Contents
Preface xxv Acknowledgments xxix A Note on Transliteration xxxi Chronology xxxiii Thematic Table of Contents xli List of Maps lvii
1. The Eighteenth Century: Ferment and Change 1
The Reorganization of Political Power 2
Aurangzeb: Letters to His Sons 4 Shah Wali-Allah: The Urgency of Political Instability 5 Iradat Khan: Decay at the Center of the Empire 7 Rebelling Against the Mughals: The Sikhs 8
Muhammad Qasim on Banda Bahadur’s Sikh Army 9 The Sikh Religious Code: Lives of Discipline and Devotion 10
Marathas: Courtiers, Rebels, Raiders, and State Builders 11
The History of Khafi Khan and the Story of Tara Bai 12 Ahilya Bai Holkar: A Maratha Woman Ruler 13 vi Contents
The Marathas as Raiders: A Bengali Perspective 14 Forts and War: The Essential Features of Any Kingdom 15 The Reality of War for a Common Soldier 16 The Chronicle of Bhausahib: Defeat in 1761 of the Marathas at Panipat 16
Tipu Sultan: Visionary Ruler of Mysore 18
The Infl uence of Commerce 20
Bankers and Traders: The Powers Behind the Thrones 21 “Business Men are the Glory and Ornament of the Kingdom” 22 Ananda Ranga Pillai: Merchant and Agent of the French 23 Ghulam Husain Khan: The Nawab of Bengal, the Marathas, and the Jagat Seths 24 Abu Talib: Cultural Comparisons, India Versus the West 26
On the Margins of Power 27
The Sannyasi Uprising 28 Himmat Bahadur, the People’s Hero 29
Religious Expressions, Devotional and Intellectual 30
Ramprasad Sen: Singing to the Goddess in Bengal 31 The Poetry of Nagaridas: Krishna Devotion in Vrindavan 33 Tyagaraja: Telegu Composer and Poet 35 Dayaram of Gujarat: Unchanging Devotion in a Changing World 37 Muddupalani: A Telegu Poet Advises Krishna How to Make Love 39 Shah Abd ul-Latif: Sufi sm in Sindh 41 Bullhe Shah: Neither Hindu nor Muslim 43 Waris Shah: Mystics and Lovers 45 Khwaja Mir Dard: Pain and Poetry 46 Shah Wali Allah and the Reconciliation of Difference 46
A General Approach to Legal Interpretation 47 The Causes for Disagreement Among the Schools of the Jurists 48 The Need for a Religion Which Abrogates the Other Religions 49
“Revolution in Bengal”: The East India Company 51
The Nawab of Bengal: “I Have No Remedy” 52 Richard Becher: “This Fine Country is Verging towards its Ruin” 53 Shah Abd ul-Aziz: Islam in Danger 54
Harsukh Rai’s Epitaph for the Eighteenth Century: Recognition of the Winners and Losers 55 Contents vii 2. The Early to Mid Nineteenth Century: Debates Over Reform and Challenge to Empire 57
Henry Derozio: Poet and Educator 60
Letter Protesting His Dismissal 61 Poem to India 62
The Decision to Introduce English Education 62
Sir William Jones: The Orientalist Viewpoint 63
Preface to the Grammar of the Persian Language 64
Rammohan Roy and the Uselessness of Orientalist Policies 65
A Letter on Education 67
Thomas Babington Macaulay and the Case for English Education 68
Speech to Parliament on the Government of India Bill 68 The Minute on Education 69
Rammohan Roy: Pioneer in East-West Exchange 72
How the British Took Control of India 73 The Need for a More Humane Morality and a Purer Mode of Worship 73 Hinduism Is Not Inferior to Christianity 74 In Defense of Hindu Women 75 For Freedom of the Press 77 The Future of India 78
Ishvarchandra Vidyasagar: Social Reformer and Champion of Women’s Rights 79
Arguments for the Compassionate Treatment of Girls and Women 80
Nilakantha Goreh: A Traditional Pandit Takes on the Missionaries 83
Doubts Concerning Christianity 84
Rassundari Devi: The First Bengali Autobiographer Looks Back on a Restricted Life 86
Learning to Read 86 viii Contents
Bibi Ashraf: A Young Muslim Girl Struggles to Educate Herself 90
Learning to Write 91
