ISSN: 2394-0352 PEARL Multidisciplinary Journal Volume 3, No. 1, February 2017
Concept of Remote Sensing 3 Veena Devi Shastrimath V
Gender, Education and Development – A Human Rights Perspective 18 V Basil Hans Sowjanya S Shetty M Raghavendra Rao
Ignored Claims: A Prolific Investigation on 35 Rescued Trafficked Women in Mysore City-India Nanjunda
A Paradigm of Traditional Market Culture and 44 Mall Culture - A Perceptional Study Iqbal Ahamed U T Yathish Kumar
Dalit Entrepreneurship: Problems and Prospects with 52 Special Reference to Dakshina Kannada District Radhakrishna Gowda V, Pramod Gonchikar
Social Innovation in the Care of the Differently Abled 63 Prince C P
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Veena Devi Shastrimath V Department of Electronics and Communication NMAM Institute of Technology Karkala Taluk NITTE, Karnataka - 574110, India Email: [email protected] Abstract: Remote sensing is the science of making inferences about objects from measurements, made at a distance, without coming into physical contact with the objects under study. This article gives a basic introduction to remote sensing and its recent advancements and its applications. Key Words: Remote Sensing, Electromagnetic Spectrum, Digital Image Processing, Image Enhancement, GPS, GIS, ERDAS. Introduction Remote sensing is the science of acquiring information about the earth’s surface without actually being in contact with it. This is done by sensing and recording reflected or emitted energy and processing, analyzing and applying that information. Exploration of earth’s natural resources is vital for the socio-economic development of any country. The various studies carried out in India and elsewhere in the world proves beyond doubt that remote sensing is a powerful tool for mapping inventorying, monitoring and managing of natural resources due to the inherent advantages of synoptic viewing, repetitive imaging, capability to study inaccessible areas, relatively at low cost and real time/near real time availability of data. Satellite remote sensing, in conjunction with geographic information systems, has been widely applied and recognized as a powerful and effective tool in analyzing land cover/use categories. Remote sensing is mainly concerned with the measurement or acquisition of information about an object without being in physical contact with the object under study. The term remote sensing is restricted to methods, which employ electromagnetic energy (fig.1) as the means for collection of information about the object. Remote Sensing provides spatial coverage by measurement of reflected, emitted and backscattered radiation, across a wide range of wavebands, from the earth surface and surrounding atmosphere. Remote sensing based spatial coverage can be measured by reflected and emitted electromagnetic radiations emitted from the earth surface and surrounding atmosphere.
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Figure 1: Electromagnetic Spectrum
Remotely sensed data of the land surface is possible across a wide range of wavebands, from the ultra-violet (UV), visible (VIS), near infrared (NIR), short wave infrared (SWIR), mid-infrared (MIR), thermal infrared (TIR), and microwave (MV) regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Depending on its physical features and properties, the earth surface reflects or reradiates or emits electromagnetic waves of different frequency and intensity. The measurement of reflected or radiated or emitted electromagnetic radiations form the basis for the understanding the characteristic of earth surface features [1-3]. Only selected wavelength of the electromagnetic spectrum that can pass through the earth atmosphere with little attenuation is used for remote sensing purposes. Each object of the earth surface features reflects, radiates or emits or emits electromagnetic waves of different frequency and intensity. These typical responses are used to distinguish the objects from one another. The essence of remote sensing process is shown in figure 2.
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Figure 2: Process of Remote Sensing
Concept of Remote Sensing
Solar Energy
Ground data are generally required for a full and accurate characterization from remotely sensed data. Primarily due to environmental and atmospheric variation through time and space, it is necessary to measure the property at several places and obtain a site specific statistical model of the relation between the remote and ground data. The model so obtained can be applied to the reminder of the image pixels to estimate the property of interest over the area covered by the image. The satellite based navigation system provides autonomous geospatial positioning with global coverage. A constellation of 24 earth-orbiting satellites in six orbital planes, (figure 3) which is maintained by the United States Government for the purpose of defining geographic positions which are used in GPS as space segment. The control system in the ground tracks the satellite and provides correct orbital and clock information. A user system called the GPS receiver is used to determine the location (longitude, latitude and altitude) by using time signals transmitted from a satellite.
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Figure 3: GPS Satellites and Its Six Orbital Planes
1. Image Processing Techniques Accuracy of input and source of input are more important for any kind of critical analysis. Satellite images are the sources of data used in the present study. The digital image processing techniques offer various tools to enhance the digital satellite imagery. The digital image processing is largely concerned with four basic operations: image restoration, image enhancement, image classification, and image transformation [4]. The image restoration is concerned with the correction and calibration of images in order to achieve a faithful representation of the earth surface as far as possible. The operation of image restoration is to correct the distorted image data to create a more faithful representation of the original scene. This normally involves the initial processing of raw image data to correct geometric distortions, to calibrate the data radiometrically and to eliminate the noise present in the data. Image rectification and restoration are also termed as pre-processing operations. 1.1 Image Enhancement is predominantly concerned with the modification of images to optimize their appearance to the visual system. The enhancement is concerned with the modification of images to make them more suited to the capabilities of human vision. Regardless of the extent of digital intervention, visual analysis invariably plays a very strong role in all aspects of remote
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sensing. Enhancement of the imagery can be done by the histogram equalization method or linear saturation method before analysis. The image transformation refers to the derivation of new imagery as a result of some mathematical treatment of the raw image bands. To highlight the geological, geomorphologic and land use/land cover units, various image transformation techniques like contrast enhancement, edge enhancement, band rationing and image fusion can be applied to the satellite imagery to derive new images which are more suitable for the purpose of human visual perception or computer processing tasks. 1.2 Image Classification refers to the computer-assisted interpretation of images that is vital to GIS. Digital image classification is the process of assigning a pixel (or groups of pixels) of remote sensing image to a land cover or land use class. The objective of image classification is to classify each pixel into one class (crisp or hard classification) or to associate the pixel with many classes (fuzzy or soft classification). The classification techniques are categorized based on the training process - supervised and unsupervised classification. 2 The Geographic Information System (GIS) GIS provides a consistent framework for integrating spatial and other kinds of information within a single system (ideal for inter disciplinary work) which permits manipulation and display of geographical (digital) data in new ways. In broader sense, a GIS binds two distinct disciplines namely ‘Geography’ and ‘Information system’ where a computer based information system is used for systematically capture, store, manipulate, analyze, manage and present the geo-spatial data and geographical data. The GIS have been used to create, manage and analyze spatially referenced data in highly structured ways. The GIS have the ability to map a city and include a substantial amount of geographic and spatial data in the system. The GIS provides benefits for urban and environmental planners because of their ability to integrate diverse data sets under a common spatial theme. This is not surprising since the organization and management of urban and environmental data often has a strong spatial element to it. Furthermore, GIS are the only technologies that offer computerized spatial query and spatial analysis in an effective manner and the GIS would be required to integrate diverse data sets. The urban information and environmental problems have an inherently spatial nature. Hence, it is no surprise that GIS plays a key role for building UIS.
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The superiority of GIS technology lies in its data synthesis, the geography simulation and spatial analysis ability. Therefore through GIS technology, the system engineer can think of establishing the urban information system which has become an inevitable choice for the regional urban planning departments to realize the office automation, the management modernization and the policy-making identification. Urban planning needs to access and consume a large amount of data. Planning related information consists of 2D map, 3D urban model, thematic information, historical data, national statistics, local survey, and various policy and regulations etc. The GIS can provide two distinct views of information system. 1. Database (or table) View 2. Map View 3. Model View
2.1 Satellite Data The remote sensing surveys carried out till date use data from remote sensing satellites such as Landsat, IRS and SPOT etc. Sometimes information may be supplemented by aerial photos/airborne sensors. The resolutions of these satellites broadly fall into four categories: low, medium, high and very high. The low resolution (70-80m pixel size) is offered by Landsat MSS and IRS- LISS I sensors. Medium resolution (20-40m) is offered by Landsat: TM, IRS-LISS II, LISS III and SPOT HRV MLA sensors, high resolution (5-10m) is available from SPOT-HRV-PLA, IRS-1C/1D-PAN and Resourcesat-LISS-IV sensors. IKONOS, Quick Bird and Worldviewsatellites offer very high resolution of 4m, 1m and 2.4m & 0.61m images [2]. ISRO remote sensing program provides a constellation of polar satellites at various resolutions to map the globe. IRS - 1C/1D launched in 1995/1997 have sensors such as LISS-III (with spatial resolution of 23.5m in Green, Red and NIR and SWIR-Short Wave Infrared band), PAN (Panchromatic band with 5.8m spatial resolution). A synoptic view of IRS-1D, LISS-III multispectral satellite image is shown in figure 4.
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Figure 4: Synoptic View of Mangalore, a View from IRS-1D LISS- III Satellite Image.
IKONOS series of satellites are developed by Space Imaging. The IKONOS-2, employs a linear array technology which collects the data in
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four multispectral bands at spatial resolution of 4m. These bands include Blue (0.45 µm to 0.52 µm), Green (0.52 µm to 0.60 µm), Red (0.63 µm to 0.69 µm) and near Infrared (0.76µm to 0.90 µm). A synoptic view of Mangalore city which is defined as the CBD (Central Business District) (figure 5). The high resolution image can provide better view and can be used to extract meaningful information of various features. Figure 5: Synoptic View of Mangalore city, a View from IKONOS Satellite (2003)
Digital globe world view satellites provide a high resolution panchromatic band and 8 multispectral bands. The multispectral bands include coastal band (400-450 nm) supports vegetation and bathymetric studies, Yellow band (585-625 nm) supports vegetation applications, new red band (705-745 nm) supports the analysis of vegetative condition, two bands of near infrared (860-1040 nm) supports vegetation and biomass studies. Other 4 bands (blue, green, red and infrared) are similar to that of a LISS-III image. Because of
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higher resolution and availability of 8 bands, it facilitates a better view and provides a good means to extract maximum information about the study area using image processing techniques. 2.2 GPS Instrument The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based satellite navigation system. Though it started primarily as a navigating system, it has wide range of geodetic, geophysical, navigational and marine applications. It provides location and time, anywhere on or near the earth, if there is no obstruction to the line of sight to four or more GPS satellites. It is maintained by the United States of America and is freely accessible. The new fully rugged PS535F is shown in figure 2.5 from GETAC with a high sensitivity GPS receiver, E-Compass, altimeter and a 3M pixels auto-focus camera, is used for field survey in the study. In the current study, GPS is used for finding the ground control points (GCP) of the study area and these GCPs are used for geo-correcting the satellite images. Figure 6: GETAC GPS Instrument
3. Software Tools Various software tools are used for the analysis of the data. A brief overview of these is given below.
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3.1 ERDAS IMAGINE 8.5 ERDAS stands for Earth Resource Data Analysis System and is developed by Geo Atlanta of USA. ERDAS imagine is a complete image processing and GIS package which employs a graphical user interface. ERDAS imagine is a raster-based software package designed specifically to extract information from aerial/satellite images. The major advantage of ERDAS image is its ability to show each band that can be viewed as a separate image. ERDAS imagine includes a comprehensive set of tools to create accurate base imagery for inclusion into a GIS and its database. It is widely used for GIS integration, geometric correction, image ortho rectification, multispectral classification, image interpretation, image analysis, image mosaicking map production. In the current study ERDAS imagine is used for image geo correction, image enhancement, supervised classification and change detection. 3.2 SuperGeo Desktop 3.0 SuperGEO software is a GIS tool that helps in solving spatial problem. It allows the user to visualize the spatial data and to show the original landforms and its spatial features. SuperGIS desktop is software which is a powerful GIS tool to identify, measure, calculate geographic data. In the current study it is used for geo-correction, image vectorization and land use classification. 3.3 Matlab 7.0 MATLAB (matrix laboratory) is a numerical computing environment and fourth-generation programming language. Developed by Math Works, MATLAB allows matrix manipulations, plotting of functions and data, implementation of algorithms, creation of user interfaces, and interfacing with programs written in other languages, including C,, C++, Java, and Fortran. One of the main applications of MATLAB is in the field digital image processing. In the current research work, MATLAB is extensively used for image fusion and stitching. 3.4 Origin Origin is a proprietary computer program for interactive scientific graphing and data analysis. It is produced by Origin Lab Corporation, and runs on Microsoft Windows. In our work we haveused Origin soft ware for plotting and for interpolation.
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4 Digital Image Processing Techniques Digital image processing is the application of algorithms on digital images to perform processing, analysis, and information extraction. Remotely sensed data are usually available in digital format. Therefore, data processing in remote sensing is treated as digital image processing. Digital image processing is the computer manipulation of the digital image. The raw data received, from the imaging sensors of the satellite platforms contains flaws and deficiencies, which can be overcome by undergoing several steps of processing in order to obtain the originality of the data and to extract the required information from the images. This varies from image to image depending on the type of image format, initial condition of the image, the information of interest, and the composition of the image scene. Remotely sensed data corresponds to different earth features collected by the sensors and stored in cartridge/CD-ROM in the form of raster or tiny equal areas or picture elements or pixels and are arranged in regular lines/ rows and columns. The pixels represent brightness value having a specific Digital Number (DN) value, which depends on the energy reflected by the earth surface in a specific wavelength or band or channel. Most of the sensors in the satellites operate in different discrete wavelengths. Hence, the earth features are sensed by the sensors simultaneously and provides a set of DN values. The DN value of each pixel ranges from zero for black to some higher value for white, based on the radiometric resolution (e.g. 7 bit data represents 0-127 grey levels and 8 bits represents 0-255). The availability of remotely sensed data in digital form helps in carrying out digital image processing with the aid of computers. The digital image processing techniques provide flexibility in data handling due to the fact that the digital data can be numerically manipulated by using an equation or set of equations to get the desired details in the graphic display monitor or pictorial form for further interpretation. In the present study, ERDAS - Imagine 8.7 and MATLAB software have been used for digital image processing. There are a number of procedures/methods available for image data manipulation [2-3]. However, they can be broadly grouped into five categories namely (i) image rectification and restoration (ii) image stitching, (iii) image enhancement, (iv) image fusion
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and (v) image classification. Image rectification and restoration/pre-processing operations are intended to eliminate or correct the distortions or errors caused due to geometric distortions, radiometric distortions, presence of noise in the data, etc. If the images are not properly co-registered, the change detection algorithm will produce incorrect results around the boundaries of homogeneous regions. Image stitching is a technique to merge a sequence of an image with limited overlap area into one blended image. The single image will enhance visual interpretation analysis [5-6]. Different methods used for image stitching are SIFT (Scale Invariant Feature transform) and homography calculation. Images obtained from satellites may lack in contrast and brightness because of the limitations of imaging sub systems and illumination conditions while capturing image. The goal of image enhancement is to accentuate certain image features for subsequent analysis. Enhancement process itself does not increase the inherent information content in the data. It simply emphasizes certain specified image characteristics. Few of the image enhancement operations such as contrast stretching, band subtraction, brightness index, vegetation index, band ratioing, principal component analysis (PCA), filtering, intensity-hue-saturation (IHS), image fusion are being applied to image data to get the enhanced output for subsequent visual interpretations. Contrast generally refers to the difference in luminance or grey level values in an image which is an important characteristic feature. It can be defined as the ratio of the maximum intensity to the minimum intensity over an image. Contrast enhancement techniques expand the range of brightness values in an image. The features of details that were obscure on the original image will be clear in the contrast stretched image. When an area having different terrain classes is linearly stretched, it will enhance some features and saturate or degrade some others [7]. Contrast stretched IRS data products have been used for preparing geological map; landform map, drainage map, and land use/land cover map and shoreline change studies. Edge enhanced image are generated using linear and non- linear edge enhancement techniques. Linear enhancement can be used to highlight points, lines and edges in the image. Edge enhanced image has been used to refine the lineaments map.
