effectiveness

link:xxx and not url:xxx The pages found by a web crawler are not necessarily all those present at the site, and can The number of pages at the site was determined depend on a number of factors: by the commands: • depth of crawling by spider host:xxx • structure of articles: whether a single page, or multiple pages or • whether different formats are available of the same article, for example Library Philosophy url:xxx and Practice articles appear in both PDF and HTML E-journals have an added dimension to the tra- • the extent to which pages are included in the ditional ‘title varies’: they also have ‘URL varies’. journal’s directory that have other information Several journals had changed URLs (e.g. Journal e.g. directions to authors, etc. of Digital Information changed from journals. ecs.soton.ac.uk/jodi to jodi.ecs.soton.ac.uk). On Arguably a better measure would be the number the other hand, some journals changed title, but of articles included in the journal; however here stayed at the same URL (e.g. E-JASL: The there are problems with differing definitions of Electronic Journal of Academic and Special what constitutes an article, so this measure was Librarianship formerly the Journal of Southern not pursued. Academic and Special Librarianship). Where alternate sites or mirrors were used, an OR’d The count of external links to the e-journal site, search was used to find links, for example and number of pages at the e-journal site, was used to calculate the Web Impact Factor of the (link:journals.ecs.soton.ac.uk/jodi or e-journal. link:jodi.ecs.soton.ac.uk) and not (url:journals.ecs.soton.ac.uk/jodi or Nature of linking to LIS e-journals host:jodi.ecs.soton.ac.uk) In order to investigate the nature of links made However the number of pages was estimated by to LIS e-journals, and the extent to which they using the main URL, since an estimate of the were analogous to conventional citations, a amount of information at the site was required, sample of pages that linked to each of the e- which would be inflated if pages at both the journals was examined. current and past URLs were counted. A search was carried out on AltaVista advanced In the case of D-Lib (which has a number of search for links: mirror sites, including one in Argentina) this was not possible, since the complexity of the Boolean link:xxx statement required appeared to be too great for AltaVista to handle: where xxx is the URL of the e-journal, as above.

(link:dlib.org or link:ukoln.ac.uk/lis- AltaVista was set to search the whole world, and journals/dlib/ or link:dlib.anu.edu.au/ or for pages in all languages. Site collapse (which link:gwdg.de/edoc/aw/d-lib/ or means that only one page from each site is dis- link:dlib.org.ar/ or played) was turned off. The searches and exam- link:dlib.ejournal.ascc.net/) and not ination of sites were carried out in March 2004. (host:dlib.org or url:ukoln.ac.uk/lis- Both external and internal pages were searched journals/dlib/ or host:dlib.anu.edu.au/ or for, since one of the aims was to look at all pages url:gwdg.de/edoc/aw/d-lib/ or that linked to the e-journal, including those host:dlib.org.ar/ or made from the same e-journal. host:dlib.ejournal.ascc.net/) A feature of AltaVista advanced search from a Results from this search statement were incon- sampling point of view is that the display order sistent, so the estimate for external links to D- appears to be random, unless a ranking term is Lib was based just on the main dlib.org site; test provided. However in order to ensure that a searches indicated that most links were to this random sample of links was used, every 50th site. item retrieved was examined, up to a total of 20

79 Alastair G. Smith

1. Link to a formal article in the e-journal: a. From another e-journal article, conference paper or similar document that could be considered the online equivalent of a conventional research publication. b. From an article in same e-journal c. From an online article by same author d. From non-article website, e.g. an online bibliography, researcher home page, teaching resource, etc. 2. Link to a whole issue of an e-journal 3. Link to the e-journal as a whole a. From a list of e-journals b. From another source 4. Link to non-article material provided at the e-journal website: news, directories etc 5. Internal navigation link in e-journal, e.g. a link from an article back to the journal home page.

Table 1. Classiﬁcation of links to e-journals.

items. In some cases fewer than 1000 pages the case of PACS-R this may be because the linked to the e-journal in which case every 20th journal has ceased). item was examined. If a page didn’t work, or no longer included a link to the e-journal (for The Web Impact Factor of the journals also example if it was a news page that changed varies, with JILT at a low of 0.94 and PACS-R at frequently), the next page in the results list was a high of 15.21. While this may be a useful indi- examined. cation of the influence of a journal on the web, it may also indicate that, for the reasons noted Pages linking to the e-journal were classified previously, AltaVista is an imperfect tool for according to the scheme in the Table 1. Classifi- determining the total number of pages at a site; cation was carried out by the researcher. and also that the number of pages may be a poor measure of the information content of a site. The exceptionally high WIF for PACS-R may be due Results and Discussion to AltaVista not having indexed all pages at the site, and also due to the fact that many issues of This section discusses the results of the different PACS-R, often comprising several articles, were forms of citation and linking to LIS e-journals. posted as a single page.

The counts from ISI citation databases and from D-Lib’s high ISI citation count is interesting, the AltaVista searches are shown in Table 2. In and may indicate that it crosses the divide addition, the Google Page Rank (http://www. between LIS and computer science: ISI Science google.com/technology/) is included — this is a Citation Index has a good coverage of computer measure used by the Google search engine to science literature, where many of the citations to rank results, and is a score out of 10 derived D-Lib appear to come from. from the number of links to a site. In this case it was measured using the Google tool bar (http:// The Google Page Rank has been extremely suc- toolbar.google.com/) . cessful as a ranking mechanism for the search engine, and web managers place great value on There appears to be only a slight relationship optimizing the Page Rank of their sites. For these between the number of ISI citations and the e-journals, the Google Page Rank is relatively number of external links. D-Lib, Ariadne and high, at 7 or 8, except for Cybermetrics at 6. As First Monday have relatively high citation a comparison, the web site of the Guardian counts and links. LIBRES has a low number of newspaper has a Page Rank of 8, and that of the citations and links. On the other hand several New Scientist has a Page Rank of 9. journals with low numbers of ISI citations (Information Research, JoDI, JEP, and JILT) Perhaps the significant point about these various have significant numbers of web links. Cyber- measures is that they illustrate that e-journals metrics and PACS-R have significant numbers of have a variety of qualitative measures that ISI citations, but relatively few external links (in can be used to evaluate them, and perhaps as

80 Citations and Links as a Measure of Effectiveness

E-Journal Title ISI citns External Pages Web Google links Impact Page Factor Rank Ariadne 151 7202 1502 4.79 8 Cybermetrics 168 580 113 5.13 6 D-Lib Magazine 790 14857 1497 9.92 8 First Monday 80 9494 851 11.16 8 Information Research 179 2209 392 5.64 7 Journal of Digital Information (JoDI) 92 4313 599 7.20 7 Journal of Electronic Publishing (JEP) 147 3852 420 9.17 8 Journal of Information, Law and Technology 48 2897 3089 0.94 7 (JILT) LIBRES: Library and Information Science 20 438 124 3.53 7 Research Electronic Journal PACS-R: Public Access Computer Systems 255 1506 99 15.21 7 Review Table 2. Citation and link counts.

e-journals become more widely accepted, a richer D-Lib was most cited from formal publications. range of evaluative measures will be available. This isn’t surprising given its origins in both the library and computer science field. It also The study of a sample of links to the e-journals happens to be the most highly cited by ISI are listed in the Appendix. A summary of the database journals. most significant types of links is listed in Table 3. This shows number of links of each type as a per- On the other hand most other LIS e-journals centage of the total links to each e-journal. were more highly linked from sources other than formal publications (e.g. from online biblio- Almost 60 percent of links to these e-journals graphies, personal home pages, online teaching were to journal articles, indicating that the resources, etc). This could be because these pub- majority of links were to content, rather than to lications are more specifically concerned with home pages, navigation links, etc. On the other the general Internet, particularly in the case of hand, just over 30 percent of links were to the First Monday. journal as a whole. While these links do indicate recognition of the journal, many of these links Some types of links reflected the construction of are from directory listings of e-journals, so all e- the e-journal site. For example JoDI, JILT, and journals, regardless of quality or importance, will JEP had a relatively high proportion of internal have links of this type. links.

It appears that the different publications have In examining the sample of linking pages some different ‘profiles’ with regard to the sources of features specific to particular journals were citations. Cybermetrics and LIBRES had rela- noted, which reflected their particular character. tively high numbers of links to the journal as a Links to Ariadne were often from project whole. This could mean that they haven’t estab- websites to articles written about the project, a lished a large body of articles to be cited, and form of self citation. Cybermetrics (hosted in consequently their links come mainly from Spain but in English) had noticeably more links sources that list e-journals in general, rather than from non-English language sites, and from sites specific articles. in non-English language countries. First Monday

81 Alastair G. Smith

E-journal title Link Link from All Links to Internal from other links to Journal Navigation formal types journal as a links publn of web articles whole (5) (1a,b,c) pages (1a,b,c,d) (3a,b) (1d) Ariadne 15 50 65 25 5 Cybermetrics 50 5900 D-Lib Magazine 50 40 90 0 10 First Monday 10 75 85 10 5 Information Research 10 55 65 20 10 Journal of Digital Information (JoDI) 10 35 45 35 15 Journal of Electronic Publishing (JEP) 10 50 60 20 20 Journal of Information, Law and 050503515 Technology (JILT) LIBRES: Library and Information 02020650 Science Research Electronic Journal PACS-R: Public Access Computer 15 50 65 25 5 Systems Review OVERALL PERCENT 12.5 44.5 57 31 8 Table 3. Percentages of types of pages linking to LIS e-journals.

articles were particularly popular as citations indicating that links are performing some of the from cached discussion lists. functions of conventional citations. This indicates a maturing of e-journals as a medium. The assumption made in using an external WIF, rather than the overall WIF, that relatively few Third, e-journal publishers need to be aware of links are made between articles in the same e- different measures of effectiveness. The Web journal, was borne out. Only 4 percent of total provides a greater range of measures than are links were between articles in the same e-journal. available in the print environment. As well as measures such as the Journal Impact Factor, based on conventional citations, measures based Conclusions on numbers of links, such as Web Impact Factor, are available. It must be appreciated, however, What lessons does this study have for users and that these are measuring different features than publishers of LIS open access e-journals? the conventional citation count. Further research needs to be conducted to evolve new First, e-journals in LIS are becoming a significant measures. body of literature, as evidenced by the fact that they appear in significant numbers in ISI’s citation Some other, perhaps more minor, points relate count, if not yet in the formal Journal Citation to how e-journals are constructed and managed. Reports. This means that authors can be confident Journal publishers have been keen to have high that by publishing in e-journals, their work will be citation counts. Recognition on the Web, par- recognized and cited in mainstream literature. ticularly by the Google page rank, can be promoted by links. Links from sites that are Second, analysis of links made to e-journals themselves highly linked promote visibility on indicates that a majority are to article content, the web, for example when searching Google. By

82 Citations and Links as a Measure of Effectiveness

providing links between e-journals (as is done Hawkins, D.T. (2001) Bibliometrics of electronic for example by the list of digital resources journals in information science. Information provided by Information Research at http:// Research, 7 (1). http://InformationR.net/ir/7-1/paper informationr.net/fr/freejnls.html) LIS e-journals 120.html Herring, S.D. (2002) Use of electronic resources in can raise their overall visibility on the web. A scholarly electronic journals: a citation analysis. methodological issue that arose in this study was College and Research Libraries, 63 ( 4), 334–340. the structure of e-journal URLs: bibliometric Ingwersen, P. (1998) Web Impact Factors. Journal of studies of e-journals could be aided by publish- Documentation, 54 (2), 236–243. ers having a standard ‘root’ URL for the journal Kim, H.J. (2000) Motivations for hyperlinking in schol- and articles, and changes of URL increase the arly electronic articles: a qualitative study. Journal of complexity of tracking links. the American Society for Information Science, 51 (10), 887–899. Koehler, W., Aguilar, P. and Finarelli, S. (2000) A biblio- Open access e-journals in LIS are coming of age, metric analysis of select information science print and in a relatively short time have become a and electronic journals in the 1990s. Information mature medium for the reporting of scholarship Research, 6 (1). http://informationr.net/ir/6-1/paper and research. As well as providing a publishing 88.html avenue, this exploratory study indicates that they Lawrence, S. (2001) Online or invisible? Nature, 411 are also becoming an instructive area for biblio- (6837), 521. metric research. As noted by Lawrence and Marek, K. and Valauskas, E.J. (2002) Web logs as indices of electronic journal use: tools for identifying a others in the literature review, the convenience ‘classic’ article. Libri, 52 (4), 220–230. of open access e-journals makes them an attrac- Oppenheim, C. and Smith, R. (2001) Student citation tive resource for users and increasingly they practices in an information science department. are becoming accepted as credible sources of Education for Information, 19 (4), 299–323. scholarship. Prime, C., Bassecoulard, E. and Zitt, M. (2002) Co- citations and co-sitations: a cautionary view on an analogy. Scientometrics, 54 (2), 291–308. References Rousseau, R. (2002) Journal evaluation: technical and practical issues. Library Trends, 50 (3), 418–. An, L. and Qiu, J. (2003) Research on the relationships Shin, E.-J. (2003) Do Impact Factors change with a between Chinese journal impact factors and web change of medium? A comparison of Impact Factors impact factors and external web link counts. Journal when publication is by paper and through parallel of the China Society for Scientiﬁc and Technical publishing. Journal of Information Science, 29 (6), Information, 22 (4), 398–402. 527–533. Bar-Ilan, J. (2001) How much information the search Smith, A.G. (2003) Classifying links for substantive Web engines disclose on the links to a web page? – A case Impact Factors. Paper presented at the ISSI 2003, study of the Cybermetrics home page. In Proceedings Beijing. pp. 305–311. of the 8th International Conference on Sciento- Thelwall, M. (2003) What is this link doing here? Begin- metrics and Informetrics, Sydney 16–20 July 2001. ning a ﬁne-grained process of identifying reasons for Sydney: Bibliometric and Informetric Research academic hyperlink creation. Information Research, Group, UNSW. pp. 63–73. 8 (3 paper no. 151). http://informationr.net/ir/8-3/ Bar-Ilan, J., Peritza, B.C. and Wolman, Y. (2003) A paper151.html survey on the use of electronic databases and elec- Vaughan, L. and Hysen, K. (2002) Relationship between tronic journals accessed through the web by the links to journal Web sites and impact factors. Aslib academic staff of Israeli universities. Journal of Proceedings, 54 (6), 356–361. Academic Librarianship, 29 (6), 346–361. Vaughan, L. and Shaw, D. (2003) Bibliographic and Web Casserly, M. and Bird, J. (2003) Web citation availability: citations: What is the difference? Journal of the analysis and implications for scholarship. College American Society for Information Science and Tech- and Research Libraries, 64 (4), 300–317. nology, 54 (14), 1313–1322. Chu, H. (2003) Reasons for sitation (hyperlinking): what Vaughan, L. and Thelwall, M. (2003) Scholarly use of the do they imply for webometric research? Paper pre- Web: what are the key inducers of links to journal sented at the International Conference on Sciento- Web sites? JASIS, 54 (1), 29–38. metrics and Informetrics, 9th. 25–29 August 2003, Wilkinson, D., Harries, G., Thelwall, M. and Price, L. Beijing. (2003) Motivations for academic web site interlink- Harter, S. P. and Ford, C. E. (2000) Web–based analyses ing: evidence for the web as a novel source of infor- of e-journal impact: approaches, problems, and mation on informal scholarly communication. issues. JASIS, 51 (3), 1159–1176. Journal of Information Science, 29 (1), 49–56.

83 Alastair G. Smith

Appendix: Classiﬁcation of a Sample of Links to LIS E-Journals

E-journal title Classiﬁcation (from Table 1) 1a 1b 1c 1d 2 3a 3b 4 5 Total Ariadne 111101500120 Cybermetrics 100001441020 D-Lib Magazine 63180000220 First Monday 200150200120 Information Research 020110221220 Journal of Digital Information (JoDI) 11071430320 Journal of Electronic Publishing (JEP) 200100310420 Journal of Information, Law and 000100430320 Technology (JILT) LIBRES: Library and Information 000421301020 Science Research Electronic Journal PACS-R: Public Access Computer 210140021020 Systems Review TOTAL LINKS IN CLASS 15 8 2 89 4 47 15 4 16 200 % OF LINKS IN CLASS 7.5 4 1 44.5 2 23.5 7.5 2 8 100

Original paper no. 049 presented at the World Library and Information Congress, 70th IFLA General Conference, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 22–27 August 2004, in session 149, Library and Information Science Journals. English original available on IFLANET at: http://www. iﬂa.org/IV/iﬂa70/prog04.htm.

84 The Manuscript Collections of Europe: a mirror of migration, separation and reuniﬁcation as seen in the Alexander von Humboldt Collection in Berlin

Jutta Weber Habent sua fata libelli. Manuscripts and their creators are subject to the dictates of time. Their fates are not predictable, yet they reﬂect the deeds and misdeeds of history.

The manuscript collections formed in mediaeval monasteries and the migration of monks from one country to another brought wisdom and concrete texts from one monastery to another — all too well known to be retold here. The history of European post- mediaeval culture owes much, if not all, to those whose ‘profession’ it was to separate manuscripts from one collection and integrate them into another. Learning and teaching, the exchange of ideas and texts, are acts of cultural education due, in part, to the migration of handwritten texts.

