VARIATIONS IN THE INTERPRETATION OF GOTTFRIED KELLER'S
ROMEO UND JULIA AUF DEM DORFE
by
Anita K. Oser
A Thesis submitted to the Faculty of the College of Humanities in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts
Florida Atlantic University Boca Raton, Florida June, 1972 VARIATIONS IN THE INTERPRETATION OF GOTTFRIED KELLER'S
ROMEO ---UND -----JULIA ---AUF ---DEM DORFE
by
Anita K. Oser
This thesis was prepared under the direction of the candidate's thesis advisor, Dr. Ernest L. Weiser, Department of Languages and Linguistics. It was submitted to the faculty of the College of Humanities and was accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts.
SUPERVISORY COMMITTEE: ) \.,_, , _ I ' ) ) ;; , . .,/ "- t. - ~( / · l ~c ,o._(_ \... (Thesis Advisor) .. (. lt~l-7 / ~>l-: /
1 /;> J J-.~~t't (
Languag~s
v /) ) L-- (d ~ 1
ii To My Mother And Father
iii ABSTRACT
Author: Anita K. Oser
Title: Variations in the Interpretation of Gottfried Keller's Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe
Institution: Florida Atlantic University
Degree: Master of Arts
Year: 1972
This study examines the major differences that exist among critical interpretations of Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe. Included is a survey of the creation of the novella, the various revisions made by Keller, and Keller's own feelings about the work. This is followed by the thorough discussion of the differences in interpretation of the structure, the characters, the symbols, the overall meaning, and the classification of the novella as a tragedy.
Some attempt is made to point out the interpretations that are best substantiated by the text. The results of the study indicate that some of the interpretations show a strong influence of the particular premise of the critic.
iv TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT ...... iv
INTRODUCTION ...... 1
CHAPTER I. GOTTFRIED KELLER AND ROMEO UND JULIA AUF DEM DORFE 3
CHAPTER II. VARIATIONS IN THE INTERPRETATION OF ------ROMEO UND JULIA AUF DEM DORFE 10
CONCLUSION ...... 28
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 37
v 1
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this study is to identify and discuss the major differences that exist among the critical interpretations of Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe that have appeared over the years. The findings of this study will be based primarily on the more detailed interpretations. This puts the main emphasis on the critical literature of the twentieth century since most of the reviews of the nineteenth century tend to be overly general. 1
Gottfried Keller's Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe was first published in 1856 as a part of the first volume of Die Leute von
Seldwyla. Although it was highly praised by some, it aroused little attention among the public. In fact, the reception of the book was so poor that the original five-hundred copies printed met the demand for almost twenty years. 2 Fifteen years later, in 1871, the novella was included in Paul Heyse's Deutscher Novellenschatz and in 1874 it again appeared, in revised form, as a part of the new edition of the first volume of Die Leute von Seldwyla. Although Keller's Sieben
Legenden, published in 1872, had had a rather favorable reception, this revised version of Die Leute ~ Seldwyla still met with limited success. It was not until such prominent figures as
Jakob Baechtold, J.V. Widmann, Adolf Frey and Julius Stiefel openly praised Keller that Keller's image began to improve and with it the acceptance of his works. 3 From this time onward Keller's fame steadily grew and at the time of his death he was regarded as one 2
of the foremost writers in the German language. 4 So it was also with -----Romeo ---und Julia ---auf ---dem Dorfe. This novella which had aroused so little interest when it was first published, is today considered to be one of the best novellas of the nineteenth century. 5
Chapter I of this study is devoted to Gottfried Keller and his conception of the novella. Included is a discussion of the creation of the novella, the various revisions made by Keller, and
Keller's own feelings about the work as gleaned from his letters and diary.
Chapter II contains a thorough discussion of the differences that exist among the interpretations. First the disagreements among the critics pertaining to the structure are indicated. This is followed by a discussion of the differences in opinion about the evaluation of the character~ the symbols, and the overall meaning of the story. Finally, the various reasons given for classifying the novella as a tragedy are mentioned.
The Conclusion includes an evaluation of the information gathered in the previous chapter. This is followed by a bibliography of all the materials used in the course of the research. 3
CHAPTER I
GOTTFRIED KELLER AND ROMEO ---UND JULIA ---AUF ---DEM DORFE
Gottfried Keller's many comments about Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe make it possible to trace the creation of the novella from its very beginnings to its final form. Many of these references not only shed light on the various stages of development, but also give some indication of Keller's own personal feelings about the novella. Thus these statements should be of help in considering the interpretations.
Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe is the story of two young people,
Sali and Vrenchen, who fall in love but cannot be happily united because of a family feud. An actual event that occurred near
Leipzig, Germany on 16 August 1847 gave Keller his basic plot and the Romeo and Juliet theme inherent in it. Keller became acquainted with the situation through an article that appeared in the
3 September 1847 issue of the Z~richer Freitagszeitung:
Im Dorfe Altsellerhausen bei Leipzig liebten sich ein J~ngling von neunzehn Jahren und ein M~dchen von siebzehn Jahren, beide Kinder armer Leute, die aber in einer tHdlichen Feindschaft lebten und nicht in eine Vereinigung des Paares willigen wollten. Am 15. August begaben sich die Verliebten in eine Wirt schaft, wo sich arme Leute vergnligen, tanzten daselbst bis nachts ein Uhr und entfernten sich hierauf. Am Morgen fand man die Leichen beider Liebenden auf dem Felde liegen: sie hatten sich durch den Kopf geschossen.l
When he ultimately used this factual event as the basis of the novella, he made only a few minor changes. Keller did not alter the sequence of events, but he did change the location from Germany to Switzerland, 4
the time of year from August to September, and the cause of death from shooting to drowning . He also added the theme of peasant greed as the cause of the family feud.