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The remote sensing data contain various geometric and radiometric distortions, the rectification of which is a prerequisite to ensure compatibility of data on pixel-by- pixel basis for pixel-based image fusion. Random geometric distortions and unknown systematic geometric distortions are corrected by approximating the polynomials using well distributed ground control points (GCPs), occurring in the given data set of images. Image fusion is the technique by which images of high spatial resolutions are fused with multi-spectral (MS) images, so that the resultant output has enhanced textural information and spatial resolution, while preserving the spectral information of MS images (Veenadevi et al., 2011). Image fusion techniques, improves geometric corrections, improves classification accuracy and hence it allows the extraction of maximum image information from the given image data set. The few fusions techniques are based on Brovey Transform, Integration of substitution (IHS), discrete wavelet transform (DWT) using additive Wavelet (WT). The fusion of images is the process of combining two or more images into a single image retaining important features from each. Otherwise it can be defined as the process by which several images or some of their features are combined together to form a single image. Image fusion can be performed at different levels of the information representation. Four different levels can be distinguished according to signal, Pixel, feature and symbolic levels. Several approaches to image fusion can be distinguished, depending on whether the images are fused in the spatial domain or they are transformed into another domain, and their transforms fused. The fusion technique requires the input images to be registered with high accuracy of less than half a pixel, since mis-registration can cause artificial colors in features of data, thereby leading to falsifying of interpretation. The image fusion techniques can be categorized into three types, color-related, numerical/ statistical-related and a combination of the three approaches. All color related techniques employ slicing of original data into their respective layers, which can be basic Red (R),Green (G) and Blue (B). This is followed by substitution by a high resolution image in place of one of these channels and a back-transformation of this combination into the original RGB domain. The application specified decides on the choice of image channel to be substituted. The statistical method, as indicated by its name, uses a
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mathematical approach for data integration. It involves addition, multiplication, differencing, and ratioing of low and high resolution data prior to their integration. Inclusion of weights and scaling factors helps in preservation of the original values. The basic purpose is to imbibe the spatial information of high-resolution data in the spectral realm of low-resolution multi-spectral data, keeping in mind the requirement of minimum loss of original information from either of the two data sets. Conclusion An attempt has been made to explain the concept remote sensing and GIS. Remote Sensing provides spatial coverage by measurement of reflected, emitted and back scattered radiation, across a wide range of wavebands, from the earth surface and surrounding atmosphere. The GIS can be used to create, manage and analyze spatially referenced data in highly ordered way. The GIS has the ability to map a city and include a substantial amount of geographic and spatial data in the system. The GIS provide benefits for urban and environmental planners because of its ability to integrate the diverse data sets under a common spatial theme. Remote sensing can provide an important source of data for environmental monitoring. Due to the raise in built-up area, Industrial and vehicular pollution and the reduction in agriculture land, urban temperature has been increased. The solid and liquid waste management in the city is not proportionate to serve the need of urban population. The field of remote sensing is a continuously growing field with applications in different fields like vegetation mapping, urban studies and observation of the environment. To cater the demand for higher classification accuracy and to improve the quality of the image for better interpretation, image enhancement is required, so that one can extract meaningful information from the satellite images. These requirements can be either fulfilled by the utilization of image fusion techniques which is having the benefit of lower expenses.The superiority of Geo information system (GIS) technology lies in data synthesis and geographic simulation and spatial analysis ability. It is because of its synoptic view and repetitive coverage, the satellite images are being considered as one of the best tools for urban studies. Integrated approach of combining remote sensing and GIS is best suited for analyzing the various urban related issues and urban management.
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References Colwell (1983). Remote sensing for the Earth sciences, Manual of Remote sensing, 3rd Edition, (ISBN: 0471-29405-5, John Wiley and Sons). Eastman, J. (1993). Sequence time series evaluation using standardized principle components. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing. 59(8): 991-996. Lillesand, T. M., Kiefer R. W.,Chipman, J. (2003). Remote sensing and image interpretation, 5th ed., J. Wiley & Sons, New York; Lillesand, T. M. and Kiefer R.W. (2000). Remote Sensing and Image Interpretation, 4th ed. John Wiley and Sons, New York. Murali Krishna, I. V. (1992). Remote sensing approach & GIS: Recent Trends,Tata McGrew hill publications company Ltd, New Delhi. Sabins, F. (1997). Remote Sensing Principles and Interpretation, 3rd edition, Freeman press, New York. Veena Devi, V. S. and Gangadhara Bhat, H. (2011). The critical analysis of various image fusion techniques for enhanced image features interpretation in remote sensing applications. Archives of Applied Science Research. 3(4): 206-21. Veena Devi, V. S., Prasad, S. M., Gangadhara Bhat, H. (2013). An efficient algorithm for image stitching based on scale-invariant feature transform. International Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences. 2(2).
Pearl, 3 (1), 3-17, February 2017 17 Gender, Education and Development – A Human Rights’ Perspective
Dr V Basil Hans1 Sowjanya S Shetty M2 Raghavendra Rao3 1. Associate Professor and Head, Dept. of Economics, St Aloysius Evening College, Mangaluru. Email: [email protected] 2. Lecturer in Economics, Poornaprajna College Udupi 3. Lecturer in Economics, Dr NSAM First Grade College, Nitte.
Abstract: Today more than ever before, there is ‘gender amidst the scenario of concern’. That is because of the fact that despite centuries of feminist struggles, voices from the margin etc, the present era of neo-liberalism is not free from ‘contradictory’ practices by state and non-state actors as far as women’s issues are concerned. Schemes for women and girl child, and programmes for women entrepreneurship development cannot change the big picture: women are either victimised or caricatured. What is more alarming is that, many perceive feminism to be an outdated ideology at the most to be discussed by women only. This paper tries to relocate feminism in the context of both Millennium Development Goals and Sustainable Development Goals. Taking cue from the global recognition of women’s rights as human rights since 1993, human rights are essential for dignified human existence encompassing rights for fulfilling basic needs as well as for the development of human potential and personality. It is argued that if ‘empowerment’ has to be realised through education for women, then that education has to deal with human rights in general and women’s human rights in particular. In addition the paper also examines the status and rights of Indian women, with a glimpse into the future. Key Words: Education, Empowerment, Equality, Sustainable Development. Introduction “We do need to salute the hard labour – physical and intellectual – which women of different categories over generations have fought for gender justice” (Barik, et al, 2010).
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Education plays an important role in sustainable development of a nation. By educating the people, highly populated nations like India can minimise the ills of rising population and transform humans into resources and can reap the demographic dividend. An educated citizen is a boon and is vital in implementing informed and sustainable development. In fact, a national sustainability plan can be enhanced by the level of education attained by the nation’s citizens. Nations with high illiteracy rates and unskilled work forces have fewer development options. An educated work force is the key to move beyond an extractive and agricultural economy. As nations enter into global competition, it does not make sense to eliminate half of the nation’s economic potential and workforce by not educating females. It is a strategic economic measure to educate the entire potential workforce and thereby be poised to use the human resource potential of both men and women. Educating girls strengthens our families, communities, societies, economies, and governments. Investment in education, especially for females, has been shown to have positive short and long-term benefits for economies and societies. Unfortunately, higher education levels are associated with increases in resource consumption, which also is perceived as a major threat to sustainability. In many countries, the current level of basic education is low, severely hindering national short and long term plans for a sustainable future. Many countries are investing more in primary, secondary and adult and female literacy and education. However, a just society is one where educators will equip the students ‘to stand up and be counted’. Clinically the understanding of human rights as basic to all humanity and freedom from socio-economic and cultural myopia is needed. It is rights’ based education that frees us of the option to view women’s denigration of themselves as self-determination. The UN has concluded that there is no country in the world where women have equal status with men. Even in the LPG era, women have been victims of the economic ‘structural adjustment’ policies of wealthy nations. The notion of equal respect and responsibilities between men and women in the family or household must permeate throughout the lifecycle. In and through education it is possible and necessary to be committed to human rights principles (Wetzel, 2008). Education gives the promise of a brighter, more prosperous world, in which people can contribute to the sustainability of their societies. Reducing gender gaps in education attainment has been an important priority for international education policy, and is explicitly listed as one of the United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), 2000-2015 and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), 2015-20301.
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As in other developing countries, education policy in India has placed a priority on reducing gender disparities in education, and both the Five Year Plans and Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), the flagship national programme for universal primary education, have called for an increase in recruiting female teachers as a policy for increasing girls’ education. However, much more needs to be done. Despite much work on human development and empowerment, women’s rights discourse has been sidelined. Decline in unionised labour movement apart, other organisations such as the SHGs must take up this agenda. Women’s work, productivity, security and livelihood issues must become today’s agenda of rights’-based economic development. Awareness of human rights both in their exercise and violation is an important factor in all areas of living today. It is therefore, imperative to incorporate this at the school curriculum itself. It should then touch ‘human rights education’ and spread ‘human rights culture’ (Selvan, 2010). If we agree upon the fact that ‘equality’ is the basic element in both public and private spheres, then women’s rights must also be seen and treated as equal in the political and ideological as well as domestic and private arena (Agosin, 2001). 1. Objectives The objectives of this paper are as follows: i. To understand the problem of gender exclusion in education ii. To highlight the role of gender education in sustainable development iii. To analyse the consequences of gender exclusion in development process iv. To examine women’s education from a human rights perspective 2. Methodology This paper is based on the secondary data obtained from various published works such as books, reports, articles, magazines, periodicals, and electronic web materials. 3. Importance of Education for Women The connection between increased education of females and declining population growth has been well-documented. Education is one of the most effective as well as acceptable means of intervention available to decision- makers with regard to the population problem, which is perceived as a major threat to sustainability.
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The importance of education of women and its relevance cannot be narrowed down to feminist agenda or movement. Female education is a necessity and it is everyone’s responsibility. A woman needs education to fulfil her other needs and not be trapped in poverty – both economic and human. Constitutions of democratic countries guarantee equal rights to both men and women. Education is considered as a fundamental right for livelihood, dignity and sustainability. An educated woman desires to have a smaller family size and seeks the necessary health care. She has fewer and healthier children. An educated woman has high educational and career expectations of her children, both boys and girls. With regards to education of women both during the learning process and thereafter there will be host of factors that will be subject to change – social, cultural, psychological, etc. One such change that is already happening in India is the change in perception of parents and the society with regards to girls’ education, life and career. In Haryana for instance, the Apni Beti Apna Dhan scheme provides incentives for delaying marriage for educating women (Yadav, 2017). The woman of today with the power of knowledge and the tool of empowerment is also boldly fighting against atrocities on the one hand and gender stereotyping on the other. Women today are more and more into non-traditional works and they want to exercise their choices. At the same time they are aware of the forces of oppression and suppression that are still at work. Domestic violence and violence at workplaces are unfortunate but not uncommon. Even for her own security, dignity and honour she needs the armour of education. Her fight for justice then gets strength. Law become effective in action. She becomes stronger and self-reliant. She overcomes any inferiority complex. She is able to see herself with a greater scope and hope. Awareness, awakening and accessibility to growth with justice are enhanced with girls’ education. Individually, as members of a family, in a community and the society, educated women contribute a lot by way of resources – money, ideas and leadership. They also brighten the country’s future. Thus, education and empowerment with its strong legal foothold makes for a just society.
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3.1 Expenditure on women’s Education: Consumption vs Investment Society is made up of human beings no matter boy or girl. Discrimination based on gender is highly intolerable and unjustifiable. We need to create a society where all are equal. Education needs to be made available to men and women. Investments in the education of girls may be regarded as highest-return investment available in the developing world. As far as returns to investment on education is concerned, sizeable rates of the order of 7-15 percent have been found, with magnitudes dependent on country, level of education, and time period. Much of the increased returns to schooling in the past few decades can be linked to a sharp increase in demand for skilled labour and a slow rise in the supply of skill to the labour market. Without restricting to women in emotional skills we need to value other skill sets too – higher-order cognitive, basic cognitive and technical – for employment and advancement. These are in fact the twenty-first century skill needs. According to ILO Report 2012 global GDP could grow by USD 1.6 trillion versus the current trajectory, if gender gaps in participation rates moved half way towards the median gap observed across all countries in the European Union and North America (Thangaraj, 2016). According to Lawrence H. Summers, Chief Economist of the World Bank, educating females, especially female children, is one of the most important challenges of this decade. The benefits to families, societies, and economies are high and well understood; however, many barriers remain. In many societies, male children have traditionally received more educational opportunities than females at every level of education (Hans, 2009). Around the world, local school boards and national ministries of education are now attempting to enrol more female children and retain them in school from kindergarten through university. Although many barriers remain, great progress has been made in the last ten years towards enrolling females and enhancing their education opportunities. There are many benefits of educating girls and women mainly the link between education and sustainability. Education as a good or service has utility and when consumed gives satisfaction to the consumer. Women by consuming education will experience utility in place, time, form, ownership and service, as organs and organisations. Since their education also encourages and strengthens other indices like health, security, dignity, capability, leadership, and empowerment, education is very much an investment. Society and governments must therefore, plan properly for such investments.
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In a wider sense, women’s education should start with their own consumer education, even from a gender perspective. Most values of consumer movement are similar to women’s movement. The consumer rights to information, freedom from discrimination, and education are directly related to the possibility of choice. So is the case with the availability of necessary economic means to exercise these rights. These rights promote transparency and balance in social relations, both those based on gender and those occurring in the marketplace. Integration of education with rights through appropriate ‘interventions’ will broaden people’s horizons and new possibilities for ‘invention’ (Ittura, et al., 2004). Thus, consumption meets ‘innovation’ and ‘investment’. The real value of education for women is to be gauged from market and non-time spent in the economy. Hence it is the responsibility of all women that they spend quality time – enjoyable and productive – and anything that deviates from the maxim is discriminatory without doubt. There are studies (Blaug, 1972; Becker, 1975; McMahon, 1982; Marias, 1993)2 offering evidences of positive consumption benefits of education – benefits (after holding earnings constant) to the family’s health, schooling, return on savings, purchasing efficiency, home management skills, and affective sources of happiness. Against this, the counterproductive effects relating to divorce and the time intensive activities in the home requiring less skill must be netted out. Beyond testing for additional effects, needed next steps include using shadow prices to impute values (both positive and negative) to each of these non-monetary benefits for individual families, and also for total consumption and total product at the macro level in the national income and product accounts. There are arguments that the rate of return for women’s education is lower compared to men’s education. But this raises several questions: i. Is women’s education only consumption where as that of men investment? ii. If this attitude exists among parents, does it not pass on to employers too? iii. Is this not because of lower labour participation by women and/or wage discrimination? iv. Is the drop-out of women – after certain age or after marriage – from labour force or change in work pattern say from full time to part-time taken into account in studies concerning women’s earnings?
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Whatsoever the sources of the argument, one should also take into account – among other factors – the size of educated women in total labour force as well as the wage rate differential between educated and less educated women rather than average earnings. Most studies prove that higher a woman’s education level, closer her income approaches to that of ‘similarly’ educated men (Woodhall, 1973). Poverty, geographical isolation, minority status, disability, early marriage and pregnancy, gender-based violence, and traditional attitudes about the status and role of women, are among the many obstacles that stand in the way of women and girls fully exercising their right to participate in, compete and benefit from education. Addressing these threats is the responsibility of every state and civil society. 3.2 State and the Status of Women’s Education The Indian state always proclaims for women’s upliftment and hence there is no dearth of policies and programmes for increasing their literacy and education. But several studies show that not only the BUMARU states but even the rest of India suffers from problems of low allocation of funds for female education, deplorable facilities for girls in schools and colleges, and high drop-out rates. The fall in funding for education is part of the big cut in social sector spending (see Table 1). A cursory look at the scenario of education in general and humanities education in particular – with reference to basic infrastructure, teaching-learning resources etc. in many of the schools and college, including women’s colleges will validate the point. This situation is not limited to some remote tribal or rural part of India but even some cities that are on the anvil of ‘smart cities’. This fact must be seen against the backdrop of vast decline in spending on activities in the welfare sector as a whole, post globalisation (Banerjee and Roy, 2004). This needs a reversal of the situation – legislative measures for (i) women welfare against victimisation; (ii) welfare through domestic empowerment; (iii) welfare through economic empowerment; and (iv) welfare through social empowerment; and (iv) welfare through political empowerment. This is how we can ensure inclusive growth of women in progressive India (Pradeep, 2016). We must therefore, appreciate any effort that puts together good governance, growth and gender to transform a marginalised and rigid society into an inclusive and flexible one (Hans and Hegde, 2014).
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Table 1: Percentage Share of Developmental Expenditure, and Spending on Social Services in Total 1988-89 1993-94 2001-02 T D S S T D S S T D S S Andhra Pradesh 73.8 38.2 68.2 36.8 61.0 34.1 Bihar 68.7 41.0 62.8 33.0 48.6 34.5 Gujarat 73.0 38.0 71.6 33.7 73.6 42.4 Haryana 71.2 39.3 63.9 42.6 59.4 31.0 Karnataka 68.4 40.9 67.3 38.3 63.0 34.5 Kerala 65.3 46.8 60.2 41.4 56.2 36.8 Madhya Pradesh 71.0 40.2 69.8 35.6 54.4 33.8 Maharashtra 69.3 35.8 56.3 29.0 47.3 36.0 Orissa 65.3 39.0 65.6 38.0 46.2 32.7 Punjab 69.7 47.3 52.2 28.4 43.4 28.0 Rajasthan 69.5 38.1 66.3 37.2 55.1 40.2 Tamil Nadu 72.6 41.6 70.3 41.0 57.3 36.6 Uttar Pradesh 65.6 35.2 57.0 30.5 44.0 30.7 West Bengal 66.3 43.0 62.1 39.1 52.0 35.5 All 14 states 69.3 39.4 64.0 35.0 54.4 34.8 Index No 100.0 100.0 92.3 88.8 73.3 80.6 Note: TD: Total Development. SS: Social Sector. Source : Nirmala Banerjee and Poulomi Roy, EPW, Oct 30, 2004, p. 4835. When the policy-makers and executors bring forth schemes to increase enrolment and education of women, but make little public funding and pay less attention to related facilities like wash/restrooms in colleges, transport and accommodation (e.g. Girls’ hostels) facilities, and not to forget safety of women in public places, then such announcement remain lip service. Missing women is because of missed opportunities; not using schooling to break the glass ceiling. This is the cause of dualism in women’s education today – some positives (e.g. slowly increasing enrolment), and some negatives (e.g. male-female gaps in diploma courses, research institutions etc). This is highlighted in Table 2.