Mirza Asadullah Khan Ghalib: Do Not Worship the Dead 94
Refusing Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan 94
The Indian Rebellion of 1857: Deliberations, Fatalities, and Consequences 96
An Attempted Mughal Restoration: The Azamgarh Proclamation 98 The Rani of Jhansi: An Eyewitness Account 101 Bahadur Shah: The Last Days of the Last Mughal Emperor 106 Ghalib’s Delhi Diary: Storm and Turmoil 108 Bahadur Shah’s Defense 109 Queen Victoria’s Proclamation, November 1, 1858 110 Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan on the Causes of the Mutiny 112
Can Muslims Live in a Christian State? Ulema Who Speak for the British in 1871 116
Sir William Wilson Hunter: Decisions of Ulema in Mecca, Lucknow, and Rampur 117
3. The Later Nineteenth Century: Leaders of Reform and Revival 120
Debendranath Tagore: Renewer of the Brahmo Samaj 122
The Confl ict Between Sanskritic and Western Education 123 The Call to Renunciation, and a Decisive Dream 124 The Brahmo Samaj and Its Relation to Orthodox Hinduism 125
Keshab Chandra Sen and the Indianization of Christianity 126
Loyalty to the British Nation 128 The Asiatic Christ 129 An Indian National Church 130 A New Sacramental Ceremony 131
Dayanand Sarasvati: Vedic Revivalist 131
Awakening Against Idolatry 132 Critique of Islam 132 A Debate with a Christian 134 The Virtues of Europeans 135 Against the Hindu Reform Movements of the Nineteenth Century 136 Contents ix
Shri Ramakrishna: Mystic and Spiritual Teacher 136
The First Encounter with Kali 137 Meeting Jesus 138 The Deifi cation of Ramakrishna’s Wife 139 With the Brahmo Samaj 140
Swami Vivekananda: Hindu Missionary to the West 141
Sisters and Brothers of America 142 Man Is God 143 Image Worship Has a Place 143 The Kindergartens of Religion 144 Vivekananda and His Master 144 The Origins, Rationale, and Degradation of Caste 145 India and the West 146 Modern India 146
Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan: Enlightened Islam in a British Context 147
Lessons from London 149 The Importance of Modern Western Education 150 Hindu-Muslim Peaceful Coexistence Possible Only Under British Rule 151
Amir Ali and “The Spirit of Islam” 152
Islam as an Ethical Spirit That Is Benefi cial for Women 153
Mahadev Govind Ranade: Pioneer Maharashtrian Reformer 156
Revivalism Versus Reform 157
Jotirao Phule: Radical Reformer 160
The Tyranny of a Brahman-Dominated History 161 Letter to Mahadev Govind Ranade 164
Pandita Ramabai Sarasvati: Pioneering Feminist and Reformer 165
The Plight of Indian Women 166 An Autobiographical Account 169
Tarabai Shinde and a Feminist Defense of Women 171
The Treachery of Men 171 x Contents
D. K. Karve and Anandibai Karve: Living with Widow Remarriage 173
Marrying a Widow: Memoirs 174
Ashraf Ali Thanawi: Instructing the Respectable Muslim Woman 177
The Evils of Going Out 177
Nagendrabala Dasi and the New Companionate Marriage 180
Advice for a New Patriarchy 181
4. Liberal Social and Political Thought in the Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Century: The Moderates 183
Dadabhai Naoroji: Architect of Indian Nationalism 187
The Pros and Cons of British Rule 188 The Blessings of British Rule 191 The Moral Impoverishment of India 192
Sir Surendranath Banerjea: Bengali Moderate 194
The Need for Indian Unity 195 Faith in England 197 Faith in Social Progress 198
Mahadev Govind Ranade: Economic Proposals 199
India’s Need: State Guidance of Economic Development 199 Hindu-Muslim Cooperation 202
Gopal Krishna Gokhale: Servant of India 203
Taxation Without Representation 204 Improving the Lot of Low-Caste Hindus 205 The Servants of India Society 208