This association of the basic plot and the Romeo and Juliet theme with the theme of peasant greed occurred within two years after the appearance of the newspaper notice. Although this latter theme also dates back to 1847, it nevertheless was an idea or motif that existed independently of the Romeo and Juliet theme in the mind of the author. It must have held a great deal of interest for Keller, for he made it the topic of a paragraph that appears in his diary on 20 September 1847:
Zwei stattliche, sonnengebr~unte Bauern pfl~gen mit starken Ochsen auf zwei Xckern, zwischen welchen ein dritter grosser brach und verwildert liegt. W~hrend sie die Pflugschar wenden, sprechen sie ~ber den mittleren schgnen Acker, wie er nun schon so manches J ahr brach liege, weil der verwahrloste Erbe desselben sich unst~t in der Welt herumtreibe. Frommes und tiefes Bedauern der heiden M~nner, welche wieder an die Arbeit gehen und jeder von seiner Seite her der ganzen L~nge nach einige Furchen dem verwaisten Acker abpfl~gt. Indem die Ochsen die Pfl~ge langsam und still weiterziehen und die heiden Z~ge h~ben und dr~ben sich begegnen, setzen die 11 b e~. d en Bauern e~nton~g . II • ~• h r Gesprac II h f art u b er d en bgsen Weltlauf, f~hren dabei mit fester Hand den Pflug und tun jeder, als ob der den Frevel des andern nicht bemerkte. Die Sonne steht einsam und heiss am Himmel. 2
This paragraph is in essence the opening scene of Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe.
Already in 1849 Keller was planning to use the two themes as the basis of an epic poem. He mentions this fact in a letter to
Wilhelm Baumgartner dated 28 January 1849: 11 Jenes epische Gedicht 5 von den zwei jungen Leutchen und den Bauern, welche pflligen, habe ich auch angefangen."3 Keller actually did write the first seven stanzas of this poem, but the attempt was not successful and he abandoned the plan. It was not until 1855 that he again attempted to combine these two themes. This time, however, it was in the form of a novella and the result was Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe.
The title and opening paragraph of this novella, according to
Keller, serve to reveal to the reader the main motif of the story and to emphasize that this universal theme had actually manifested itself again. This desire to prepare the reader for what is coming was one of Keller's basic principles. Already in 1851 he had expressed in a letter to Baumgartner his dedication to simplicity, clarity, and "m~glichst vollkommene libersicht und Voraussicht des
Zuschauers alles dessen, was kommt, und wie es kommt."4 When
Auerbach criticized the title because of its association with a literature "die nicht vom Leben ausgeht, sondern von der gedruckten
Welt und ihren Erinnerungen," Keller defended the title with the assertion that their own works too were printed and that Shakespeare is "obleich gedruckt, doch nur das Leben selbst und keine unlebendige
Reminiszenz."5 He also rejected Weibert's suggestion that the opening paragraph be dropped for the 1875 edition of Romeo und Julia auf dem
Dorfe. In his reply to Weibert on 29 August 1875 he writes that he feels it is necessary to state that the motif expressed in the title had actually manifested itself again, "weil nur dadurch die ganze
Arbeit sich rechtfertigt."6 The only concession he made in this respect was to admit that stylistically the introduction needed improvement. 6
Consequently he rewrote it, and the introduction as we know it today was the result.7
Although it has been stated that the novella, because of its central position in the original publication of Die Leute von Seldwyla, served as a transition between the first two and the last two novellas of the collection, Keller never made this assertion.8 The serious beginning of the novella, though, does seem to blend in with the didacticism of Pankranz der Schmoller and Frau Regel Amrain and the more romantic ending with the humor of Die drei gerechten Kammacher and the fairy tale atmosphere of Spiegel das K~tzchen. However,
Keller did not object to shifting Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe to second position for the 1874 edition of Die Leute von Seldwyla. He simply omitted the closing sentence of Frau Regel Amrain and the introductory Auch of the first paragraph of Romeo und Julia auf dem
Dorfe which had linked these two stories together.
The ending of the 1856 edition of the novella caused Keller much concern. He had originally included the two closing paragraphs to mellow or perhaps morally justify the ending. Here he stated that the story was not a glorification of Sali and Vrenchen's action.