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Table 2: Status of Women in Higher Education in India (Enrolment)
Male Female Total Female % in Total PhD 67,330 45,482 1,12,812 40.32 M.Phil 13,676 18,695 32,371 57.75 PG 18,47,651 19,61,671 38,09,322 51.50 UG 1,40,88,649 1,24,87,491 2,65,76,140 46.99 PG Diploma 1,09371 77,177 1,86,548 41.37 Diploma 16,18,329 6,29,101 22,47,430 27.99 Certificate 78,597 97,310 1,75,907 55.32 Integrated 83,101 49,091 1,32,192 37.14 TOTAL 3,32,72,722 1,53,66,018 3,32,72,722 46.18
Note : UG = Under Graduate; PG = Post Graduate Source: Report of All India Survey of Higher Education (AISHE), 2014-15. India with a 141 million total population in the age group 18-23 years (girls 67.8 million) has total enrolment in higher education: 33.3 million of which 17.9 million are boys and 15.4 million are girls; girls constituting 46 percent of the total enrolment. This is a positive sign of change given the fact that 22.7 percent female gross enrolment ratio (GER) in 1971-72, 24.5 in 1975- 76, and 28.5 percent in 1981-82. The overall male and female national GER is 23.6 percent (female 22.65 per cent). While girls are less found in Diploma course, they dominate in MPhil. Admittedly the worrisome feature in India is the gross inequalities across states (Akula and Reddy, 2017). While Lakshadweep has female GER 6.03 per cent, Chandigarh has 59.68. Other than that only Tamil Nadu, Puducherry and Delhi have female GER above 40 percent. Karnataka has 25.74 percent. Thus, enhancement of women’s education must begin with enrolment. 4. Women’s Education and Human Rights In recent years “women’s rights as human rights” has emerged as a new transnational agenda and approach to demanding women’s empowerment. Such an approach, no doubt has its own advantages and limitations. Nevertheless it is a challenge for change. Several NGOs such as the Women
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in Law and Development in Africa (WiLDAF), a multinational NGO have been championing the cause of “women’s rights as human rights” to educate women about their legal rights, lobby for national legislative reforms, extend the scope of state accountability, and mobilise international support (Hodgson, 2002). Human rights are essential rights for dignified human existence encompassing rights from fulfilling basic needs as well as rights for adequate development of human personality (Nagendra, 2008). Almost all countries have declared education and health for all as fundamental rights. All but two countries in the world3 have ratified the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), and over 174 countries on the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). They have clear obligations to progressively realise the right to education and gender equality in and through education. A merging of international monitoring of Education for All and international human rights law would allow an integrated rights framework to compliment the political promises of governments, and ensure that these processes promote rights in and through education, rather than simply counting numbers of children, or investment, in education. In this context, the continued and deepening openness towards human rights evident in the Education for All Global Monitoring reports is to be welcomed. 4.1 Exclusion from Education: Human rights violation Exclusion from education is part of an intricate web of human rights violations. It reflects a complex, progressive and sustained process of ‘being excluded’. Exclusion from education touches all aspects of a child’s life. Children who are excluded from education are probably also living in conditions of poverty, marginalisation, geographic isolation, racial discrimination, or gender bias. These children often live with additional burdens of disease, disability, and sexual exploitation. These children often live with additional burdens of disease, disability, sexual exploitation, unfair labour etc. The outcome is tragic. Without access to relevant, good quality education, children cannot acquire knowledge, skills, and self-confidence to act on their own behalf later in life. Unfortunately, exclusion happens at all points within the educational systems. Exclusion is expressed through: non-enrolment, passivity, absenteeism, failure, repetition, and dropping out. Exclusion is a process as well as an event which – from social, economic, and political context – excludes children and their parents from many aspects of life. Therefore, to remedy exclusion, policy
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changes cannot focus on schools alone. Exclusion can be countered by efforts of inclusion at all points that contribute to it. Unfortunately, exclusion from education is a pervasive problem in cultures around the world, and exclusion affects females entering every level of education. In many countries, schools enrol a smaller percentage of girls than boys. Girls tend to stay in school for fewer years than boys, receive lower marks on standard assessments, progress to the next level of education in smaller numbers, and graduate less frequently than males. The resulting gender gap demonstrates an evident disregard for the underlying causes of discrimination and disadvantage against women and girls. The roots of such disparity in education are complex, and the causes change from society to society. Governmental policies, cultural traditions, familial expectations, and immediate economic pressures, for example, thwart the education of girls and women. 5. Education for Empowerment and Equality Education makes women economically sound which is source of other all types of women empowerment i.e., social, psychological, technological, political (Hans, and Sowjanya, 2016). It is necessary to view the status of women in India in the era of inclusive growth in terms of some key constituents which ensures women empowerment like education, health and nutrition, sex ratio, economic participation, incidence of violence against women, participation in decision making, economic and political issues. Education is an important human right which is a tool of personal empowerment and a means for social and human development. Education inculcates human and spiritual values of great significance for the empowerment of women. 5.1 Key Recommendations for Addressing Inequalities Addressing the right to education, without addressing rights in education and through education may mean compelling attendance in education that may be of limited use and relevance to increase equality between the sexes. Governments hold the primary responsibility ensuring the full realisation of the right to education for all. Various strategic measures are needed to ensure gender equity in education. Eradication of illiteracy is the first step towards empowerment of women. Literacy rate of India in 2011 is 74.04 percent. According to Census 2011, the male literacy rate is 82.14 per cent and female literacy rate is 65.46 percent. Even in the field of education, men dominate over women. The female literacy rate in India is though gradually rising; it’s lower than the male. Girls drop out of school after a few years of education. Consequences
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are that early marriage and child birth pronounced in families lead to lower socio-economic status. The universal education and the elimination of gender disparity in education is the starting point for promoting gender equality and empowering women. It is education that kindles the urge for independence, hard work, achievement and self- actualisation (Rita and Rajasekar, 2012). Education imparted should be of use to the student, not only in seeking employment, but also more importantly in protecting health and well-being. Sufficient educational opportunities for girls are only the first step. Treating boys and girls in the same way can reinforce, rather than redress social disadvantage as education can serve to underline existing stereotypes of women as unsuited to academic achievement, an image which can be portrayed (often unconsciously) in textbooks showing female role models at home, while men are history-makers and intellectual pioneers. The aims of education in human rights law include ‘the preparation of the child for responsible life in a free society, in the spirit of understanding, peace, tolerance, equality of sexes’. Addressing the implications of this requirement – what children learn and why – requires the re-orientation of education to contribute to gender equality and mutual respect. This calls for ensuring equality as an explicit focus on economic policies and strategies. To immediately address the extremes of poverty and address vertical inequalities, nation and states should encourage systems of progressive taxation and equitable redistribution, commit to a focus on employment, youth employment, skills and job matching and career advancement. Addressing inequalities requires political will and leadership and a conscious decision to direct resources, services and power to those who have more difficulty in accessing them. Governmental policies, cultural traditions, familial expectations, and immediate economic pressures hurt the education of girls and women at every level of education. Fortunately, gender inequity in education is amenable to change through public policy which is progressive and positive in approach. Changes in governmental policy can dramatically increase educational opportunities for females of all ages. We need to adopt a central framework based upon equality, equity and human rights that deliberately seeks to improve the life chances of the poorest and most vulnerable with a focus on resources for the most marginalised. This could be done by framing development goals in terms of universal access and human rights, with targets and indicators for every goal that focus on reducing disparities between the rich and poor and addressing the needs of the most marginalised. Even in the era of globalisation implementing social safety nets and protection floor systems is required.
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As the most pervasive group based equality, gender equality needs to continue to be a priority. The evidence is now also indisputable that the achievement of other human development goals is dependent on women and girls’ empowerment and access to power, resources, services and opportunities. Building on existing international commitments, the next developmental agenda should retain a transformative goal to achieve gender equality and women and girls’ empowerment and address the structural factors that contribute to gender inequality by including targets that address strategic priorities that will have a significant impact (Hans, Raghavendra and Sowjanya, 2016). The deadline for MDGs is over but we now have before us the SDGs. Overcoming marginalisation, in the midst of globalisation, holds the key to India’s progress. Primary education for girls while simultaneously building upon the successes of the goal for universal primary education must work for increased quality in education and decreases in drop•out rates emphasising health and employment, as well as the right to equality between the sexes. Where this is not the case in practice, the aims of education as set out in international human rights standards are not maximised. Therefore, education should ensure the full development of the human personality and enable all persons to participate effectively in a free society. Safe, healthy and prosperous public places (with a private sphere too) is what women need today in the context of some of the troubling gender issues such as honour killing, moral policing and sexual harassment. Not only girl students, but also lady teachers, professors and researchers are not absolutely safe even in educational environs. The state and society need to re-double commitment to women’s economic and political empowerment, and inclusive and equitable quality education as a pre-requisite to achieve sustainable development. Gender equality, women’s empowerment and promotion and protection of women’s rights catalyse a shift in societies towards economic development, social stability and promote greater equilibrium between societies and nature. Steps are needed to eliminate gender inequality in employment by decreasing women’s reliance on informal employment, closing gender gaps in earnings and reducing occupational segregation. Globalisation, Liberalisation and other socio-economic forces have changed the outlook of the people and have given some respite to a large proportion of the population in general and women in particular. Investing in women’s
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‘capabilities’ and empowering them to achieve their ‘choices’ and ‘opportunities’ is the surest way to contribute to economic growth and overall development (Patttnaik, 2000). Women need to be given access to programmes of continuing education, including adult and functional literacy programs, particularly those aimed at reducing, at the earliest possible time, any gender gap in education, and also equal opportunities to benefit from scholarships and other study grants. One aspect that needs crucial attention is secondary importance given to women in sports and physical education. Any stereotyped concept of the roles of men and women must be eliminated at all levels and in all forms of education by encouraging co-education and other types of education that will help to achieve this aim and, in particular, by revising textbooks in schools and teaching methods. In this open access environment we must provide specific educational information to ensure the health and well-being of women and families, including funds and all other resources required to vindicate their rights through international and national legal systems. This ensures quality in education and human resource development. Quality education based on a human rights approach means that rights are implemented throughout the whole education system and in all learning environments. The whole legal framework should be so strong that it protects rights of girls/women at all times and situations. Schooling and training, physical and health security, job and financial security, social and political security should be not be just worded but provided in spirit. A big challenge today is in guaranteeing protection from physical abuse, and neglect with context-specific indicators and interventions. There are some attempts in this direction but more needs to be done. So is the case with women’s property and inheritance rights. Higher levels of political participation and collective leadership can contribute much towards this. Meanwhile we have questions to ponder such as – why is individual autonomy less discussed in educational sphere compared to institutional autonomy? Why should topics of feminism and women empowerment be areas of research only for women? Can woman start enjoying dignified and respectful autonomy beginning with her body? Our first hypothesis in such instances must be above (or about?) gender stereotyping (Hans, 2017). 5.2 Current Trends and Future Prospects The Union Budget 2017-18 is quite promising in that there is a big rise of 18 per cent in government spending on women-related schemes. The allocation for gender-related schemes is up by 18 percent. The gender budget accounted for 4.8 percent of total government spending in Budget 2016-17 and 5.2
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percent in 2017-18. PM’s pet project Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (Save the girl child, educate the girl child), has been allocated four times more funds for 2017-18. With thrust on raising skills among youth, job creation packages, greater autonomy and innovations in institutions of learning and research (including the University Grants Commission) we seem to be in store for big opportunities and quality changes. All this has to be absorbed very well because as it is India ranks very low in gender development indices. Only 27 percent of women are in the labour force (one of the lowest in Asia, next to Pakistan). About 1403 females never attend any educational institution for every 1000 males who don’t. In 2016 India’s rank in Global Gender Gap Index was 87. Will it improve? Conclusion Today in the agenda of development, every participant or stakeholder plays an active role in the process of development. Whether they be the creators, the receivers, the benefactors or the providers, men or women as equal in his or her capacity to participate in global change. Despite the diversity of the world’s people, humanity holds a remarkably clear vision for the future. World of future belongs to the children of today. This vision is one of peace, justice, honesty, equality and rights. These principles become not only the vision but also the means of its implementation and will see our goal of achieving equality and justice being attained. Further progress in our current path of development requires structural change, but most importantly, it requires a significant shift in mind-set and attitude that puts at its core a commitment to equality of all: minorities and majorities, women and men, marginalised and underprivileged. It is only then that we will come closer to our vision of the world we want for all. All individuals have not only a right but a responsibility to play their role in the processes of constructing a world that is more just, more peaceful, more sustain able and one that yields greater happiness for all people. Ultimately, there is no ‘us’ and ‘them’. While we have divided ourselves into ‘developed‘ and ‘developing‘ countries, into ‘benefactor’ and ‘recipients’, into ‘North’ and ‘South’, we all have much to learn from one another and much to contribute in these efforts. To achieve the levels of solidarity that our vision requires we must attain levels far beyond what we have achieved to date and we must see ourselves as ‘we.’ We stand for non-discrimination and equity. Education ensures the full development of the human personality irrespective of gender and enables all persons to participate effectively in a free society. For that, we might have to confront issues of traditionalism as well as of professionalism.
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References Agosin, M. (2001). Introduction. In M. Agosin (Ed.), Women, Gender, and Human Rights – A Global Perspective (pp. 1-11), Jaipur: Rawat Publications. Akula R., and Reddy, M.A. (2017).Women in Gigher Education in India: Some Statistics. University News, 54(29), 8-11. Banerjee, N. and Poulomi R. (2004). What Does the State Do for Indian Women? Economic & Political Weekly, 39(44), 4831-4837. Barik, B.C., Pushesh, K. and Usha, S.S. (Eds.). (2010). Gender and Human Rights – Narratives on Macro-Micro Realities. Jaipur: Rawat Publications. Hodgson, D.L. (2002). Women’s Rights as Human Rights: Women in Law and Development in Africa (WiLDAF). Africa Today, 49 (2), 3-26. Hans, V.B. (2009). Managing Resources for Education and Human Development: Experiences from India. Proceedings of International Conference on Business Management, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka: University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Vol. 6. Retrieved from http://journals.sjp.ac.lk/ index.php/icbm/article/view/858/0m Hans, V.B. (2017). Gender Issues in the Times of Sexual Harassment. Working Paper for Project on Gender Studies. Hans. V.B. and Shakila H. (2014). Women Representation in Local Self Governance: Impact on Decentralised Democracy. Deeksha Journal of Social Work, 12(1), 22-36. Hans, V.B. and Sowjanya S.S. (2016). Education and Women Empowerment in India – Study in Dakshina Kannada District. Deeksha Journal of Social Work, 14(1), 1-21, Hans, V.B., Raghavendra and Sowjanya, S.S. (2016, Feb 12). Women Empowerment and inclusive growth in India: Issues and Imperatives. Paper presented at national conference, Mangalore University Economic Association. Ujire: SDM Autonomous College. Nagendra, S. (2008). Women and Human Rights. Jaipur: ABD Publishers. Pradeep, M.D. (2016). Legal and Policy Framework on Women Welfare: an Inclusive Growth Strategy. PEARL Multidisciplinary Journal, 2(1), 8-18. Pattanaik, B.K. (2000, Nov.). Women Welfare and Social Development. Yojana, 44, 24-25. Rita, C. and Rajasekar, D. (2012). Role of Women in Independent India: An Assessment. Southern Economist, 51(11), 7-9.
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Sahela, M. (2015). Girl Child Protection in India. Southern Economist, 53(19), 37-43. Selvan, A. (2010). Human Rights Education – Modern Approaches and Strategies. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company Pvt Ltd. Thangaraj, C. (2016). Education, Skills and Development. University News, 54(39), 49-58. Yadav, A. (2017). Changing Perceptions of Parents Regarding Girls’ Higher Education. University News, 55 (02), 75-80. Wetzel, J.W. (2008). Human Rights and Women – A Work in Progress. In E. Reichert, (Ed.). Challenges in Human Rights – A Social Work Perspective (pp. 162-187). Jaipur: Rawat Publications. Woodhall, M. (1973). The Economic Returns to Investment in Women’s Education. Higher Education, 2(3), 275-299. Web sites: http://en.unesco.org http://indiatoday.intoday.in https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg5 http://www.consumersinternational.org https://www.ideals.illinois.edu http://www.importantindia.com www.business-standard.com (Footnotes) 1 Goal Number 4: Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all; and Goal 5: Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls 2 For more, read Mark Blaug, An Introduction to the Economics of Education (Modern Economics), Penguin Books Ltd., Geneva, 1973; Gary S. Becker, Human Capital: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis with Special Reference to Education, NBER, 1975; Walter W. McMahon, Consumption Benefits of Education, BEBR Working Paper, Unv. of Illinois, March 1982; and Tony Marias, The Consumption Benefits of Education, Discussion Paper, Unv. of Australia, January 1995.