Romesh Chunder Dutt: Pioneer Economic Historian 210
The Causes of India’s Poverty 211
Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan: An Anti-Congress Speech 216
The Indian National Congress as a Danger and a Folly 216 Contents xi
Badruddin Tyabji and Rahmatullah Sayani: Why Muslims Should Join the Congress 224
The Congress Presidential Address by Tyabji 225 The Congress Presidential Address of Sayani 229
Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain: A Feminist Utopia and the Challenge to Women’s Seclusion 237
Men in the Zenana 238 The Secluded Ones: Stories of Purdah 240
Cornelia Sorabji: India’s First Woman Barrister 241
Advocating for Women 242
Sarojini Naidu: Congress Nightingale and Champion of Women’s Rights 246
Equality of Sexes 247
5. Radical Politics and Cultural Criticism, 1880–1914: The Extremists 250
Bankim Chandra Chatterjee: Nationalist Author 252
Hail to the Mother 254
Bal Gangadhar Tilak: “Father of Indian Unrest” 262
The Gita Versus the Penal Code 264 The Tenets of the New Party 265
Agitation Against the Bengal Partition and for Swadeshi: The Position of Surendranath Banerjea 268
Swadeshi in the Air 268
Aurobindo Ghose: Mystic Patriot 271
The Doctrine of Passive Resistance 272 The Morality of Boycott 279 Nationalism Is the Work of God 280 India’s Mission: The Resurrection of Hinduism 281 xii Contents
Sarala Devi Chaudhurani and the Revival of Revolutionary Feeling 282
Reminiscences Political and Personal 283
The Development of Linguistic Consciousness: Hindi vs. Urdu 287
[Vakil Ratnachand]: Hindi and Urdu in the Courtroom 287
Lala Lajpat Rai: “Lion of the Punjab” 289
An Open Letter to Sayyid Ahmad Khan 291 Reform Versus Revival 293 The Coming Political Struggle 294 Untouchability Must Go 296 Addressing the British Public 297 Why India Is in Revolt Against British Rule 299
Rabindranath Tagore: Poet, Educator, and India’s Ambassador to the World 301
“The Exercise Book” 303 Tagore’s Congress “Presidential Address” 307 “The Problem of India” 310 Where the Mind Is Without Fear 313 The Renunciation of Renunciation 314 To Yone Noguchi 314 The Sunset of the Century 317
Muhammad Iqbal: Poet and Philosopher of Islam 318
Songs for Children 320
Indian Song 321 Song of the Religious Community 321
Love 322 Time 323 Muslims Are One in Soul 323 The Need for Understanding Islam in the Light of Modern Knowledge 324 From Prophecy to Individual Judgment of One’s Inner and Outer Experience 325 Muslim Legislatures as a Means for the Evolution of Islamic Law 326 Fragments from Kashmir 327 Contents xiii
Art for the Nation 328
Art and Swadeshi: The Contribution of Ananda Coomaraswamy 329
Swadeshi: True and False 329
The “Oriental Art” of Abanindranath Tagore 332
When Artists Can Take Liberty 332
The Death-knell of Orientalist Art: Amrita Sher-Gil and the “True” India 335
My Destiny as a Painter 335
6. Mahatma Gandhi and Responses 338
Writings of Mahatma Gandhi
Hind Swaraj and the Proper Relationship Between Means and End, Power, and Freedom 345
A Disagreement with B. G. Tilak Over Swaraj 349
Gandhi Before the British: At the Disorders Inquiry Committee of 1920 350
The Crime of Chauri Chaura 355
The Great Trial: March 1922 357
Constructive Work in the Mid 1920s 360
Hindu-Muslim Tension, Its Cause and Cure: Tired of Non-Violence 360 Untouchability and Swaraj 362 The Sin of Untouchability 363 Untouchability, Women, and Swaraj 364
The Salt Satyagraha of 1930: The Letter to Lord Irwin 365
From the Gandhi-Irwin Pact to Quit India 369
Gandhi’s Responses to India’s Civil War in His Last Year 371
True Altruism 375 xiv Contents Responses to Gandhi
The Heir Apparent: Jawaharlal Nehru 376