However, he did indicate that Sali and Vrenchen's willingness to die for their love was certainly much more honorable than the superficial relationships evident among the educated classes of the day. When
Auerbach, among others, criticized this ending as pedantic, he immediately regretted its inclusion. In a letter to Auerbach he promised to delete "den schntlden Schluss von 'Romeo und Julie'" as soon as the opportunity presented itself. 9 Already in a letter to 7
Ludmilla Assing dated 21 April 1856 Keller had written of his regrets about "meine schlechte Bemerkung am Schlusse von 'Romeo und Julie. '"10
When Paul Heyse included the novella in his Deutschen
Novellenschatz and omitted the last three paragraphs of the novella, he had made a much more drastic cut than Keller had suggested. In this edition the story ended with the words "von der dunk len Masse herunter in die kalten Fluten."11 Keller, however, had suggested that the story terminate with the sentence ending "abermals ein
Zeichen von der um sich greifenden Entsittlichung und Verwilderung der Leidenschaften." This ending Keller felt would be "malitios und ironisch."12 A second suggestion allowed the paragraph that followed the present ending to stand. This paragraph read as follows:
Was die Sittlichkeit betrifft, so bezweckt diese Erz~hlung keineswegs, die Tat zu beschonigen und zu verherrlichen; denn hoher als diese verzweifelte Hin gebung w~re jedenfalls ein entsagendes Zusammenraffen und ein stilles Leben voll treuer MJhe und Arbeit gewe~en, und da diese die m~chtigsten Zauberer sind in Verbindung mit der Zeit, so h~tten sie vielleicht noch alles moglich gemacht; denn sie ver~ndern mit ihrem unmerklichen Einflusse die Dinge, vernichten die Vorurteile, stellen die Ehre her und erneuen das Gewissen, so dass die wahre Treue nie ohne Hoffnung ist.l3
According to Keller this ending would be "mehr tugendhaft und wohlmeinend."l4 However, he evidently did not object to Heyse's ending, for he answered Heyse's request for his opinion with the words: "Lassen Sieja den abgehauenen Schwanz, wie er ist."15
Keller himself ultimately chose the ending he had termed
"malitigs und ironisch" and rejected both Heyse's ending and his alternate suggestion to Heyse. With this ending Keller eliminated 8
all of his personal commentary and permitted the novella to end with
the reference to the newspaper article. Thus the closing paragraph,
like the opening paragraph, reminds the reader that the events in
the story actually happened. This not only emphasizes the factual
aspect of the novella but also gives the reader an opportunity to
draw his own conclusions.
Keller never considered Romeo ---und Julia ---auf ---dem Dorfe to be one of his best works. In fact he seemed to feel that it was more of
a liability to him than an asset, for he never quite overcame the
feeling that in this novella he had overstepped the acceptable
bounds of moral behavior. Thus, when Hettner praised the novella,
Keller writes: "F~r 'Romeo und Julie' war ich am meisten bange und
h~tte es beinah weggelassen. 11 16 Even after Romeo und Julia auf dem
D~rfe had enjoyed a certain amount of success, Keller had reservations
about this novella. Thus when the question of an illustrated edition
of Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe came up in 1884, he again expressed
his doubts in a letter to Weibert. He felt that perhaps the story's
ending was not suited for this type of an edition "indem der sinnlich
selbstm~rderliche Schluss der Erz~hlung meines Wissens in gewissen
moralisierenden Kreisen seinerzeit etwelchen Anstoss erregt hat. 11 17
On still another occasion Keller comments about Romeo und Julia auf
dem Dorfe in a letter of 9 November 1884 addressed to Josef Viktor
Widmann: "Inzwischen," he writes, "bin ich Ihnen auch dankbar, dass
Sie meine verh~ngnisvolle Dorfgeschichte, die mir wie ein
gestutzter Pudel durch das ganze Leben nachl~uft, nicht versifizieren wollten."l8 9
This, then, is Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe as Gottfried Keller saw it. Based on an actual event that occurred in 1847, the novella itself was not written until 1855. The Romeo and Juliet theme and its manifestation in real life seemed to have been uppermost in
Keller ' s mind when he wrote Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe. After ------the initial publication Keller made a number of changes, the most important of which was to eliminate the didactic ending. Keller never seemed quite satisfied with Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe and always seemed to feel that he had to defend and justify the moral- ity of the actions of Sali and Vrenchen. 10
CHAPTER II
VARIATIONS IN THE INTERPRETATION OF
ROMEO UNO JULIA AUF DEM DORFE
Keller's many misgivings about Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe
have proven themselves to be completely unfounded, for the
twentieth-century critics have recognized the novella as one of
the best of the nineteenth century and have spent considerable time
analyzing and interpreting its contents. These interpretations, on
the whole, are in agreement in their findings. However, there are
some instances where differences in opinion exist. It is the
purpose of this chapter to point out and discuss some of these
differences.
One of Keller's main concerns had been to retain the title
and opening paragraph of the novella so that the reader would
correlate the specific event with the universal Romeo and Juliet
theme. The critics have generally recognized this function, but
they have also seen other values in the association. Kultermann,
for example, points out that the title, through the use of the
phrase auf dem Dorfe, not only evokes a picture but also locates the
scene in a rural atmosphere. 1 It has also been observed by Kunisch
that the title, the opening paragraph, and the final paragraph
function in correlating the old with the new. 2 This connection
between the old and the new, a very plausible explanation for the similar beginning and ending of the novella, is also recognized by
Phelps. In addition to this, however, he sees the opening paragraph 11
as a kind of apologia and the closing paragraph as an outburst of
Keller's indignation.3 Furthermore, he states, these two paragraphs
form a type of frame for the story, have no organic connection with
it, and only mar the artistic unity of the whole. It is this
"dissonance," Phelps claims, that helps to raise the contents of the
novella from the trivial to the sublime.4 He also asserts with some
justification that these paragraphs reflect Keller's sense of reality,
his need to verify his story, his didacticism, his omniscient point
of view, and his willingness to express his opinion in the story .s
When Keller wrote Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe, he divided
the novella into four sections or chapters. Various critics, however,
have suggested a different break-down ranging anywhere from three to
five parts. According to Keller's division, the first section
encompasses the introductory scene of the farmers plowing their field
(96). The second section begins with the auction of the disputed
field and ends with the quarrel of the fathers at the bridge (121).
The third section revolves around Sali and Vrenchen's new-found love
and ends at the point where Sali strikes Marti with the rock (139).
