Research Articles Understanding the Religious Worlds of the Subalterns: An Analysis of Syncretic Culture in Bengal Sudarshana Bhaumik * Debates on multiculturalism in the Western democracies in early twentieth century Bengal and its reception in have often fuelled discussions of minority history. After the Bengal public sphere. Sarkar takes religion to be the Second World War, writing of history has increasingly crucial for understanding Subaltern militancy as in his become entangled with the so-called ‘politics’ and essay discussing Gandhian civil protest in Bengal. Also production of ‘identity’. Therefore, necessity often important are Shahid Amin’s study of how Gandhi arises in all democracies to include in the history of the became a divine, miraculous figure in Gorakhpur in the nation, histories of the indigenous and the ethnic groups 1920s and to Ishita Banerjee Dube’s study on Mahima who had been previously left out from it. In the 1970s, Dharma and its relation with the cult of Jagannatha. such studies came to be known as ‘history from below’. For several centuries, Bengal has been the site for Among other things, such studies have also focussed on diverse races, creeds, religions and cultures. Unlike the belief patterns of the indigenous groups, who have northern India, Bengal witnessed less hegemonisation been recently referred to as ‘subalterns.’1 by Brahmanical influences. In the first place, there was Religion may be treated as a platform through which the relatively flexible indigenous society, where caste one can understand the mentality of the subalterns. The practices were not rigid. In the Candimangalkavya, ritually present study is an attempt to understand this particularly defiled Candals are described as rightful dwellers of the in the field of religion. The so-called ‘lower orders’ of city and not treated as outcastes. Niharranjan Ray has Bengal mainly connect themselves with popular religion, argued that the caste system was not as rigorous in Bengal while contesting with the hierarchical structure and as it was in the Aryavarta. This was because of the late ideology of castes, which has been vigorously contested process of Aryanization and the prolonged existence of a in the realm of popular religion, and is often defined more liberal indigenous tribal culture, which constantly through a process of exclusion as the ‘other’ religion. In interacted with the orthodox varna culture and diluted this paper, we would illustrate this by closely examining it. As the settled agricultural economy expanded in pre- the concepts, rituals and the epistemological shifts over colonial Bengal, linkages between caste and class became time in a number of minor religious sects that developed more visible with those providing physical labour lose in Bengal since the late eighteenth century as a part of the their status to those who refrained from it but nevertheless continuing tradition of bhakti.2 controlled land such as Brahmins, Kayasthas and Baidyas. This paper considers the works of some of the renowned These three jatis were the traditional ujchajatis (higher scholars who have revealed deep understanding on castes) of Bengal.3 the subject. One of the foremost among them is Partha The dominant caste ideology could also be noticed in Chatterjee, who in the inaugural number of the ‘Subaltern its obvious influence on tribal communities which lived Studies’ series in 1982, demonstrated how religion deeply at the periphery of the settled varna society. A constant influenced communal identification in agrarian contexts, interaction between the two cultures transformed both. both as a weapon of dominance wielded by a Hindu While the varna system in Bengal became less rigid, the majority and a tool of resistance for mobilizing Muslim tribes also went through a process of Hinduization which peasants. We may also consider the writings of Sumit the pioneer Bengali anthropologist Nirmal Kumar Bose Sarkar such as his treatment of the ‘Kalki Avatar’ scandal has described as ‘Hindu method of tribal absorption’.4 The dominance of Brahmanical religion was further * Sudarshana Bhaumik, Research Fellow, Dept. of History, contested by Buddhism and the advent of Islam. With the University of Calcutta. emergence of certain Buddhist dynasties like the Palas, Summerhill: IIAS Review 39 between the eighth and twelfth centuries in Bengal, the Bengal. This led to the emergence of Sufis in Bengal.10 Kambojas in northern and eastern Bengal, in the tenth The earliest known Muslim inscriptions in Bengal dealt century and Chandras in eastern and southern Bengal, with the group of immigrant Sufis,11 who had settled in between the tenth and eleventh centuries, Brahmanism Bengal and participated in community building activity, was greatly