34 Pearl, 3 (1), 18-34, February 2017 Ignored Claims: A Prolific Investigation on Rescued Trafficked Women in Mysore City-India Nanjunda Centre for study of Social Exclusion and Inclusive Policy University of Mysore, India Email: [email protected] Abstract Human trafficking is condemned as a violation of human rights by international conventions. Human trafficking is the illegal trade in human beings for the purpose of commercial sexual exploitation or forced labor: a modern-day form of slavery. The word ‘trafficking’ includes the word ‘traffic’, which we often equate with transportation or travel. However, while the words look and sound alike, they do not hold the same meaning. Human trafficking does not require the physical movement of a person (but must entail the exploitation of the person for labor or commercial sex). Additionally, victims of human trafficking are not permitted to leave upon arrival at their destination. They are held against their will through acts of coercion and forced to work or provide services to the trafficker or others. The work or services may include anything from bonded or forced labor to commercialized sexual exploitation. The arrangement may be structured as a work contract, but with no or low payment or on terms which are highly exploitative. Sometimes the arrangement is structured as debt bondage, with the victim not being permitted or able to pay off the debt. This paper is based on a survey conducted among Trafficked Women (rescued) in Mysore city-India. Key Words: Trafficking, Women, Trade, Exploitation, Mysore. Background UNESCO defines Human trafficking as “the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of persons, by means of threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation.” Certainly, human trafficking is a modern day slavery where human beings are subjugated by treating them like merchandise for profit. It is contrary to the basic faith of all societies that people everywhere merit to live in safely and dignity. Victims of human trafficking who comprise of young children, teenagers, men and women are subjected to involuntary servitude and sexual slavery by force, fraud or coercion. Human smuggling, particularly of women
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and children has become a matter of serious national and international distress. Sources confirm that nearly 800,000 victims are yearly trafficked across international borders worldwide and around 150,000 of them within and around the borders of South Asia alone. The fact is that after drug dealing and unlawful arms smuggling, human trafficking is the world’s third largest organized crime, and growing by leaps and bounds. Commercial exploitation of the vulnerable sections of the society has led to massive growth of slave trade into a multimillion dollar business. According to the FBI (USA), this organized crime generates $9.5 billion in revenue each year. Globalization of the economy, which means globalization of the sex industry, as it becomes an industry without borders. Large and small scale trafficking networks operate across borders, actively recruiting girls and women, especially from villages, city streets and transportation centers. Hotels, airlines, and charter companies, often with direct and indirect government conspiracy and corruption, are involved in the trafficking of women for sex tourism (Agbu, 2003). The majority of trafficking victims are women and girls, who are especially vulnerable due to limited economic opportunities, illiteracy or low education, and low socio-economic and cultural status. Victims come from all areas of Nepal, but most targeted are those in traditionally disadvantaged, marginalized groups such as the Dalit caste (untouchables) and Jajanti. However, victimization is spreading to advantaged groups and upper caste women as well. The Human Development Report (2004) estimates approximately 20 percent who are trafficked to Arab nations and other countries in Asia are under the age of 16. Most victims were lured with promises of better jobs in areas such as Dubai, or Saudi Arabia; other tactics include false marriages and proposals, force, and approaching indebted families to sell their daughters to pay their debts, sometimes under the guise of a dowry for a marriage. Now a days Human trafficking in general has expanded to almost every state in the country. Tamil Nadu leads with 9,701 cases over the past ten years, followed by Andhra Pradesh (5,861), Karnataka (5,443), West Bengal (4,190) and Maharashtra (3,628). These five states are high source as well as destination areas, trafficking women and young girls to red-light areas; they comprise 70 percent of all reported cases of human trafficking over the past ten years (web sources). The most vulnerable are women and girls who are illiterate or uneducated, involved in marginalized livelihoods, deserted by their husbands or families, victims of abuse and violence, and those from disadvantaged communities and extremely poor families. In the places of enslavement, victims are often imprisoned, followed with guards, routinely sexually and physically abused across different types of trafficking. Victims receive little or no pay for their
36 Pearl, 3 (1), 35-43, February 2017 Nanjunda
work, work in dangerous conditions for extremely long periods of time, and are threatened physically and psychologically. Victims are often held in debt bondage by their captors, which means, they are forced to pay off a debt for their families or transportation fee. Victims sometimes get away from their captivity through escape, rescue by police raids, or release by their captors when deemed too old to be profitable. There are different types in human trafficking 1. Sex trafficking, 2. Bonded labor 3. Forced labor 4. Child labor (Ghosh, 2009). Research Design Objectives 1. To identify the social and economic background of the trafficked women in Mysore District 2. To accumulate information about human trafficking regarding their age, educational and health condition and to identify the causes for the growth of human trafficking in the city I. Methodology 1. Selection of Samples A carefully chosen 100 rescued trafficked samples were surveyed using structured questionnaires from the rehabilitated centers being run by the Two Mysore based NGOs and the Govt. agencies. Random sampling techniques were used to select the respondents. 2. Community Norms Study Community norms data had been obtained through focus group study from key informants including formal and informal government officials, political leaders, media personnel, etc. 3. Institutional Ethnography (NGOs Prospective) Selected local NGOs working for the betterment of the tribal community had been selected for the study II. Tools for Data Collection 1. Survey 2. Case Study 3. Interview 4. Content Analysis Data Analysis: Suitable softwares used to analyze the data Instruments The following instruments were structured for collection of both Quantitative and Qualitative data. 1. Sample Schedule 2. Focus Group 3. NGO Schedule
Pearl, 3 (1), 35-43, February 2017 37 Ignored Claims: A Prolific Investigation on Rescued Trafficked Women in Mysore City-India
Table 1: Result and Discussion Socio Economic Profile of Trafficked Women
Variables Number Percentage X2 P
Age
Just Above 20 32 32
22-25 27 27 2.133 0.000 25-35 41 41 Educational Level 5.324 0.000 Primary Education 26 26 High School 9 9 College 11 11 Illiterates 42 42 Professional Education 12 12 Family Income (in Rs.) 3.501 0.000 3000-5000 68 68 5000-10000 9 9 Above 10,000 23 23 Caste /community 8.430 0.000 SC 31 31 ST 32 32 OBC 30 30 Others 7 7 Marital Status 3.2109 0.000 Married 18 18 Unmarried 59 59 Widow/ Widower 23 23 Domicile Local 35 35 2.001 0.000 Inter District 31 31 Interstate 34 34
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Table 2: Religion of the Surveyed Trafficked Families
Religion Count Percentage
Hindu 47 47 Muslim 37 37 Christian 16 16 Others 25 25 Total 100 100
Table 3: Occupations (parents) of the Surveyed Trafficked Personnel
Occupation Count Percentage Coolie 42 42 Construction Work 23 23 Industrial Labour 20 20 Agriculture 15 15 Total 100 100
Table 4: Total Earnings of the Parents of the Trafficked Personnel
Earning in Rs. Count Percentage
2500-3000 54 54 3000-3500 21 21 3500-4000 15 15 Above 40000 10 10 Total 100 100
Pearl, 3 (1), 35-43, February 2017 39 Ignored Claims: A Prolific Investigation on Rescued Trafficked Women in Mysore City-India
Table 5: Reasons for the Trafficking
Reasons Count Percentage
Poverty 44 44 Big household 10 10 Inadequate income 28 28 No. Dependents more 18 18 Total 100 100
Table 6: How you Rescued
Mode Count Percentage Police 24 24 NGO 12 12 Self 30 30 By local people 34 34 Total 100
Table 7: Any Sexual Assault?
Reply Count Percentage YES 94 94 NO 6 6 Total 100 100.00
40 Pearl, 3 (1), 35-43, February 2017 Nanjunda
Table 8: Are you Happy with this Rehabilitation Measures
Reply Count Percentage
Yes 67 67 Satisfactory 22 22 NO 11 11 Total 100 100.00
Discussion Although there are insufficient data that report on the various issues of trafficking, evidence suggests that victims have a greater prevalence of illiteracy, homelessness, poverty, and social exclusion. Trafficked women have fewer resources, limited options, and increased vulnerability to violence and abuse than women who are not trafficked. In this study the majority of trafficking victims are between 18 and 24 years of age. The socio-economic background of the majority of the studied trafficked families is very pathetic. Majority of them are poor, belongs to the lower castes, illiterates and are immigrants to the City. Most of the parents are working in unskilled jobs. Hence their economic status is very low. There is a vital link between poverty and human trafficking. Some of the major social factors like caste, religion, gender, culture and traditional background are also conjugate with the economic heterogeneity of the poor families of trafficked. In tune with their illiterate/semi-literate educational level on one hand and largely non-skilled occupations and the consequent low-income levels on the other hand have largely affecting on these trafficked families. Semi-orphan/destitute condition appears to be one of the leading factor, which led women to take commercial sex workers. It was found that while 24 percent of the trafficked girls in these samples had no mothers and 29 percent had no fathers. Further, malnutrition, stressful work, alcoholism,
Pearl, 3 (1), 35-43, February 2017 41 Ignored Claims: A Prolific Investigation on Rescued Trafficked Women in Mysore City-India
unhealthy living condition, lack of social security and proper health care appear to have cut short the span of life considerably. The problem of human trafficking is deeply inter-twined with the caste, class and gender factors etc. It is a clear manifestation of a depressed structural problem. The tender aged girl children are victims of a vicious triangle of oppression related to caste, class and gender. The intense globalization of recent years has only aggravated the problem further. As long as masses continue to be marginalized and pushed to the walls, the girl child prostitution is bound to see an unending proliferation in Mysore city working to Combat human trafficking on the legislators, nonprofit organizations and surviving families have advocated for serious improvements in the ability of officials to protect victims of abductions, trafficking and exploitation. It is found that 95 percent of victims experienced physical or sexual violence during trafficking. According to this survey women are bought and sold with impunity and trafficked at will to other countries from different parts of India. These girls and women are sourced from Tamil Nadu, Bihar, West Bengal, Rajasthan, Mangalore, Gulbarga, Raichur (from Karnataka). It is found that these women and girls are supplied to Thailand, Kenya, South Africa and Middle East countries like Bahrin, Dubai, Oman, Britain, South Korea and The Philippines. They are forced to work as sex workers undergoing severe misuse and mistreatment. These women are the most susceptible group in constricting HIV infection. Due to inexorable poverty and lack of employment opportunities there is an augment in the voluntary entry of women into sex work. Trafficking both for commercial sexual exploitation and for non-sex based exploitation is a transnational and complex challenge as it is an organized criminal activity, an extreme form of human rights violation and an issue of economic empowerment and social justice. The trafficking of women and children causes untold miseries as it violates the rights and dignity of the individual in several ways. NGOs, child advocacy organizations, law enforcement groups, human rights activists and researchers, the media, religious organizations, governments, and others should co-ordinate with the extent of the problem and the tragic reality of a generation of children being commodified, exploited, and victimized. Many NGOs selected by the Govt to run short stay homes are ill equipped to cater to the rehabilitation needs of the trafficked. Lack of sound financial base, human resource came in the way of their being able to sustain the activities.
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Conclusion Inarguably, poverty is a crucial contributing factor for the rise in human trafficking. At the heart of the problem also lies underdevelopment and unemployment. It needs no reiteration that a vast majority of trafficked women are from poor, landless families or belong to dalit, adivasi and low caste communities. Girls from tribal areas and poor villages are most vulnerable to trafficking in sex trade as the need for money is high for their parents. This motivates them to sell their children for paltry sums without even caring for their security. There is also a strong connection between the problem of trafficking and the girl child who faces the higher risk of being sold at birth, living as we are in a gender biased society. Despite the magnitude of the problem of human trafficking, Karnataka has failed to show evidence of increasing efforts to tackle the menace. Though the government boasts of working for the uplift of these tribes and under privileged people, it has not reached to root cause of trafficking as the much touted development schemes are not reaching the poor and backward areas of the region. References Agbu, O. (2003). Corruption and Human Trafficking: The Nigerian Case. West Africa Review, 4(1), 1-1 3. Ghosh, B. (2009). Trafficking in women and children in India: Nature, Dimensions and Strategies for Prevention. The International Journal of Human Rights,13(5), 716-38 Nanda, Ashwini Kumar (2005) 3 Immigration from Bangladesh to India based on Census data 3, Asian and Pacific Migration Journal 14 (4), pp. 487-99.
Books Nair, P. M. and Sankar, S. (2005). Trafficking in Women and Children in India. New Delhi: Orient Longman.
Pearl, 3 (1), 35-43, February 2017 43 A Paradigm of Traditional Market Culture and Mall Culture- A Perceptional Study
Iqbal Ahamed U T1 Yathish Kumar2 1. Principal, Kanachur Institute of Mgt and Science, University Road, Mangalore Email: [email protected] 2. Associate Professor, Department of PG/UG Studies in Commerce, University College, Mangalore. Email: [email protected] Abstract: Introduction of malls has not been able to replace traditional markets, which are still popular among the pocket conscious people, but has definitely added a new adventure to the shopping experience. The retail sector will see over 34 million sq ft of shopping centre space by the year end, said the report on shopping centre development in India. ‘To the present generation, shopping means much more than a mere necessity and malls are now fast becoming image benchmarks for communities.’ Malls in India frequently open up with great fanfare; the glitzy stores, the ‘deals’ and the simple desire to spend some time in attractive (think novelties such as transparent lifts and escalators), climate controlled environs means that there is sufficient footfall to begin with. At the most, 20 percent malls delivering on the customer and financial counts, one can clearly say that the mall revolution has not been a grand success in India. Keeping the above observation, this paper attempts to focus on the evolution of mall culture in the research area (Mangalore City – Coastal District of Karnataka State) and focus will be on to study the new paradigm of ‘Mall Culture’ and about the evolution & negative trend of Mall Culture Key Words: Mall Culture, Traditional Market, Business, Survival etc. 1 Background The skyline is filled with boxes built of mirrored windows, skeletons of new malls and billboards promising a better life for the country’s modern maharajas. Shop at Tommy Hilfiger and eat at Pizza Hut. The toilets flush automatically, The floors are spotless. ”There’s a new culture coming now,” said Pawan Sharma, sitting at McDonald in Globus Mall, which opened last year. ”The Western culture, the mall culture is coming. This is not really the traditional India.”
44 Pearl, 3 (1), 44-51, February 2017 Prof. Iqbal Ahamed U T1
This is closer to the opposite of India. In this country, people traditionally shop at local markets, where vegetables are sold in one tiny shop and milk in another. Shoppers go from one store to the next, buying flowers here, chicken there. They bargain for better deals. The markets often are filthy, littered with garbage. But the malls offer everything under one roof, even stores such as Big Bazaar, a smaller, more chaotic version of Wal-Mart are out of fashion now. There is central air conditioning, a novelty here. Signs tell people how to ride the escalators, still new to India. Songs of different varieties and Radiohead blare over mall loudspeakers. People speak to each other and also with the sales personnels in English instead of local language. 2 Conceptual Framework “To the present generation, shopping means much more than a mere necessity and malls are now fast becoming image benchmarks for communities.” Shopping orientations are related to general predisposition toward acts of shopping. They are conceptualized as a specific dimension of lifestyle and operationalized on the basis of activities, interests and opinion statements pertaining to acts of shopping. Malls in India frequently open up with great fanfare; the glitzy stores, the ‘deals’ and the simple desire to spend some time in attractive (think novelties such as transparent lifts and escalators), climate controlled environs means that there is sufficient footfall to begin with. In view of this, related terminologies have been highlighted below: A shopping mall, shopping center, shopping arcade, shopping precinct, or simply mall is one or more buildings forming a complex of shops representing merchandisers, with interconnecting walkways enabling visitors to walk from unit to unit, along with a parking area – a modern, indoor version of the traditional marketplaces. The concept of a mall having one or more ‘anchor stores’ or ‘big box stores’ was pioneered early with individual stores or smaller-scale chain stores intended to benefit from the shoppers attracted by the big stores. 2.1 Why People in India Come to a Mall? Based on interaction with people who visits Big Bazaar, City Centre and Easy Day especially in Mangalore, we find out that for different age groups, there are different reasons to come to mall. Here are some of the reasons in descending order of popularity:
Pearl, 3 (1), 44-51, February 2017 45 A Paradigm of Traditional Market Culture and Mall Culture - A Perceptional Study
05-14: For toys which some shops offer, some because their friends goes there, or they saw a TV ad 14-20: To see some good looking opposite sex, Chill out, time pass or to show off 20-45: Shopping, Dinner, movie or Kids force them 45-above: Kids force them, Shopping, Hell with malls or when having no work….. 3 New Paradigm of Mall Culture in Mangalore Mall culture has become big business, as shopping malls have evolved into multi-storied structures housing a large number of stores that sell diverse products and services. Shopping malls house a collection of retail stores and restaurants. The shopping scene in Mangalore has taken a 360 degree turn. What people avoided because of lack of choice earlier has today become an experience to enjoy. Thanks to the new malls that have swept the city by storm. Everyone wants to be part of this new ‘happening’ experience. Retailers and mall owners too have left no stone unturned in wooing customers. Mangalore, as a shopping destination, has made great progress in the last few years. The emergence of malls has changed the face of the city and gives us a glimpse of the cosmopolitan lifestyle that is slowly creeping in. A few years ago shopping meant Hampankatta (Heart of Mangalore city, where most of the business houses are located) and a few other stores around the city. But today the mall seems to be the one-stop for every shopping enthusiast. ‘Brands’ being the new mantra, customers have a choice of many big names in the consumer world. Brands like Nike, Reebok, Pepe, Adidas, Levi’s, Pantaloon and Fabindia which were available only in bigger cities have now paved their way into Mangalore. The time has gone when we requested our friends and relatives abroad to bring us trendy clothing, accessories or even chocolates. Today almost everything is available here. Home makers no longer do their grocery shopping at local or fair price shops but at super markets like Food Bazaar and Nilgiris. There are lifestyle stores like Big Bazaar and Pantaloon that cater to both the young and the old. Exclusive stores for furniture, jewellery, books, sportswear or even music are some of the reasons many throng these places. Escalators in these malls never fail to amuse children.