The fourth section covers the events of Marti's insanity, Sali and
Vrenchen's last day together, and ends with the death of the lovers
(187). Rehder, who accepts Keller's division of the story, points
out that every section, except the first, ends with a violent event which not only emphasizes the dominant atmosphere of the section but also represents an important stage in the development of the tragedy. 6
In other words, the bridge scene at the end of the second section accentuates the complete deterioration of the two families and also 12
points out the new-found love of the two young people. Sali's act
of hitting Marti at the end of the third section emphasizes Sali's
irrationality and deepens the hopelessness of Sali and Vrenchen's
legitimate union. The suicide at the end of the fourth section not
only brings the tragedy to a climax but also demonstrates the mel
ancholy tone of the situation. Rehder speculates that perhaps these
four sections represent four spheres of human experience, restrained
cheerfulness, phlegmatic decline, irate eruption, and melancholy
desperation, and thus form a complete circle of human life. 7
Although he admits there is no evidence that Keller had this concept
in mind when composing the novella, he indicates that this background
of the phases of human experience helps to raise the content of the novella to a more universal level.8
A division of the events of the novella that results in five sections instead of four is proposed by Phelps.9 The first three sections correspond to those of Keller. The last two sections, however, result from the division of Keller's fourth section into two parts.
Thus the fourth section ends at the point where Sali and Vrenchen decide that they would rather die than be separated (184), and the fifth section includes only the catastrophe and the events immediately preceding it. This division of Keller's fourth section into two parts seems very arbitrary, for there is no clear break in the action of the story at this point. It is therefore difficult to say if the fourth section should end with the words "dass du es mit mir tun willst! ," with "rief Sali ausser sich," or with the words "erwiderte ein jedes."
Each one of these alternatives is as logical as the other, and it 13 hardly seems justified to make a break at a point where obviously no clear break exists in the course of events.
A third alternative for the division of the novella is offered by Feise who divides the story into three sections. The center of each of these sections is then identified as a turning point in the course of the events. 10 According to this division the first section includes Keller's first two parts and terminates with the fight of the fathers at the bridge (121). The turning point in this section is the scene in which Marti hits Vrenchen after she had helped Sali clear the disputed field (101). The second section includes all of
Keller's third part and almost half of his fourth part so that this section ends with the tale that Vrenchen tells the peasant woman (156).
The turning point is the scene in which Marti again hits Vrenchen and
Sali hits Marti with the rock (139), or more simply the end of Keller's third part. The third section consists of the remaining part of
Keller's fourth section. The turning point in this final part is the scene showing Sali and Vrenchen's preoccupation with the ginger bread house and their sudden awareness of their surroundings (169).
Again this superimposed division of the novella into three parts does not seem any more logical than Keller's division into four.
Feise, however, uses this arrangement to support his interpretation of the novella as a social commentary. Thus both the bankrupts fishing along the river, a part of the bridge scene at the end of the first section, and Vrenchen's tale of her happy marriage at the end of the second section accentuate the social alienation that Sali and Vrenchen suffer. Toward the end of the third section this is 14
again emphasized with a reference to the impossibility of an irreproach
able bourgeois marriage for Sali and Vrenchen (176).
The above differences in interpretation concern the external
composition, but there are also differences in opinion pertaining
to other aspects of the novella. One of these areas concerns three
of the main characters. The critics seem to be in agreement over
the various facets of Sali's character and his subordinate position
to Vrenchen. Vrenchen, however, has been the cause of a certain
amount of dispute. This dispute centers primarily around her role
as a tragic character in the novella. The most plausible interpre
tation is offered by Maier. He sees Vrenchen as the truly tragic character, for she realizes long before Sali that they must die and yet she is able to rise above the inevitable and demonstrate a great degree of cheerfulness.ll A less acceptable point of view is expressed by Rehder. He feels it is not Vrenchen ' s fate that is tragic but rather the fate of Sali and Vrenchen ' s love. It is their joint destiny, he asserts, not their individual faults and ideals, that arouses the reader's sympathy. 12 Vrenchen's destruction alone, he claims, would be perplexing to the reader because of the great emphasis that has been placed on her vitality and wholesomeness.
There is also a divergence of opinion in respect to Manz and
Marti, two other principal characters. Rehder simply dismisses them as "pale and typified."13 More significance is attached to them by
Jennings who feels that they are representative of a class of
Keller's characters that is beyond hope. Manz and Marti, Jennings claims, are an example of those questionable members of society who 15
feel that they can commit a wrong as long as their actions are not
exposed. Keller not only disapproves of people like Manz and Marti,
but he also feels their deportment cannot serve as a basis for
society. This is demonstrated, according to Jennings, by the punish-
ment that Keller inflicts upon the two: Manz and Marti are portrayed
as two men "die sich dann unfehlbar aufreiben und auffressen wie zwei
wilde Tiere" (176). 14
Richter interprets Manz and Marti along similar lines.