Our most famous European manuscript collections were created when secular power succeeded to the spiritual and intellectual reign of monastic communities. Emperors, kings, and princes attracted scholars to their courts for the conservation of knowledge of the past. After the migration of mediaeval manuscripts from one monastery to another, there was an intense movement Jutta Weber studied Latin and of men and books. The invention of printing and the growing Romance Languages, with a Doc- interest of the middle class in knowledge and education soon torate in Latin. Since 1982, she caused a worldwide exchange of ideas, which continues to this has worked in the Staatsbiblio- day. The 19th century inquiring mind, the opening of borders and thek zu Berlin, since 1985 in the new means of transport; in the 20th century, two world wars, and Department of Manuscripts as tyranny and expulsion caused migration to an extent not previ- Head of the German Union Cata- ously known. All this is reﬂected in the manuscript collections of logue for Modern Manuscripts libraries and archives worldwide. and Letters. She has been acting as coordinator of the European The life of Alexander von Humboldt is also a story of migration. Union-funded projects MALVINE Born on 14 September 1769 in Berlin, Humboldt started his and LEAF. Since 2004 she has lifelong travels in 1789 when he was registered as student at been Deputy Director of the Göttingen University. From Göttingen, he travelled to Lüttich, Department of Manuscripts of the Brussels, Gent, Amsterdam, Rotterdam, the Isle of Helgoland, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin, Berlin, and on to Saxony where at the Freiberg Bergakademie, responsible for literary archives, he continued his studies. Almost every day of the next few years modern manuscripts and letters. took him yet to another place: as Oberbergmeister, he visited all She is a member of the Standing the small villages of Frankonia. This was followed by a trip to Committee of the IFLA Section on Italy: Rare Books and Manuscripts and editor the Section newsletter. Dr Ich bereite mich jetzt ernsthaft zu einer großen Reise außer- Weber may be contacted at: halb Europas. (Letter to A.G. Werner, 21 December 1796) Deputy Director, Department of Manuscripts, State Library Berlin, After the idea of sailing from Marseille to the northern parts of Potsdamer Str. 33, Berlin 10785, Africa failed, Humboldt ﬁnally received permission from the Germany. Tel. +49 30 266 Spanish king, Charles IV, to go on an expedition to the Spanish 2844. Fax: +49 30 266 colonies. On 5 June 1799, he and his companion Aimé Bonpland 2842. E-mail: jutta.weber@sbb. boarded a ship in La Coruña, and on 16 July, they arrived in spk-berlin.de Cumaná, Venezuela. During the next four years, Humboldt

explored Venezuela by way of the Orinoco River With this reference to Humboldt’s manuscripts and also travelled to Cuba, Colombia, Peru, and that migrated with him to Europe, we shall have Mexico. a look at the literary remnants, manuscripts, documents, books and objects, as well as the In Mexico he learned about the confiscated manuscripts of his scholarly work, correspon- Boturini collection of illustrated manuscripts dence, diaries and reports that constitute the that would hold his interest for a long time: Alexander von Humboldt Collection preserved at the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin. The complete Der größte Teil von Boturinis Handschriften collection comprises more than 100,000 docu- . . . ist von Personen, welche den Wert der- ments and manuscripts. Among these are manu- selben gar nicht kannten, zerrissen, scripts Humboldt found, bought, or collected gestohlen und zerstreut worden, und das, during his travels to South America, Russia and was noch heutzutage im Palast des Siberia, and which he brought back or sent to Vizekönigs davon übrig ist, besteht bloß in Berlin. Many institutions in the countries he drei zusammengebundenen Päckchen. . . . visited still preserve documents that testify to his Man wird ganz unwillig, wenn man die Ver- presence there. His letters are likewise preserved lassenheit sieht, in welcher sich diese kost- in institutions all over the world. baren Überreste einer Sammlung befinden, die soviel Sorgen und Mühe gekostet hat, The Humboldt collection at the Staatsbibliothek und die der unglückliche Boturini mit dem comprises: allen unternehmenden Menschen eigenen Enthusiasmus in der Vorrede zu seinem • Fourteen boxes containing the manuscripts, “Historischen Versuch” “das einzige Gut” different notes, and correspondence concern- nennt, welches er in Indien besitze und das ing the ‘Kosmos,’ and three boxes containing er nicht gegen alles Gold und alles Silber der the correspondence of Alexander von Neuen Welt vertauschen möchte. (Alexan- Humboldt (about 11,000 sheets, which form der von Humboldt, in: Vue des Cordillières) the ‘Nachlaß Alexander von Humboldt,’ purchased by the Staatsbibliothek in 1932). It is well established that the manuscripts • Fifteen boxes containing the papers of Humboldt bought at the auction of papers of the Humboldt (purchased between 1868 and scholar Antonio León y Gama, which took place 1893), now preserved in Krakow. in Mexico in 1803, had been part of the famous • Fourteen Aztec illustrated manuscripts (pur- Boturini Collection. The collection had been chased in 1805). gathered between 1736 and 1742 by the Italian • Some Armenian and Chinese prints and historian and archaeologist Cavaliere Lorenzo manuscripts, and 21 Javanese manuscripts Boturini. The collection, which comprised some (purchased between 1829 and 1843). 500 paintings and manuscripts, included older • Selected books of his private library (pur- items gathered by Alva Ixtlilxochtli and chased between 1860 and 1866). Següenza y Góngora. The collection was • Eight diaries of his journeys and other manu- destroyed by the viceroy’s administration in 1742 scripts (on deposit, private possession). and Boturini was imprisoned, since foreigners were not allowed to possess manuscripts con- The Humboldt collection contains an array of cerning the history of New Spain. Today, 42 of books, manuscripts, letters, documents and these manuscripts are preserved at the Bib- special items that were once part of other collec- lioteca Nacional de Antropología e Historia del tions before he acquired them. They travelled Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia around the world until they reached Berlin, (INAH) in Mexico City. In 1828, Friedrich where they were preserved in Humboldt’s Wilken, director of the Royal Library in Berlin, private library. This is very nicely described in a wrote in his history of the library that, in letter of Humboldt, addressed to the ‘Oberpost- January 1806, a curious collection acquired in direktor zur Hofen in Aachen’, 1851, which the the kingdom of New Spain in the year 1803 was Staatsbibliothek was able to buy some weeks presented to the library by the baron Alexander ago: von Humboldt. Wilken documents thirteen Aztec fragments written in hieroglyphics on . . . Es liegt mir sehr am Herzen, die wichti- paper produced from the fibres of the Agava gen Manuskripte meiner amerikanischen Mexicana and a codex written in similar Reise, die grossen Theils von Bonplands hieroglyphics. Hand sind, recht sicher nach Paris befördern

86 The Manuscript Collections of Europe

zu lassen, weil sie bis zu Bonplands Tode in and to Humboldt’s colourful way of life. In their Verwahrung der Professoren des Jardin des attempt to find out the reasons for what Plantes bleiben sollen. Ich habe sie in ein Humboldt did, where he went, what he saw, and blechernes Kästchen gepackt . . . what he thought, scholars began to draw a more complete picture of his life. The Alexander von Along with his other papers, they eventually Humboldt edition, published by the Berlin- became part of the Humboldt Collection of the Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaft- Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin. en since 1959, has presented interesting and new views on his work and how it influenced later Since almost all books and special collections of scholars’ work. The fact that Humboldt’s papers the Staatsbibliothek were evacuated from Berlin are preserved in such a complete state provides during World War II, the Humboldt Collection a detailed background for this editorial work, was also dispersed for safekeeping in different something that is not always available. parts of the country. One part of the collection was brought to Marburg and stored in the uni- The Humboldt papers, on the other hand, are versity library; it was eventually returned to very fine examples of the migration of manu- Berlin after the war, once a new building for the scripts in modern times. There are several Staatsbibliothek was constructed in West Berlin. reasons why manuscripts may change location: Another part was taken to Silesia and stored in the monastery of Grüssau; some time after the 1. First, there is the acquisition of a collection by war, it was transported to the university library an institution or a private person. of Krakow, where it remains today. The docu- 2. If the collection is acquired by a private ments still owned by the Humboldt family were person, then it may eventually be sold by this taken to Russia after the war and preserved in private person to an institution. the Lenin Library; they were returned to East 3. Once in public ownership, the collection may Berlin in 1957. be moved from one building to another or from one town to another, which is normally Taking into account that both parts of the col- a problem only for those who were used to lection, which were separated in the eastern and having the collection at hand, together with the western parts of Berlin after the war, were the necessary reference works. reunited only when the manuscript collections 4. But moving a collection from one institution from the east were rejoined with those in the to another should not occur. Libraries and west in the new building of the Staatsbibliotek archives are obliged to preserve their collec- zu Berlin in 1997, the Humboldt Collection is a tions forever, which is why those who want particularly fascinating example of migration, their private papers preserved in public insti- separation and reunification of manuscripts. tutions do so. There must be a very special Habent sua fata libelli. reason for moving a collection from one institution to another: institutions should not let Why do libraries and archives collect and this become a normal occurrence. preserve the papers of famous persons? The history of culture and science cannot be written There are also other relevant questions when without knowledge of such letters and manu- talking about the migration of manuscripts. At a scripts, and intellectual life would not be time when art objects reach incredibly high possible were we to stop collecting these prices when sold at auction, manuscripts can remnants of former times. To preserve the also become objects of desire, which creates the content of the papers for a broader public, the following problems. Manuscripts are unique scholarly community started preparing critical objects, which are very closely connected to the editions of famous peoples’ complete works persons who created them, received them (e.g., spanning several hundred years. Scholars from letters), or inherited them: every discipline have been working on their favourite authors; publication of an edition of 1. The value of a collection or of a single manu- their literary texts is the conditio sine qua non script might be regarded as one of a very of an author’s publicity. normal merchandising object: whoever pays the highest price can own it. What is the special importance of the edition of 2. Manuscripts may be acquired by a person or the works of Alexander von Humboldt? I would an institution with the best connections. like to come back to the beginning of my paper 3. The manuscript’s content, which should be of

87 Jutta Weber

primary value, recedes behind its superficial seem to be more stable than in the country from market value and might eventually become which the manuscript was taken? And how lost. could these persons or institutions guarantee secure preservation of the manuscript in the new These and other reasons may be clear enough to place? All these are valid questions, but it is not demonstrate that migration, separation, and what I want to discuss now any further. Times reunification of manuscripts need to be observed change, and the knowledge of what has to be today more closely even than in the past. done for the good of a manuscript also changes or (hopefully) ameliorates during that time. When a mediaeval monk took a manuscript to another monastery to instruct his fellow monks, What happens during and after a war, when discuss what he learned from that manuscript, or manuscripts are removed from a building or a allow its text to be copied, little damage occurred town to a safer place, which in fact turns out to to the actual manuscript. But even though its be not safe enough and from where a new sepa- contents became more widespread, its knowl- ration of the collection starts? Or when a collec- edge remained within the typical scholarly com- tion after the war remains in the new location munity of the monks. and the former owners do not have any lawful means to get the collection back? Or when a col- During the Renaissance, non-monastic scholars lection is scattered all over the world and no found Greek and Roman manuscripts in monas- information exists about its former content? teries copied by mediaeval monks and took it upon themselves to publish their content for dis- These are all common questions regarding the semination to a broader public. They often took European manuscript collections. They are very those manuscripts to their private libraries and difficult questions, and they will become even kept them there. Many of them were destroyed, harder to answer in the near future. Though we but some wound up as part of a public collec- might not be able to find solutions to the tion. Nonetheless, the scholarly intention of problems of former times, we must explore every acquiring knowledge from these manuscripts means to prevent them from happening again. was the reason for collecting and preserving them in the first place. But allow me to come to the last reason for the migration of manuscripts. The sale of manu- In modern times, when scholars like Lorenzo scripts is an event that is well known since the Boturini or Alexander von Humboldt went to early 19th century. We learned that Alexander another part of the world to collect manuscripts von Humboldt bought the Aztec manuscripts at that were by no means known in their own an auction. Who bids the highest receives the lot. countries, we can point out a difference to what But who bought the other manuscripts? Are they we said before: a person coming from another still extant? Where are they to be found? society tries to instil his own knowledge and his own cultural background onto a foreign culture. After speaking about the migration and separa- This might not, in all instances, be detrimental tion of manuscripts, let us now come to the for the manuscripts, since some of them might reunification of manuscripts. Buying as many only survive because a person took them out of manuscripts as possible cannot be the only an unsafe surrounding at a particular moment; reason for our work, as I stated above. It also but in every instance, the manuscript left a place cannot be our only interest to demonstrate our for which it was created and to which it normally might when acquiring manuscripts, which by belonged. history, content, and context do not belong to our institutions. At a time when personal and But what happens when this original location is financial resources are reduced, and when the not secure, when the collection to which the growing technical networks allow for different manuscript belonged is destroyed and when forms of cooperation, it should be possible to even worse conditions are expected to come? avoid the mistakes of our predecessors, which Who can really judge the worse action: the we have complained about ever since. There is person who was not able to prevent the destruc- also another reason why it is high time now to tion of a collection, or the person who tried to act more responsibly: the production of hand- save what could be saved? And what does it written texts, of manuscripts, seems to be coming mean ‘to save’? Saving it for the near future in a to an end very soon. I don’t know whether our country where at that moment the conditions grandchildren will still learn to write by hand

88 The Manuscript Collections of Europe and whether they will learn to read handwritten institutions whose names easily escape our own texts. field of vision. The knowledge of what is kept in libraries of far-away countries is diminishing Before I end my talk, I would like to invite you proportionately to the degree of their distance. to help build an alliance of institutions that Let us use the opportunity of this meeting with prefers to cooperate in regard to the above ques- colleagues from all over the world to start a new tions than to outdo one another in purchasing. beginning. Let us look together to other conti- We cannot turn back the wheels of history, nor nents, whose books and manuscripts are pre- would it be wise to try to do so. There are so served by us but are no longer known in the many unresolved problems, and we would countries from which they came. And vice versa. become very unhappy trying to deal with all of Be curious to learn what the other cultural them. But we can act together in the future. tradition has made of ‘your’ manuscripts, and let There are several conditions that tend to guaran- us show our treasures to one another. tee the success of this enterprise: It is a bold desire to prevent or undo the migra- 1. Technical conditions for the exchange of tion and separation of cultural heritage material. information are better than ever. A transparent demonstration of what is kept in 2. Standards of cataloguing have begun to be our libraries in cooperative databases or accepted widely by many institutions. networks is a good basis for further cooperation. 3. Security in our institutions is becoming What we need is a program that will enable us standard. to use the same standards of description of the 4. Information about our collections is being material in question and a tool that brings standardized. together virtually all those collections that have 5. Search engines and networks provide easy been separated worldwide. I do believe that such access to information about our collections. a tool, be it a network or a combination of 6. Digitized images of our manuscripts can be networks, will help us to overcome virtually the accessed all over the world. separation of collections and will lead us to their 7. The common use of authority data makes our reunification. Coming from a part of the world collections easily searchable. where reunification on the basis of mutual 8. Communication between institutions is better understanding is part of our day-to-day work, I than ever. am confident that such action can be highly suc- 9. Readers can communicate their interests and cessful in our sector. questions directly by e-mail or telephone and receive prompt replies to their information In this respect, the motto of this IFLA congress requests. is highly relevant: Using our resources to make our manuscript collections ‘Tools for Education Why not take advantage of some of the byprod- and Development’ is not simply an invitation to ucts of the information society? History is find new ideas through global cooperation but ruthless concerning people and books, but a promise that we owe our colleagues world- people can follow the tracks of books and, with wide. technical support, make virtually visible today what has been separated in the past. Acknowledgment The most important work of libraries all over the I would like to thank Mr Robert Cammarota for world is to communicate the understanding of his invaluable help with the English version of history and the knowledge of scientific work. In my text. the future, when we become even more successful at eliminating borders, when we cooperate on Original paper no. 077 presented at the World Library projects that show our common cultural and Information Congress, 70th IFLA General Confer- ence, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 22–27 August 2004, in heritage, when we make this visible to each and session 120, Rare Books and Manuscripts. English everyone, then we will be useful not only to original and French and Spanish translations available those whose profession drives them to use our on IFLANET at: http://www.ifla.org/IV/ifla70/prog04 documents, but also to those countries and .htm.

89 REPORT

The Herzogin Anna Amalia Library after the Fire Michael Knoche

More than 900 helpers, fire fighters, technician lost, and to a certain extent 62,000 volumes were teams, Red Cross, employees of the Library and badly damaged by water and fire. This includes of the Foundation of Weimar Classics and Art two-fifths of the books published before 1850, Collections, volunteers from nearby cultural i.e. more than one tenth of the entire collection institutions and from the city government and of the Herzogin Anna Amalia Library. Before the many Weimar citizens worked day and night fire, the book collection counted one million since the fire to evacuate the valuable art works volumes. and tens of thousands of books. It took three days to fully extinguish the flames. Book Restoration A good chance of success is in sight for the damaged library building. One of the most beau- Already during the night of the fire, the first tiful library halls in Germany will be able to be water-soaked books were individually wrapped reconstructed by 2007, the 200th anniversary of and brought to the Centre for Book Main- the death of Duchess Anna Amalia, to whom we tenance in Leipzig to be freeze-dried. During the owe this ‘artwork room’. The second gallery of the next few days, the partly severely charred and rococo hall and the roof above it no longer exist, dampened codices salvaged from the burned but the building itself, declared part of the building were sent to the freezing facilities. This UNESCO World Heritage, will be able to be was the saddest and most difficult part of the stabilized and restored, thanks to intelligent fire clean up work, keeping librarians, restorers and fighting. Fortunately, a team of architects and volunteers busy for days, during which they specialized planners had already been formed in excellently mastered the task. It was a race preparation for the renovation and could be con- against time, because mildew can grow as early sulted during the night of the fire. The additional as 24 hours after wetness sets in. The 28,000 expenses due to the fire in the building already in objects rescued from the charred remains will need of renovation remain on a realistic scale. only be partly restorable. As soon as an exact The financers from the national and state govern- analysis is possible, it will become apparent in ment gave their permission to start the planning which books the amount of text lost is too large, phase on 29 September 2004, after private donors only fragments of books were left, or the attempt had also pledged their support. The first compli- to replace the loss would be more sensible than cated task is to dry out the building, into which restoration. That means that at some later time, water commensurate with twice the amount of the estimated number of 50,000 books totally annual precipitation soaked. The rococo hall will lost will have to be increased. reappear in old, not new splendour. The rescue, cleaning and drying of the damaged The 35 oil paintings with ducal portraits from books went very well, thanks to the excellent the 16th to the 18th century in the 2nd Gallery cooperation of all involved. They will be are irreplaceable. Solely the ceiling painting by returned to Weimar bit-by-bit during the course Johann Heinrich Meyer ‘Genius of Fame’ after of one year and stored in a rented temporary Annibale Carracci will be replaced by a copy. magazine. There, because of the deformed The material damage, even the damage done to covers of the books, the volumes will be laid flat the other art works by water from fire hoses, will on the shelves rather than stood upright. Any fortunately be covered by insurance. remaining bad smell can evaporate, if possible at all, and they can be individually examined. All The heaviest damage was done to the books: damaged objects must first be found in the cata- 50,000 volumes have been counted as completely logues of the library, because at present no one

Copyright © 2005 International Federation of Library Associations & Institutions (www.iﬂa.org). IFLA Journal 31(1): 90–92. 90 ISSN: 0340-0352. DOI: 10.1177/0340035205052652 The Herzogin Anna Amalia Library