“Be Not Afraid” 377 Salt, the Word of Power 381
Sarojini Naidu: Colleague and Devotee 384
The First Meeting 384 The Rowlatt Bills Controversy 385 Gandhi—My Master 386
The Challenge of Rabindranath Tagore 387
Non-Cooperation as Political Asceticism 388 “The Call of Truth”: Tagore’s Critique of Gandhi 390 “The Great Sentinel”: Gandhi’s Response to Tagore 393
Communist Responses to Gandhi 396
M. N. Roy’s Analysis of Gandhi’s “Reactionary” Movement 398 Rajani Palme Dutt: An Indian Communist’s View from Britain 402
Muslim Responses to the Mahatma: Mohamed and Shaukat Ali—Allies Then Adversaries 407
Mohamed Ali: To Self-Government Through Hindu-Muslim Unity, Nonviolence, and Sacrifi ce 409
Mohandas Gandhi: Response to the Ali Brothers’ Critique 411
Terrorism Versus Non-violence 414
A Manifesto Against Gandhi, the Impossible Visionary 415 Gandhi’s Reply: The Cult of the Bomb 416 Kartar Singh’s Rejoinder: “The Philosophy of the Bombs” 418
The Gandhi-Ambedkar Debate 421
Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar: The Evils of Caste 423 Mohandas Gandhi: Responses to Dr. Ambedkar’s Indictment 426
Periyar Responds to Gandhi on Caste 429
On How Gandhi’s Program Initially Differed from Those of Other Congress Leaders 430 On Gandhi’s Lunacy or Strategy to Build Consensus at the Cost of Compromising His Commitment to Social Reform 431 On Gandhi’s Apotheosis and Assassination 431 Contents xv
Subhas Chandra Bose: Fervent Nationalist and Socialist 432
The Role of Mahatma Gandhi in Indian History 434 Address to Mahatma Gandhi Over the Rangoon Radio on July 6, 1944 437
Nathuram Godse: Gandhi’s Assassin 439
Trial Speech 440
Nirad Chaudhuri’s Critique of Gandhi’s Non-Violence 443
The Old and New Militarisms of Hindu History 444
Jayaprakash Narayan: From Marxist to Gandhian 446
A Plea for a Communitarian Polity and Economy 448
7. To Independence and Partition 453
The Congress-Muslim League Scheme of Reforms, or Lucknow Pact, 1916 462
Sarojini Naidu: Hindus, Muslims, and Indian Unity 466
In Support of the Lucknow Pact 466 For the Evolution of National Life 467
Rabindranath Tagore on Hindus and Muslims 469
A Letter to Kalidas Nag 469
The Bengal Pact: A Provincial Effort at Communal Rapprochement, 1923–1924 471
Lala Lajpat Rai: A Plan to Divide the Punjab and Bengal 473
The Hindu-Muslim Problem, 1924 473
Vinayak Damodar Savarkar: Hindu Nationalist 483
The Glories of the Hindu Nation 484
Muhammad Iqbal: Political Spokesman for India’s Muslims 488
A Separate State for Muslims Within India 488 Letters to Jinnah 491 xvi Contents
Choudhary Rahmat Ali: Giving a Name to Pakistan 494
“The Fatherland of the Pak Nation” 494
Muhammad Ali Jinnah: Founder of Pakistan 496
“We Have to Live Together . . . We Have to Work Together” 499 Hindus and Muslims: Two Separate Nations 500 The Push Toward a New Muslim Nation 503
C. Rajagopalachari’s Approach to Congress-League Settlement, and the Gandhi-Jinnah Letters, 1944 505
Letter to M. A. Jinnah 505 The Gandhi-Jinnah Correspondence on Rajagopalachari’s Formula 507
G. D. Adhikari and the Views of the Communist Party of India 511
National Unity Now! 511
Subhas Chandra Bose: On the Rani of Jhansi Regiment and Congress-League Negotiations 518
“The Rani of Jhansi Regiment” 518 On the Gandhi-Jinnah Meeting 520
The Cabinet Mission, May 16, 1946, and Congress’s Response 522
The Last British Offer 522 Congress’s Response to the Plan 527
Dr. B. R. Ambedkar Considers Partition 528
Must There Be a Pakistan? 528
Gurbachan Singh and Lal Singh Gyani: The Sikhs’ Dilemma 536
Demanding a Sikh State 537
Sarat Chandra Bose Takes the Lead: Efforts for a United Bengal 542
Proposing a Bengal Free State 543 On the Mountbatten Plan 547