However, he feels that their actions reveal the true character of
rural bourgeois society. They are two "Musterexemplare aus der
z~hlebigen Gesellschaft der heuchlerischen und gewissenlosen Mehrer
ihres Reiches und Eigentums."15 This, Richter indicates, is substan-
tiated by Keller when he summarizes their fate with the words:
Als sie, eben diese Ehre zu ~ufnen w~hnend durch Vermehrung ihres Eigentums, so gedankenlos sich das Gut eines Verschollenen aneignen, ganz gefahrlos, wie sie ~einten. Das geschieht nun freilich alle Tage; aber zuweilen stellt das Schicksal ein Exempel auf und lhlsst zwei solche Xufner ihrer Hausehre und ihres Gutes zusammentreffen, die sich dann unfehlbar aufreiben und auffressen wie zwei wilde Tiere. Denn die Mehrer des Reiches verrechnen sich nicht nur auf den Thronen, sondern zuweilen auch in den niedersten RUtten und langen ganz am entgegengesetzten Ende an als wohin sie zu kommen trachteten, und der Schild der Ehre ist im Umsehen eine Tafel der Schande. (176)
Also Man z and Marti's pursuit of an unjust cause with the help of dishonest men is interpreted as a "'Grundgesetz' der bourgeoisen
Welt."16
Thus both Jennings and Richter substantiate their opinions with
the same textual evidence. It hardly seems likely, though, that
Keller had intended to condemn bourgeois society. Although the 16
text indicates that Manz and Marti's actions are not unusual, it gives no indication that they are limited to any particular society. Further more, Keller's favorable description, for example, of the opening scene
and the first two inns that Sali and Vrenchen visit on their last day
together tend to indicate that Keller approved of society as it existed, and that he was condemning only that part of it that condoned
Marti and Manz's actions.
Much of the disagreement among the interpretations centers around the meaning of the various symbols used by Keller. The critics greatly differ in the interpretation of the Black Fiddler, the most prominent symbol in the novella. Although they all associate the
Black Fiddler with an evil or negative force, they do not always agree on just what this negative force is. Most frequently, though, he is seen as the embodiment of parental guilt. 17 Judging by the overall function of the Black Fiddler in the novella, this analysis seems to most adequately explain his various appearances in the story. However, at various points he is also a symbol of Sali and Vrenchen's fate, 18 and at times he even seems to function as a "Bruder des Gevatters Tod." 19
On the other hand, in the Paradiesg~rtlein he sometimes appears as a rather kind and friendly fellow, 20 and then again as a "D~mon der
Musik, des Weins, der Liebe und des Todes,"21 or as a temp t er. 22
Another interpretation is offered by Jennings who labels the
Black Fiddler as the "high point of grotesqueness" and sees in him a type of demon that presides over the process of decay. 23 Rehder also associates the Black Fiddler, who in this case incorporates the motif of the homeless and outlaws, with the overall concept of 17
Verwilderung. 24 However, he feels that the importance of the Black
Fiddler increases as the degree of Verwilderung increases. Thus he identifies three phases in his development. At the beginning of the story, he claims, the Black Fiddler is only hearsay, then he appears as a dernoniacal shape, and finally he evolves as the formidable counterpart of stability. 25 Furthermore, Rehder claims the Black
Fiddler also represent an ironical association between love and death, for he is a child of love and his appearance is reminiscent of death. 26
Another interpretation of the Black Fiddler is offered by
Feise who sees him as the embodiment of the amoral forces latent in society. 27 Fife, too, interprets the Black Fiddler in this vein and even sees a resemblance between him and Balzac's Vautrin. The main distinction between the two, she feels, is one of degree. 28 However, like Rehder, she identifies three phases of development for the Black
Fiddler. At first he is only a man without a horne, then he is the proclairner of Sali and Vrenchen's imminent hornelessness, and ultimately in the Paradiesg~rtlein he is the very embodiment of moral vagrancy as well as a ternpter. 29
Thus it becomes apparent that the Black Fiddler has been assigned many different functions by the critics. His role as a symbol of parental guilt, though, is probably the most important although there is no denying that he also embodies all of the other meanings that have been assigned to him. His physical appearance, in 30 any case, certainly resembles that of the devi1, and he somehow seems to embody those forces that are beyond the realm of the 31 physical world. 18
Another symbol that has been assigned a number of different meanings is the Acker. All of the critics seems to agree that the
Acker, the uncultivated piece of land that separates Manz and Marti's farms, is a symbol of injustice, guilt, destruction, and disorder.
However, McCormick also sees it as a symbol of childhood happiness. 32
Although the Acker is a source of dissatisfaction for Manz and Marti, for Sali and Vrenchen it is a world of make-believe. 33 It is not until the Acker is owned by Manz that it becomes a means for the children's separation. 34 In addition to its function as a symbol of neglect, Wiesmann relates it to Keller's conception of nature as immutable and timeless yet witness to the constant change in life. 35
Thus, just like nature, the location of the Acker never changes, only its appearance and the events that occur on it.
Klein sees the Acker as a leitmotif that expresses the idea of ZugehHrigkeit, belonging or association.36 This leitmotif occurs three times. Its initial appearance, when Manz and Marti plow their fields adjacent to the Acker, implies the mutual destruction of
Manz and Marti resulting from their identical character. Later on, when it appears in association with Sali and Vrenchen's walk along the edge of the Acker, it suggests their mutual attraction is the result of the mutual hate of their families. Finally, when Sali and
Vrenchen accompanied by the Black Fiddler and his party dance at the
Acker, the reference is to the association of life and death, that is death is a part of life and not a separate entity. Although all of these interpretations have their merit, the prime function of the
Acker, or field, still seems to be as a symbol of injustice and guilt. 19
It is Manz and Marti's unjust acquisition of part of the Acker that results in their hatred, and it is this hatred that ultimately determines Sali and Vrenchen's fate.