The Rococo Hall of the Herzogin Anna Amalia The Night of the 2nd September 2004 (photo- Library before the fire (photograph: Stiftung graph: Maik Schuck). Weimarer Klassik und Kunstsammlungen, S. Geske). Anna Amalia’s (1739–1807) culturally and historically significant music collection, dating from can say for sure which books were destroyed by the 18th and 19th century including 2,100 music the fire and which were damaged and will be books and over 700 music manuscripts. Large returned. A new data bank will be compiled to parts of the universal scholarly library of the first document and classify the damages. This expert Library Director, Konrad Samuel Schurzfleisch task will last well into 2006. Only then can the (1641–1708) must also be written off. Further- restoration begin on a large scale, apart from more, many texts written by members of the several pieces demanding immediate attention. ‘Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft’ (The Fruitful Part of the restoration can be done in the Society), the first German academy founded in library’s own workshop for book restoration and 1617 in Weimar, and large parts of the collection conservation or in workshops of partner of Balthasar Friedrich von Logau (1645–1702) libraries, and part will be commissioned to third from Breslau (Silesia), including beautiful parties. The restoration of the 62,000 books is a editions of baroque literature, were burned. One challenge that will occupy the library for more of the most complete series of Jean Paul prints than ten years. was located in the middle of where the fire raged. The immediate care of the books up to the drying stage was possible with the help of the The older a book, the more unique its outer state of Thuringia and above all due to the fast appearance (e.g. cover, colouring) and its indi- and generous immediate help of the national vidual history, which is often recognizable (e.g. government. The German Research Association exlibris or marginalia of a previous owner). A (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) also made score from Anna Amalia’s music collection or a generous help available. However, the subse- volume from Conrad Samuel Schurzfleisch’s col- quent individual restoration will only be possible lection on the early modern period is more with private support. For that purpose, a sum valuable and more important for the history of estimated at almost 20 million Euros will be the library than the same volume from any other needed. Therefore, donations, however modest, origin. Therefore, restoration will always be pre- from third parties are very welcome. To date, 8 ferred, as long as the difference in cost in com- million Euros have been donated by 15,000 indi- parison to replacement is not too high. The viduals, businesses and foundations, and have private donations are to be used primarily for been collected by benefit events, and school book restoration. projects, the sale of publications, by bets, art auctions and penalty fees. The 35,000 volumes lost to the flames are most likely replaceable. In addition, there were 27,000 books severely damaged by the fire. On the Compensation for Losses average, each book will cost EUR 800. The replacement process will take many years. It has Total losses occurred among works dating from been an enormous help that book lovers and the 16th to 20th centuries, in particular from the libraries throughout the world have offered to 17th and 18th centuries. These include Duchess contribute a title to the Herzogin Anna Amalia 91 Michael Knoche

Library that they have found in the data bank of magazine, which is between the old and the new losses (http://www.anna-amalia-bibliothek.de). libraries. The fund ‘Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft’ (Fruitful Society), which was furnished with a The preparations for the institution of the new generous initial amount of money by the research centre continue: 100,000 volumes, Deutsche Bank, is to be built up by further dona- sorted according to subject areas, will be avail- tions and the interest earned will be used to able there, directly accessible from the shelves, purchase of new volumes. as well as 130 modern work places for use by researchers. The planned opening in February Nevertheless, it is impossible to reconstruct the 2005 will be on time. From this time on, the collection on a one-to-one basis. This is out of service for local readers as well as interlibrary the question as far as unique pieces of the music loan will be resumed. The working conditions in collection and the essays from the 17th century the new research centre will reflect the standard with handwritten comments are concerned. But of a 21st century research library. it is also doubtful whether replacements can be found for many printed works, which are very The Herzogin Anna Amalia Library was seri- rare or particularly of regional provenance. Who ously damaged by the largest library fire in could furnish replacement copies of the four- Germany since World War II. However, we must page discourse ‘Von der Tröstung der sterben- not forget that the largest part of the valuable denn Menschen’ (About the Comforting of collection was left untouched. That includes the Dying People) by Wolff Stöckel from 1525, or medieval autographs, the early autograph the ‘Nothwendige und nützliche Ordnung, wie albums, incunabula (early printed books dating es mit dem Jagen und allem Weidewerg gehalten from before 1500), the globes and 10,000 maps werden solle’ (Necessary and useful rules for from the 16th to the 19th centuries, the largest hunting and the care of grazing animals) written Faust collection in the world, the Shakespeare by the Counts of Schwarzburg and Hohnstein library, Nietzsche’s private library, the libraries from 1623? In the long term, it would be more of Liszt, the von Arnim family or Georg Haar, feasible to purchase complete, specialized col- and the main core collection of the classical lections of similar value, which correspond to period, etc. In this case, the fact that the collec- the emphases of the old collection, rather than tion had been stored in various temporary loca- requiring the replacement of each and every lost tions was a stroke of luck. Even the original book. This would be especially desirable in the building was not lost. The fire did not touch its area of baroque literature, which is so important additions or the library tower at all. Hundreds of for the profile of the library. art works were evacuated from of the rococo hall in time.

View Forwards Everything that was rescued and brought into safety will enable us to hold fast to the concept The fire was also responsible for the fact that of the library as a research library for literature about 40 offices for librarians are temporarily and cultural history with an emphasis on not usable. New offices in diverse buildings of German literature from the Enlightenment to the Foundation of Weimar Classics and Art Col- the Late Romantic period. In the future, the lections (Stiftung Weimarer Klassik und Kunst- Herzogin Anna Amalia Library will be able to sammlungen) had to be sought. The logistics of fulfil its function of being a living monument book transport from house to house and the and an active library. The thread of cultural infrastructure between colleagues had to be re- transmission will be newly tied to future gener- designed. This kind of inconvenience is easier to ations. shoulder, knowing the long-planned addition to the library, which is connected to the original About the author building underground, will be finished in a few weeks. The underground magazine, which Dr. Michael Knoche is Direktor der Herzogin Anna belongs to that, was opened in advance so it Amalia Bibliothek, Stiftung Weimarer Klassik und could be utilized during the night of the fire for Kunstsammlungen, Postfach 2012, D-99401 the storage of the undamaged books evacuated Weimar, Platz der Demokratie 4, 99423 Weimar, from of the library. At present, over 900,000 Germany. Tel. /3643/545200, Fax -220. E-mail: books from the various temporary magazines [email protected]. Website: http://www.anna- have been moved into the underground amalia-bibliothek.de/en/presse.html

92 NEWS

Tsunami News

NEWS CONTENTS We urge, further, that members of quake hit the Sri Lankan coast the Federation, who have informa- around 9.45 a.m. (Sri Lankan time). Tsunami News ...... 93 tion on needs or have the means to In some areas in Sri Lanka the killer IFLA Policies and help in kind and materially do so waves had travelled as far as 5 kilo- Programmes ...... 94 and share information through metres inland and sucked in almost From the Secretariat ...... 96 IFLA-L, to facilitate IFLA every thing standing in its way. It is Membership ...... 97 members’ appreciation of assistance estimated that over one million From the Divisions and required and development of co- people in the country have been Sections ...... 99 ordinated strategies for long term affected by this phenomenal Future IFLA Conferences. . . . 101 assistance. tragedy. Grants and Awards...... 102 IFLA Publications ...... 103 IFLA will be reminding inter- Amidst this catastrophe a large From other Organizations . . . 103 national organizations of the impor- number of school libraries, com- Other Publications ...... 106 tance of rapidly re-establishing munity libraries, children libraries, library services in order build com- public libraries, libraries belong to munity confidence and provide the religious institutions and a large necessary information to assist number of private/home libraries in IFLA President’s Message reconstruction, health services and the affected areas either have either education. We encourage national been completely destroyed or library associations in major donor severely affected. In this hour of The following message was sent to countries to urge aid organizations calamity the National Library and IFLA members on 30 December to support the early restoration of Documentation Services Board 2004 by Kay Raseroka, IFLA Presi- library services. (NLDSB) of Sri Lanka seeks assis- dent: tance from the international com- Kay Raseroka munity and especially from the Colleagues in tsunami affected IFLA President IFLA members to reconstruct/ countries: 30 December 2004 repair the damaged libraries and the restoration of the damaged books On behalf of the members of the and other library material. International Federation of Library Sri Lankan Libraries Need Associations and Institutions, Urgent Assistance please accept our heartfelt condo- According to the preliminary esti- lences and sympathy at this time of mates the damage to the buildings devastation, loss of life and utter Sri Lanka plunged in to crisis as and to the other infrastructure facil- destruction that you are experienc- giant tidal waves lashed the south- ities is huge and the donations in the ing as citizens of the countries ern, northern, and eastern coasts of form of either library material or affected by the tsunami/sea surge the country causing over 12,000 financial assistance are sought disaster. deaths and massive lost of property. from the international library community. As the Federation, we request our The sudden rise in sea-level, a members to heed the urgent appeals phenomenon known as tsunami, Monetary donations can be sent to for help and contribute in any way had been unleashed by a massive the NLDSB account no. 0025162 possible, through the national earthquake measured at 8.9 Richter 0073963 at the Peoples Bank, Park and/or international relief efforts scale, near northern Sumatra, Street Branch, Colombo, Sri Lanka. that are being mobilized throughout Indonesia at 6.58 a.m. (Sri Lankan the world. Library and information time) on Sunday 26th December For further details please contact: services specific needs for conserva- 2004. Upali Amarasiri, Director General, tion, preservation and restoration NLDSB, 14, Independence Avenue, will no doubt engage IFLA According to the US Geological Colombo 7. Sri Lanka. Website members urgently and for months to survey this was the fifth largest www.natlib.lk, www.lankapage.com. come as soon as information is quake for a century and the biggest E-mail: [email protected]. Tel. +94 received through various communi- for 40 years. A wall of water as high 11 2687581, Facsimile: +94 11 cation channels. as 50 feet triggered by the earth- 2685201.

Many thanks in advance for your Sri Lanka Disaster tsunami after completion of a survey support. Management Committee of the damage.

W.A. Abeysinghe, Chairman This is now nearly complete Following the recent tsunami disas- National Library and Documenta- despite the many difficulties ter, UNESCO, IFLA and a number tion Services Board, Sri Lanka. occasioned by damaged roads and of Sri Lankan organizations, with the missing bridges and debris every- assistance of the National Library where and more recently flooding Upali Amarasiri, Director General, and Documentation Centre, have from the monsoon rains. National Library and Documenta- formally established the Sri Lanka tion Centre and National Library Disaster Management Committee A primary aim will be to take the and Documentation Services for Libraries, Information Services opportunities provided by the disas- Board, Sri Lanka. and Archives (SL DMC for LISA). trous tidal waves, three in all, to move forward and develop libraries and It comprises representatives from information services appropriate to Division VIII Support the National Library and Documen- the Information Society. Lists of tation Services Board, the Depart- requirements are nearly ready and ment of National Archives, Sri these will be agreed at a meeting on IFLA/Division VIII joins the Lanka Library Association, the Monday (10th of January 2005) after National Library and Documenta- National Institute for Library and which it is intended to be very specific tion Services of Sri Lanka (NLDSB) Information Sciences, National in the requests for monies, library fur- in requesting IFLA community and Science Foundation, from the Min- niture and equipment, IT equipment, the World as a whole to come to the istries of Culture, Education and books and AV and other materials aid of Libraries in the areas affected Higher Education and from and also advice and expertise. by the Tsunami disaster. Any assis- UNESCO and IFLA. tance in terms of books, ideas or The list will be widely publicized messages of comfort would be of In draft already are a Constitu- and is available on IFLANET: great help to the professional com- tion, Objectives and an Action Plan. http://www.ifla.org/V/press/tsuna munity in the affected areas. mi04.htm. The DMC for LISA’s primary aim Jacinta Were, Chair, Division VIII. will be to rehabilitate libraries, Russell Bowden E-mail: [email protected] OR archives and information services Honorary Fellow of IFLA [email protected]. destroyed or damaged by the Kottawa, Sri Lanka.

IFLA Policies and Programmes

information services in society and ent and not mutually exclusive. IFLA’s Three Pillars: the contextual issues that condition They offer a way of understanding Society, Members and and constrain the environment in and presenting IFLA holistically to Profession which they operate across the world. the library and information sector and to governments and the wider The Profession Pillar focuses on community. Meeting during the World Library the issues covered by the long estab- and Information Congress, 71st lished Core Activities and the Sec- Adapted from a statement issued by IFLA General Conference, in tions and Divisions. They lie at the Kay Raseroka, IFLA President, and Buenos Aires, Argentina, in August core of professional practice and Alex Byrne, IFLA President Elect, 2004, the Governing Board of IFLA help libraries and information serv- on 10 December 2004. decided to endorse a new model for ices to fulﬁl their purposes and to IFLA’s operations, the three pillars, shape responses to the needs of which recognizes that IFLA’s core clients in a rapidly changing global functions relate to the societal con- The IFLA position on the environment. texts in which libraries and informa- Geneva Declaration on tion services operate, IFLA’s the Future of WIPO membership and professional The Members Pillar is central to matters. These three pillars are sup- IFLA. It includes the services ported by the infrastructure offered offered to members, management of IFLA has joined several hundred by IFLA HQ, IFLANET and the their membership of IFLA, confer- other non-governmental organiza- Federation’s governance structures. ences and publications. tions and individuals in signing the Geneva Declaration on the Future The Society Pillar focuses on the All three pillars and the under- of the World Intellectual Prop- role and impact of libraries and lying infrastructure are interdepend- erty Organization issued on 29

94 IFLA Policies and Programmes

September 2004 (see ‘From other IFLA proclaims the fundamental provision and accessing of informa- Organizations’, below, for the full right of human beings both to access tion, which negatively affects educa- text of the Declaration. — Ed.). and to express information without tion, research and development, not restriction. IFLA and its worldwide only in developed countries but IFLA has taken this action membership support, defend and more specifically, in developing because IFLA’s core values include promote intellectual freedom as countries. Efforts to develop new the “belief that people, communities expressed in the United Nations protections for databases contain- and organizations need universal Universal Declaration of Human ing facts and other public domain and equitable access to information, Rights. This intellectual freedom material are especially troubling. ideas and works of imagination for encompasses the wealth of human their social, educational, cultural, knowledge, opinion, creative democratic and economic well- thought and intellectual activity. 3. Technological protection being.” measures IFLA asserts that a commitment The WIPO Copyright Treaty states to intellectual freedom is a core Furthermore, IFLA’s professional “the need to introduce new inter- responsibility of the library and priorities call for IFLA to assume “a national rules and clarify the inter- information profession worldwide, dual responsibility, both to the pro- pretation of certain existing rules in expressed through codes of ethics ducers of intellectual property and order to provide adequate solutions and demonstrated through practice. to libraries as representatives of to the questions raised by new information users, because safe- economic, social, cultural and tech- IFLA therefore urges WIPO to guarding and providing access to nological developments.” IFLA address the following important products of the mind are fundamen- believes that educational and issues, as a matter of urgency, tal to the growth of knowledge.” developmental needs have not been guided by the principles articulated sufficiently taken into account in by James Boyle: While IFLA recognizes and finding appropriate solutions. applauds recent moves by WIPO that may respond to these profes- 1. The imbalance in More restrictive intellectual prop- sional imperatives — such as a new intellectual property laws erty laws, technological protection focus on adequate protection of tra- mechanisms and digital locking-up ditional knowledge and the needs of The preamble of the WIPO Copy- devices, as well as the overriding of the print disabled, and greater open- right Treaty succinctly states “the permitted ‘fair use’ applications ness to NGOs like IFLA that repre- need to maintain a balance between by contractual enforcement, have sent the public interest — the the rights of authors and the larger created serious barriers to accessing Declaration rightly points out to public interest, particularly educa- information and promoting WIPO and its member states that tion, research and access to infor- research and innovation. WIPO has thus far inadequately mation, as reflected in the Berne protected and promoted the balance Convention”. IFLA is particularly concerned between users and owners that is that the legitimate professional fundamental to effective intellectual IFLA is fully supportive of this activities of libraries are being seri- property regimes. statement. However, the balance has ously hampered in the process. become distorted, at the expense of IFLA therefore hopes that the consumers of information. IFLA, Declaration will bring to WIPO’s therefore, urges WIPO to address 4. The digital divide widens attention a number of important the issues affecting the delicate The chasm between the “digitally issues that have serious implications balance between just demands of advanced” and “digitally deprived” for education, libraries and other rights-owners and consumers of continues to widen. Sophisticated providers of information. information. Of particular concern intellectual property laws and tech- is the ever-lengthening extension of nological transfer to developing Freedom, prosperity and the copyright terms, which is rapidly countries have in many ways exac- development of society and of indi- diminishing the public domain in erbated the problems related to viduals are fundamental human order to benefit the owners of a tiny access to information and develop- values. They will be attained only minority of works that are still being ment. Developing countries are through the ability of well-informed exploited commercially. being expected to adhere to very citizens to exercise their democratic strict international agreements, rights and to play an active role in 2. Monopoly on information which developed countries did not society. Constructive participation have to, when they were in the and the development of democracy The monopolization of information developing stage. Technological depend on satisfactory education as via restrictive intellectual property activity consists mainly of learning well as on free and unlimited access rules in both the print and digital to use, maintain, sustain and to knowledge, thought, culture and environments, by rights owners, has advance imported technologies, at a information. led to a serious imbalance in the high price, rather than encouraging

95 News

innovation and independence at the a totally new approach to intellec- Glasgow Declaration on Libraries, domestic level in developing coun- tual property worldwide, taking into Information Services and Intellec- tries. Current international copy- account the very different needs of tual Freedom. http://www.ifla.org/ right rules are therefore fostering developed and developing coun- faife/policy/iflastat/gldeclar.html. the dependence of developing countries. IFLA supports the Proposal of tries on advanced countries rather Argentina and Brazil for a “Devel- than bridging the divide. opment Agenda” at WIPO. Boyle, James. A manifesto on WIPO and the future of intellectual prop- Intellectual property laws need to erty. Duke Law and Technology 5. Free Trade Agreements be reviewed at the international and Review, 0009: http://www.law.duke. IFLA is concerned that some devel- domestic level to ensure appropriate edu/journals/dltr/articles/2004dltr oped countries are imposing stricter laws for countries at different stages 0009.html. copyright laws on other countries, of development. These laws must which far exceed the minimum facilitate access to knowledge, requirements of the Berne Conven- advance innovation, accelerate Further information: Winston tion and the TRIPS Agreement. development and restore the Tabb, Chair, IFLA Committee on Many developing countries find it balance between the just demands Copyright and other Legal Matters extremely difficult to adhere to of rights-owners and consumers. (CLM), Dean of University current international intellectual Libraries and Sheridan Director, property agreements. Now they are Links Johns Hopkins University, The having to adopt even stricter copy- Sheridan Libraries, 3400 N right regimes, in exchange for favor- The Geneva Declaration on the Charles Street, Baltimore, Mary- able trade provisions, but are being Future of WIPO. http://www.future land 21218-2683, United States. set up for failure as they will not be ofwipo.org/. Tel. +(1)(410) 5168328. Fax able to honour these agreements. +(1)(410) 5165080. E-mail: UNESCO Public Library Manifesto. [email protected]. URL: http://www. IFLA therefore urges WIPO and 1994. http://www.ifla.org/VII/s8/ ifla.org/III/clm/CLM-GenevaDec the WTO to work together to adopt unesco/manif.htm. laration2004.html.