Lord Louis Mountbatten: Negotiations for Independence and Partition 549
Diffi culties with Jinnah and the Imperceptible Nod 550 Contents xvii Jawaharlal Nehru: The Future Prime Minister of India Refl ects 554
“A Time of Trial and Sorrow” 554
Mohandas Gandhi on Partition 556
Speeches at Four Prayer Meetings in June–July, 1947 556
Abul Kalam Azad: Muslim Nationalist 560
The Muslims of India and the Future of India 561 The Steps to Partition 563
Begum Shaista Ikramullah: A Muslim League View of Partition 574
Cherished Encounters with Jinnah 574
Urvashi Butalia: Survivors’ Oral Accounts 583
Stories of Flight, Abduction, and Honor Killing 583
8. Issues in Post-Independence India 591
Giving Birth to the Nation 594
Rabindranath Tagore: India’s National Anthem 594 Prime Minister Nehru: India’s “Tryst with Destiny” 595
Constituent Assembly, 1947–1950 596
Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, Law Minister 597
Defending the Nation 597 Looking to the Future in Light of the Past 598
The Constitution of India 600
The Unity and Integrity of the Nation 604
V. P. Menon and the Integration of the Indian States 604 The States Reorganization Commission 608 Self-Determination and Succession: Threats to Unity and Integrity 611
Kashmir 611
The Treaty of Amritsar 611 India’s Appeal to the United Nations Security Council 613 The Council’s Resolution 614 Article 370 of the Constitution 615 xviii Contents
Sheikh Abdullah: Kashmiri Patriot 615 Home Minister G. B. Pant: Rethinking the Plebiscite 617
Punjab 619
Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale’s Call “For our Faith, For the Sikh Nation, For the Oppressed” 619
Nagaland 621
A. Z. Phizo: The Demand for Self-Determination 621
Democracy and Education 624
B. R. Ambedkar: Can Democracy Survive in India? 625 “Anonymous” on Nehru as Possible Dictator 626 The Rule of Indira Gandhi (1966–1977, 1980–1984) and the Emergency: Threats to Indian Democracy 627
Prime Minister Gandhi: Broadcast to the Nation 628 Prime Minister Gandhi: Promises for the Future and the Twenty-Point Program 630
J. P. Narayan: Total Revolution and Denouncing the Emergency 631 The Shah Commission: Report on the Emergency 633 Children, Education, Labor, and the State 635
Myron Weiner: Dialogues on Education 635 Prime Minister Manmohan Singh: The Fundamental Right of Children to Elementary Education 638 Amartya Sen: Democracy, Economic Development, and Human Rights 639
Socialism, Economic Development, and Poverty 644
Jawaharlal Nehru’s Vision: Socialism and Its Alternatives 644 Government Action: The First Five-Year Plan, 1952 646 Kamaladevi Chattopadhyaya: The Fusion of Socialism, Nationalism, and Art 648 Jagdish Bhagwati: The Results of Government Control of the Economy 649 Nandan Nilekani: India Entering a New Era of Growth 652 Mira Kamdar: Some Despair on Planet India 655
Toward Equality and Social Justice 659
Vinoba Bhave: Get Rid of Institutions 659 Communist Insurgencies: Telangana and Naxalbari 662
Leftward Move of the CPI, and the Telangana Rebellion 662 Uprising in Naxalbari: Declarations of the Revolutionaries 664 Contents xix
Ranajit Guha and the Subaltern School: Challenging Received Interpretations 668 Smitu Kothari: The Narmada Movement, National Planning, and Popular Resistance 670 The Continuing Oppressions of Caste 673
The Mandal Commission and the Other Backward Classes (OBCs) 673 Viramma: The Life of a Rural Dalit Woman 677 Kumud Pawde: A Dalit Women Professor Describes Her Professional Life 681 Kancha Ilaiah: The Shudra Critique of Hindu Cooption 685 Dalit Poems of Resistance, Rejection, and Hope for Reconciliation 688