The Paradiesg~rtlein, the third inn that Sali and Vrenchen visit on their last day together, is most commonly associated with confusion and disorder. McCormick, though, sees it as a link with the past and as Sali and Vrenchen' s "crumbling idyll. .. 37 Wiesmann characterizes the Paradiesg~rtlein as a transition from a heavenly paradise to an earthly one.38 This transition is easily accomplished through the use of the vines and the blue grapes, both taken from
Dionysiac symbolism. Fife takes a slightly different approach when she concludes that the building of the Paradiesg::irtlein "symbolizes and rejects all utopian dreams about the goodness of man in his
'natural' state."39
It seems most reasonable, though, to assume that Keller used the Paradiesg~rtlein as a means to strongly emphasize the consequences of a vagrant way of life. It is the extreme decay of the building and the b i zarre behavior of the guests that help Sali and Vrenchen to realize the dangers associated with this way of life and to ultimately decide against joining the Black Fiddler and his followers.
The houses and Vrenchen's bouquet of flowers are the final two objects that the critics interpret from different points of view.
That the houses are a symbol of the gradual disintegration of the two families is the most accepted interpretation. 4° Kultermann, however, sees a certain amount of ambivalence reflected in their function. 20
Although in real life they do represent gradual decay, in Sali and
Vrenchen's dream world they also symbolize peace and order. In other words, up to the time that Sali hits Marti with the rock the houses are a symbol of decay, but after this time, although only in a world of fiction, they are a symbol of protection and permanency. 41
For Runge, though, the decay of Vrenchen's house functions as a means to emphasize Vrenchen's vitality and love for life.
Vrenchen's sparkling eyes and the broken, but sparkling window panes, both bright spots in an otherwise desolate atmosphere, represent the joys of life here on earth. The decay of the house in the back ground not only emphasizes this joy of life but also reflects the void of what lies beyond life. This contrast, Runge feels, is a pictoral expression of Feuerbach's basic philosophy. 42 This philosophy limits life to here on earth, advocates the full enjoyment of this life, but also demands moral responsibility for one's actions.43
Although the above interpretation has some merit, it seems unlikely that Keller's intent was to present a visual interpretation of Feuerbach's philosophy. That the houses are a symbol of the gradual disintegration of the two families is a much more reasonable interpretation, for Keller does not only use Vrenchen's house to reflect the decay of her family but also uses the tavern to reflect the decay of Sali's family, and the Paradiesg~rtlein to reflect decay in general.
Runge also sees Vrenchen's last bouquet of flowers, picked in a world of decay, as another example of this pictoral presentation 21
of Feuerbach's philosophy. Again the beauty of the flowers, represent
ing life, are accentuated by the background of decay, representing the
void beyond life. 44 However, it seems much more reasonable to assume
that the flowers function as a premonition of coming events, for
these same flowers wither and die as death approaches. 45
As well as disagreeing over the symbolic meaning of specific
objects, the critics also vary in their interpretations of the
imagery used by Keller. The first of these images that reflects
a certain amount of disagreement is the fight of Manz and Marti
at the bridge. The most reasonable and also the most common
interpretation of this event is that it represents the climax
of the domestic dram~46 It is, however, also an important point
in the deterioration of the two families47 and the beginning of
Sali and Vrenchen's fateful love for each other.48 According to
Maier this scene represents the unification of the opposite poles
of love and hate, and it is here Sali and Vrenchen's fate is
sealed. This fate inevitably has to be death, for this love is
born in an atmosphere of hate and hate is always deadly.49
Runge, on the other hand, again sees it as a reflection
of Feuerbach's philosophy. The beauty of Vrenchen's smile and
Sali and Vrenchen's budding love, according to this interpretation,
represent life, and the dark and threatening background again
accentuates this life here on earth and also represents the yoid that lies beyond.50 22
A second event that has been interpreted differently is the tale that Vrenchen tells the peasant woman (153). Phelps dismisses this scene as unimportant, for it adds nothing to the plot and characterization. 51 A more reasonable approach is taken by McCormick who completely disagrees with this judgment and claims that the tale represents one of Vrenchen's frustrated attempts to regain her former way of life and is central in the transition from childhood happiness to ultimate death. 52 However, the most logical point of view is expressed by Kultermann. He also sees the event as a flight from reality, but in his opinion this scene helps to retard the action and thus emphasizes Sali and Vrenchen's d i sbelief that it will never be possible for them to be happily united.53
Sali and Vrenchen's last day together is a third event that has acquired various symbolic meanings. Most frequently and logically it is said to be a day of deception for Sali and Vrenchen, a day of tragic make-believe. 54 Rehder, though, with some justifica tion feels that on this one day Sali and Vrenchen traverse the four moods of life guided only by their own character and heritage.SS
Similarly Wiesmann interprets the events of the day as being representative of both Anna's world of innocence and Judith's world of temptation. 56 Th ese two are female characters in Keller ' s Der
Grline Heinrich who represent his two basic types of women: Anna the embodiment of innocence, the ideal, and Judith the embodiment of the sensual and less perfect. Their combination, then, encompasses the gamut of human experience. 23
An entirely different and less acceptable point of view is
expressed by Richter. He claims that the events of the day not
only reflect Sali and Vrenchen's increasing passion for each other
but also reflect an effort on Keller's part to demonstrate to the
educated classes that honesty and good manners are not just
restricted to the upper classes but are also prevalent among the
lower classes. 57 Thus Richter again sees a criticism of society
in this act, but Fife, to the contrary, recognizes a certain amount
of faith in society. The events at the first two inns to her are
an indication of Keller's optimism that strong moral forces are
still alive in Switzerland.58
Another less acceptable interpretation is expressed by Runge.
The inevitable course of events, she feels, again reflects Feuerbach's
philosophy. Sali and Vrenchen's utter poverty and most of all Sali's
moral guilt make it impossible for them to ever be happily united.