From the Secretariat

Librarian and Chief Executive Resignation of IFLA Appointment of New Ofﬁcer of the National Library of Secretary General Secretary General South Africa, which was formed in November 1999 by the amalgama- tion of the State Library with the It is with great regret that IFLA IFLA is delighted to announce the South African Library. In addition, announces that the Secretary appointment of its new Secretary he has served on the boards of General, Mr R. Ramachandran, has General, Professor Peter Johan Lor, directors of a number of non-proﬁt resigned for personal reasons effec- who will assume the position on 15 tive 31 December 2004. IFLA is February 2005. very grateful to him for his service to the Federation during his tenure of Professor Lor currently holds the the post. post of Professor Extraordinary at the Department of Information Drawing on his wide experience Science, University of Pretoria, gained during a distinguished career South Africa. Born in the Nether- in librarianship in Singapore and lands, Peter emigrated to South Southeast Asia, Mr Ramachandran Africa where he studied at the brought new perspectives to IFLA universities of Stellenbosch and which have enhanced the planning Pretoria — later studying at Caen in processes. France. Following appointments as University Librarian at the Uni- versity of Bophuthatswana, Assis- IFLA wishes Mr Ramachandran tant Director of the State Library, well in his future endeavours and Pretoria, and Professor in the thanks him for his contributions to University of South Africa’s Depart- global librarianship. ment of Library and Information Science, Peter Lor was the Director Kay Raseroka, IFLA President of the State Library. He sub- 22 December 2004 sequently became the National

96 Membership

foundations, including the boards of Peter Lor was actively involved in ant, just and cooperative world SABINET (the South African developing policy for library and community.” Bibliographic and Information Net- information services for post- work), the Foundation for Library apartheid South Africa and played a Welcoming the appointment, and Information Services Develop- leading role in the formation of the IFLA President Kay Raseroka said ment (as its Executive Director), Library and Information Associa- from Gaborone, Botswana that she and the Book Development tion of South Africa (LIASA), a new, is delighted that IFLA has secured a Foundation. He also serves on the inclusive organization that replaced professional colleague of such high Executive of the Pretoria Citizens’ the former separate associations. calibre to ﬁll the important post of Advice Bureau. He regards this as one of his biggest Secretary General: and most satisfying professional Professor Lor has been a very achievements. IFLA’s participation in the active contributor to IFLA and cur- World Summit on the Informa- rently chairs the Advisory Board of Professor Lor brings this wealth tion Society has demonstrated IFLA’s Action for Development of administrative, academic and the major contribution that through Libraries Programme (ALP) association experience to the post of libraries and information serv- and the interim standing committee Secretary General. He believes pas- ices make to society. Through its of IFLA’s Section of Library and sionately that good libraries are services to members and its Information Science Journals. He essential for the quality of life of strong professional programs, chaired the Conference of Directors individuals and communities. When coupled with engagement in of National Libraries from 1996 to accepting the appointment, Peter public policy arenas, IFLA 2000 and has served as a member of stated that he is “thrilled to serve works to create a more the International Advisory Commit- IFLA as Secretary General because informed, just and safer world; tee of the Council on Library and IFLA has a unique role to empower to preserve heritage; to support Information Resources, Washington library and information profession- education and research; and to DC. From 1996 to 1998 he was vice- als. Individually and through our promote democratic participa- chairperson of the Standing Con- organizations we enable participation and tolerance. As Secretary ference of African National and tion by all in the knowledge society General, Peter Lor will help us University Libraries in Eastern, and we make an essential contribu- inﬂuence international agendas Central and Southern Africa. tion to building an informed, toler- for the good of humanity.

Membership

Metropolitan Ervin Szabo Library, Tony McSeàn, United Kingdom New Members Hungary Frederick Augustyn, United States National Library of Indonesia/ Eswara Reddy Deva, United States IFLA is very pleased to welcome the Perpustakaan Nasional RI., Kazim Mirza, United States following 31 new members, who Indonesia Ms Tonyia Tidline, United States joined our community between 17 Università Commerciale Luigi Clay Williams, United States August and 31 December 2004. Bocconi, Biblioteca, Italy Biblioteca del Congreso, Mexico National Library of Thailand, Student Afﬁliates National Association Thailand Nottingham Trent University, United Ms Shawna Sadler, Canada Association Nationale des Informa- Kingdom Mac-Nelson Korbla Kumadey, tistes, Morocco Ghana Baltazar Macamo, Mozambique One-person Resource Centres John Davis, United States Ms Jennifer Madden, United States Institutions European Centre for Development Craig Martin, United States Österreichische Akademie der Policy Management, Netherlands Wissenschaften, Bibliothek und Archiv, Austria Personal Afﬁliates Changes to the National Hainan University Library, China Association membership Municipal Library Prague, Czech Ms Samira Hassan, Australia category Republic Berthelet Siewe Tchouake, Lyngby-Taarbæk Kommunes Bib- Cameroon lioteker, Denmark Ms Agnès Macquin, France Following the approval by the IFLA Bibliothèque municipale du Lyon, Julio Anjos, Portugal Membership for changes to this France Ms Debbie Ann Quintana, Puerto membership category, current IFLA Hellenic American Union, Greece Rico National Association members have 97 News

now entered a transition period nominations and elections. The potential new association members regarding changes to their fees, changes will be implemented in should be directed to Kelly Moore at voting rights, and free Section allo- advance of the 2006 invoices. The IFLA HQ. cations. new number of voting rights will come into effect for any voting pur- For existing members: All poses taking place after September New Membership National Associations must now 2005. Category: Other provide their total operating Associations expenses (in their local currency) National Association members for each of the three years should note that transitional fees for 2001–2003. For determining each 2005–2007 will not be subject to The new category, approved by Association’s fee, the three figures annual inflation-related increases; Council, is now open to applicants. will be averaged and converted to but fees for additional section regis- Euros; this will determine the trations and handling charges will Members of this category may appropriate band for the fee. Please be subject to these increases. include any associations which do refer to the chart below for rates. not fit either the International Associ- The difference between the fee A default rate for 2005 has been ations or National Associations under the old system and the new set for National Associations who category. It is intended to allow sub- fee, either increase or decrease, will have not supplied the requested national (ie. provincial/state) associ- be phased in over the next three operating expenses information. ations to join membership. years. This rate will be the association’s 2004 fee plus 20%. The fees for this category will be The chart shown below indicates banded into 3 levels, using the same the corresponding voting rights and For potential members: Any banding divisions as currently exist section allocations which will apply National Associations joining after for Institutional and International to the National Associations in each August 2004 will be subject to the Association members. These are of the fee bands. However, because new system of fees. They will need based on the UNESCO Scale of we are in an election period for to provide information regarding Assessment and the United Nations 2005, it is not possible to implement their operating expenses for List of Least Developed Countries. these changes at this time. There- 2001–2003, in local currency. Their fore, each association’s current fee, voting rights, and Section allo- For those Other Associations number of votes and Section regis- cation will be determined according based in countries whose UNESCO trations will apply for the 2005 to the new bands. Questions from figure is 0.251 or higher, the fee is

Operating expenses Fee (euros) (euros) Votes Free sections less than 10 000 200 10 2 + Management of Library Associations Section and appropriate Regional Section 10 000–25 000 220 10 2 + 25 000–50 000 300 10 2 + 50 000–100 000 650 20 4 + 100 000–250 000 1000 20 4 + 250 000–500 000 2000 20 4 + 500 000–750 000 3000 30 8 + 750 000–1 000 000 5000 30 8 + 1 000 000–3 000 000 7000 30 8 + 3 000 000–7 000 000 10000 40 16 + 7 000 000–10 000 000 15000 40 16 + more than 10 000 000 20000 40 16 + The New Bands.

98 From the Divisions and Sections

EUR 450. For those in countries of benefits, and the termination of or other publications issued, and whose figure is between 0.001 and membership for members in they will not be able to exercise 0.250, the fee is EUR 340. For those arrears with their dues. The voting rights. in the countries on the UN list, the changes will come into effect as of • For members in arrears, a final fee is EUR 200. January 2006. reminder will be sent in early October, stating that the member- Each Other Association will have Membership will be confined to ship will be terminated if the fee is 2 votes. They may join 2 sections the year for which the fee has been not paid by end of year. free of charge, in addition to auto- paid, and the date of invoicing will • A list of members in arrears will be matic registration in the Manage- be moved from November to brought to the Governing Board ment of Library Associations January. for their December 2006 meeting Section and, if appropriate, the rele- and will be proposed for deletion; vant Regional Section (Africa, Asia The invoicing and administration however, any member who pays & Oceania, Latin America & the procedure will be as follows: between the time of that meeting Caribbean). and the end of year will be • Invoices for 2006 membership removed from this deletion list. The application form, section reg- will be sent in January 2006 • A final letter notifying members of istration form, and full details of (instead of the previous Nov- their deletion will be sent early the benefits of membership in this ember). January 2007. category are available on the • When the fee has been paid, • Any former Member or Affiliate membership pages of IFLANET members will receive a receipt of who wishes to return to member- . payment. They will automatically ship after they have been deleted receive an invoice in January 2007 will be subject to a re-joining fee. for that year’s fee. Changes to Invoicing • Two reminder invoices for 2006 Procedures for All will be sent as necessary: the first All questions about IFLA member- Members in mid-April, the second in early ship should be directed to: June. • Benefits will be suspended for Kelly Moore, Membership Manager, The IFLA Governing Board, at its members who have not paid their IFLA Headquarters, Box 95312, December 2004 meeting, approved invoice by 30 June 2006; after this 2509 CH The Hague, Netherlands. a proposal to change some of the date, unpaid members would be Tel: +31–70–3140884. Fax: +31– procedures for the issuing of considered to be ‘in arrears’. They 70–3834827. Email: kelly.moore@ annual invoices, the administration will not receive the IFLA Journal ifla.org.

From the Divisions and Sections

actual audience served may be Marketing and PR Government Libraries broader than only government. Financial, technology, and material resources. The Government Libraries Standing The Committee selected 15 areas Committee has taken on the task of as the preliminary topics of the The Committee plans to have a writing Guidelines for Government guidelines. They are: first draft to present in Oslo. Input Libraries. The Guidelines Committee from interested people is welcome. is composed of people from seven Government typologies Please contact Nancy Bolt at nancy countries and from three IFLA Sec- Functions related to the political [email protected]. tions. In addition to the Government authority Libraries Section there is also partic- Cooperation A complete documentation of the ipation from the Government Infor- Functions for users one-day offsite workshop organized mation and Official Publications Access to information by the IFLA Section of Government Section and the Library and Research Preservation and permanent access Libraries and co-hosted by the Services for Parliaments Section. Common management practices German Federal Ministry of the Advocacy for role of libraries Interior and the Federal Foreign The Committee has defined a Protecting privacy Office in Berlin 2003, ‘German government library as: Organization across department government libraries since unifica- lines tion — experiences and perspec- Any library that is created by Meeting needs of staff tives’, edited in cooperation with the government to serve govern- Dissemination of government publi- IFLA Section of Government ment with the primary audience cations Libraries, has been published in being government although the Staffing and personnel Germany in March 2004 as

99 News

‘Parlaments- und Behördenbiblio- • conferences and workshops offering new services to the theken international: Der Weltkon- • sharing case studies and best prac- emerging generation of users gress Bibliothek und Information in tice examples • Singapore’s New National Berlin 2003.’ Arbeitsgemeinschaft • improving the measures of per- Library Building (NNLB), a flag- der Parlaments- und Behörden- formance ship building due for completion bibliotheken, 2204, 76 S., Illustr. • presentation of advanced informa- in 2005, which will also be an arts (APBB-Arbeitshefte 55). tion technologies for the exchange and cultural venue of knowledge and experience in an • the relationship between the New organizational context South Wales State Library and the Knowledge Management • setting up a virtual discussion Public Library Network, plus the group and home page/portal major issues facing planners of public library buildings, including The keen interest that the IFLA The existing KM Discussion List ecologically sustainable develop- community has shown in Knowl- functions as the main communica- ment (ESD) edge Management (KM) over the tion channel within the Section, • an update on key library develop- past few years led to the transforma- [email protected]. Admission ments in the United Kingdom tion of the Knowledge Management to the list is free. To subscribe go to • the use of Information Architec- Discussion Group into a Section in http://infoserv.inist.fr/wwsympa.fc ture techniques in Pittsburgh to 2004. We hope that this interest will gi/info/kmdg-l. Then click on make libraries more user-friendly continue and our activities will “Subscribe” and enter your e-mail • a Reading Promotion program attract many members for this new address and follow the rest of the where the Houston library asked Section of IFLA. instructions. Visit our homepage on everyone to read the same book at IFLANET to get a fuller picture of the same time and to come The Section will provide an inter- the Knowledge Management together to discuss it national platform for professional Section’s work, http://www.ifla. • the Core Competencies of infor- communication — directed to org/VII/s47/index.htm mation professionals in fusion increase the awareness of knowl- libraries edge management and to meet the Irene Wormell • how Hong Kong Public Libraries need for a deeper understanding of evolved to meet growing needs for its many dimensions and relevance information, lifelong learning, to library and information science Metropolitan Libraries cultural enrichment and recre- professionals. By tracking the devel- Section — 2004 ation — particularly the role of opments of the field, the Section will Conference technology facilitate the practical implementa- • a Hub for Cooperation and tion of knowledge management Exchange: how Paris public within the IFLA community. The The 2004 Conference and mid-term libraries exchange information new Section will support the devel- meeting of the Metropolitan and cooperate with other libraries opment and implementation of a Libraries Section took place in the within the city and region of Paris knowledge management culture in vibrant city-state of Singapore, 26 • the Congress of Southeast Asian libraries and information centres. September–1 October, well attended Librarians (CONSAL): coopera- and with great success. The host and tion among the current member- Since the KM area encompasses organizer was the National Library ship from Brunei, Cambodia, many dimensions of the organiza- Board Singapore (NLB). With an Laos, Philippines, Singapore, tional management, the activities of attendance of 43, the delegates rep- Malaysia, Indonesia, Vietnam, the Section are intended to be inte- resented 29 metropolitan library Thailand and Myanmar. grated and linked to other relevant services from 18 countries in Asia, Sections and divisions of IFLA and Australia, Europe and the US. There These ten presentations, plus to other professional organizations. were also 18 very welcome local the conference Programme and The aim is to provide both theoreti- participants from various library Summary, with a selection of photo- cal and practical knowledge in services in Singapore. graphs taken by Tomas Rehak, focused areas of knowledge man- Director of the Municipal Library of agement, which will be accom- Presentations and papers were Prague, are on the Section’s web plished by: given by speakers from NLB and pages at http://www.ifla.org/VII/ from among the participants. Topics s46/index.htm (click on Annual • disseminating the results of rele- included: Conference Reports .2004 Singa- vant research pore), or via the IFLANET What’s • education and training pro- • innovation in libraries in Singa- New page http://www.ifla.org/I/ grammes pore: value options for libraries in whatsnew/new.htm.

100 Future IFLA Conferences

Future IFLA Conferences

Oslo 2005 your own library. 9–11 August 2005. Further information: Ludmila Bergen, Norway. Kozlova. E-mail: [email protected].

World Library and Information Further information: Trine Kolderup- Congress: 71st IFLA Council Flaten E-mail: Trine.Kolderup-Flaten Library Theory and Research and General Conference. Oslo, @bergen.kommune.no. Section and Education and Norway, 14–18 August 2005. Theme: Training Section Libraries: a voyage of discovery; Program theme: International Per- linking the future to the past. Genealogy and Local History Section and Geography and spectives on Library and Information Science Research and Education. Division and Section meetings (held Map Libraries Section during the Oslo Conference unless Programme theme: Navigating the Further information: Niels Ole Pors, otherwise indicated). World of Ancestors. ([email protected]).

Further information: Mel Thatcher. Audiovisual and Multimedia Library Building and Section E-mail: thatchermp@gensocietyofu tah.org. Equipment Section and Open Forum: Access to Audiovisual Reference and Information and Multimedia Materials Services Section Africa Section Satellite meeting: The Physical Further information: Monika Open Forum: Change in Information Library and Beyond — Library as Cremer. E-mail: [email protected] Needs: Challenging Roles of Libraries Place and the Library in Cyber- goettingen.de. and Information Centres in Africa. space. 11–12 August 2005. Finland.

Library Services to Further information: Henri Sene. Contacts and more information: E-mail: [email protected]. Multicultural Populations Tuula Haavisto. E-mail: tuulah@ Section kaapeli.ﬁ. Mobile Libraries Section Satellite conference: The Multicul- tural Library: Staff Competence for Nordic Mobile meet: 12th–14th Women’s Issues Section Success. 10–12 August, 2005, August 2005. Oslo, Norway. Program theme: Women and World Stockholm, Sweden. Peace. Open session during WLIC. Further information: www.iﬂa-stock Further information: Leena Siitonen. holm2005.se. Theme for both events: A Voyage to E-mail: [email protected]. Discovery — Libraries on the Move. Education and Research Further information: Ian Stringer. 9th ILDS Conference Division E-mail: [email protected]. Program on recruitment and careers The 9th IFLA Interlending and Doc- in the library and information University and Research ument Supply International Confer- science profession. Libraries Section and ence will take place in Tallinn, Estonia from 20 to 23 September Further information: Niels Ole Pors, Statistics and Evaluation 2005 under the theme ‘Making ([email protected]). See also at: http:// Section Library Collections Accessible www.ifla.org/IV/ifla71/call-2005- Open Program: Library quality in Locally and Worldwide. Tallinn is div7.htm. the institutional environment. the capital of the Republic of Estonia. The old town of Tallinn is Management and Marketing Further information: Michael among the best preserved medieval Heaney. E-mail: michael.heaney@ Section, Public Libraries European cities and is included in ouls.ox.ac.uk. Section and Library Theory the UNESCO World Heritage List. and Research Section LIS Journals Section The conference venue will be the Satellite meeting: Management, Conference Centre of the National marketing, evaluation and pro- Open session. Theme: LIS Journals Library of Estonia. Along with the motion of library services, based on — a Voyage of Discovery beyond conference programme the atten- statistics, analyses and evaluation in Anglo-American shores. dees will be able to visit Estonian

101 News

libraries and enjoy a diverse social is now available at the conference as well as background information programme. website at http://www.nlib.ee/ilds. on Tallinn and Estonia. This website will also offer all new The list of conference subthemes updates concerning the conference Additional information: [email protected].

Grants and Awards

journals, LIBRI is issuing a call for depth of research and scholarship IFLA/OCLC Early Career • ‘Best Student Paper of 2005’. This • topicality of problems addressed Development Fellowship competition supports LIBRI’s goal • the international readership of the 2006 of publishing the best articles from journal the next generation of library and information science professionals. The article will be published in The IFLA/OCLC Early Career The publishers of LIBRI, K.G. Saur the 2005: 3 issue. The author of the Development Fellowship pro- Verlag, are proud once again to winning article will be honoured gramme provides early career devel- recognize the very best article with with an award of USD 500.00 and opment and continuing education this special award. a complementary subscription to for library and information science LIBRI for 2006. If the quality of professionals from countries with Students at all levels* are invited competition warrants, some papers developing economies. to submit articles with clarity and may be designated as honourable authority. There is no stated theme. mention and the authors will The Program Guidelines and Research papers should address one receive complementary subscrip- Application for the IFLA/OCLC of the significant issues facing tions to LIBRI for 2006. The normal Fellowship 2006 are now posted on today’s librarians and information provision to the author of 25 off- the OCLC web site. The links to the professionals. Case studies, best prints applies to all winners. files, available in PDF and Word practices, and pure research papers formats, are accessible under the are all welcome. Manuscripts should be sent to 2006 Application details at the fol- the LIBRI Editorial Office, Stats- lowing location: http://www.oclc. Length: approx. 5000 words biblioteket, Universitetsparken, DK org/institute/resources/fellowships Language: English 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark. Elec- /ifla/default.htm. Deadline: May 31, 2005 tronic submissions are encouraged and may be submitted to libri@stats Best LIBRI Student Paper The best paper will be selected by biblioteket.dk. Author instructions an independent panel consisting of are available at the LIBRI site at selected members of the Editorial http://www.librijournal.org/author Since 1950, through 55 volumes, Board, the Advisory Board and inst.html. LIBRI International Journal of other international experts. Sub- Libraries and Information Services missions will be judged on the basis * Exception: Senior information has been a leader among scholarly of scholars returning to school for journals in the international library additional degrees outside the field world. As part of its strategy to • originality of thought and obser- of library and information science remain one of the premier library vation are not eligible for this award.