Seeking Women’s Rights: Fulfi lling Constitutional Guarantees 690
Toward Equality: Report of the Committee on the Status of Women 691 Madhu Kishwar: Reality for Women in Politics 696 Asghar Ali Engineer: An Indian Muslim Reformer on the Plight of Women 698
Muslims in Post-Independence India 700
The Sachar Commission and Indian Muslims 701 Asghar Ali Engineer: A Muslim’s Reactions to Sachar 705
Hindu Nationalism, Communalism, and Secularism 707
Jawaharlal Nehru’s Last Will and Testament 708 S. P. Mookerjee: Hinduism Is “Synonymous with India’s Widest National Aspirations” 709 The Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh: Defi ning Hindu Nationalism 710 M. S. Golwalkar: The Central Core of Nationhood 711
The Hindu Way of Life 711 Dharma Awakens the Common Inner Bond 712 The Dangers of Muslims, Christians, and Communists 713
Balraj Madhok: The Indianization of All Aspects of National Life 715 Bipan Chandra: What Is Communalism? 717 Mushirul Hasan: Secularism, Communalism, and the Religious Symbol of the Babri Masjid 718 The BJP Perspective: The Babri Masjid Was a Symbol of Conquest, Not Religion 719 Sumit Sarkar: Secularism, Nationalism, and the Right to Conversion 720 Arun Shourie: Missionaries in India 722 Cassette Culture and the Provocation of Religious Violence 723 xx Contents
Partha Chatterjee: Secularism and Tolerance 723 Aijaz Ahmad: The Rise and Power of the Hindu Right 727
Foreign Policy: Sovereignty 732
Prime Minister Nehru: Avoiding Foreign Entanglements 733 Krishna Menon: Bandung, and the Origin and Meaning of the Term “Non-Alignment” 734 Prime Minister Nehru: The Betrayal of India by the Chinese 736 Prime Minister Indira Gandhi: India and the World 738 Nuclear Power and Foreign Policy: After 1974 742
Prime Minister Indira Gandhi: “Buddha Smiled” 742 Dr. Raja Rasmanna: “Noises of Protest” 744 Prime Minister A. B. Vajpayee: Evolution in India’s Nuclear Policy 745 Prime Minister Manmohan Singh: On the Nuclear Treaty with the United States 746
Postscript: Who Speaks for India? 748
Amartya Sen and the Indian Plurality of Identities 748
9. Pakistan, 1947 and After: The Struggle for National Identity 750
Birth of a Nation: Literary Refl ections by Faiz Ahmad Faiz 753
1947–1958: Parliamentary Democracy and Islamic Identity 756
Visions of Pakistan 759
Muhammad Ali Jinnah: The Vision of Secular Pakistan 759 Liaquat Ali Khan: The Objectives Resolution 762 The Munir Report: Can There Be an Islamic State? 764 Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi: The Islamist Vision of an Islamic System 767
The Kashmir Dispute 774
Prime Minister Chaudhri Muhammad Ali: The Origins of the Dispute 774 Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan: The Cause of Freedom 776 Sir Muhammad Zafrulla Khan: Pakistan’s Reply to India’s Complaint to the United Nations 778 Pakistan’s Answer to the Security Council Resolution 780 American Ambassador Horace Hildreth: Pakistan Becomes a “Tolerable Risk” 780
1958–1971: The Hegemony of the Military 783
General Ayub Khan: Why Military Rule Was Necessary for Pakistan 783 Contents xxi
General Ayub Khan: The Conservative Religious Perspective and the Modern State 785 The Yahya Military Regime and the Separation of East Pakistan 788
Zulfi kar Ali Bhutto: The Great Tragedy 789 Hasan Zaheer: The Separation of East Pakistan 790 Asif Farrukhi: The 1971 War from a Child’s Perspective in Pakistan 792
1972–1977: Civilian Rule by Zulfi kar Ali Bhutto: Democracy and Islamic Socialism 795
Zulfi kar Ali Bhutto: Marching Toward Democracy 796 Mahbub ul-Haq: 22 Families Own 66 Percent of Pakistan 797 Zulfi kar Ali Bhutto: The Myth of Independence 800 Zulfi kar Ali Bhutto: The Death Cell and History 801