Consequently they have only the one day together, and on this one
day they must sample all the joys of life. Thus, Runge concludes,
Sali and Vrenchen, in keeping with Feuerbach's teachings, not only
enjoy life to the fullest but also accept the moral responsibility
for their actions.59
The fourth and final event that has caused some controversy
concerns Sali and Vrenchen's actions following their escape from the
influence of the Black Fiddler at the end of this last day. Here
Lindsay sees Sali and Vrenchen as two people "half crazed with desire" when they are unable to identify the source of the sounds that they
hear around them (182).60 Although Rehder and Wiesmann also 24
recognize this fact, they emphasize the much more reasonable assumption
that this scene is an expression of the harmony that the lovers have
now found, a harmony through which Sali and Vrenchen recognize the
true meaning of existence.6l
This brings the discussion to another topic that has created a
certain amount of divergence of opinion. It is the question of what
idea Keller thought to convey to the reader of Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe, i.e. what is the overall meaning of the novella. Basically
the interpretations can be divided into two groups: those that conclude
the novella reflects Keller's own philosophy of life and those that conclude the novella is a social commentary.
Among the critics that interpret the novella as an expression of Keller's philosophy, Ermatinger is one of those that feels the novella expresses a philosophy that was greatly influenced by the teachings of Feuerbach. Thus Sali and Vrenchen enjoy life to the fullest, but they are also willing to take their life into their own hands and depart from it when they feel it is morally the right thing to do. 62 In later years Ermatinger modified this point of view and ultimately came to the much more acceptable conclusion that the novella centers around the problem of "Sinnlichkeit und Sittlichkeit in der Liebe."63 Runge also feels the novella is an expression of
Feuerbach's philosophy, but she goes to the extreme and claims that the novella is actually a visual representation of his philosophy, a point of view that hardly seems justified. 64
Jennings and Lindsay, however, do not see a reflection of
Feuerbach's philosophy in the novella and come to quite a different 25
conclusion. They feel that the content of the novella poses the question of the real purpose of life. Lindsay claims that what
Keller is really asserting here is that "life should be lived in full intensity and purity for a few fleeting moments rather than be allowed to trail on in a debased and empty form for years."65
Jennings comes to the same conclusion on the basis that Sali and
Vrenchen's death was not an absolute necessity but the result of a decision that the two lovers had made. This conclusion, however, hardly seems justified. If Sali and Vrenchen had only been interested in fulfilling their wishes, they would have defied the laws of society to gain their ends. However, they chose to subordinate themselves to these laws and pay for their transgression with their life.
An interesting point of view is presented by Roffler. He concludes that the novella reflects Keller's recognition of both the laws of nature and the laws of society. Thus Sali and
Vrenchen's death is acceptable in the country where the laws of nature reign, but not in the city where the laws of society apply.
Consequently the setting for their death is in the country but the criticism, via a newspaper notice, comes from the city. In this way, Roffler feels, Keller is able to recognize the validity of both without offending the precepts of human morality. 66
Maier and Wiesmann present the plausible conclusion that
Sali and Vrenchen's death reestablishes a balance in the world.
Maier sees in their death the termination of a conflict between love and hate, life and death, and the return to a state of 26
equilibrium.67 Wiesmann, too, sees their death as an "Eintritt in
die wahre Mitte," for they had come to realize the true meaning of
ex istence which manifested itself in the form of a perfect harmony. 68
Furthermore, he sees a type of mysticism expressed in the novella that
involves the concept of the rise and decline of every living object
and its final disappearance into a timeless void. 69
Another point of view is expressed by Gilbert. She feels
Sali and Vrenchen's death is an expression of a moral code that is
the outgrowth of Keller's contact with Feuerbach's philosophy. This moral code, Gilbert states, is a synthesis of the laws of nature and moral responsibility and thus varies from the accepted standards of morality.7° Finally, McCormick makes the unconvincing assertion that
Sali and Vrenchen's fate is the inevitable result of their inability . 71 to accept rea1 ~ty. Although he concedes there are social implica- tions to the novella, he nevertheless feels that Sali and Vrenchen's destruction a lso reflects the ambivalenc e resulting from their inability to reject their idylls and to accept reality.
As a social commentary the novella is seen primarily and most accurately as a condemnation of the weaknesses of human society.
Rehder and Feise indicate it is an attack on the pretentious of self-righteousness and a society which permits it. 72 Although Sali and Vrenchen have themselves offended the codes of human society, they are nevertheless the victims of a society that permitted the wrong-doings of their fathers. Silz, though, views the novella as
a conflict within the middle class, and "it is based on the tragic
limitedness of the bourgeois mind, immolating itself to its own 27
ideals of respectability."73 Thus Sali and Vrenchen are the victims
of their own ideals.74
Richter concludes that Keller demonstrates that in a
bourgeois society the world is not open to those who most deserve
it. 75 In other words he completely condemns middle-class society
and also questions the validity of the "besitzenden Schichten."76
In contrast to this interpretation Fife claims much more realistic
ally that the novella demonstrates Keller ' s optimism. For Sali
and Vrenchen's voluntary death does not only demonstrate the power
of youth to rise above adverse circumstances but also demonstrates
the good influence that the laws of society exert upon man. 77
Whether Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe is more an expression
of Keller's philosophy or is a social commentary, the novella is
clearly a tragedy. Sali and Vrenchen's fate is truly tragic, Silz
concludes, because both are destroyed not only by outward circum
stances but also by their own honorable code of ethics.78 To this may be added Klein's observation that the tragedy lies in the
contradiction between Sali and Vrenchen's fate and the positive
psychological development of the novella. He observes that Manz
and Marti's hate is superceded by Sali and Vrenchen's love, and this
love remains love whereas Manz and Marti's friendship had turned to
hate. Yet Sali and Vrenchen must die to preserve their love. This
Klein feels is the true tragedy of the novella, "weil der :iussere
Schicksalsvollzug dem inneren widerspricht und der Untergang der
Liebenden eigentlich den inneren Aufgang zeigt."79 28
CONCLUSION
The purpose of this study has been to identify and discuss
the major differences that exist among the critical interpretations
of Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe that have appeared over the years.