IFLA Publications

Newspapers in Central and Eastern was reviewed in the part of the There are approximately 35 short Europe. Zeitungen in Mittel- und world that had undergone a com- articles in total; these are a mix of Osteuropa. Edited by Hartmut plete change of the political and English and German texts. All Walravens in cooperation with economical situation during the German papers are provided with Marieluise Schilling-Gayette. 1990s. The papers focus on a wide an English abstract. München: Saur, 2005, 251 p. (IFLA array of issues related to newspaper Publications 110). ISBN 3–598– librarianship. They are grouped into 21841–9. Price: EUR 78.00 (IFLA the following categories: acquisition Members EUR 58.00). policies, copyright issues for news- Published by: K.G. Saur Verlag, paper collection management, digi- PO Box 701620, 81316 Munich, This book contains the Proceed- tization and electronic newspapers, Germany. Tel: +49–89–76902–300. ings of a special IFLA Conference new technologies of paper conser- Fax: +49–89–76902–150/250). held in Munich in August 2003. The vation, storage and text manage- E-mail: [email protected]. situation of newspapers collection ment. Website: http://www.saur.de. 102 From other Organizations

From other Organizations

Geneva Declaration on net, the World Wide Web, As an intergovernmental organiz- Wikipedia, the Creative Commons, ation, however, WIPO embraced a the Future of the World GNU Linux and other free and culture of creating and expanding Intellectual Property open software projects, as well as monopoly privileges, often without Organization distance education tools and regard to consequences. The contin- medical research tools. Technolo- uous expansion of these privileges gies such as Google now provide and their enforcement mechanisms Humanity faces a global crisis in the tens of millions with powerful tools has led to grave social and eco- governance of knowledge, technol- to find information. Alternative nomic costs, and has hampered and ogy and culture. The crisis is mani- compensation systems have been threatened other important systems fest in many ways. proposed to expand access and of creativity and innovation. WIPO interest in cultural works, while needs to enable its members to • Without access to essential medi- providing both artists and con- understand the real economic and cines, millions suffer and die; sumers with efficient and fair social consequences of excessive • Morally repugnant inequality of systems for compensation. There is intellectual property protections, access to education, knowledge renewed interest in compensatory and the importance of striking a and technology undermines liability rules, innovation prizes, or balance between the public domain development and social cohesion; competitive intermediators, as and competition on the one hand, • Anticompetitive practices in the models for economic incentives for and the realm of property rights on knowledge economy impose science and technology that can the other. The mantras that “more is enormous costs on consumers facilitate sequential follow-on inno- better” or “that less is never good” and retard innovation; vation and avoid monopolist are disingenuous and dangerous — • Authors, artists and inventors face abuses. In 2001, the World Trade and have greatly compromised the mounting barriers to follow-on Organization (WTO) declared that standing of WIPO, especially innovation; member countries should “promote among experts in intellectual prop- • Concentrated ownership and access to medicines for all.” erty policy. WIPO must change. control of knowledge, technology, biological resources and culture Humanity stands at a crossroads We do not ask that WIPO harm development, diversity and — a fork in our moral code and a test abandon efforts to promote the democratic institutions; of our ability to adapt and grow. appropriate protection of intellec- • Technological measures designed Will we evaluate, learn and profit tual property, or abandon all efforts to enforce intellectual property from the best of these new ideas and to harmonize or improve these laws. rights in digital environments opportunities, or will we respond to But we insist that WIPO work from threaten core exceptions in copy- the most unimaginative pleas to the broader framework described in right laws for disabled persons, suppress all of this in favor of intel- the 1974 agreement with the UN, libraries, educators, authors and lectually weak, ideologically rigid, and take a more balanced and real- consumers, and undermine and sometimes brutally unfair and istic view of the social benefits and privacy and freedom; inefficient policies? Much will costs of intellectual property rights • Key mechanisms to compensate depend upon the future direction of as a tool, but not the only tool, for and support creative individuals the World Intellectual Property supporting creative intellectual and communities are unfair to Organization (WIPO), a global activity. both creative persons and con- body setting standards that regulate sumers; the production, distribution and use WIPO must also express a more • Private interests misappropriate of knowledge. balanced view of the relative bene- social and public goods, and lock fits of harmonization and diversity, up the public domain. A 1967 Convention sought to and seek to impose global conform- encourage creative activity by estab- ity only when it truly benefits all of At the same time, there are lishing WIPO to promote the pro- humanity. A “one size fits all” astoundingly promising innovations tection of intellectual property. The approach that embraces the highest in information, medical and other mission was expanded in 1974, levels of intellectual property pro- essential technologies, as well as in when WIPO became part of the tection for everyone leads to unjust social movements and business United Nations, under an agree- and burdensome outcomes for models. We are witnessing highly ment that asked WIPO to take countries that are struggling to meet successful campaigns for access to “appropriate action to promote the most basic needs of their citi- drugs for AIDS, scientific journals, creative intellectual activity,” and zens. genomic information and other facilitate the transfer of technology databases, and hundreds of innova- to developing countries, “in order The WIPO General Assembly tive collaborative efforts to create to accelerate economic, social and has now been asked to establish a public goods, including the Inter- cultural development.” development agenda. The initial 103 News

proposal, first put forth by the gov- cal manufacturers, plant breeders Enormous differences in bargain- ernments of Argentina and Brazil, and other commercial interests. ing power lead to unfair outcomes would profoundly refashion the Recently, WIPO has become more between creative individuals and WIPO agenda toward development open to civil society and public communities (both modern and tra- and new approaches to support interest groups, and this openness is ditional) and the commercial enti- innovation and creativity. This is a welcome. But WIPO must now ties that sell culture and knowledge long overdue and much needed first address the substantive concerns of goods. WIPO must honor and step toward a new WIPO mission these groups, such as the protection support creative individuals and and work program. It is not perfect. of consumer rights and human communities by investigating the The WIPO Convention should for- rights. Long-neglected concerns of nature of relevant unfair business mally recognize the need to take the poor, the sick, the visually practices, and promote best practice into account the “development impaired and others must be given models and reforms that protect cre- needs of its Member States, partic- priority. ative individuals and communities ularly developing countries and in these situations, consistent with least-developed countries,” as has The proposed development norms of the relevant communities. been proposed, but this does not go agenda points in the right direction. far enough. Some have argued that By stopping efforts to adopt new Delegations representing the the WIPO should only “promote treaties on substantive patent law, WIPO member states and the the protection of intellectual prop- broadcasters rights and databases, WIPO Secretariat have been asked erty,” and not consider, any policies WIPO will create space to address to choose a future. We want a that roll back intellectual property far more urgent needs. change of direction, new priorities, claims or protect and enhance the and better outcomes for humanity. public domain. This limiting view The proposals for the creation of We cannot wait for another genera- stifles critical thinking. Better standing committees and working tion. It is time to seize the moment expressions of the mission can be groups on technology transfer and and move forward. found, including the requirement in development are welcome. WIPO the 1974 UN/WIPO agreement that should also consider the creation of The text of the Geneva Declaration WIPO “promote creative intellec- one or more bodies to systematically on the Future of WIPO, in Arabic, tual activity and facilitate the trans- address the control of anticompeti- English, French, Greek, Italian and fer of technology related to tive practices and the protection of Spanish, and a list of charter signa- industrial property.” The functions consumer rights. tories, can be found in PDF, MS of WIPO should not only be to Word and HTML formats at: promote “efficient protection” and We support the call for a Treaty http://www.futureofwipo.org. “harmonization” of intellectual on Access to Knowledge and Tech- property laws, but to formally nology. The Standing Committee on embrace the notions of balance, Patents and the Standing Commit- appropriateness and the stimula- tee on Copyright and Related Rights Information as Public tion of both competitive and collab- should solicit views from member Domain: Access through orative models of creative activity countries and the public on ele- Libraries within national, regional and ments of such a treaty. transnational systems of innovation. The WIPO technical assistance DECLARATION of the programs must be fundamentally International Conference The proposal for a development reformed. Developing countries ‘Information as Public agenda has created the first real must have the tools to implement Domain: Access through opportunity to debate the future of the WTO Doha Declaration on Libraries’ WIPO. It is not only an agenda for TRIPS and Public Health, and “use, developing countries. It is an to the full” the flexibilities in the On 27–29 October 2004 St. Peters- agenda for everyone, North and TRIPS to “promote access to burg hosted the International Con- South. It must move forward. All medicines for all.” WIPO must help ference ‘Information as Public nations and people must join and developing countries address the Domain: Access through Libraries’, expand the debate on the future of limitations and exceptions in patent which was attended by over 120 WIPO. and copyright laws that are essen- representatives of public authori- tial for fairness, development and ties, academic research organiza- There must be a moratorium on innovation. If the WIPO Secre- tions, libraries and other institutions new treaties and harmonization of tariat cannot understand the con- from Azerbaijan, Armenia, Belarus, standards that expand and cerns and represent the interests of Great Britain, Georgia, Kazakhstan, strengthen monopolies and further the poor, the entire technical assis- Kyrgyzia, Moldova, Russia, USA, restrict access to knowledge. For tance program should be moved to Tajikistan and the Ukraine. generations WIPO has responded an independent body that is primarily to the narrow concerns of accountable to developing coun- Having examined an extensive powerful publishers, pharmaceuti- tries. range of agenda items, the 104 Other Publications

participants of the Conference hereby the Declaration of Principles and second month = intermediate level confirm their view that enabling Plan of Action (2003), as well as the third month = more advanced level. access to public domain information Policy guidelines for the develop- produced by public authorities should ment and promotion of government become fundamental to the national public domain information Participants may participate information policies of all nations (UNESCO, 2004). during only one or two of the three striving for democracy and freedom of months, depending on expertise. human development. Public authori- 28 October, 2004 However, the available scholarships ties, as well as libraries, archives and are granted only to persons who will various information services providers Tavrichesky Palace, Saint participate for the full three months. should assume a primary responsibil- Petersburg ity for the expansion of openness and management of information as public Adopted by Plenary Session Main areas of study: domain. The mainstream principle of Information and communication information management should be as technology for libraries and infor- follows: information produced by International Training mation centers public authorities should be deemed Program on Information Information retrieval publicly available, and any exceptions Information architecture to this rule officially banning the said Management in libraries and infor- access should be justified, minimized STIMULATE: Scientific and Techno- mation centers and supported by the power of law. logical Information Management in The national information policy and Universities and Libraries: an Active its legislative and regulatory support Training Environment. (Edition 5). Participation is free of charge should be based on the presumption of Brussels, Belgium, June–August 31, for 14 participants from developing openness of government information. 2005. countries selected by the organizers. The detailed grant application form The participants of the Conference This initiative is aimed primarily is available as a PDF file through the take note that any national informa- at persons with a university degree Internet from http://www.vlir.be/. tion policy should reside on the who work in universities, informa- determination to develop a knowl- tion and documentation centers and edge society and a civil society. libraries and who have a few years Contacts: Paul Nieuwenhuysen or Libraries of today constitute an indis- of practical experience. Patrick Vanouplines, STIMULATE- pensable institution of civil society ITP, University Library, Vrije Uni- and an effective tool for building it. The main aim is to offer a stimu- versiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, Support of the development of lating learning environment to par- B-1050 Brussels, Belgium. Tel. +32 library services should be elaborated ticipants so as to sharpen their skills 2629 2429 (or 2609). Fax: +32 2 in national information policies. in collecting, storing, retrieving, pre- 629 2693 (or 2282). Telex: 61051 senting and managing information. vubco-b. E-mail: stimulate@vub. The participants of the Confer- ac.be or Paul.Nieuwenhuysen@vub. ence take note of the need for The sessions will be organized as ac.be or Patrick.Vanouplines@vub. meaningful efforts to implement the follows: ac.be. Website: http://www.vub.ac. key documents passed at the World be/BIBLIO/itp/. Summit on Information Society, i.e. first month = introduction level

Other Publications

ﬁnd a searchable and downloadable Further information: Paul Sturges, ‘The Quiet Struggle’ text. Librarians, lecturers, scholars Professor of Library Studies, available electronically and students are encouraged to use Department of Information it freely, providing that if all or parts Science, Loughborough University, of it are re-used elsewhere, full Leics. LE11 3TU, UK. Tel. +44 1509 One of the main titles concerned credit is given to the authors. Please 223069. Fax: +44 1509 223053. with information and libraries in feel free to mount the text on web- Africa, The Quiet Struggle by Paul sites, print out the whole or parts of Sturges and Richard Neill, (2nd ed. the book in as many copies as you Renaissance Library 1998) is now available electroni- wish, and quote from it, at length if Calendar 2005 cally at http://www.lboro.ac.uk/ you wish. A CD-ROM copy can be departments/ls/staff/psturges.html. supplied on request from Paul There you can click on the high- Sturges if this will be more con- The 2005 edition of the Renaissance lighted title of the book and you will venient. Library Calendar contains colour

105 News

photographs of twelve beautiful old researched informative text about For additional information: Stuart libraries from eight countries — the history and collection of the Urwin, ISIM, Torsvagen 7b, 192 67 Austria, Croatia, Malta, Portugal, library. Copies of the calendar can Sollentuna, Sweden Tel. +46 8754 Spain, Switzerland, the United be obtained at the Renaissance 15 55. Fax: +46 8754 13 33. E-mail: Kingdom and the USA. Each photo- Library website at http://www.ren [email protected]. graph is accompanied by a well- aissancelibrary.com.

106 INTERNATIONAL CALENDAR

2005 ACH/ALLC 2005. International 14th European Conference on Conference on Humanities Reading. Computing and Digital Scholar- Further information: congress@ May 11–14, 2005. Cape Town, ship. 17th joint conference of the event.hr. Website: http://www. South Africa. Association for Computers and hcd.hr/conference. 8th Bibliophilia Africana Con- the Humanities (ACH) and the ference. Theme: From papyrus Association for Literary and August 9–11, 2005. Bergen, to printout: the book in Africa Linguistic Computing (ALLC). Norway. yesterday, today and tomorrow. Further information: Alejandro Satellite meeting to World Further information: 8th Biblio- Bia (PC Chair): [email protected]. Library and Information Con- philes’ Conference, National Conference website: http://web. gress. Theme: Management, mar- Library of South Africa, PO Box uvic.ca/hrd/achallc2005/. keting, evaluation and promotion 496, Cape Town, South Africa of library services, based on 8000. E-mail: bibliophilia@nlsa. July 6–8, 2005. Barcelona, Spain. statistics, analyses and evaluation ac.za. Website: www.nlsa.ac.za/ 7th ISKO-Spain Conference. in your own library. bibliophilia.html. The human dimension of knowl- Further information: Trine edge organization. Kolderup-Flaten E-mail: Trine. May 15–21, 2005. Lexington, KY, Further information: Technical [email protected] USA. Secretariat of the Conference, une.no. XIth IAALD World Congress. Departamento de Bibliotecono- Theme: Globalization of informa- mia i Documentació de la Uni- August 10–12, 2005. Stockholm, tion. versitat de Barcelona, Edifici Sweden. Further information: Toni UB-Sants Melcior de Palau, 140, The Multicultural Library: staff Greider. E-mail: agreider@uky. 08014 Barcelona, Spain. Tel. +34 competence for success. Satel- edu. Website: http://www.ca.uky. (93) 403 57 67. Fax: +34 (93) 403 lite conference to World Library edu/AIC/worldcongress.htm. 57 72. E-mail: [email protected]. and Information Congress. Website: http://bd.ub.es/isko For more information: www.ifla- May 30–June 3, 2005. Dubrovnik 2005/. stockholm2005.se. and Mljet, Croatia. Libraries in the Digital Age August 11–12, 2005. Finland. July 6–8, 2005. Sarawak, Malaysia. (LIDA) 2005. The Physical Library and KNOWLEDGE 2005: Making Further information: Course Beyond — library as place and Libraries Relevant. e-mail: [email protected]. Course the library in cyberspace. Satel- For further inquiries: Ms Salina website: http://www.pedos.hr/lida. lite meeting to World Library Zawawi, Salinaz@sarawaknet. and Information Congress. gov.my or; Ms Hayati Sabil, June to August 31, 2005. Brussels, Contacts and more information: [email protected] or; Belgium. Tuula Haavisto. E-mail: tuulah@ Ms Kalthoum bt Adni, Kalthoua STIMULATE: Scientific and kaapeli.fi. @Sarawaknet.gov.my. Technological Information Management in Universities and August 11–13, 2005. Oslo, Norway. Libraries: an Active Training July 8–12, 2005. Hong Kong, China. 6th World Conference on Con- Environment. (Edition 5). 33rd IASL [International Asso- tinuing Professional Develop- Information about this training ciation of School Librarianship] ment and Workplace Learning program can be found on the Conference. Theme: Information for the Library and Information website: http://www.vub.ac.be/ leadership in a culture of change. Professions. Theme: Continuing BIBLIO/itp/. Further information: Sandra Lee, professional development — Faculty of Education, 121 RunMe preparing for new roles in June 15–17, 2005. Burleigh Court, Shaw Building, University of libraries: a voyage of discovery. Loughborough University, UK. Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Further information: Ian Smith, Freedom and Information Con- Hong Kong. Fax: (852) (Convenor — Program Commit- ference. ***CANCELLED*** 2517–7194. E-mail: sandra@cite. tee), Senior Librarian (Person- Further information: Paul Sturges: hku.hk. Website: http://www.iasl- nel), La Trobe University Library, [email protected]. slo.org/conference2005.html. Bundoora, Victoria, 3086, Aus- tralia. Tel: +61 3 9479 1918. Fax: June 15–19, 2005, University of Vic- July 31–August 3, 2005. Zagreb, + 61 3 9479 3018. E-mail: i.smith toria, British Columbia, Canada. Croatia. @latrobe.edu.au.