46 Pearl, 3 (1), 44-51, February 2017 Iqbal Ahamed U T et al.
Youngsters have gaming zones for entertainment. Bowling is the new craze today. The sport has made a very good comeback after the failure of Megabowl a few years ago. This time it is Amoeba at the Empire Mall and the city has welcomed it with arms wide open. The Adlabs Multiplexes too have become a big hit among movie buffs. Old theatres are taking a back seat. No more standing in long queues because online booking is in. Café outlets like Coffee Day in the city made a few bucks only on weekends but today with new outlets in Bharat and Empire Mall, they are packed almost throughout the week. The same goes with the other restaurants like Yo! China and food courts at malls. Students or even the average middle class families do not mind spending a little more to get an experience of a ‘happening’ restaurant. Pizzas from Pizza Hut or Pizza Corner are no more a delicacy for children but a regular meal. The rapid change in the spending patterns of Mangaloreans indicates the huge growth in the city’s economy. With the IT industry taking over, changes in lifestyle are just round the corner. Malls are not only about shopping. They are more of a hangout today. In the past, Saibeen Complex was the only place one could see youngsters on weekends. Mangalore would come to a standstill on Sundays. But that’s history. Hanging out with a cup of hot corn has becoming a daily affair. Gelatos have taken the place of ice creams and even though they cost almost five times more, people do not mind trying them out. Gelatos are Italian ice creams that come in a variety of flavours and are available at Bharat Mall. Another new experience for the people is the shopping carnivals. It is the first time that Mangalore has experienced such festivity while shopping. The Empire Mall carnival has drawn huge numbers this year. Tattoos, magic shows, art exhibitions, singing and dance competitions, war of the DJ’s, ice cream eating competition, cooking competition, exclusive events for women apart from being novel ideas at malls have been great crowd pullers. Gone are the days when people went to other cities for shopping and entertainment. Today Mangalore has joined the race to become a metropolitan city. Mangaloreans are spending more time outdoors and indulging in various new experiences. With investments high and money flowing in, the mall culture has creped in and is here to stay, leaving shopping redefined.
Pearl, 3 (1), 44-51, February 2017 47 A Paradigm of Traditional Market Culture and Mall Culture - A Perceptional Study
4 Evolution of Mall culture in Mangalore The mall culture in Mangalore was evident since many years. The stages of evolution of mall culture are highlighted in the following paragraphs: 4.1 Saibeen Complex: The glimpse of mall culture was very much visible soon after the establishment of Saibeen Complex, a big commercial complex housing many retail shops and one super market by name ‘Zufri’ Super Market’. It was the only place one could see youngsters on weekends. It would be called as Mall because it has some of the basic features of mall like children play area, game zone, food joints, space for new product launch and also providing promotional space for exhibiting art , antique furnitures etc. But it was not fullfledged mall. 4.2 Super Markets: Then the trend of super markets started with the opening of outlets like ‘More’ by ‘Adithya Birla Group, Nilgiris’ by Mohtisham have been successful to a certain extent. These are no doubt a joint where people get many items under the same roof but not covering all the features of a mall. This is also a new kind of trend setter towards mall culture. 4.3 Empire Mall: The emergence of Empire Mall is mainly due to the limitations of Saibeen Complex and Super Markets. The empire mall was started with a bang and it shook the entire Mangalore with new brands, very spacious food court, centralised air conditioning system, escalators, lift facilities, walk ways, parking facilities and huge space for product launch. In other words, it is combination of supermarket, branded products showrooms, international standard restaurants, food courts, game zone etc. 4.4 Bharat Mall: The success of Empire Mall has led to the emergence of big version of Empire Mall in the form of Bharat Mall. This Bharat Mall is managed by Future Group. The value addition in the Bharat Mall consist of Multiplex theatre, Big Bazaar, Food Bazaar, Electronic Bazaar, Furniture Bazaar, Pantaloons, Provogue, Book Mark, coffee day joint, Pizza Hut, and free parking area. Moreover, floor space is much greater than Empire mall which an added features of a mall. 4.5 Easy Day and Hyper Market: The success of the concept of Big Bazaar has led to the surfacing of Easy day and Hyper market. These were had little advantage of accessibility to the people when compared to Bharat Mall but not upto the mark as it remained just another big shopping complex.
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4.6 City Centre: When people of Mangalore were thronging into these type of malls with great enthusiasm, people in the corporate world thought of bringing up new joint of international standard. So, City Centre with great fanfare started to woo the people of Mangalore with almost all the features of a mall of international repute. The value addition in this mall includes the opening of some international brands like Max, Westside, Citizen Watches, and Lifestyle. The credit of opening asia’s famous hyper market by name ‘SPAR’ / ‘Auchen’, ‘KFC’ outlet and ‘kobe’ goes to City Centre. The famous brand outlet like ‘Reliance’ on a huge scale has been opened in this mall with a bang. Moreover, the mall has facilitated ‘Two way Escalators’, spacious lift facility and walkways. The unique concept of this mall is to celebrate ‘Indian and Local Festivals’ with pomp and show to attract all types of customers. There is also ‘Week End Dhamaka’ with good offers which have been appreciated by the people. The structure wise look and five floors parking has been an added advantage when compared to Bharat Mall and Empire Mall. 4.7 Capita Malls Asia: This Mall is, now, the talk of the town. It is also called as ‘Forum Fiza Mall’. This is one of the largest listed shopping mall developers in Asia. This is really giving other malls run for their money as this happens to be a new concept in the mall culture as it occupies larger space than other malls so far in the vicinity. 5 Mangalore: Towards Negative Trends of Mall Culture The inevitable has started to happen. The mall culture in Mangalore has started showing a negative trend. In the recent months the people visiting the malls was declining in numbers and shopkeepers there are feeling the pinch. All this, even while the city has already witnessed the largest mall in South India promoted by Mohtisham, named City Centre. There is perhaps no medium sized city which does not have a Mall of its own and it is common for the young minds to throng to those places and spend time with their friends and cousins in the sterling interiors of a Mall. It is ‘groovy and fundoo’ to be in there and spending some ‘quality time’. Malls are truly fun, a number of shops in assorted themes, a chain of eateries right from a common Chaat shop to the international Pizza chain which survive side by side. Even the common Sugar cane juice vendor has a cane churning machine that looks like large size photocopier. The pristine
Pearl, 3 (1), 44-51, February 2017 49 A Paradigm of Traditional Market Culture and Mall Culture - A Perceptional Study
interiors, fully air-conditioned, brightly lit and many more attributes could be found in the modern Malls to the liking of the youngsters. The aroma from the popcorn stall fills the air and you run to grab a carton but the prohibitive cost shocks you. It is at least 10 times costlier than the ones you get in the corner shop or in the city fairs. The common cane juice costs three times more and assorted candies come at a premium price and nothing less than Rs. 100 per fifty grams. Among the city nucleus families, it has become a common practice to visit a mall on Sundays with one agenda ‘everybody for himself’. The lady of the house goes shopping with a cart, the teenage girl goes into the large super market or boutiques and loses herself to the family for the next three hours, the teenager boy either vanishes into one of the multiplexes or into the game arcade, their pop has other things on his mind as he strolls down into a tavern and spends time ‘guzzling down’ and watching cricket match that is played at the other end of the world. Is this what family outing has come to be? Despite all these social aberrations the malls have made their mark, but things are not like before. People have found out that going to Malls have become the biggest drain in their family income and parents and peers are dissuading the youngsters from going to the malls. The people who have burnt holes in their pockets say that a family outing into the Malls cost them dearly, each outing may cost nothing less than Rs. 3000, each ticket in the multiplex costs not less than Rs. 150, carton of popcorn and a 200 ml tumbler of coke costs nothing less than Rs. 65, a piece of pastry costs a whopping Rs.50-60 and the list goes on and only up. Conclusion The Mall culture in Mangalore in particular and India in general looks very artificial and gives sense of false prestige and affluence and young minds can be influenced easily. But the true world was is outside, the crowded city buses, the bills to pay, failing power, limited domestic water, loads of homework to do, help parents with household chores, ironing, washing, gardening and many more. Drawing a line between the artificial environment and the realities need to be shown to the youngsters which has to be done by their peers, teachers
50 Pearl, 3 (1), 44-51, February 2017 Iqbal Ahamed U T et al.
and parents so that their youngsters do not lose sight of the reality in the melee of finding pleasures of the Malls. Introduction of malls has not been able to replace traditional markets, which are still popular among the pocket conscious people, but mall culture has definitely added a new adventure to the shopping experience. Moreover, the conclusion can be drawn looking at the crowd movement in malls and how far the impact of mall culture on the people but definitely nobody can defend the following….. “BIG BAZAAR becoming small bazaar, MORE becoming less and EASY DAYS becoming difficult days and even closing down of Easy days outlet”. References Abbi (2009), Wholesale Markets in the epoch of Shopping Malls, Monthly Economic Digest, Vol. XXXVIII NO. 11 pp: 35-40, India Anuradha Kalhan (2007) “Impact of Malls on Small shops and Hawkers” Economic and Political weekly, June 2, 2007 Collett, Paul and Tyler Wallace (2006) ‘Background Report: Impact of Supermarkets on Traditional Markets and Small Retailers in the Urban Centers.’ Mimeo. Jakarta: SMERU Research Institute. Mukherjee A. and Nishita, Patel (2005), FDI in Retail Sector India: A Report, by ICRIER and Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Government of India., Indian Council for Research on International Relations, New Delhi. Rao Ramkrishna, Rama, Raju, B. Ram Prasad, ASVS, (1987), “Husband wife Involvement in Buying Decision Making;” The Economic Times, Bombay, Oct 1, p 8. Reardon, Thomas and Rose Hopkins (2006) ‘The Supermarket Revolution in Developing Countries: Policies to Address Emerging Tensions among Supermarkets, Suppliers, and Traditional Retailers’ Forthcoming in European Journal of Development Research, 18(4). Reetesh Kumar Singh, Aditya Prakash Tripthi(2008) “Diagnosing Impact of Malls on Small shops A study of Delhi and NCR” Delhi Business Review Vol.9.1, January – June 2008.
Pearl, 3 (1), 44-51, February 2017 51 Dalit Entrepreneurship: Problems and Prospects with Special Reference to Dakshina Kannada District
Radhakrishna Gowda V1, Pramod Gonchikar2 1 Assistant Professor and Research scholar, Dept. of Business Management St Philomena College Puttur [email protected] 2 Assistant Professor and Research Guide, Govt RC College, Bangalore
Abstract: Entrepreneurship is an elusive concept. The concept of entrepreneurship has been a subject of much debate and is defined differently by different authors. It has been used in various ways and in various senses. The word entrepreneurship has been derived from a French root which means ‘to undertake’ Today, people call it by various names such as, ‘risk bearing’, ‘innovations,’ ‘thrill seeking’ etc. The word ‘Dalit’ comes from the Sanskrit root dal - and means ‘broken, ground-down, or oppressed’. Those previously known as Untouchables, Depressed classes and Harijanas who are sharing 24.4 percent in the total population (According to 2011 census data) are today increasingly adopting the term ‘Dalit’ as a name for themselves. The Dalits have historically been poor, deprived of basic human rights, and treated as social inferiors in India. They still face economic, social, and political discrimination in the name of ‘caste’. Entrepreneurship is particularly important, as the so called Dalits have run and managed a number of traditional and cottage industries such as handicrafts, pottery and leather-work for centuries. The skills, know-how and domain of knowledge necessary for this purpose have been passed on from one generation to the next and are available with them even today. In the modern technology dominated and development driven times, to fulfil the mission of, ‘Subka Saath- Subka Vikas’, there is an urgent need as well as wide scope for research on Dalit Entrepreneurship in a developing country like India. It is necessary to reflect on the factors that have imprisoned them in the dungeon of depravity and shed light on how to push them to the mainstream of the economy with access to means of better livelihood and opportunities. Key Words: Dalit, Entrepreneurship, Motivation. Introduction: Entrepreneurship is an elusive concept. The concept of entrepreneurship has been a subject of much debate and is defined differently
52 Pearl, 3 (1), 52-62, February 2017 Radhakrishna Gowda V et al. by different authors. It has been used in various ways and in various senses. The word entrepreneurship has been derived from a French root which means ‘to undertake’. Today, people call it by various names such as, ‘risk bearing’, ‘innovations,’ ‘thrill seeking’ etc. Entrepreneurship can be defined as an ability to discover, create or invent opportunities and exploit them to the benefit of the society, which in turn brings prosperity to the innovator and his organisation. From the social and macro-economic perspective, it is held that the economic development of any nation is a direct function of the number of high quality innovators and entrepreneurs it supplies. This, in turn, is dependent upon the desire for new and better products that society demands and accepts. A vicious circle is there by created resulting in all-round economic development and standard of life. With liberalisation and global competition being the governing societal paradigm and with the acknowledgment that wealth creation is indeed of paramount importance, the concept of entrepreneurship is receiving closer attention than hitherto from business management scholars and societal scientists. Dalit Entrepreneurship ‘Someone who believes in equality, practices equality in his or her life, and protests inequality wherever he or she sees it’. The term ‘Dalit’ has different meanings for different people. The most common use of the term is to define people who were known as ‘untouchables’, separated from the rest of the society by the cast system. The word ‘Dalit’ comes from the Sanskrit root dal- and means ‘broken, ground-down, or oppressed’. Those previously known as Untouchables, Depressed classes, and Harijanas who are sharing 24.4% in the total population (According to 2011 census data) are today increasingly adopting the term ‘Dalit’ as a name for themselves. The Dalits have historically been poor, deprived of basic human rights, and treated as social inferiors in India. They still face economic, social, and political discrimination in the name of caste. The constitution of India guarantees equality of law to all citizens and this guarantee applies to all aspects of national life including social and economic. This provision was meant to be a tool especially for the upliftment of those sections of the population that had suffered deprivation for long periods in history owing to pernicious caste system. One such section is that of Dalits.
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The concerns for Dalits lead to more radical movement headed by Dr B.R. Ambedkar. Mahatma Gandhi viewed Dalits problem as social one, whereas, Dr Ambedkar saw it as political and economic problem created by upper castes. Entrepreneurship is particularly important, as the so called Dalits have run and managed a number of traditional and cottage industries such as handicrafts, pottery and leather-work for centuries. The skills, know-how and domain of knowledge necessary for this purpose have been passed on from one generation to the next and are available with them even today. Our history is evident that many small enterprises like fan–making, leather craft and manufacturing of musical instruments were their monopoly. These deserve to be revived with the help of the new available technologies as to make these neglected enterprises by traditionally skilled persons as successful entrepreneurship ventures. Another factor that contributes to the attractiveness of entrepreneurship in the context of this community is the filling of self- worth and independence that it generates. Importance of Dalit Entrepreneurship Dalit entrepreneurship is not only a social and economic necessity but also a technological and strategic necessity due to the following reasons; 1. To Enhance the Standard of Living of the People: Development of entrepreneurship is very vital for economic activities to uplift the poor masses. Developing country like India’s main aim of economic activities is to raise the standard of living of the people, particularly Dalit population. 2. Modernisation of Dalit Society: The development of entrepreneurship is urgently needed for the modernisation of Dalit Society, because the life style of the present Dalit community has not changed. Therefore, the higher economic needs of these people can be met only by bringing them under the entrepreneurship ambit. 3. Employment Provider: Dalits can become the job givers, instead of job seekers if they get the sufficient entrepreneurial opportunities. 4. Financial Inclusion: The revolution in financial inclusion in India will lead to its natural progression i.e. entrepreneurship. The people who enjoyed the financial inclusion now are getting into entrepreneurship. A good number of people who have been brought into financial inclusion are Dalits. So it is quite obvious that the financially included Dalits will be graduating into entrepreneurs.