challenged. With the spread of Buddhism in including forest clearing and cultivation.12 However, Bengal, the degeneration of the Buddhist monks began Richard M. Eaton argues that men who entered the to be noticed. Buddhism now came to be associated delta not as holy warriors but also as pious mystics or with Tantricism. This trend, however, had already been freebooting settlers. From the beginning of Indo-Turkish started from the time of Lord Buddha. The Caryapadas encounter with Bengal, one section of Muslims sought composed during this period, embodied the religious to integrate into their religious lives elements of esoteric tenets of Sahajiya Buddhism, a later day offshoot to practices of local yogis. Contemporary Muslims perceived Tantric Buddhism. A good number of Tantric scholars of northern Bengal generally, and specially Kamrup, lying Buddhism and the authors of the Dohas and Caryapadas between Brahmaputra River and hills of Bhutan, as a place flourished during this period. inhabited by expert practitioners of yoga and of magic. Due to Tantric influence and the work of the This was noted by Ibn Batuta on his visit to Sylhet. The Siddhacharyas, sexuality became a part of religious Sufis too were attracted to the yogic traditions of Kamrup. culture. In his novel Bener Meye, Haraprasad Sastri Within the very first decade of Turkish conquest, there depicted how eleventh century society of Bengal revolved began to circulate in deltaic Bengal, Persian and Arabic round this Siddhyacharyas. In fact, though Buddhism translations of a Sanskrit manual on tantric yoga entitled was losing its ground, the Pala rulers tried to maintain ‘Amritkunda’. a balance between Brahmanism and Buddhism.5 During Brahmanical dominance in Bengal was further the twelfth century, Bengal came under the rule of Senas challenged the Bhakti movement launched by Sri who were followers of Vaishnavism. Consequently, there Chaitanya during the sixteenth century. The movement was a new emphasis on the Vaishnava cult of Radha and offered an alternative to ritualistic Brahmanical religion, Krishna. The immense popularity of the Radha Krishna and provided a new egalitarian theological platform. It is songs gradually began to influence Buddhist Sahajiya to be noted that Bengal was already the home of several thought. This resulted in the birth of a new sect called the esoteric sects comprising the Kapalikas, Abhadhutas Vaishnava Sahajiya6 which remained an obscure religious and Nath Yogis even before the success of the Bhakti cult of Bengal, little known to the upper caste society of movement. 13 the modern age. The Vaishnava-Sahajiya cult was the outcome of the amalgamation of two religious cultures: Towards a Syncretic Development: Subalternity and Buddhist Sahaj-Jnana and Gaudiya Vaishnavism.7 The its Syncretic Culture upaya and prajna of Buddhist Sahajiyas were transformed into Krshna and Radha, the ultimate state of mahasukha or The failure of Gaudiya Vaishnava order to incorporate the supreme love. Therefore, an important part of this group’s lower strata of the society subsequently led to popular sahaj sadhana was the religious process of gradually adaptations of Vaishnavism in the form of syncretic sects.14 transforming human love into divine or spiritual love. 8 The early radicalism of Gaudiya Vaishnav sampradaya was The next phase of Bengal’s social history was highly increasingly overshadowed by conservative social forces. significant. It was a transition period, while Brahmanical It proved more attractive to the upwardly mobile peasant Hinduism increasingly became assertive and dominant in and trading castes, like the Sadgops or Tilis.15 Gradually, parts of Bengal. Buddhist and native ideas and practices, Brahman gurus, threatened by the ever growing number especially those focusing on cults celebrating the forest of low caste converts, began to surround themselves with goddess, still continued to shape the religious culture of privileges and re-introduced caste differentiation. 16 ordinary people. In the midst of this transitional period, While the mainstream Gaudiya Vaishnava order was Bengal came under the Muslim rule. Initially, Muslim thus appropriated, the more radical Sahajiya tradition rulers did not set about transforming the society; their continued to interrogate the ideology of varnashram principal goal was to consolidate their own political power dharma and the rituals of the Vedic Brahmanical religion.17 in a territory which was almost entirely non–Muslim.9 Thus, Sudra gurus, most of whom had no link, with the The new rulers not only posed a serious challenge to the orthodox Gaudiya Vaishnava order, attracted lower caste rigours of caste system but also propagated Islam. men and women. Thus, the casteless Vaishnavs, the