August 12–14, 2005. Oslo, Norway. September 20–23, 2005. Tallinn, Theme: Libraries: dynamic Nordic Mobile Meet. Theme: A Estonia. engines for the knowledge and voyage to discovery — libraries on 9th Interlending and Document information society. the move. Supply Conference. Theme: For more information: IFLA Further information: Ian Stringer. Making library collections acces- Headquarters, POB 95312, 2509 E-mail: [email protected]. sible locally and worldwide. CH, The Hague, The Nether- uk. For more information: Josche lands. Tel. +31 70 314–0884. Fax: Neven, IFLA Communications + 31 70 3834827. August 14–18, 2005. Oslo, Norway. Manager, josche.neven@ifla.org World Library and Information or: Poul Erlandsen, Chair, IFLA Congress: 71st IFLA General Document Delivery and Inter- 2007 Conference and Council. lending Section, [email protected]. Theme: Libraries: a voyage of dis- Additional information: ilds@ covery; linking the future to the nlib.ee. 2007. Durban, South Africa. past. World Library and Information For more information: IFLA 2005 September 20–23, 2005. Salvador, Congress: 73rd IFLA Council Oslo Secretariat, Ann Margret Brazil. and General Conference. Hauknes, Secretary General, 9th World Congress on Health Theme: Libraries for the future: Norwegian Library Association, Information and Libraries. progress, development and part- Malerhaugveien 20, N-0661 Further information: Elenice de nerships. Oslo, Norway. Tel: +47 2324 Castro. E-mail: castroel@bireme. Further information from: Inter- 3430. Fax: +47 22672368. E-mail: ops-oms.org. Website: http://www. national Federation of Library IFLA2005@norskbibliotekforen icml9.org/. Associations and Institutions ing.no. (IFLA), PO Box 95312, 2509 CH November 16–18, 2005. Tunis, The Hague, Netherlands. Tel. +31 September 11–16, 2005. Riga, Tunisia. (70) 3140884. Fax: +31 (70) Latvia. World Summit on the Informa- 3834827. E–mail: IFLA@ifla.org. 37th Conference of the Metro- tion Society. Phase 2. Website: http://ifla.inist.fr/index. politan Libraries Section of Further information: Mr. A. htm. IFLA (formerly INTAMEL, the Levin, Chief a.i., Coordination, International Association of External Relations and Commu- Metropolitan Libraries). Theme: nication Units, International 2008 Libraries and lifelong learning: Telecommunication Union (ITU), inspiring users and staff. Place des Nations, CH-1211 Further information: Dzidra Geneva 20, Switzerland. Tel. +41 2008, Québec, Canada. Smita, Riga Central Library. Tel. (22) 730 6113. Fax: +41 (22) 730 World Library and Information + 371 7037121. Fax: + 371 7037 5881. E-mail: [email protected]. Congress: 74th IFLA General 131. Email: dzidrasm@biblioteka. Website: www.itu.int/wsis/. Conference and Council. rcc.lv. Website: http://www.ifla. Further information from: Inter- org/VII/s46/metro.htm. national Federation of Library 2006 Associations and Institutions September 18–23, 2005. Vienna, (IFLA), PO Box 95312, 2509 CH Austria. The Hague, Netherlands. Tel. +31 9th. European Conference on August 22–28, 2006. Seoul, Korea. (70) 3140884. Fax: +31 (70) Digital Libraries (ECDL). World Library and Information 3834827. E-mail: IFLA@ifla.org. Further information: Website: Congress: 72nd IFLA General Website: http://ifla.inist.fr/index. http://www.ecdl2005.org. Conference and Council. htm.

108 Abstracts

ABSTRACTS

Linda Ashcroft and Chris Watts. Riksdag; the role of a parliamen- However, they did not change the ICT Skills for Information Profes- tary library. conceptual nature of the literacy sionals in Developing Countries: IFLA Journal 31 (2005) No. 1, process. The relationship between perspectives from a study of the pp. 19–27 elementary school and the introduc- electronic information environ- tion of new technologies is explored, ment in Nigeria. Describes the activities of a new leading to the conclusion that it is IFLA Journal 31 (2005) No. 1, office created by the Parliament of too risky to bent on computers only pp. 6–12 Sweden (the Riksdag) with the to improve literacy results. Even in objective of contributing actively to the most developed countries they Changes in the provision of infor- increasing the public’s — and es- are underused. Suggestion is made mation brought about through the pecially young people’s — knowl- on the particular role that librarians emergence of electronic informa- edge of and interest in the Riksdag can play to make a more effective tion resources have created subse- and its work. The Riksdag Library use of ICTs in educational contexts, quent changes in the skills needed contributes to satisfy the need as librarians have already adopted by information professionals. Infor- among the public for accurate and these technologies as a common and mation professionals are now easily accessible information about effective tool while teachers are expected to be aware of and capable the work and decisions of the reluctant to use them. of using emerging information com- Riksdag with its open-door policy, munication technologies, as well as regional activities and training of Elizabeth Reade-Fong and Gary E. having essential communication librarians from all over Sweden. Gorman. NGOs, ICTs and Infor- skills. Professional bodies, such as mation Dissemination in Asia and CILIP in the UK and the ALA in the Ann Curry. Unreliable Research: Oceania. US, recognize the importance of are librarians liable? IFLA Journal 31 (2005) No. 1, continuing professional develop- IFLA Journal 31 (2005) No. 1, pp. 45–51 ment in order to keep skills and pp. 28–34 expertise up-to-date for all aspects Focusing on the situation in Asia and of work. The necessity of ICT skills Examines the history and current Oceania, this paper looks at the way has a clear impact on reference cases of research fraud and decep- in which NGOs utilize information, service professionals, with the emer- tion, including the reasons for and to some extent ICTs, for sustain- gence of digital reference services. A researcher transgression — reputa- able capacity building. It is hypothe- research project carried out at tion and career advancement, the sized that communication strategies Liverpool John Moores University chances of being caught, and the that take into account the social into the provision of electronic ineffective gatekeeper roles served by nature of access, recognize the inter- information in Nigeria identified a publishers and reviewers. It appears action between face-to-face and significant skills gap amongst infor- that librarians and LIS researchers online communications, and combine mation professionals. Collaboration are unlikely to conduct or publish Internet use with a broad range of and strategic management of unreliable research, but problems other new and old media provide the resources may be key to alleviating can arise when librarians distribute best opportunities for sustainable this problem. unreliable research in their collec- development initiatives through the tions. The wisdom of withdrawing all use of ICT. This issue is addressed Lynne Brindley. The British Library unreliable research from the collec- through a series of questions: What and E-Learning. tion is questioned, however, as some are the barriers to ICT adoption, and IFLA Journal 31 (2005) No. 1, of this research may contain grains of how might its potential be realized? pp. 13–18 truth that could result in future, reli- What is an appropriate mix of ICT- able research. based information dissemination and Provides an overview of the British traditional print-based information? Library’s approach to e-learning, Emilia Ferreiro. Librarians and How do different cultures react when and describes how the Library’s Basic Education Teachers in the information is accessed remotely online learning resources are being Context of ‘Digital Literacy’. rather than face-to-face? How well do used by different groups of learners. IFLA Journal 31 (2005) No. 1, NGOs collaborate with one another It also touches on some of the chal- pp. 35–44 in sharing development-related infor- lenges of delivering a widely acces- mation? What are some of the facili- sible learning programme, and The paper looks critically at the tators and barriers to more effective raises questions which the new pos- notion of ‘digital literacy’. Literacy is collaboration? sibilities offered by e-learning pose not a static notion. Literacy require- for national libraries. ments change across time and J.W. Roos. Copyright Protection as places. Nowadays ICTs have intro- Access Barrier for People who Margareta Brundin. Democracy duced radical changes in the way of Read Differently: the case for an Building Activities in the Swedish producing and disseminating texts. international approach.

IFLA Journal 31 (2005) No. 1, experiences and processes they online LIS journal websites with pp. 52–67 went through. European emigration their conventional citation counts. records provide extensive informa- Links to online journals are often For people with print disabilities, tion about individual emigrants, considered to be equivalent to cita- copyright protection poses an often including the place of origin. tions, but there are significant differ- access barrier. Although they have No survey of all such records exists ences. Provides indications of how traditionally used Braille and audio and there is not even a complete list effective the online medium is for materials to satisfy their reading of records types and locations for communicating LIS research and needs, one should not, when con- any single European country. In offers guidance for LIS authors and sidering access issues, confine the describing the work of the Immi- journal editors to help them make analysis to those media only. In a grant Ancestors Project at Brigham effective use of online journals. rapidly changing technological Young University this paper identi- environment, accommodations are fies the various record types that Jutta Weber. The Manuscript Col- needed that will not become obso- were generated by emigrants in the lections of Europe: a mirror of lete due to technological change process of emigration, giving exam- migration, separation and reunifi- that opens up new access opportu- ples from several countries where cation as seen in the Alexander nities. In a number of countries the each type of record may be found. von Humboldt Collection in problems posed by copyright pro- Berlin. tection as access barriers have Alastair G. Smith. Citations and IFLA Journal 31 (2005) No. 1, received legislative attention in the Links as a Measure of Effective- pp. 85–89 form of attempts to remove them. ness of Online LIS Journals. Those attempts have not always IFLA Journal 31 (2005) No. 1, Manuscripts and their creators are given rise to perfect solutions. This pp. 76–84 subject to the conditions of history. paper is concerned with access The history of the Alexander von barriers to print posed by copyright Examines the use of citation counts Humboldt Collection in Berlin is a protection, by successes as well as and web links to evaluate online LIS history of the migration of manu- unfortunate by-products of previous journals. The Journal Impact Factor, scripts, the separation of parts of the attempts to deal with those barriers, a traditional metric for comparing collection, and their reunification. by technological developments that journals, is based on the citation This leads to some more general affect copyright protection, and it counts of a journal over a specified observations. What if the original tries to isolate lessons learnt so far. period of time, compared with the location of a manuscript is not a safe citable articles published in the one? How can we guarantee safe George R. Ryskamp. European journal. The Web Impact Factor preservation of the manuscript in Emigration Records, 1820–1925. (WIF) has been proposed as an another location? There are good IFLA Journal 31 (2005) No. 1, equivalent metric for websites. The reasons to build an alliance of insti- pp. 68–75 WIF is broadly defined as the ratio tutions willing to cooperate with of links made to a site, compared to respect to these questions. Since we Immigration records are wonderful, the number of information units cannot turn back the wheels of but often fail to give a complete (e.g. pages) at the site. The study history, we must act together now picture of the emigrants and the compares the WIFs of a sample of and in the future.

110 Sommaires

SOMMAIRES

Linda Ashcroft and Chris Watts. Offre une vue d’ensemble de l’ap- chercheurs en science bibliothé- ICT Skills for Information Profes- proche choisie par la British Library caire et information mènent ou pub- sionals in Developing Countries: en matière d’apprentissage en ligne lient des recherches peu fiables, perspectives from a study of the et décrit comment les ressources mais des problèmes peuvent surgir electronic information environ- d’apprentissage en ligne de la biblio- lorsque les bibliothécaires diffusent ment in Nigeria. [Compétences thèque sont utilisées par différents des recherches de ce type dans leurs TIC pour les professionnels de groupes d’étudiants. Aborde égale- collections. L’auteur s’interroge sur l’information dans les pays en voie ment quelques-uns des défis consis- le bien-fondé de retirer cependant de développement: perspectives tant à fournir un programme toutes les recherches peu fiables de offertes par une étude de l’envi- d’étude largement accessible et la collection, dans la mesure où ronnement d’information élec- soulève les questions posées aux certaines de ces recherches peuvent tronique au Nigeria.] bibliothèques nationales par les contenir des parcelles de vérité IFLA Journal 31 (2005) No. 1, nouvelles possibilités qu’offre l’ap- pouvant servir à des recherches pp. 6–12 prentissage en ligne. fiables dans l’avenir.

Les modifications des modes d’ap- Margareta Brundin. Democracy provisionnement n informations Building Activities in the Swedish Emilia Ferreiro. Librarians and suscitées par l’émergence de Riksdag; the role of a parliamen- Basic Education Teachers in the ressources électroniques d’informa- tary library. [Des activités Context of ‘Digital Literacy’. tion ont entraîné des modifications favorisant la démocratie au [Bibliothécaires et professeurs de des compétences requises des pro- Riksdag suédois; le rôle d’une bib- l’enseignement primaire dans le fessionnels de l’information. Ils liothèque parlementaire.] contexte de ‘l’alphabétisation doivent non seulement être au IFLA Journal 31 (2005) No. 1, numérique’.] courant des technologies émer- pp. 19–27 IFLA Journal 31 (2005) No. 1, gentes d’information et de commu- pp. 35–44 nication (TIC), mais aussi être en Décrit les activités d’un nouveau mesure de les utiliser et disposer bureau créé par le Parlement de Cet article examine d’un œil cri- d’aptitudes fondamentales en Suède (le Riksdag), ayant pour tique la notion “d’alphabétisme matière de communication. Les objectif de contribuer activement à numérique”. L’alphabétisme n’est organismes professionnels tels que mieux faire connaître le Riksdag et pas une notion statique. Les exi- CILIP au Royaume-Uni et ALA aux ses travaux auprès du public — par- gences en matière d’alphabétisme Etats-Unis reconnaissent l’impor- ticulièrement les jeunes — et à sus- changent en fonction du temps et tance d’une formation profession- citer l’intérêt pour cette institution. du lieu. À l’heure actuelle, les tech- nelle permanente afin de maintenir Avec sa politique portes ouvertes, nologies de l’information et de la à jour les compétences et l’expertise ses activités régionales et la forma- communication ont introduit des dans tous les domaines d’activité. La tion de bibliothécaires venus de changements radicaux dans la nécessité de disposer de compé- toute la Suède, la bibliothèque du façon de produire et de diffuser les tences TIC a un impact évident sur Riksdag aide à satisfaire la demande textes. Cependant, elles n’ont pas les professionnels des services de du public en matière d’informations changé la nature conceptuelle du référence, avec l’émergence des accessibles sur les travaux et les processus d’alphabétisation. La services numériques de référence. décisions du Riksdag. relation entre l’école élémentaire et Un projet de recherche mené à l’introduction de nouvelles tech- l’Université John Moores de Liver- Ann Curry. Unreliable Research: nologies est étudiée, ce qui mène à pool, portant sur l’approvision- are librarians liable? [La conclure qu’il est trop risqué de nement en information par voie recherche peu fiable: les biblio- s’appuyer uniquement sur les ordi- électronique au Nigeria, a mis en thécaires sont-ils responsables?] nateurs pour améliorer les résultats lumière un manque significatif de IFLA Journal 31 (2005) No. 1, en matière d’alphabétisation, car ils compétences chez les profession- pp. 28–34 sont insuffisamment utilisés, même nels de l’information. La collabora- dans les pays les plus développés. tion et la gestion stratégique des Examine les cas de fraude et de Des suggestions sont faites sur le ressources peuvent être essentielles tromperie dans la recherche par le rôle particulier que les bibliothé- pour réduire ce problème. passé et à l’heure actuelle, ainsi que caires peuvent jouer pour mieux les motifs ayant incité le chercheur à utiliser ces technologies dans des Lynne Brindley. The British Library cette transgression: réputation et contextes éducatifs, dans la mesure and E-Learning. [La British avancement de carrière, risques de où les bibliothécaires ont déjà com- Library et l’apprentissage en se faire prendre et inefficacité du munément adopté ces technologies ligne.] rôle de gardien joué par les éditeurs comme un outil efficace, alors que IFLA Journal 31 (2005) No. 1, et les critiques. Il semble peu les professeurs rechignent encore à pp. 13–18 probable que les bibliothécaires et les utiliser.

Elizabeth Reade-Fong and Gary E. right constitue un obstacle à l’accès gration, en donnant des exemples de Gorman. NGOs, ICTs and Infor- aux informations. Bien qu’elles aient différents pays où chaque type mation Dissemination in Asia and traditionnellement utilisé le Braille d’archive peut être trouvé. Oceania. [ONG, TIC et propaga- et le matériel audio pour satisfaire tion des informations en Asie et en leurs besoins de lecture, il ne faut Alastair G. Smith. Citations and Océanie.] pas, au moment de considérer les Links as a Measure of Effective- IFLA Journal 31 (2005) No. 1, problèmes d’accès, confiner unique- ness of Online LIS Journals. [Cita- pp. 45–51 ment l’analyse à ces moyens. Dans tions et liens comme une mesure un environnement technologique de l’efficacité des revues en ligne En se concentrant sur la situation en évoluant rapidement, il faut prévoir de science bibliothécaire et infor- Asie et en Océanie, cet article étudie des dispositions qui ne deviendront mation.] la façon dont les organisations non par obsolètes en raison de progrès IFLA Journal 31 (2005) No. 1, gouvernementales utilisent l’infor- technologiques ouvrant de nou- pp. 76–84 mation et, jusque dans une certaine velles possibilités d’accès. Dans un mesure, les technologies de l’infor- certain nombre de pays, les prob- Examine l’usage du décompte des mation et de la communication lèmes posés par la protection copy- citations et des liens sur le Web pour (TIC) afin d’établir une capacité right comme obstacle à l’accès aux évaluer les revues en ligne spécial- durable. L’hypothèse est avancée informations ont fait l’objet de ten- isées en science bibliothécaire et que les stratégies de communication tatives législatives visant à les sup- information. Le Facteur d’impact qui tiennent compte de la nature primer. Ces tentatives n’ont pas d’une revue, moyen de mesure tradi- sociale de l’accès, reconnaissent toujours donné lieu à des solutions tionnel pour comparer les revues, se l’interaction entre les communica- idéales. Cet article se penche sur le fonde sur le décompte des citations tions face à face et en ligne, et com- problème des obstacles à l’accès au d’une revue sur une période de binent l’usage d’Internet avec une document imprimé posé par la pro- temps déterminée, comparé aux vaste gamme d’autres médias tection copyright, sur les succès articles pouvant être cités, publiés anciens et nouveaux, fournissent les aussi bien que sur les échecs de pro- dans la revue. Le facteur de l’impact meilleures possibilités pour des ini- duits annexes lors de tentatives sur le Web (Web Impact Factor ou tiatives de développement durable antérieures pour supprimer ces WIF) a été proposé comme moyen grâce à l’usage des TIC. Cette prob- obstacles, sur les développements de mesure équivalent pour les sites lématique est abordée par le biais technologiques qui affectent la pro- Internet. Le WIF est couramment d’une série de questions: quels sont tection copyright. Il essaye égale- défini comme étant le rapport entre les obstacles à l’adoption des TIC et ment d’identifier les leçons à tirer les liens vers un certain site et le comment concrétiser leur poten- jusqu’à présent. nombre d’unités d’information (par tiel? Quel est le mélange approprié ex. les pages) que compte le site. entre la propagation des informa- George R. Ryskamp. European L’étude compare les WIF d’un tions fondées sur les TIC et les infor- Emigration Records, 1820–1925. échantillon de sites en ligne de mations imprimées traditionnelles? [Archives sur l’émigration revues de science bibliothécaire et Comment différentes cultures européenne, 1820–1925.] information avec leurs décomptes réagissent-elles lorsqu’il est possible IFLA Journal 31 (2005) No. 1, conventionnels de citation. Les d’accéder aux informations à dis- pp. 68–75 liens vers des revues en ligne sont tance et non pas face à face? souvent considérés comme équiva- Comment les organisations non Les archives sur l’immigration sont lents aux citations, mais il y a des gouvernementales collaborent-elles remarquables, mais ne donnent différences significatives. L’auteur entre elles afin de partager les infor- généralement pas une image com- fournit des indications sur le degré mations concernant le développe- plète des émigrants, des expériences d’efficacité du média en ligne pour ment? Quels sont les aspects qui qu’ils ont vécues et de ce par quoi ils communiquer la recherche en facilitent une collaboration plus effi- sont passés. Les archives sur l’émi- science bibliothécaire et informa- cace ou bien la compliquent? gration européenne fournissent tion, et offre des conseils aux toutes sortes d’informations indi- auteurs spécialisés en science bib- J.W. Roos. Copyright Protection as viduelles sur les émigrants, indi- liothécaire et information ainsi Access Barrier for People who quant souvent leur lieu d’origine. qu’aux rédacteurs de revues afin de Read Differently: the case for an Mais il n’y a aucune étude englobant les aider à faire un usage efficace de international approach. [Protec- toutes les archives de ce type, il n’ex- leurs revues en ligne. tion copyright comme obstacle à iste même pas une liste complète l’accès pour les personnes lisant des types d’archives et de leur Jutta Weber. The Manuscript Col- autrement : un plaidoyer pour une emplacement pour aucun pays lections of Europe: a mirror of approche internationale.] européen. En décrivant le travail du migration, separation and reunifi- IFLA Journal 31 (2005) No. 1, projet de l’université Brigham cation as seen in the Alexander pp. 52–67 Young sur les ancêtres immigrants, von Humboldt Collection in cet article identifie les différents Berlin. [Les collections europé- Pour les personnes souffrant d’un types d’archives générés par les émi- ennes de manuscrits: migration, handicap visuel, la protection copy- grants au cours du processus d’émi- séparation et réunification 112 Sommaires

illustrées par le cas de la collection von Humboldt à Berlin est celle garantir la conservation en toute Alexander von Humboldt à d’une migration des manuscrits, sécurité du manuscrit à un autre Berlin.] d’une séparation de différentes endroit? Il existe de bonnes raisons IFLA Journal 31 (2005) No. 1, parties de la collection et de leur de s’allier avec des institutions pp. 85–89 réuniﬁcation. Cela entraîne désireuses de coopérer en la quelques observations d’ordre plus matière. Dans la mesure où nous ne Les manuscrits et leurs créateurs général. Que faire si l’emplacement pouvons pas réécrire l’histoire, il sont soumis au contexte historique. d’origine d’un manuscrit n’est nous faut agir ensemble dans le L’histoire de la collection Alexander pas sûr? Comment pouvons-nous présent et pour l’avenir.