1977–1988: Military Rule and Islamization: The Zia Years 803
General Zia: The Cold War Redux 804 The Women’s Movement in Pakistan 805
The Muslim Family Laws Ordinance, 1961 805 Asma Jahangir and Hina Gilani: The Hudood Ordinances, 1979, and Opposition by Women’s Activists 808 Farida Shaheed and Tahmina Rashid: Women and the Women’s Movement in Pakistan 810 Kishwar Naheed and Fahmida Riaz: Mothers and Daughters, in Urdu Poetry 812
1988–1999: Restoration of Civilian Rule 815
Benazir Bhutto: The Return to Democracy 815 Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif: Nuclear Explosions 816
1999–2008: The Military Rule of General Pervez Musharraf and Its Later Civilianization 817
President Pervez Musharraf: A General Refl ects 818 President Pervez Musharraf: The Symbiosis of Religion and Terrorism 819 Education in Pakistan 821
Shahid Javed Burki: Causes for a Deteriorating Educational System 822 Usman Ali Isani and Latif Virk: Education at All Levels: The National Reports 823 Pervez Hoodbhoy: Religion, Science, and Education: The Battle for Rationality 824 A. H. Nayyar: Religious Schools as Alternatives: The Madrasa Issue 826 xxii Contents 2008 and Beyond: Questions of Pakistan’s National Identity 829
10. Bangladesh: Independence and Controversies Over the Fruits of Freedom 833
Two National Songs 833
Rabindranath Tahore: The National Anthem 834 Kazi Nazrul Islam: “March on, March on, March on!” 834
The Formative Historical Context, 1905–1947 836
Life in East Pakistan, 1947–1971: Moving Toward the Split 838
The Language Movement 839
Dhirendra Nath Dutta’s Historic Plea and Jinnah’s Address in Dhaka 839 Abdul Gaffar Chaudhuri’s Famous Elegy for the February 1952 Martyrs 840
Political Jockeying and the Redressing of Perceived Wrongs: 1952 to 1958 841
The Twenty-One Point Program of the United Front Party 842
The Argument for Joint Electorates 844
Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy: Speech Before the Dacca Provincial Assembly 844
The Transition to Military Rule and the Escalation of Bengali Nationalism: 1958 to 1971 846
Sheikh Mujib: The Awami League’s Six Points 848 Moving Toward Civil War: The Horror, the Victory 850
Jahanara Imam’s Wartime Diary 8 5 2 Poetic Laments: Shamsur Rahman, Jasim Uddin, Sufia Kamal 8 5 8
After 1971: The Awami League Government and the Failure of an Ideal 862
Abul Masnur Ahmad: The Lahore Resolution Restored 862 Badruddin Umar: A Leftist Critique of the Constitution 864 Maulana Bhashani: Islamic Socialism and the Example of Mao Tse Tung 866 Nirmalendu Goon: Lamenting the Fall of Sheikh Mujib 868
Military Rule and the Move to Bangladeshi Nationalism, Islamization, and the Rehabilitation of “Collaborators” 870
Syed Ali Ahsan: The Failed Chance of Pakistan 872 Ziaur Rahman: The Nineteen-point Program 873 Contents xxiii
Khondakar Abdul Hamid: Bengali Versus Bangladeshi Nationalism 874 Changes to the Constitution of Bangladesh 876 The Jamaat-e Islami and the Critique of Secularism 878
Ghulam Azam: The Threat of a Secular West Bengal 879
The Defense of Secularism in Bangladesh 882
Maulana Bhashani Warns His Country 883 Anisuzzaman: A Statement for Secularism in Bangladesh 884
The Return to Democracy, and Continuing Challenges for Civil Society 887
The Chittagong Hill Tracts and the Defi ance of “National Integrity” 889
Jana Samhati Samiti: The Chittagong Hill Tracts Guidelines 890
Literary Critiques of Bangladeshi Society 891
Taslima Nasrin and the Injustices of Abuse 891 Humayun Azad: A Prayer for Forgiveness 893
Muhammad Yunus: Micro-credit and the Bangladeshi Miracle 895
Notes 899 Bibliography 909 Credits 925 Index 931