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5. Advanced Technologies: Modern Information technologies like internet, mobile, cloud computing, etc. are throwing unlimited entrepreneurial opportunities to all the youths particularly the Dalit youths. The IT enabled business like e-commerce, e-trading, online trading of stocks etc. are giving innumerable opportunities for Dalit entrepreneurship. 6. The Emerging Concept of Interest - free Finance: Today, the interest- free finance concept gaining popularity. Interest-free financing are available for entrepreneurial activities. Interest-free finance concept discourages interest-based lending. This reduces the financial burden of the potential entrepreneurs. Interest-free finance emphasises the sharing of both profit and loss. Indirectly interest-free finance supports the equity model of business capital in small and micro enterprises. The interest-free finance is alternatively called as ‘Islamic Banking’. Today, Islamic banking is more popular in Islamic and Non-Islamic countries. In London, all the traditional banks have Islamic banking windows. So, the interest-free financing and Islamic Banking will be a boost for Dalit Entrepreneurship. 7. Educated Dalit Youths: Easy access to Engineering colleges and Business schools produced a good number of Dalit engineers and potential managers. These engineers and managers are mostly from the second or third generation families. They are less interested in jobs and more interested in entrepreneurship. They feel that they have technical, financial and managerial capabilities to run business. Dalit Entrepreneurship in Dakshina Kannada District The study was related to Dakshina Kannada district of Karnataka. It is the coastal district of the state sheltered by the Western Ghats on the East and surrounded by the Arabian Sea on the West. Dakshina Kannada receives abundant rainfall during monsoon. It is bordered by Udupi district to the north, Chickmagaluru district to North-East, Hassan district to the East and Kasaragodu district in Kerala to the South. Mangalore is the District Head Quarters. The district is divided into five taluks namely Mangalore, Bantwal, Puttur, Sullia and Belthangady. As per the general census of 2011the total population of the district is 2089649 of which Dalits were of 230446 (11.03%). The community of Dalits in the district includes the sub castes - Baira, Maila, Adi-Dravida, Marati, Malekudiya, Nalke, Parava, Koragas and Mugera etc. The district administration is very active in implementing the programmes of the government for uplifting the socio-economic level of the Dalits by monitoring the various activities like Safai Karmacharis Rehabilitation, Self Employment Scheme Programme, Micro Credit Schemes etc. launched by Karnataka Maharshi Valmiki Scheduled Tribes Development Corporation, Dr B.R Ambedkar Development Corporation, Khadi and Village Industries Commission and Social Welfare Department. The District Industrial Centre
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plays a key role in organising entrepreneurship training to the buddy upcoming entrepreneurs. Objectives The current study on ‘Dalit Entrepreneurship - Problems and Prospects with special reference to Dakshina Kannada District’ was formulated with the following objectives. 1. To identify the socio-economic profile of the Dalit entrepreneur, 2. To bring out the main motivational factors for Dalit entrepreneurs, 3. To study the major problems faced by the dalit entrepreneurs in the district. Methodology In order to analyze the topic, the questionnaire has been used. The sample consists of 50 respondents randomly selected from all the five taluks of the district and grouped under Scheduled castes and Scheduled tribes. The questions have been included to elicit their views to the required information relating to general background, motivational factors and the various problems faced by them. Hypothesis Framed 1. There is no significant association between education and type of entrepreneurial activity 2. There is no significant association between the type of family and profit earned by the dalit entrepreneurs. Statistical Tools Employed: For analyzing the data and establish the inter-relationship between various variables, the following statistical tools are employed. 1. Simple Percentages. 2. Chi Square Test Simple percentages In order to prove the hypothesis, the percentages have been calculated on the data collected through questionnaires. Chi Square Test: The study used chi square analysis to find out whether there is any significant association between the education and type of entrepreneurial activity and the type of family and profit earned. The formula used was X2= Observed- Expected 2
Expected
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Findings of the Study 1 General Information Table 1: General Information of the Respondents
Sl. No. Age Number of Percentage Respondents 1 25-35 16 32 35-45 18 36 45-55 12 24 Above 55 4 8 2 Educational Level Illiterate 6 12 Primary 22 44 Secondary 17 34 Collegiate 5 10 3 Monthly Family Income (Rs) Below 4000 16 32 4000-6000 20 40 6000-10000 14 28 4 Type of the Family Joint 20 40 Nuclear 30 60 5 Caste Scheduled Castes 18 36 Scheduled Tribes 32 64
Source: Survey Analysis
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The above table states that the majority of the respondents (68%) were in the age group of 25-45 years, wherein only 32 percent of the respondents belongs to the age group of above 45. The district is ranking the top position in the state in the educational level in general. Since the education can overcome the major causes of unemployment problem by promoting the entrepreneurial skills among the people, the selected sample also proves the same, indicating 88 percent of respondents were educated, of which 44 percent with primary education, 34 percent is up to secondary and 10percent with collegiate education. 68 percent of the respondents were getting the monthly income of above 4000. In the study area 60 percent of the respondents were belonging to nuclear family and majority of (64%) the respondents belongs to the scheduled tribe category. 2 Entrepreneurial Activities of the respondents Table 2:
Activities Number of Entrepreneurs Percentage Managing Cottage Industries 16 32 Tailoring 13 26 Poultry Farming 16 32 Running DTP and Mobile work 5 10 shop
Source: Survey Analysis
The above table indicates that majority of the respondents are exhibiting their entrepreneurial skills in innovations, decision making ability and leadership quality in managing the cottage industries with equal share to poultry farming (32%) , followed by tailoring with 26percent and 10 percent of the respondents have also possessed the knowledge of new technology by running their own DTP and Mobile work shop. The calculation of chi-square indicates that there is no association between education and entrepreneurial activities 2 undertaken by dalit entrepreneurs, since the calculated x 0.05 was 1.338 and 2 it was less than table value x 0.05=12.6.
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3 Motivational and Facilitating Factors of Dalit Entrepreneurs The present study has been made with an aim to bring out the motivational factors of Dalit entrepreneur. Table 3: Reasons Number of Entrepreneurs Percentage
Making Money 16 32 Securing Self-Employment 8 16 Desire to be Independent 7 14 Hereditary Occupation 9 18 Govt Policy 10 20 Source: Survey Analysis Motivation is a theoretical construct used to explain behaviour. It gives the reasons for people’s actions, desires, and needs. The table 3 states that making money (32%) is the main facilitating factor of starting entrepreneurship, followed by necessity of continuing family business (18%). Concept of self employment had the share of 16 percent, whereas the desire to be independent is 14 percent, 10 percent of the respondents are motivated by pro-dalit policies of the Government at large. 4 Profit Earned by Dalit Entrepreneurs Table 4: Brings out the profit earned by Dalit Entrepreneurs Table 4: Profit Earned by Dalit Entrepreneurs Profit earned Number of Percentage (per month) Entrepreneurs Below 4000 16 32 4000-6000 20 40 Above 6000 14 28
Source: Survey Analysis
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Earning profit cannot be the objective of a business; more than eating is the objective of living. As such profit is the reward for an entrepreneur for undertaking risk in the business. The table 4 states that the majority of the entrepreneurs (40%) have earned a profit of Rs. 4000-6000, followed by 32 percent with below 4000 and 28 percent of respondents have earned above 6000. The application of chi square test indicates that there was no significant association between the type of family and profit earned by the Dalit 2 entrepreneurs, since the calculated x 0.05 was 2.41 against the table value of 2 x 0.05=9.49. 5 Major Problems Encountered by Dalit Entrepreneurs Risk bearing is the common element of any kind of business; as no business can be run without risk. The following table illustrates the various problems faced by Dalit Entrepreneurs. Table 5:
Constrains Number of Entrepreneurs Percentage Scarcity of Raw Materials 9 18 Problem of Marketing 15 30 Lack of Exposure 5 10 Lack of Technical Skills 11 22 Social Constraints 4 8 Tight Repayment Schedule 6 12
Source: Survey Analysis
The table 5, reveals that the main problem faced by the Dalit entrepreneurs is the marketing (30%) of the products manufactured by them. The globalised corporate world demands for hard core marketing efforts on the part of the entrepreneur but in the study area, Dalits who have set up small enterprises to sustain themselves facing the real problem is in the marketing phase due to less capital. Along with this 22 percent of the respondents are suffering with lack of technical skill wherein they need entrepreneurship training programmes to overcome this.
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Suggestions To empower the budding dalit entrepreneur, the society as well as the government must continue to make efforts to increase opportunities for them in all walks of life, especially making them self employed, the following steps may be adopted. 1. Policies for Dalit entrepreneurship should follow a comprehensive approach rather than be piecemeal 2. The procedures and formalities should be simplified for the registration of business, financial and legal assistance, subsidies concessions relief etc. from government and non government departments 3. The government should assist dalit entrepreneurs to participate in international, national and local trade fairs, exhibitions and conferences 4. Dalit India Chamber of Commerce and Industry (DICCI) which has been formed at the national level to make the Dalits to be the job givers instead of job seekers. They need technical and financial assistance from the government to organise training programmes for the upcoming Dalit entrepreneurs 5. Banks must work along with government by granting the sufficient funds without many formalities to bring them into the main stream of the society. Conclusion In the modern technology dominated and development driven times, to fulfil the mission of, ‘Subka Saath - Subka Vikas’, there is an urgent need as well as wide scope for research on Dalit entrepreneurship in a developing country like India. It is necessary to reflect on the factors that have imprisoned them in the dungeon of depravity and shed light on how to push them to the mainstream of the economy with access to means of better livelihood and opportunities. The present research is an effort in this direction with intensive hope and confident belief to make positive contributions and bench-mark in the field of research and its implications on Dalit Entrepreneurs.
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References Anil S Suttar (1999): “education and social change among Scheduled castes, A sociological study” Unpublished M.Phil thesis. Bhatt A (1989): “Development of Social Justice: Micro Action by Weaker Sections” Sage Publications, New Delhi. Devi Bhuvaneshwari and Annapoorni:‘Dalit women empowerment through entrepreneurship of Coimbatore district’ article published in ‘International Journal of Research in Commerce and Management’ Vol. No.4 (2013) Issue No. 01 (January) ISSN 0976-2183. D.V. Kumar (1989): “Tribal Development in India”. N. Patil and B. Jena Publication Ghuye, G.S (1932): “Castes and Race in India”. London; Routnedge and Kegan Paul (Edi, 1969) Bombay G.R. Bhatkal. Hutton J.H (1969): “Castes in India”, London. Cambridge University Press. Paramasivan and Mari Selvam: ‘Dalit Owned Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises in India’: https/www.researchgate.net/publication/259187042. Paramasivan and Mari Selvam: ‘Status Dalit Entrepreneurs in India’ article published in ‘Asia Pacific Journal of Management & Entrepreneurship Research (APJMER)’ Volume No. 2 Issue No. 2 April 2013. ISSN 2277. Ramesh Sardar: “Problems and Prospects of dalit Entrepreneurship” article published in ‘International Journal of Engineering Technology, Management and Applied Sciences’ Volume No 3 January 2015 Issue 1, ISSN 2349-4476. Satyanarayana and Reddy (2005) ‘Ambedkar and Dalits in contemporary India’ contains the papers presented in the national seminar on “Ambedkar and India’s Socio-economic Scenerio” organised by Mangalore University, published by academic Publishers, Kanaka Nagar Bangalore. Sharma Anuradha (1998): “Castes and Tribes in India”. New Delhi: Common wealth Publishers.
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Prince C P PhD Scholar, School of Social Work, Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai, Email: [email protected] (corresponding author) Abstract Social work had entered into social innovation scenario to address a host of issues like income deprivations, displacement, disability, racism, social conflicts, and social exclusion. In Indian situation care giving to the differently abled particularly those having mental illness is a matter of grave concern. Varied approaches including institutionalized care and family and community based care are tried out in different contexts depending on the nature and severity of illness. This study tries to examine the care and rehabilitation of the differently abled through the individual initiatives inspired by faith dimensions of Catholic Church lasting over a period of twenty years in the State of Kerala and outside. The objective is to explore the process and outcome dimensions of such social innovation to find out the motivating drivers and aspects of sustainability. The personal and familial dedication is also come under the purview of analysis. The study adopted a Grounded Theory approach and methodology to analyse and theorise the processes and outcomes of such initiatives. The sample was chosen using purposive sampling methods and data was collected using in-depth interviews of individual innovators, their family members, volunteers, professionals and community representatives taking 22 centers reaching theoretical saturation. Being a qualitative study, a conceptual framework is given to such home based social innovation rooted in faith based dimensions with social responsibility for social value creation through sustainability leading to a social mission. The committed and sustained involvement of the community and the neighbourhood generated an innovative model for care of the persons with mental illness. The results of the study brings out new relationships and innovative drives and motivations exceptional to the traditional philanthropic methods as well as professional care and rehabilitation approaches thereby characterising social innovation in care giving and rehabilitation of the mentally challenged. Unlike the western model of community care and rehabilitation of persons with mental illness, the new approach evolved through the study is a family based community supported care and rehabilitation. There is a new relationship paradigm emerges at different levels – between the client and innovator, the institution and the community, clients and the family members of the innovator, clients and their
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family, clients and the professionals etc.. It is a model for effective family education, care and compassion to complement other models of care and rehabilitation leading to theory of participatory family based care with community support in a spiral progressive paradigm. Key Words: Social Innovation, Faith Dimension, Care and Rehabilitation of the Differently Abled, Family Based Community Support Model. Introduction Social innovation was seen as a conceptual frame across the Globe, towards the end of the twentieth century referring to a multitude of approaches in addressing long standing social and developmental issues leading to apparently innovative and sustainable solutions. In the context of technological advancement, high-tech communication alongside increased social needs, the disparity between the haves and the have-nots got widened. The problems like poverty, unemployment, illiteracy, climatic change, racism, ageism and increased criminality required new methods of finding sustainable solutions to such problems. Developing innovative solutions to such social problems and new forms of organising and interactions; both in bridging the gap as well as in addressing the issues at hand; led to social innovation theorisations and practices with greater emphasis on processes and not the outcome alone. Nuances in Social Innovation Originated from the ideas of innovation social innovation combines the passion of a social mission with an image of business-like discipline, innovation, and determination. It is an answer and entrepreneurial approache to social problems. Social innovation can be defined as new responses to pressing social demands, which affect the process of social interactions. It is aimed at improving human welfare. Critical analysis of the role of varied stakeholders and a firm belief in participatory processes point to the importance of a non•linear approach to addressing pressing social concerns (Hulgard and Shajahan, 2013). According to Agnes et al (2010), Social innovations are innovations that are social in both their ends and their means. Social innovations are also defined as new ideas (products, services and models) that simultaneously meet social needs (more effectively than alternatives) and create new social relationships or collaborations. In other words they are innovations that are not only good for society but also enhance society’s capacity to act. Elaborating the concept Agnes (ibid) further refers ‘Innovation’ as the capacity to create and implement novel ideas which are proven to deliver value and ‘Social’ as the kind of value that innovation is expected to deliver: a value that is less concerned with profit and more with
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issues such as quality of life, solidarity and well-being. A social innovation is a new combination and/or new configuration of social practices in certain areas of action or social contexts prompted by certain actors or constellations of actors in an intentional targeted manner with the goal of better satisfying or answering needs and problems than is possible on the basis of established practices (Howaldt and Kopp, 2012, p.47). According to Frank Moulaert et al (2013), Social innovation refers to finding acceptable progressive solutions for a whole range of problems of exclusion, deprivation, alienation, lack of wellbeing, and also to those actions that contribute positively to significant human progress and development. Social innovation means fostering inclusion and wellbeing through improving social relations and empowerment processes: imagining and pursuing a world, a nation, a region, a locality, a community that would grant universal rights and be more socially inclusive. A definition focused on practice, intention, and outcomes addressing social challenges, was originally developed by Robin Murray, Julie Caulier-Grice, and Geoff Mulgan in The Handbook of Social Innovation (Murray et.al., 2010, p.3). This definition was slightly refined by Agnes Hubert et.al. within the European context as follows: “specifically, we define social innovations as new ideas (products, services and models) that simultaneously meet social needs (more effectively than alternatives) and create new social relationships or collaborations. They are innovations that are not only good for society but also enhance society’s capacity to act” (Agnes Hubert et.al., 2010, p.9). Therefore social innovation, beyond its object of bringing measurable or perceptible changes in situations of vulnerability processes and practices which are inclusive and interactive, forms bedrock of social innovation. Further, Michael Mumford (2002) defines social innovation as “the generation and implementation of new ideas about how people should organize interpersonal activities, or social interactions, to meet one or more common goals. Mulgan et al. (2007) and Mulgan (2006) described social innovation as: innovative activities and services that are motivated by the goal of meeting a social need and that are predominantly developed and diffused through organisations whose primary purposes are social (2007: 8). Thus social innovation leads to a commitment to the society to transform the society from the existing situation to a new status that could aim at eliminating the existing structures of risk or create new structures which are more empowering and sustainable.