113 Zusammenfassungen

ZUSAMMENFASSUNGEN

Linda Ashcroft und Chris Watts. Dieser Artikel bietet einen und beschreibt auch aktuelle Fälle. ICT Skills for Information Profes- Überblick über die E-Learning – Zudem kommen auch einige sionals in Developing Countries: Methoden der britischen Bibliothek Gründe für die Ursachen zur perspectives from a study of the und beschreibt, in welcher Weise Sprache — das Ansehen des Forsch- electronic information environ- die Online-Lern-Ressourcen der ers und die Förderung der ment in Nigeria. [ICT–Fähigkeiten Bibliothek von unterschiedlichen Forschungskarriere, die relativ für Informationsprofis in Entwick- Gruppen von Studierenden genutzt geringe Wahrscheinlichkeit einer lungsländern: Perspektiven aus werden. Zudem kommen einige der Entdeckung und die ineffektiven einer Studie der elektronischen Herausforderungen zur Sprache, Torhüterrollen der Verlage und Lek- Informationsumgebung in die mit der Weitergabe eines breit toren. Es scheint, dass Bibliothekare Nigeria.] zugänglichen Lernprogramms ver- und LIS-Forscher wenig geneigt IFLA – Journal 31 (2005) Nr. 1, bunden sind. Außerdem werden sind, unzuverlässige Forschungs- S. 6–12 Fragen angesprochen, die sich den projekte durchzuführen oder nationalen Bibliotheken im Zusam- ungesicherte Ergebnisse zu veröf- Der Wandel in der Verfügbarkeit menhang mit den neuen fentlichen. Probleme können jedoch von Informationen infolge des Möglichkeiten stellen, die das E- dann entstehen, wenn Biblio- Aufkommens elektronischer Infor- Learning bietet. thekare ungesicherte Forchungs- mationsquellen hat einen gewissen ergebnisse in ihren Sammlungen Einfluss auf die Fähigkeiten gehabt, Margareta Brundin. Democracy verbreiten. Dabei wird jedoch die Informationsprofis benötigen. Building Activities in the Swedish andererseits der Sinn des Aus- Heute wird von den Information- Riksdag; the role of a parliamentary schlusses aller ungesicherten sprofis erwartet, dass sie die neu library. [Demokratie-fördernde Forschungspublikationen aus den entstehenden Informations – Kom- Aktivitäten im schwedischen Sammlungen auch wieder in Frage munikationstechnologien kennen Reichtstag; die Rolle einer parla- gestellt, da ein gewisser Anteil dieser und mit ihnen umgehen können mentarischen Bibliothek.] Forschungsprojekte unter Umstän- und dass sie über wichtige IFLA – Journal 31 (2005) Nr. 1, den auch einen Kern von Wahrheit Kommunikationsfähigkeiten verfü- S. 19–27 enthalten und somit in der Zukunft gen. Professionelle Instanzen, wie durchaus wieder verläßliche beispielsweise die CILIP in Dieser Beitrag befasst sich mit den Forschungsprojekte nach sich Großbritannien und die ALA in Aktivitäten eines neuen Büros, das ziehen kann. den USA, wissen um die vom schwedischen Parlament (dem Wichtigkeit einer ständigen weiter- Reichstag) ins Leben gerufen wurde, Emilia Ferreiro. Librarians and führenden professionellen Ent- um aktiv zur Verbesserung des Ein- Basic Education Teachers in the wicklung, um mit den Fähigkeiten blicks der Öffentlichkeit — und ins- Context of ‘Digital Literacy’. [Bib- und der Expertise in allen Bere- besondere junger Leute — in den liothekare und Grundschullehrer ichen dieser Arbeit auch weiterhin Reichstag und seine Arbeit beizutra- im Kontext der ‘digitalen Lese- am Ball zu bleiben. Die gen. Die Riksdag Library [die Reichs- fähigkeiten’.] Notwendigkeit moderner ICT– tagsbibliothek] trägt dazu bei, dem IFLA – Journal 31 (2005) Nr. 1, Fähigkeiten hat mit der Marktein- Bedarf der Öffentlichkeit an S. 35–44 führung digitaler Referenzdienste präzisen und leicht zugänglichen auch deutliche Konsequenzen für Informationen über die Arbeit und In diesem Artikel geht es um eine kri- die Nachschlagedienste. Ein For- die Entscheidungen des Reichstags tische Betrachtung des Konzepts der schungsprojekt an der John Moores entgegenzukommen. Dies basiert ‘digitalen Lesefähigkeiten’. Die Lese- University in Liverpool, das sich auf einer Politik der offenen Tür, fähigkeit ist nämlich kein statischer mit der Bereitstellung elektronis- hinzu kommen regionale Aktiv- Zustand. Die Anforderungen an die cher Informationen in Nigeria itäten und Schulungen für Biblio- Lesefähigkeit ändern sich vielmehr beschäftigt, hat erhebliche Unter- thekare aus ganz Schweden. mit der Zeit und dem Ort. In unserer schiede in den Fähigkeiten der Zeit haben die ICTs radikale Verän- Informationsprofis aufgedeckt. Der Ann Curry. Unreliable Research: derungen im Hinblick auf die Erstel- Schlüssel zur Lösung dieses Prob- are librarians liable? lung und Verbreitung von Texten mit lems kann in der Zusammenarbeit [Ungesicherte Forschungsergeb- sich gebracht. Dabei haben sie und der strategischen Verwaltung nisse: Sind Bibliothekare dafür jedoch die konzeptuelle Art des der Ressourcen liegen. haftbar?] Prozesses zur Erlangung der Lese- IFLA – Journal 31 (2005) Nr. 1, fähigkeit in keiner Weise beeinflusst. Lynne Brindley. The British Library S. 28–34 Ergründet wird zudem die Bezie- and E-Learning. [Die British hung zwischen der Grundschule und Library und E-Learning.] Dieser Artikel beleuchtet die der Einführung neuer Technologien. IFLA – Journal 31 (2005) Nr. 1, Geschichte des Forschungsbetrugs Daraus ergibt sich die Schluss- S. 13–18 und der diesbezüglichen Täuschung folgerung, dass es zu riskant ist, sich

bei der Verbesserung der Lese- samen Nutzung entwicklungsbezo- Auswanderungen zwischen 1820 fähigkeiten ausschließlich auf den gener Informationen miteinander und 1925.] Computer zu verlassen. Selbst in zusammen? Welches sind einige der IFLA – Journal 31 (2005) Nr. 1, hoch entwickelten Ländern gelang- Stimulatoren und Barrieren für eine S. 68–75 en diese nicht in nicht allzu großem effektivere Zusammenarbeit? Umfang zum Einsatz. Dabei werden Einwanderungsakten sind eine auch Vorschläge zu der besonderen J. W. Roos. Copyright Protection as wunderbare Sache, zeichnen jedoch Rolle unterbreitet, die die Biblio- Access Barrier for People who häufig kein vollständiges Bild der thekare im Erziehungskontext zur Read Differently: the case for an Auswanderer und vernachlässigen effektiveren Verwendung der ICTs international approach. [Das viele der Erfahrungen und spielen können. Schließlich ist es so, Urheberrecht als Zugangs- Vorgänge, die diese mitgemacht dass die Bibliothekare diese Tech- schranke für Menschen, die anders haben. Europäische Auswan- nologien bereits jetzt als allgemeines lesen: Argumente für eine interna- derungsakten enthalten umfassende und effektives Werkzeug verwen- tionale Strategie.] Informationen über einzelne den, während sich die Lehrer hier IFLA – Journal 31 (2005) Nr. 1, Auswanderer und nennen häufig eher zögernd verhalten. S. 52–67 auch den ursprünglichen Wohnort, aus dem diese kamen. Es gibt aber Elizabeth Reade-Fong und Gary E. Für Menschen mit Lese- weder Übersichtslisten über alle Gorman. NGOs, ICTs and Infor- schwierigkeiten stellt das Urhe- diese Unterlagen noch eine kom- mation Dissemination in Asia and berrechtsgesetz eine gewisse plette Liste aller Arten von Unterla- Oceania. [NGOs, ICTs und Infor- Zugangsschranke dar. Obwohl sie gen und Standorte für ein einziges mationsverbreitung in Asien und ihr Lesebedürfnis traditionell mit europäisches Land. Bei der Ozeanien.] Braille sowie mit Audiomaterialien Beschreibung der Arbeit des ‘Immi- IFLA – Journal 31 (2005) Nr. 1, gestillt haben, sollte man die Analyse grant Ancestors Project’ an der S. 45–51 bei der Betrachtung von Zugangs- Brigham Young – Universität identi- fragen nicht nur auf diese Medien fiziert diese Veröffentlichung die Mit dem Schwerpunkt auf der Situ- beschränken. In einer sich schnell einzelnen Arten von Unterlagen, die ation in Asien und Ozeanien betra- ändernden technologischen Umge- für die Auswanderer bei deren Emi- chtet dieser Beitrag die Art und bung werden Übertragungsmedien grierung erstellt wurden. Dabei Weise, in der NGOs und in einem benötigt, die nicht aufgrund technol- werden Beispiele aus diversen gewissen Ausmaß auch ICTs Infor- ogischer Änderungen ständig wieder Ländern angeführt, wo die einzel- mationen zum Aufbau langfristiger überaltert sind, wobei somit ständig nen Arten von Unterlagen aufgefun- Kapazitäten verwenden. Die wieder neue Zugangsmöglichkeiten den werden können. Hypothese lautet, dass Kommu- eröffnet werden. In einigen Ländern nikationsstrategien, die die sozialen haben die bestehenden Probleme im Alastair G. Smith. Citations and Aspekte des Zugriffs berücksichti- Zusammenhang mit dem Urheber- Links as a Measure of Effective- gen, die Wechselwirkung zwischen recht als Zugangsschranke durchaus ness of Online LIS Journals. der persönlichen Kommunikation auch in die Gesetzgebung Eingang [Zitate und Links als Maßstab für und der Online-Kommunikation gefunden; in diesem Zusammen- die Effektivität von Online LIS — erkennen und die Verwendung des hang wurde versucht, das Urheber- Journalen.] Internets mit einer breiten Palette recht ungültig zu machen. Aus IFLA – Journal 31 (2005) Nr. 1, an weiteren neuen und alten diesen Versuchen sind jedoch nicht S. 76–84 Medien kombinieren, die besten immer auch völlig zufrieden stel- Möglichkeiten für langfristig stabile lende Lösungen hervorgegangen. Dieser Beitrag untersucht die Ver- Entwicklungsinitiativen mit ICT Dieser Artikel befasst sich mit den wendung von Zitierungshäu- bieten. Dieses Thema wird anhand bestehenden Zugangsschranken bei figkeiten und Web-Links zur einer Reihe von Fragen Druckmedien aufgrund des Urhe- Beurteilung von Online – LIS – konkretisiert: Was sind die Barri- berrechtsgesetzes. Im Einzelnen Journalen. Der so genannte ‘Journal eren für ICT, und wie lässt sich das geht es dabei um Erfolge wie auch Impact Factor’, ein traditionelles damit verbundene Potenzial real- unglückliche Nebenwirkungen Maß zum Vergleich von Journalen, isieren? vorheriger Versuche zur Entfernung stützt sich auf die Zitierungshäu- dieser Zugangsschranken; zudem figkeit eines Journals über einen Welches ist die richtige Mischung werden technologische Entwicklun- gewissen Zeitraum im Verhältnis zu aus ICT-basierter Informationsver- gen erwähnt, die den Urheberschutz den in diesem Journal publizierten breitung und den traditionellen über beeinflussen. Schließlich versucht zitierbaren Artikeln. Der Web Druckmedien übertragenen Infor- der Artikel, die bisherigen Lektionen Impact Factor (WIF) [die Zitierung- mationen? Wie reagieren unter- in diesem Bereich isoliert her- shäufigkeit im Web] wurde als schiedliche Kulturen, wenn auszustellen. äquivalentes Maß für Websites Informationen aus der Ferne vorgeschlagen. Der WIF ist grob anstelle des persönlichen Kontakts George R. Ryskamp. European definiert als das Verhältnis der weitergegeben werden? Wie gut Emigration Records, 1820–1925. Links zu einer Site, relativ zur arbeiten die NGOs bei der gemein- [Unterlagen über europäische Anzahl der Informationseinheiten 115 Zusammenfassungen

(beispielsweise Seiten) auf dieser Jutta Weber. The Manuscript Col- lung in Berlin ist eine Geschichte der Site. Die Studie vergleicht die WIFs lections of Europe: a mirror of Migration von Manuskripen, der einer gewissen Auswahl von Online migration, separation and reunifi- Abtrennung gewisser Teile dieser — LIS–Journal — Websites mit der cation as seen in the Alexander Sammlung und ihrer erneuten jeweiligen konventionellen Zitier- von Humboldt Collection in Zusammenführung. Daraus ergeben ungshäufigkeit. Dabei werden die Berlin. [Die Manuskriptsammlun- sich einige allgemeinere Bemer- Links zu Online–Journalen häufig gen in Europa: ein Spiegel der kungen. Was passiert, wenn der als äquivalent zu den Zitaten Migration, Trennung und erneuten ursprüngliche Standort eines eingestuft, hier gibt es jedoch ein- Zusammenführung am Beispiel Manuskripts nicht sicher ist? Wie greifende Unterschiede. Der Artikel der Alexander von Humboldt- können wir die sichere Kon- zeigt auf, wie effektiv das Sammlung in Berlin.] servierung des Manuskripts an einer Online–Medium im Zusammen- IFLA – Journal 31 (2005) Nr. 1, anderen Stelle gewährleisten? Es hang mit der Kommunikation der S. 85–89 gibt gute Gründe für einen Zusam- LIS–Forschung ist. Hinzu kommen menschluss der Institutionen, die in Hinweise für LIS–Autoren und Manuskripte und ihre Autoren sind diesem Bereich zusammenarbeiten Herausgeber von Journalen, um immer auch den jeweiligen möchten. Da wir das Rad der diesen bei der effektiven Nutzung geschichtlichen Voraussetzungen Geschichte nicht zurückdrehen der Online–Journale behilflich zu unterworfen. Die Geschichte der können, müssen wir jetzt und in der sein. Alexander von Humboldt — Samm- Zukunft gemeinsam handeln.