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Process and Outcome Dimensions in Social Innovation All the existing scholarships in social innovation have invariably stressed the process of social interactions between individuals to reach certain outcomes as one of the important aspects of social innovation (Moulaert and Sekia 2003; Moulaert et al. 2005; MacCallum et al. 2009; Phills 2008; Defourny et al. 2010; Hulgård 2011). Ayob, Teasdale and Fagan (2016) make the distinction between strong and weak tradition in the evolution of social innovation as an academic discipline. Accordingly, the strong tradition argues that participatory and collaborative processes targeting a reconfiguration of ‘power relations’, whereas the weak tradition focus on ‘the utilitarian social value of the innovation’ (Ayob, Teasdale and Fagan, 2016:637). Social innovation emerges from a set of drivers oriented by co-creative processes (for clients and users), based on collaborative networks, and originated from global challenges and social needs (Guida and Maiolini, 2013). In other words, social innovation is generated from individual and ethical considerations that serve to create new knowledge through a social capital perspective. The outcome is the end result which could be social status, satisfaction as ulterior motive and the welfare of the immediate beneficiaries as immediate motive. The outcome could be varied based on the purpose, process and performance. The outcome in social innovation may be service of the society. Further there are several scholars (Borzaga and Defourny 2001; Moulaert and Sekia 2003; Moulaert et al. 2005; MacCallum et al. 2009; Chesbrough 2006; Hulgård 2011) who argue that an integrated approach that observes ‘process’ and ‘outcome’ as being equally important in enabling social innovation. This process-outcome integration links to an emphasis throughout the social innovation literature on participatory governance. The entire study focuses on how the individual initiatives from a faith based experience in the care and rehabilitation of wandering persons with mental illness is cared in a family environment with community support in a process of social innovation creating social values and how the outcome turn into turns a sustainable model. A brief review of literature is done in this synopsis to map the subject in the world of research and studies. Literature Review The care and rehabilitation of the differently abled is to be studied in background of research, both quantitative and qualitative done in India and outside to fix the social innovation under study. The review is done starting from rehabilitation in mental health care, role of spirituality in mental health care, social innovation and its theoretical perspectives, focusing on social
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value creation as a variable under study, the role of families and communities in rehabilitation and on differently abled chiefly persons with mental illness. Mental Health Care and Rehabilitation In Indian context there are approximately 30 million people affected by various types of mental disorders. However the personnel to treat them are not sufficient. Therefore a vast majority of the persons with mental illness is either partially treated or not treated. In the bargain the untreated persons aggravate the symptoms and subsequently get out of the house and being exposed to the hard realities on the street. Agarwal (2000) in his review of the book, ‘Innovation in Psychiatric Rehabilitation,’ published by The Richmond Fellowship Society (India) comments, ‘Large rehabilitation facilities may be the only viable option’. He opines that there were many rehabilitative initiatives, but unfortunately most of them have not tried to evaluate their efforts scientifically as well as in economic terms. Kumar et al., (2008) have assessed the prevalence and pattern of mental disability among the rural population in Karnataka. It was a community- based, cross-sectional, house-to-house survey. They used Indian disability evaluation and assessment scale (IDEAS), developed by Rehabilitation Committee of Indian Psychiatric Society (IPS). They studied one thousand subjects randomly. The prevalence of mental disability was found to be 2.3%. The prevalence was higher among females (3.1%) than among males (1.5%). The prevalence was the highest among the elderly and illiterates. Suresh Kumar (2008) observed that there is a definite limitation to the domains of social functioning, cognitive functioning, and psychopathology in chronic schizophrenia patients who have had no rehabilitation. Vocational rehabilitation significantly improves these limitations, which in turn helps these patients to integrate into the society so as to function efficiently in their roles. Further studies show the inevitable need of care and rehabilitation of the mentally ill which is termed here as differently abled. In Erving Goffman’s terms, stigma is “a special discrepancy between virtual and actual social identity,” where virtual social identity refers to an imputed characterization, while actual social identity is defined as the qualities a person “could in fact be proved to possess” (1963:2-3) To many contemporary social scientists, the stigma of mental illness has become an object that is measurable with tools such as the Bogardus Social Distance Scale, quantitative surveys, or qualitative interviewing (Angermeyer 2005; Baldwin and Marcus 2006; Borenstein 1992; Cook 2006; Corrigan et
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al. 2003; Corrigan 2004b; Corrigan et al. 2005; Falk 2001; Lauber 2004; Wahl 1997; Wahl 1999). Therefore stigma reduction is also a major concern in mental health care and rehabilitation. Mental Health Care and Spirituality The care and rehabilitation in mental health sector has close links with spirituality. Religiosity and spirituality can be defined broadly as any feelings, thoughts, experiences, and behaviours that arise from a search for the ‘sacred,’ with the former implying group or social practices and doctrines and the latter tending to refer to personal experiences and beliefs (Hill et al.2000). Raphael Bonelli et al (2012) studied at least 444 original quantitative studies examined the relationship between Religion/Spirituality and depression or the effect of Religion/Spirituality intervention on depression between 1962 and 2010. Of those, there were 414 observational studies and 30 clinical trials (Table 1). Overall, of the 444 total studies, 272 (61%) found less depression, faster recovery from depression, or a reduction in depressive symptoms in response to a Religion/Spirituality intervention, whereas 28 studies (6%) found the opposite. Diana et al (2013) studied on multi faith based intervention in comparison with supportive therapy in cases of generalised anxiety disorder and found that faith based intervention is far more effective than supportive therapy. Whereas in another study on services among homeless women spirituality has less significance compared to funding from the government (Kevin C et al, 2003). Social Innovation and Social Value Creation Social innovation has multiple definitions which are briefly given in the thesis and social value creation is briefly touched upon here. Individuals create value by developing novel and appropriate tasks, services, jobs, products, processes, or other contributions perceived to be of value by a target user (e.g., employer, client, customer) relative to the target’s needs and when the monetary amount realized for this service is greater than what might be derived from an alternative source producing the same task, service, job, and so forth. The value created may be from any new task, service, or job that provides greater utility or lower unit costs for the user over the closest alternative (Lepak et al, 2007). At a societal level, the process of value creation can be conceived in terms of programs and incentives for entrepreneurship and innovation intended to
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encourage existing organizations and new entrepreneurial ventures to innovate and expand their value to society and its members (Lepak et al, 2007). Value is a concept of worth which is “linked to the use of a product or service and perceived by customers rather than objectively determined (Dumond, 2000, p. 1062). Bowman and Ambrosini introduce two perspectives on value. First, use value which is defined as “subjected by customers, based upon their perception of usefulness of the product on offer”, and second exchange value, explained as “the amount paid by the buyer to the producer for the perceived use value” (2000, p. 4). Lepak et al. (2007, p. 182) suggest on the above mentioned definition, that “value creation depends on the subjective value realization of a user - whether individual, organization, or society – and translates into the user’s willingness to exchange a monetary amount for the value received”. What exactly is social value about? Certo and Miller clarify that “social value has little to do with wealth creation but instead with the fulfilment of basic and long-standing needs such as providing food, water, shelter, education, and medical services to those members of society who are in need” (2008, p. 267). Further, social value is among others explained as the creation of social wealth like education and economic development (McLean, 2006; Sullivan Mort, Weerawardena and Carnegie, 2003), social justice (e.g. reduction of gender inequalities) (Thake & Zadek, 1997) or the resolution of social problems (e.g. reduction of poverty) (Drayton, 2002). In an economic perspective social value may be similar to what Bowman and Ambrosini call use-value with the constraint that an adequate exchange value may not be paid. Santos comments, “[social] value creation can be defined as the sum of the value added to all members of society minus the value for all resources used” (2009, p. 27). Differently Abled Although precise numbers are difficult to determine, research indicates that as much as 7-10 percent of the world’s population has a disability. Hereafter the disability is renamed as people with differently abled to avoid the value loaded judgment and labelling. The specialists note that people who are differently abled face many of the challenges that other poor, marginalized, and vulnerable groups face, such as lack of adequate support services in their communities, lack of resources and economic opportunities, and physical and attitudinal barriers to their participation fully in the society. The “disability” as defined by the United Nations Standard Rules on the Equalization of Opportunities for People who are differently abled is “physical, intellectual
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or sensory impairment, medical conditions or mental illness,” whether long or short-term, which leads to the “loss or limitation of opportunities to take part in the life of the community on an equal level with others.” The work of Albert et al (2006) on disability advocacy among religious organizations, histories and reflections speak on the experiences of different religious sects in North America. The edited works of Renu et al (2009) discussed the cultural and societal forces behind the disability rehabilitation. This study focuses on the existing model of rehabilitation of the differently abled evolved in a faith based perspective through individual initiatives turning into a social enterprise. Being inspired by Charismatic movement of the Catholic Church in Kerala several individuals initiated rehabilitation of the differently abled, home based depending upon the providence of God. Majority of the differently abled were destitute or their family members were unable to care them. These individual initiatives were supported by men of good will from the neighbourhood and the community who supported the venture with money, material and voluntary services. This study is an attempt to explore the process and outcome dimensions in social innovations of rehabilitation of the differently abled by individual initiative with community support in special reference to Kerala. Methodology Conceptual Mapping on Social Innovation in the Rehabilitation of the Differently Abled Overview of the community rehabilitation of the differently abled should brief the history of more than twenty years when a few individuals inspired from catholic charismatic retreats in Kerala state took initiative to care the destitute differently abled in their own homes. It was the beginning of social innovation with a faith perspective believing the words of Jesus, ‘When you do to the least of my brethren you do unto me’ (Mt. 25: 40). The members of the community observed such innovative centre and understood the sincerity and commitment behind the humanitarian task, owned the entire project as community responsibility and provided financial and material support to such centers. The similar episodes continued and today nearly ninety such centers having inmates of 50 to 400 or more are functioning in a miraculous way in the community expression of participation and community ownership.
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The nucleus would be individual initiated innovation that established the rehabilitation centre. The framework conditions include family involvement, community participation and tertiary resources including hospitals, Primary Health Centres, medical camps on top layer of and bottom layer of framework includes legal regulations, institutional infrastructure and facilities and political framework. The inner circles would include the drivers chiefly the religious faith based inspiration, the societal output which is the social value creation, the social outcome which is the social responsibility or ownership leading to a social mission and sustainability which needs to be established through this study. The drivers are the religious faith based spirituality which is the total trust in the providence of the Almighty God which is followed by faith in good works that contributes eternal life. It gives a social responsibility which makes the individual and the community to proceed towards a social mission. When such a social mission is with conviction and commitment it becomes sustainable. When the entire family is involved in the enterprise the very rehabilitation itself becomes a livelihood upon social enterprise parameters. This process leads to an outcome which is also socially innovative. It leads to social value creation. The community feels that every destitute disabled in the community is a member in their own family and it is the responsibility of everyone in the community to look after them and to meet all possible needs of such disabled. Besides the social innovation objective looks into the generation of new idea creation which should be focused on social welfare. It should develop a new relationship between different groups of people involved in the given project. Process The qualitative research design with grounded theory methodology is followed in the study. The researcher visited the social innovation centers, interacted with the director of the centre, his/her family members, staff, and other caregivers. An in-depth interview with them is audio recorded which is transcribed. The transcribed data is processed using Atlas Ti software for coding and analysis. Initially open coding was done for the entire data. In the second stage axial coding was done and finally theoretical coding is done. In the analysis codified data is done taking the axial coding data. In open coding 300 codes were used and it was categorised to 15 axial codes. Those
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15 themes are further clustered into sections for analysis. The discussion of the analysis is included in this paper. The Discussion Care and Rehabilitation of the persons with mental illness in a family environment developed as a social innovation is analysed based on the in- depth interviews with individuals, family members, community representatives, volunteers, recovered patients, professionals, volunteers and others. The discussion session is divided into four sections and each is framed based on the objectives and the research questions of the study. It covers the following components such as drivers and motivating factors, personal and family involvement, social value creation and the role of the community, process and outcome of social innovation leading to sustainability. Further grounded theory formulation is explained. 1. Drivers and Motivating Factors in Social Innovation Drivers in any social innovation could be a sustainable force behind any action. Those sustainable forces lead to change in any social innovation. The drivers include factors from causal conditions, strategies, consequences and intervening conditions as per the selective coding in grounded theory method. Causal conditions are family involvement, community support, spiritual values like trust in the providence of God, and social value creation. Strategies include resource mobilization and utilization, professional services, individual and group care, active engagement of inmates through spiritual exercises, activity scheduling and occupational engagement, financial support, professional and voluntary support. Consequences include individual improvement and recovery through regular medication and disciplined life. Intervening conditions also become part of drivers which include family training, mental health awareness programmes to the community and preparing the families of ill members for family care and rehabilitation. Any social innovation itself is a driver to social change (Howaldt, 2012). Comparing and contrast of the construct is done along with the discussion. Motivations of the individual social innovators include inspiring philosophies, the poor living conditions of wandering persons with mental illness, inspiring scriptural passages, lives of inspiring people, spiritual gain of eternity, financial gain, and sense of self satisfaction, social recognition and acceptance and host of others.
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1.1 Triggers Discussing the triggering factors of the social innovation under study most of them are life events physical, psychological, social or spiritual. The physical trigger may be watching the inhuman condition of wandering persons with mental illness. Continuous struggles in life made Mr. Manuel (an innovator)to involve in caring mission. A motor bike accident and subsequent event made Mr. Sathish (another innovator) to reflect upon the utility of a coconut tree and his own useless life as human being. 1.2 Drivers The drivers include factors from causal conditions, strategies, consequences and intervening conditions. Causal conditions are family involvement, community support, spiritual values like trust in the providence of God, and social value creation. Those who walked in realised what is going on inside and started to collaborate by contributing in terms of money, material and man power. The spiritual values are another causal factor that acts as drivers. It is the deep trust in the providence of God. Almost all the social innovation centers are started in a spiritual background give primary importance to spirituality. The providence of God they felt at times of difficulty as the unknown hands opening the door to a resolution of the problem. The community mental health experimented in the West had its own limitations of replicating the family values as the society itself in the West is facing degeneration of family values from 1950 onwards. Hence the regeneration of family values in the context of care and rehabilitation of persons with mental illness is a social value created in this model. Again the family involvement for social mission is a major social value regenerated. Next set of drivers emerge from strategies. Strategies include resource mobilization and utilization, professional services, individual and group care, active engagement of inmates through spiritual exercises, activity scheduling and occupational engagement, financial support, professional and voluntary support. Financial support is another strategical area in which the innovation center tries to tap all the possible resources although hardly they go for permanent financial sources. People like Tony and Tomy do not want excess money than the daily bread as they fully trust in the providence of God. Professional and voluntary support is another strategical condition.
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Consequences include individual improvement and recovery through regular medication and disciplined life. As there is professional support in most of the centers they focus on regular treatment of the inmates. Family training takes place in different levels. The families of the innovator through their intervention gradually learn the care giving method. Another set of family training is to the families in the neighbourhood and the community through various training programmes conducted by the centre from time to time. They also visit the social innovation centre and learn about mental illness and people’s behaviour through observation and interaction. The third set of families includes the families of the inmates. Some of them are not ready to come. Those who are ready to respond are given Psycho education by the professionals or trained volunteers from the centre. Such training helps them to take the patient back home and give better care with proper medication and other requirements. Mental health awareness program in the community is another intervening condition. There are different types of awareness program taking place. The home visits of volunteers and professionals from the centre could be another method of mental health information dissemination. A few centers reach out to the community through programmes like drama, music and other cultural events. A few centers have magazines. 1.3 Motivations Motivations of the individual social innovators include inspiring philosophies, the poor living conditions of wandering persons with mental illness, inspiring scriptural passages, lives of inspiring people, spiritual gain of eternity, financial gain, and sense of self satisfaction, social recognition and acceptance. 2 Personal and Family Involvement The personal involvement of the social innovator varied in each centre. In the case of a few it was a strong personal conviction born out of the philosophy they formed from the life events or environment made them to commit for a social cause. Family involvement also varied from place to place. There were three levels of involvement in general. There was total and full involvement, partial involvement and neutral involvement.
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3 Social Value Creation and the Role of community Involvement in Social Mission and Social Responsibility There are individuals who define the social value or conceptualize as they perceive, family perspective which could be more or less organizational and societal point of view. In the context of family the social value creation is in the process of helping the families having a mentally ill member by innovator and his family taking up the burden and cares the ill member. On recovery the family of the ill member is engaged with psycho education and training to prepare to accommodate the ill member. The support of the families in the community also adds a social value. It serves the social innovation centre with voluntary services, and mobilization of resources. 4 Process and Outcome Dimensions of Social Innovation to Sustainability Murray, Caulier-Grice and Mulgan (2010) in The Open Book of Social Innovation define social innovation as new products, services or methods that tackle pressing and emerging social issues which, at the same time, transform social interactions promoting new collaboration and relationships. Hubert et.al. within the European context defines as follows: “Social innovations are defined as new ideas (products, services and models) that simultaneously meet social needs (more effectively than alternatives) and create new social relationships or collaborations. In the study context the social innovation process and outcome are discussed using grounded theory approach with an objective of deriving a theoretical paradigm from the ground. As per the grounded theoretical framework paradigm there are six axial codes chosen such as contextual conditions, causal conditions, strategies, intervening conditions, consequences and central phenomenon. The entire process of social innovation is discussed within this theoretical frame work. Further in the outcome dimension of the social innovation the outcome is discussed towards arriving at a new theoretical paradigm which is summed up in the grounded theory. The process discussion could begin with the contextual conditions.
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4.1 Contextual conditions A family member who is affected by a serious mental illness is coming out of his home either being thrown out or on his own interest leave home and wander in the street. He or she felt to be a burden for the family once upon a time becomes a society burden as his/her disorganized life on the street challenges the people of good will. Any civic society with high ethical or moral concern would consider it as a ‘sorrow of the society’ and the developing countries like India may not be in a position to look after their welfare and rehabilitation by the State. In this context of social deprivation and alienation, a social problem to be classified, there came inspired men and women of good will to welcome such wandering mentally ill persons from the street, rescue and care in the shelter of the inspired individuals’ family. 4.2 Causal Conditions There is variety of causal conditions leading to the formation of the social innovation. There are triggers, drivers and motivations. Drivers are those sustainable factors that lead to the social action. 4.3 Strategies Strategies are another selective coding done to fix the factors that contributed the day today functioning of the social innovation. The clients are supplied with daily food, clothing, shelter, periodical psychiatric consultation and regular medication. In the daily routine most of the centers engage the clients in prayer services that include singing and verbal prayers. The clients participate and some give a lead. There is occupational engagement either through some group activities or engaging in any service of the agency such as cleaning the premise, serving in the kitchen, gardening or farming.
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Figure 1: Selective Coding and Theoretical Framework of Social Innovation in the Care of Differently Abled.
Wandering persons Drivers, triggers Individual care with mental illness Spiritual motive Regular medication Poor/no family Social values Occupational support Family engagement Inspired individuals involvement Recovery Family care and Community Rehabilitation shelter support
Contextual Consequences conditions Causal conditions
Strategies The central phenomenon
Intervening conditions
Prayer services Family based Professional services Community Community Resource utilization supported care Activity involvement training and Family training Individual/group care rehabilitation Community engagement Stigma reduction
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4.4 Intervening Conditions It includes mental health awareness program through individual and family education, family training, community training and other conscientization activities leading to stigma reduction and promotion of mental health education. 4.5 Consequences The consequence of the social innovation is the individual care and rehabilitation through a process of meeting the physical and psycho social needs of the clients. 4.6 Central Phenomenon The core focus of the social innovation is described as central phenomenon. In this social innovation model the central phenomenon is nothing but the family based community supported care and rehabilitation. The entire process leads to this outcome. Although there are several political theories of participation, none of them are suited to the study context. Hence the participation theory developed by Karol Wojtyla is partially used to explain the grounded theory derived through the study. It could be roughly framed as ‘Spiral, progressive regeneration theory of participation’ in social innovation context. It is explained below using the selective coding derived in the study. It is spiral in nature which is progressive and upward. It is narrated in an inverted pyramid structure of the selective coding. Thus the central phenomenon is considered as the nucleus of the spiral form. All other selective coding and their subcategories are explained along the cyclical peripherals of the spiral shape which is progressive in nature. The individual innovator discovered the spirituality within and was able to recognise the reflections of the Divine in the other, particularly the man on the street. In fact this reflection moved him to the act of care and concern which made him bring the person on the street home attending as his own family member. The interpersonal community is a community of persons who are responsible for themselves as well as for others. Such responsibility is a reflection of conscience and of the transcendence that for both ‘the I and the thou’ constitutes the path to self-fulfillment, and at the same time, characterizes the proper, authentically personal dimension of the community (Wojtyla, 1993).
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The person with mental illness who was alienated in his own family was brought into another family of participation and sharing. Moving beyond the literature, the participation found in the study model has a progressive spiral form of regenerative participation. It is spiral as there is a give and take which is cyclical, yet progressive. The social innovation centre in the beginning had several struggles to fight against powers of alienation, which they termed as struggles within, from the family and from the community. Ultimately through relentless action they proved that what they are trying is nothing but giving back the family life they lost in the past. The family environment of the innovator made the clients feel that it is like their own family with a difference. In their own family there were elements of negative expressed emotions like, severe criticism, hostility and over involvement, the current adopted family fills life with genuine care and love gives new meaning to life. The ultimate need of every man is the need for love and when it is met the disorganization within the person gets settled and resulted in speedy recovery. It is regenerative as it creates social values for the promotion of social innovation. It is also progressive. Progress means not only a change, but also improvement (Matei et al, 2015). Innovation applies to processes and systems. When we try to limit our study to only one part of a system, we cannot see the interconnections that appear between our focus and the rest of the picture. Complexity is about a very large number of parts with emergent properties. An adaptive system is a dynamic of the networks and relationships and not a static entity. The social systems that we mentioned before are the communities, the political parties, the public services. All of this need to progress and therefore innovation applies to them. Their behaviour, the changes that occur in those systems is the translation of adaptation. Thus complex theory speaks about social innovation which is progressive.
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Figure 2.: Spiral, Progressive Regeneration Social Innovation Theory of participation.
Figure 2. Spiral, progressive regeneration social innovation theory of participation
Drivers, triggers Prayer services Wandering persons with Spiritual motive Professional services Community Individual care mental illness Social values Resource utilization training Regular medication Poor/no family support Family Activity involvement Family training Occupational Inspired individuals involvement Individual/group care Community engagement Family care and shelter engagement Recovery Rehabilitation
Causal Strategies Contextual Intervening Consequences Conditions conditions conditions
The central phenomenon Family based Community supported care and rehabilitation
Level-1 Level-2 Level-3 Level-4 Innovator Community Professionals Innovator Family Families from Volunteers Family of client community Community Professional Clients Clients Innovator, Clients Voluntary staff his family
Progressive Regeneration Participation
The current study is both regenerative and progressive towards a sustainable context. In the study context it could be operationally defined as those sustainable features in the social innovation which were rediscovered in the process and given new meaning in the new context to ensure the sustainability and psychosocial development. It has also got a new relationship paradigm. Hence it could be briefed as those elements of participation regenerated or rediscovered in the process of social innovation through the process of social value creation and subsequently progressive in nature leading to a sustainable outcome. They are discussed in different levels of involvement. 1st level is between the social innovator, his family and clients. 2nd level of participation is between community members, their families, clients, innovator
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and his family. 3rd level of participation is between professionals, volunteers, clients and community. 4th level is between the innovator, families of the clients and the professionals or voluntary staff. Suggestions Suggestions include promotion of social work research in social innovation areas, developing both positive and constructive research paradigms, promotion of individual, family and community training to reduce stigma and to create mental health awareness programmes, need for promoting networking between social innovation centers, new dimensions of family empowerment, tapping social values generated in social innovation centers including spirituality. Conclusion Social innovation in the care of the differently abled with sustainable features is an eye opening reality in the growth and development of community mental health. The family care although wanted was less tapped area in the west due to the cultural factors in those countries. The eastern countries like India with high and effective family supportive system is fertile land to promote family care model. The social values created in the process strengthen the families and communities. When the family values wither away in the west and family care seems to be impossible in the care of the persons with mental illness, the family based care with community support becomes an effective method of care and rehabilitation with fast recovery and higher rehabilitation. The study also opens discussion into new avenue of foster care of the persons with mental illness. In the direct practice of social work the family intervention would be a key area of field intervention in the long term care and rehabilitation of persons with mental illness. References Agarwal AK. (2000). Innovations in psychiatric rehabilitation (Book review). Indian J Psychiatry, 42:451. Agnès Hubert (2010).Empowering people, driving change: Social innovation in the European Union, Bureau of European Policy, Advisers report Albert A. Herzog, Jr (Edt) (2006). Disability Advocacy among Religious Organizations Histories and Reflections, The Haworth Pastoral Press, New York. Angermeyer, M, N. Rusch, and P. Corrigan. 2005. “Mental Illness Stigma: Concepts, Consequences, and Initiatives to Reduce Stigma.” European Psychiatry: The Journal of the Association of European Psychiatrists 20(8):529-539.
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Baldwin, M. L., and S. C. Marcus. 2006. “Perceived and Measured Stigma among Workers with Serious Mental Illness.” Psychiatric Services 57(3):388-392. Bourdieu, P. (2005). The social structures of the economy. Polity Pr. Bowman, C., & Ambrosini, V. (2000). Value Creation Versus Value Capture: Towards a Coherent Definition of Value in Strategy. British Journal of Management, 11(1), 1–15. Borenstein, A. 1992. “Public attitudes towards persons with mental illness.” Health Affairs Fall: 186-196. Cook, J. 2006. “Employment Barriers for Persons with Psychiatric Disabilities: Update of a Report for the President’s Commission.” Psychiatric Sen’ices 57(10):1391- 1405. Corrigan 2004. “How Stigma Interferes with Mental Health Care.” The AmericanPsychologist 59(7):614-625. Corrigan, P., V. Thompson, D. Lambert, Y. Sangster, J. Noel, J. Campbell. 2003. “Perceptions of discrimination among persons with serious mental illness.” Psychiatric Services 54(8): 1105-10. Corrigan, P., A. Watson J. Heyrman, A. Warpinski, G. Gracia, N. Slopen, and L. Hall. 2005. “Structural Stigma in State Legislation.” Psychiatric Services 56(5):557-563. Certo, S. T., & Miller, T. (2008). Social entrepreneurship: Key issues and concepts.Business Horizons, 51(4), 267–271. David P. Lepak Rutgers, Ken G. Smith and M. Susan Taylor (2007). Introduction to Special Topic Forum Value Creation and Value Capture: A Multilevel Perspective, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 32, No. 1, 180–194. Diana Koszycki, Cynthia Bilodeau, Kelley Raab-Mayo, and Jacques Bradwejn (2013). A Multifaith Spiritually Based Intervention Versus Supportive Therapy for Generalized Anxiety Disorder: A Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial, Journal Of Clinical Psychology, Vol.70(6),489–509(2014) Drayton, B. (2002). The Citizen Sector: Becoming as Entrepreneurial and Competitive as Business. California Management Review, 44(3), 120- 132-132 Dumond, E. (2000). Value management: an underlying framework. International Journal of Operations & Production Management, 20(9/ 10), 1062-1077-1077
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Falk, G. 2001. Stigma: How We Treat Outsiders. New York: Prometheus Books. Lauber, C, Nordt C., Falcato L. and Rossler W. 2004. “Factors Influencing Social Distance Toward People with Mental Illness.” Community Mental Health Journal 40(3):265 Frank Moulaert, Diana MacCallum, Abid Mehmood and Abdelillah Hamdouch, (2013) International Handbook of Social Innovation: Collective Action, Social Learning and Transdisciplinary Research Guida, M. F., and Maiolini R. (Eds.)(2013). Il Fattore C per l’Innovazione Sociale, Rubbettino, Soveria Mannelli (CZ). Howaldt, J. and Schwarz, M. (2010). Social Innovation: Concepts, research fields, and international trends, IMA/ZLW and IfU, IMO International Monitoring (Vol 5) Hubert, A. et al. (2010). Empowering people, driving change: Social innovation in the European Union, BEPA (Bureau of European Policy Advisers) (Ed.), Brussels http://ec.europa.eu/bepa/pdf/publications_pdf/ social_innovation.pdf. Hulgård Lars and P.K. Shajahan,(2013). Social innovation for people-centred development, International Handbook of Social Innovation: Collective Action, Social Learning and Transdisciplinary Research, Edited by Frank Moulaert, Diana MacCallum, Abid Mehmood and Abdelillah Hamdouch, Kevin C. Heslin, Ronald M. Andersen, and Lillian Gelberg (2003). Use of Faith-Based Social Service Providers in a Representative Sample of Urban Homeless Women, Journal of Urban Health: Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine Vol. 80, No. 3, The New York Academy of Medicine Khan, F. R., Munir, K. A., and Willmott, H. (2007). A dark side of institutional entrepreneurship: Soccer balls, child labour and postcolonial impoverishment. Organization Studies, 28(7), 1055-1077. Kumar SG, Das A, Bhandary PV, Soans SJ, Harsha Kumar HN, Kotian MS.(2008). Prevalence and pattern of mental disability using Indian disability evaluation assessment scale in a rural community of Karnataka. Indian J Psychiatry, 50:21-3. Hill, P. C., Pargament, K. I., Hood, R. W., McCullough, M. E., Swyers, J. P., Larson, D. B., & Zinnbauer, B. J. (2000). Conceptualizing religion and spirituality: Points of commonality, points of departure. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 30, 51–77.
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Matei Ani and Antonie Mirana Catalina (2015). Complexity Theory and the Development of the Social Innovation, Procedia - Social and Behavioural Sciences 185;61-66. McLean, M. (2006). Social entrepreneurship: A critical review of the concept. Journal of World Business, 41(1), 56-65-65 Moulaert Frank, Diana MacCallum and Jean Hillier (2013). Social innovation: intuition, precept, concept, theory and practice, International Handbook of Social Innovation: Collective Action, Social Learning and Transdisciplinary Research, London: Routledge Murray, R., Caulier-Grice, J. and Mulgan, G. (2010). The Open Book of Social Innovation. United Kingdom: The Young Foundation Mulgan, G. (2006), ‘The Process of Social Innovation’, Innovations: Technology, Governance, Globalization, 1: 2, 145–162. Mulgan, G., Tucker, S., Ali, R. and Sanders, B. (2007), ‘Social Innovation: What It Is, Why It Matters and How It Can Be Accelerated’, Working Paper: Skoll Centre for Social Entrepreneurship. Mumford, M. D. (2002), ‘Social Innovation: Ten Cases from Benjamin Franklin’, Creativity Research Journal, 14: 2, 253–266. Renu Addlakha,nStuart Blume, Patrick Devlieger, Osamu Nagase, Myriam Winance (Edtrs)(2009). Disability Society a Reader, Orient Black Swan, New Delhi. Sullivan Mort, G., Weerawardena, J., & Carnegie, K. (2003). Social entrepreneurship: towards conceptualisation. International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing, 8(1), 76–88 Sureshkumar PN.(2008). Impact of vocational rehabilitation on social functioning, cognitive functioning and psychopathology in patients with dronic schizophrenia. Indian J Psychiatry, 50:257-61. Thake, S., & Zadek, S. (1997). Practical people, noble causes: How to support community-based social entrepreneurs. London: New Economics Foundation Wahl, O. 1997. Media Madness: Public Images of Mental Illness. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press ……1999. Telling is Risky Business: Mental Health Consumers Confront Stigma.New Brunswick: Rutgers University Pres Wojtyla, Karol (1993). Love and Responsibility, trans. by H.T. Willet, San Francisco, Ignatius Press.
84 Pearl, 3 (1), 63-84, February 2017 GENERAL GUIDELINES The Journal invites submission of articles in the following disciplines: 1. Commerce and Accounting Management 2. Physics 3. Social Work Guidelines for Contributors: 1. The manuscripts could be in any of the following four categories Abstract : 200 word limit Journal Articles : 4000 word limit Professional and practice forum : 3000 word limit Research briefs : 2000 word limit Book Reviews : 1500 word limit 2. The manuscripts should be prepared in Microsoft word format with Times New Roman font 1.5 spaced in A4 page format. Title should be in sentence case format font 14 pt bold, body 12 pt and authors’ names must be accompanied by affiliation and personal Email Id. The manuscript must be emailed to the editor. Email: [email protected] 3. Each manuscript should be accompanied with a declaration by all the authors that: They are the authors of the manuscript in the order in which listed The manuscript is original, has not been published earlier, and has not been submitted for publication elsewhere. 4. If the author has quoted more than 500 words/a table/a figure from a published work, in the manuscript, a copy of permission obtained from the respective copyright holder needs to be enclosed. 5. The manuscript will be peer reviewed by two anonymous reviewers and the editorial board will take the final decision of accepting the manuscript or not for publication. The criteria for peer reviewing will be as follows; 5.1 Contemporary relevance and contribution to respective knowledge field 5.2 Clarity in thinking and content with logical analysis 5.3 Methodology for research papers and appropriate references 5.4 Originality 5.5 Language
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6. Copy right: The copy right of the manuscript will be exclusively assigned to the Journal once the manuscript is accepted for publication. Reprint of the same requires written permission from the editor. 7. Reference: The citation or paraphrasing from other works should be supported by the author’s explanation and logical continuation should be maintained throughout. Using the works of others without citing the source is plagiarism and fraud and author will be solely responsible for any act of such plagiarism which would be legally binding upon him/her. 8. Reference format: a. Book: Author’s last name, initials, year of publication, title of the book (underlined/italicised), place of publication and name of the publisher. For example: Kurtz, L. F. (1997). Self-help and support groups: A handbook for practitioners, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. b. Edited book: Author’s last name, initials, year of publication, name of the article, initials and last name of editors, Ed./s. in parentheses, title of the book (underlined/italicized), place of publication, name of the publisher and page numbers. For example: Merta, R. (1995). Group work. In J. Ponterotto, J. Casas, L. Suzuki, and C. Alexander, (Eds.), Handbook of multicultural counseling, Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. 567-585. c. Journal articles: Author’s last name, initials, year of publication, name of the article, name of the journal (underlined/italicized), volume number, issue number in parentheses, and page numbers. For example: Agresta. (1997). Coping with negative symptoms of schizophrenia, Schizophrenia Bulletin, 23(2): 329-339. d. Institutional report: Write full name of the institute as the author. For example: National Mental Health Association (2001), Mental Health center, Alexandria. e. More than one author: List all the authors’ names. For example: Mueser, K.T., Valentiner, D. P., Agresta, J. (1997). Coping with negative symptoms of schizophrenia: patient and family perspectives. Schizophrenia Bulletin. 23(2): 329-39.
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f. More than one reference of the same author: list the earlier publication before the later publication. For example: Lefley, H. P. (1990). Culture and chronic mental illness, Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 41(3): 277-286. Lefley, H. P. (1992). Expressed emotion; conceptual, clinical and social policy issues. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 43(6): 591-598. g. More than one reference of the same author in the same publication year are arranged alphabetically by the title, and suffixes a, b, c and so on are added to the year. The same suffixes should be added in the text also. For example: Lefley, H. P. (1987a). Aging parents as caregivers of mentally ill adult children: An emerging social problem. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 38: 1063-1070. Lefley, H. P. (1987b). Culture and mental illness: The family role. In A. B. Hatfield and H. P. Lefley (eds.), Families of the mentally ill: Coping and adaptation, New York: Guilford Press, 30-59. h. When a reference has no author: type the first two to three words, ellipses and year and the name of the work and publisher could be followed. For example: The problems of respite… (1997). Stepping stone crisis respite program, NEC Newsletter, 10. i. When a reference has no year: state ‘no date’ in place of the year. For example: Murthy Srinivasa R.(ed.) no date Mental health in India, People’s Action for Mental Health, Bangalore. 9. Colour art work: Please make sure that artwork files are in acceptable format and with the correct resolution. 10. Figure captions: Ensure that each illustration has a caption. A caption should comprise a brief title and a description of the illustration. Keep text in the illustrations themselves to a minimum but explain all symbols and abbreviations used. 11. Tables: Number tables consecutively in accordance with their appearance in the text. Place footnotes to tables below the table body and indicate them with superscript lowercase letters. Avoid gridlines in the formation of tables. 12. Number System: No bullets permitted. Use only regular numbers.
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