116 Resúmenes

RESÚMENES

Linda Ashcroft y Chris Watts. ICT entes grupos de estudiantes están distribuyen estas investigaciones en Skills for Information Profession- utilizando los recursos de apren- sus colecciones. El acierto de retirar als in Developing Countries: per- dizaje en línea de la biblioteca. toda la investigación poco fiable de spectives from a study of the También menciona alguno de los la colección es dudoso, ya que parte electronic information environ- retos de ofrecer un programa de de información podría contener ment in Nigeria. [Destrezas en TIC aprendizaje con una gran accesibil- algún indicio de verdad que en el para los profesionales de la infor- idad, y expone las preguntas que futuro podría constituir una infor- mación en los países en vías de plantean las nuevas posibilidades mación fiable. desarrollo: perspectivas de un de e-learning a las bibliotecas estudio del entorno de la informa- nacionales. Emilia Ferreiro. Librarians and ción electrónica en Nigeria.] Basic Education Teachers in the IFLA Journal 31 (2005) Nº 1, Margareta Brundin. Democracy Context of ‘Digital Literacy’. [Los p 6–12 Building Activities in the Swedish bibliotecarios y los profesores de Riksdag; the role of a parliamen- educación básica en el contexto de Los cambios en el suministro de tary library. [Actividades para la la ‘Alfabetización digital’.] información provocados por la democracia en el Riksdag sueco; el IFLA Journal 31 (2005) Nº 1, aparición de los recursos de infor- papel de una biblioteca parlamen- p 35–44 mación electrónicos han dado lugar taria.] a los subsecuentes cambios en las IFLA Journal Vol. 31 (2005) Nº 1, Este artículo analiza en un tono capacidades que necesitan los profe- p 19–27 crítico el concepto de ‘alfabeti- sionales de la información. De los zación digital’ La alfabetización no profesionales de la información se Describe las actividades de una es un concepto estático. Los requisi- espera ahora que conozcan y sean nueva oficina creada por el Parla- tos de la alfabetización cambian capaces de utilizar las nuevas tec- mento de Suecia (el Riksdag) con el según el momento y el lugar. En la nologías de comunicación e infor- propósito de contribuir activamente actualidad, las TIC introducen mación, así como que posean las a aumentar el conocimiento público cambios radicales en el modo de destrezas comunicativas esenciales. — sobre todo el de los jóvenes — del producir y distribuir los textos. No Los organismos profesionales, como Riksdak y su trabajo, así como que obstante, no han cambiado la natu- CILIP en el Reino Unido y el ALA se interesen por él. La Biblioteca del raleza conceptual del proceso de en EE.UU., reconocen la impor- Riksdag contribuye a satisfacer la alfabetización. Se estudia la tancia de continuar el desarrollo necesidad pública de disponer de relación entre la educación básica y profesional para mantener las información exacta y de fácil acceso la introducción de nuevas tec- capacidades y la experiencia actual- sobre el trabajo y las decisiones del nologías, llegando a la conclusión izadas en todos los ámbitos de Riksdag con su política de puertas de que es demasiado arriesgado trabajo. La necesidad de tener abiertas, actividades regionales y confiar sólo en los ordenadores para destrezas en TIC tiene un claro formación de bibliotecarios de toda mejorar los resultados de la alfabet- efecto en los profesionales de servi- Suecia. ización. Incluso en los países más cios de referencia, con el nacimiento desarrollados están infrautilizados. de los servicios de referencia digi- Ann Curry. Unreliable Research: Se realizan propuestas sobre el tales. Un proyecto de investigación are librarians liable? [Investi- papel concreto que deben desem- llevado a cabo en la Liverpool John gación poco fiable: ¿Son respons- peñar los bibliotecarios para que las Moores University sobre el sumin- ables los bibliotecarios?] TIC se utilicen con mayor eficacia istro de información electrónica en IFLA Journal 31 (2005) Nº 1, en los contextos educativos. Los Nigeria, identificó una diferencia p 28–34 bibliotecarios ya han adoptado estas considerable de destrezas entre los tecnologías como una herramienta profesionales de la información. La Examina la historia y los casos habitual y eficaz, mientras que los colaboración y la gestión estratégica actuales de fraude y engaño en la profesores se resisten a utilizarlas. de los recursos puede ser la clave investigación, incluidos los motivos para aliviar este problema. de la trasgresión de los investi- Elizabeth Reade-Fong y Gary E. gadores: reputación y avance profe- Gorman. NGOs, ICTs and Infor- Lynne Brindley. The British Library sional, las posibilidades de ser mation Dissemination in Asia and and E-Learning. [La British descubierto, y los ineficaces papeles Oceania. [ONGs, TICs y distribu- Library y el e-learning.] de guardianes realizados por edi- ción de la información en Asia y IFLA Journal 31 (2005) Nº 1, tores y revisores. Según parece, los Oceanía.] p 13–18 bibliotecarios y los investigadores IFLA Journal 31 (2005) Nº 1, del LIS no están dispuestos a p 45–51 Ofrece una visión general del realizar o publicar estudios poco enfoque de la British Libray sobre el fiables, pero pueden surgir prob- Este artículo, que se centra el la e-learning, y describe cómo difer- lemas cuando los bibliotecarios situación de Asia y Oceanía, analiza

el modo en que las ONGs utilizan la intelectual, como las barreras de un sistema tradicional para com- información, y en cierta medida las acceso, han recibido atención legal a parar periódicos, se basa en los TIC, para crear capacidades modo de intentos por intentar recuentos de referencias de un per- sostenibles. Se plantea la hipótesis suprimirlas. Estos intentos no iódico en un tiempo determinado, de que las estrategias de comuni- siempre han dado lugar a soluciones comparado con los artículos que cación que tienen en cuenta la nat- perfectas. Este artículo trata las bar- pueden citarse del periódico. El uraleza social del acceso, reconocen reras de acceso a la impresión que Web Impact Factor (Factor de la interacción entre las comunica- genera la protección de la propiedad impacto web) se ha propuesto como ciones cara a cara y en línea, y com- intelectual, los subproductos con equivalente métrico para sitios web. binan el uso de Internet con una éxito y los menos afortunados de El WIF se define a grandes rasgos amplia gama de otros medios intentos anteriores por intentar como el número de vínculos que nuevos y antiguos, proporcionan las acabar con dichas barreras, y los dirigen a un sitio, comparado con el mejores oportunidades de iniciati- desarrollos tecnológicos que afectan número de unidades informativas vas de desarrollo sostenible medi- a la protección de la propiedad int- (páginas) del sitio. El estudio ante el uso de las TIC. Esta cuestión electual; además, intenta aislar las compara los WIF de una muestra de se plantea mediante una serie de lecciones aprendidas hasta la fecha. páginas web de periódicos LIS con preguntas: ¿Cuáles son las barreras sus recuentos de referencias con- para la adopción de las TIC, y cómo George R. Ryskamp. European vencionales. Los vínculos a los per- se podría realizar su potencial? Emigration Records, 1820–1925. iódicos en línea suelen considerarse [Registros de emigración europea, equivalentes a las referencias, pero ¿Cuál sería la mezcla apropiada de 1820–1925.] hay diferencias significativas. Este distribución de información basada IFLA Journal 31 (2005) Nº 1, artículo indica el grado de eficacia en las TIC e información tradicional p 68–75 del medio en línea para comunicar impresa? ¿Cómo reaccionan difer- la investigación del LIS y ofrece una entes culturas cuando se accede a la Los registros de inmigración son guía para los autores del LIS y edi- información remotamente en lugar extraordinarios pero, a menudo, tores de periódicos para ayudarles a de cara a cara? ¿Cómo colaboran impiden dar un panorama completo hacer un uso eficaz de los periódi- las ONGs entre ellas intercam- de los emigrantes y las experiencias cos en línea. biando información relacionada y procesos que vivieron. Los reg- con el desarrollo? ¿Cuáles son istros de emigración europea pro- Jutta Weber. The Manuscript Col- algunos de los impulsores y barreras porcionan una información lections of Europe: a mirror of de una colaboración más eficaz? exhaustiva sobre cada emigrante, migration, separation and reunifi- incluyendo a menudo su lugar de cation as seen in the Alexander J. W. Roos. Copyright Protection as origen. No existe ningún estudio de von Humboldt Collection in Access Barrier for People who todos estos registros, ni siquiera hay Berlin. [Las colecciones manu- Read Differently: the case for an una lista completa de los tipos de scritas de Europa: un espejo de la international approach. [Protec- registros y ubicaciones en cada país migración, separación y reunifi- ción de la propiedad intelectual europeo. Al describir el trabajo del cación según la Colección Alexan- como barrera de acceso para las Proyecto de Antepasados Inmi- der von Humboldt de Berlín.] personas que leen de otra forma: grantes en la Brigham Young Uni- IFLA Journal 31 (2005) Nº 1, las razones de un enfoque interna- versity, este artículo identifica los p 85–89 cional.] distintos tipos de registros que IFLA Journal 31 (2005) Nº 1, generaron los emigrantes en el Los manuscritos y sus creadores p 52–67 proceso de emigración, ofreciendo están sujetos a las condiciones de la ejemplos de varios países en los que historia. La historia de la Colección Para aquellas personas discapaci- se pueden encontrar cada tipo de Alexander von Humboldt de Berlín tadas visualmente, la protección de archivo. es una historia de la migración de la propiedad intelectual supone una manuscritos, la separación de partes barrera de acceso. Aunque tradi- Alastair G. Smith. Citations and de la colección, y su reunificación. cionalmente han utilizado Braille y Links as a Measure of Effective- Esto conduce a algunas considera- materiales de audio para satisfacer ness of Online LIS Journals. [Ref- ciones más generales. ¿Qué ocurre sus necesidades de lectura, al con- erencias y vínculos como medida si la ubicación original de un manu- siderar el acceso no deberíamos lim- de la eficacia de los periódicos en scrito no es segura? ¿Cómo itarnos exclusivamente al análisis de línea del LIS.] podemos garantizar una conser- dichos medios. En un entorno tec- IFLA Journal 31 (2005) Nº 1, vación segura del manuscrito en nológico que cambia rápidamente, p 76–84 otra ubicación? Son rezones de se necesitan métodos que no caigan peso para crear una alianza de insti- en desuso debido al cambio tec- Examina el uso de los recuentos de tuciones que deseen cooperar con nológico que abre nuevas oportu- referencias y vínculos web para respecto a estas cuestiones. Como nidades de acceso. En múltiples evaluar los periódicos en línea del no podemos volver atrás en el países los problemas creados por LIS. El Journal Impact Factor tiempo, debemos actuar juntos la protección de la propiedad (Factor de impacto de periódicos), ahora y el futuro. 118 Рефераты статей

Ρефeраты статей

Linda Ashcroft and Chris Watts. дистанционного обучения прием- изъятии всех ненадежных иссле- ICT Skills for Information Pro- лимы для национальных библиотек. довательских работ из коллекции, fessionals in Developing Coun- однако некоторые исследовательские tries: perspectives from a study of Margareta Brundin. Democracy работы могут содержать частицы the electronic information envi- Building Activities in the Swedish достоверной информации, которые ronment in Nigeria. Riksdag; the role of a parliamen- могут в будущем привести к IFLA Journal 31 (2005) No. 1, tary library. достоверном у исследованию. pp. 6–12 IFLA Journal 31 (2005) No. 1, [Линда Ашкрофт и Крис Ватс. pp. 19–27 Emilia Ferreiro. Librarians and Информационные компьютерные [Маргарета Брюндин. Действия, Basic Education Teachers in the технологии для профессионалов направленные на установление Context of ‘Digital Literacy’. в области информатики в развив- демократии в шведском Риксдак. IFLA Journal 31 (2005) No. 1, ающихся странах: перспе ктивы, Журнал ИФЛА 31 (2005) No. 1, pp. 35–44 основанные на изучении условий pp. 19–27] [Эмилия Феррейро. Библиотекари использования электронной инфо- и учителя начальной школы в рмации в Нигерии. Описывает действия нового контексте «Дигитальной грамотн- Журнал ИФЛА 31 (2005) No. 1, отделения, открытого парламентом ости» pp. 6–12] Швеции (Риксдак), с целью вносить Журнал ИФЛА 31 (2005) No. 1, активный вклад в улучшение pp. 35–44] Изменения в обеспечении инфо- общественных знаний (особенно рмацией, вызванные появлением знаний молодого поколения) о В данной статье критически источников электронной инфо- парламенте Швеции и проявлять рассматривается понятие «дигита- рмации, создали значительные интерес к его работе. Библиотека льной грамотности». Грамотность изменения в уровне навыков, парламента (Риксдака) вносит вклад не является статическим понятием. необходимых профессионалам в в удовлетворение потребностей Требования грамотности изменяются области информационных техно- жителей в достоверной и легко в зависимости от времени и места. логий. От них не ожидается, что доступной информации относительно В настоящее время с внедрением они обладают знаниями и способны работы и решений парламента путем информационных компьютерных использовать возникающие новые открытости в области политики, технологий произошли радикальные информационные технологии или деятельности в регионах и обучения изменения относительно способов обладают значительными навыками библиотекарей всей страны. производства и распространения коммуникации. Профессиональные текстов. Однако, они не изменили в организации, такие как CILIP в Ann Curry. Unreliable Research: корне суть литературного процесса. Великобритании и ALA в США are librarians liable? Подверглась изучению связь между признают важность непрерывного IFLA Journal 31 (2005) No. 1, начальной школой и введением профессионального развития с целью pp. 28–34 новых технологий, ведущая к модернизации навыков и знаний во [Ан Карри. Ненадежное заключению, что это слишком всех видах работы. исследование: в чем обязанности большой риск использовать лишь библиотекаря? только компьютеры, чтобы достичь Lynne Brindley. The British Журнал ИФЛА 31 (2005) No. 1, успехов в области литературы. Library and E-Learning. pp. 28–34] Но даже в самых высокоразвитых IFLA Journal 31 (2005) No. 1, государствах их используют pp. 13–18 Обращается к современным случаям и недостаточно. Предлагается отвести [Лин Бриндли. Британская примерам из прошлого относительно библиотекарям особую роль в деле библиотека и дистанционное подлога и обмана в области более эффективного использования образование через интернет. исследований, включая причины информационных компьютерных Журнал ИФЛА 31 (2005) No. 1, правонарушений исследователей – технологий в сфере образования, так pp. 13–18] репутация и продвижение по службе, как они уже их освоили и применяют, обращается к теме возможности в то время как учителя неохотно их Дает обзор, как Британская библио- быть пойманными и неэффективной используют. тека подходит к дистанционному роли издателей и рецензентов по обучению и как учебный материал защите авторских прав. Выяснилось, Elizabeth Reade-Fong and Gary E. из библиотеки на Интернете что библиотекари и исследователи Gorman. NGOs, ICTs and Infor- используется различными группами LIS не руководят и не публикуют mation Dissemination in Asia обучающихся. Также затрагиваются ненадежное исследование, но про- and Oceania. некоторые проблемы составления блемы могут возникнуть, когда IFLA Journal 31 (2005) No. 1, широкодоступной учебной прогр- библиотекари распространяют нена- pp. 45–51 аммы и поднимаются вопросы, дежное исследование через собрание [Элизабет Рид-Фонг и Гери Э. какие из новых возможностей публикаций. Задавались вопросы об Горман. Неправительственные

организации, информационные Журнал ИФЛА 31 (2005) No. 1, работы Проект предков-иммигрантов компьютерные технологии и pp. 52–67] в университете Бригем Йанг распространение информации в (Brigham Young University) эта статья странах Азии и Океании. Для людей с ограничениями возмож- дает определения различным типам Журнал ИФЛА 31 (2005) No. 1, ностей чтения защита авторских записей, созданным эмигрантами pp. 45–51] прав является барьером. Хотя они в процессе эмиграции, приводятся традиционно используют шрифт примеры нескольких стран, где Обращая особое внимание на Луи Брайля и аудиоматериалы существуют все описанные типы ситуацию в Азии и Океании, в этой для удовлетворения читательских записей. статье рассматривается, каким потребностей, нельзя ограничиваться образом неправительственные орга- исключительно анализом этих Alastair G. Smith. Citations and низации используют информацию, средств, рассматривая вопросы Links as a Measure of Effective- а также в некоторой степени и доступа к информации. В быстро ness of Online LIS Journals. информационные компьютерные меняющемся технологическом IFLA Journal 31 (2005) No. 1, технологии (ИКТ) для создания окружении необходимы средства, pp. 76–84 новых возможностей. Гипотетически которые не становились бы [Аластар Г. Смит. Цитата и ссылка стратегические направления в абсолютными и достаточными как мера измерения эффективности области коммуникации принимают благодаря техническим изменениям, журналов LIS в сети Интернет. во внимание социальную сферу открывающим новые возможности Журнал ИФЛА 31 (2005) No. 1, доступа к ним, признают вза- доступа к информации. В ряде стран pp. 76–84] имодействие между личной проблемы, вызванные защитой коммуникацией и коммуникацией авторских прав, такие как барьеры Исследует использование количества через Интернет и комбинируют доступа, получили внимание со цитат и ссылок, чтобы оценить Интернет с использованием широкого стороны законодательных органов журналы LIS на сети Интернет. спектра других новых и старых в форме попыток обойти эти права. Фактор упоминаний в журналах, средств массовой информации, чем Подобные попытки не всегда приводят традиционная метрическая сист- обеспечивают лучшие возможности к идеальному решению. Автор этой ема для сравнения журналов, для постоянного осуществления статьи выражает озабоченность основывается на подсчетах цитат инициатив путем использования существованием преград доступа к журнала за определенный период ИКТ. Мысль выражается путем печатной продукции, наложенных времени, сравнивается со статьями, серии вопросов: В чем заключаются защитой авторских прав, что опубликованными в журналах, из сложности использования ИКТ явствует из достижений и неудачных которых приводятся цитаты. Фактор и как потенциально реализовать результатов предыдущих попыток использований в сети Интернет их возможности? Что является борьбы с этими барьерами, связа- (The Web Impact Factor – WIF) подходящей комбинацией между нными с развитием технологий, был предложен как эквивалентная распространением информации влияющих на защиту авторских прав. метрическая система для страниц в через средства ИКТ и традиционной Автор старается извлечь пользу из Интернете. Более широко его можно печатной информацией? Как уроков прошлого. определить как соотношение ссылок, реагируют представители различных сделанных на сайте, сравниваемое культур на дистанционную инфо- George R. Ryskamp. European с количеством информационных рмацию по сравнению с переданной Emigration Records, 1820–1925. единиц (например, страниц) на лично? Насколько продуктивно IFLA Journal 31 (2005) No. 1, данном сайте. В исследовании сотрудничают неправительственные pp. 68–75 сравниваются WIF образца или организации друг с другом в области [Джорж Р. Рискамп. Данные журнала LIS на Интернет-сайте обмена информацией, связанной с европейской эмиграции. с обычными подсчетами цитат. подобным развитием. Что облегчает Журнал ИФЛА 31 (2005) No. 1, Считается, что ссылки на журналы и что затрудняет более эффективное pp. 68–75] на Интернет-сайте эквивалентны сотрудничество? цитатам, но существенной разницы Записи по европейской иммиграции не наблюдается. В статье указывается, ведутся, и это прекрасно, но часто насколько эффективными являются в них не удается проследить средства массовой информации на J.W. Roos. Copyright Protection полную картину эмигрантов, опыт и Интернете для коммуникативного as Access Barrier for People who процессы, через которые они прошли. исследования LIS, а также предла- Read Differently: the case for an Записи по европейской эмиграции гаются инструкции для авторов LIS international approach. представляют экстенсивную инф- и редакторов журналов с целью IFLA Journal 31 (2005) No. 1, ормацию об индивидуальных эмиг- помочь им эффективно использовать pp. 52–67 рантах, часто включают страну журналы на сети Интернет. [Й.В.Рос. Защита авторских прав происхождения. Не существует ни как барьер для доступа людей, одного исследования этих данных, Jutta Weber. The Manuscript читающих по-другому: вопрос для ни в одной европейской стране нет Collections of Europe: a mirror of рассмотрения на международном даже полного списка типов записей и migration, separation and reuniﬁ - уровне. мест их расположения. При описании cation as seen in the Alexander 120 Рефераты статей

von Humboldt Collection in Рукописи и другие исследования можем гарантировать безопасную Berlin. связаны с историческими условиями сохранность рукописи в другом IFLA Journal 31 (2005) No. 1, их создания. История коллекции месте? Существует ряд причин для pp. 85–89 Александра фон Гумбольта в Берлине создания сотрудничества между [Джута Вебер. Собрание рукописей – это история миграции рукописей, институтами, желающими сотру- Европы: зеркало миграции, раз- разделения частей коллекции и дничать по этим вопросам. Так как деления и воссоединения – тема их воссоединения. Это приводит мы не можем повернуть вспять коллекции Александра фон Гумбо- к большому количеству общих колесо истории, нам необходимо льта в Берлине. замечаний. Что если оригинальное сотрудничать сейчас и будущем. Журнал ИФЛА 31 (2005) No. 1, месторасположение рукописи не pp. 85–89] является безопасным? Как мы

121 NOTES FOR CONTRIBUTORS

Aims and Scope The IFLA Journal aims to promote and support the aims and core values of IFLA as the global voice of the library and information profession by providing authoritative coverage and analysis of (a) the activities of IFLA and its various constituent bodies and members, and those of other bodies with similar aims and interests and (b) completed, ongoing and proposed policies, plans and programmes related to the development of library and information services around the world.

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