The results of this study indicate that the variations in
the interpretation of the novella reflect the different points of
view of the critics. Most of the variations that have been identified represent an emphasis on a certain aspect of the story but do not go beyond the realm of credibility. However, there are a number of variations that are the consequences of interpretations that clearly reflect the particular premise of the critic and cannot readily be substantiated by textual evidence.
The premise that ambivalence is the fundamental issue in the novella greatly influenced the findings of McCormick's study. As a result the Acker becomes not just an agent of destruction but also a symbol of childhood happiness. The Paradiesg~rtlein now functions as a symptom of Sali and Vrenchen's "crumbling idyll," and Vrenchen's tale to the peasant woman is interpreted as an important part of
Sali and Vrenchen's frustrated attempt to regain a former way of life. In fact, even Sali and Vrenchen's fate is said to be the result of ambivalence created through their failure to reject their idylls.
An attempt to identify the visual representations of
Feuerbach's philosophy completely dominates Runge's analysis of the novella. Here the dramatic contrasts of the bridge scene are 29
viewed as Keller's portrayal of Feuerbach's philosophy. Even the
contrast between the decay of Vrenchen's home and her sparkling
eyes as well as the contrast between the beauty of Vrenchen's
bouquet of flowers and the desolate background are construed as a
pictoral representation of Feuerbach's philosophy.
The strong emphasis on the social aspects of the novella
is consistently evident in Richter's interpretations and to a lesser
degree in Feise's interpretations. From Richter's point of view
Manz and Marti's actions reveal the true character of rural bourgeois
society. Also Sali and Vrenchen's last day together now has social
implications, and is cited as an effort on Keller's part to
demonstrate to the educated that honesty and good manners are
not just limited to the upper classes. An emphasis on the social
aspects of the story also prompted Feise to divide the novella into
three parts.
The significance attached to the theme of Verwilderung and
polarity have also resulted in differences in interpretation. Thus
Rehder's stress on Verwilderung prompts him to identify the Black
Fiddler with this concept and to conclude that his importance
increases as the degree of Verwilderung increases. Likewise Maier's
recognition of a unification of the opposite poles of love and hate
in the bridge scene is a reflection of his desire to demonstrate
the presence of polarity in the novella.
Thus it is evident that the variations in the interpretations
not only point out the various aspects inherent in the novella but
also give an indication of the critics approach to the story. 30
Consequently the identification of these variations contributes to a more thorough understanding of Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe and also helps to put the interpretations of the various critics in a better perspective. 31
FOOTNOTES
Introduction
1. Alfred Z~ch, ed., Gottfried Keller im Spiegel seiner Zeit (ZUrich: Scientia, 1952), p. 40.
2. Erwin Ackerknecht, Gottfried Keller: Geschichte seines Lebens, 4., von Carl Helbling hrsg. Aufl. (Konstanz: Rosgarten Verlag, 1961), p. 198.
3. Ackerknecht, pp. 244-45.
4. John Albrecht Walz, "The Life of Gottfried Keller," The German Classics of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Century, ed. Kuno Francke, Patrons ed. (New York: The German Publication Society, 1914), XIV, 11.
5. E. Allen McCormick, "The Idylls in Keller's 'Romeo und Julia:' A Study in Ambivalence," German Quarterly, 35 (1962), 265.
Chapter I
1. Jakob Baechtold, Gottfried Kellers Leben, seine Briefe und Tagebucher" (Berlin: Hertz, 1894-97), II, 66.
2. Emil Ermatinger, Gottfried Kellers Leben mit Benutzung von Jakob Baechtolds Biographie, 8., neu bearb. Aufl. (ZUrich: Artemis Verlag, 1950), p. 320.
3. Emil Ermatinger, Gottfried Kellers Leben, Briefe und TagebUcher auf Grund der Biographie Jakob Baechtolds (Stuttgart: Cotta, 1919-20), II, 187.
4. Ermatinger, Gottfried Kellers Leben, Briefe und Tagebucher," II, 280.
5. Ermatinger, Gottfried Kellers Leben, Briefe und Tagebucher," II, 413.
6. Ermatinger, Gottfried Kellers Leben, Briefe und Tagebucher," III, 148. 32
7. Ermatinger, Gottfried Kellers Leben, Briefe und Tagebucher,II III, 149.
8. Ermatinger, Gottfried Kellers Leben, P· 319. 9. Ermatinger, Gottfried Kellers Leben, Briefe und Tagebucher,II II, 413.
10. Ermatinger, Gottfried Kellers Leben, Briefe und Tagebucher,II II, 409.
11. Gottfried Keller, Sllimtliche Werke, hrsg. Jonas Fr~nkel (Bern: Benteli, 1926-46), VII, 186. All subsequent references to the text are to this edition and volume, containing Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe, pp. 85-187.
12. Keller, VII, 398.
13. Keller, VII, 396.
14. Keller, VII, 398.
15. Keller, VII, 398.
16. Ermatinger, Gottfried Kellers Leben, Briefe und Tagebucher,II II, 406.
17. Ermatinger, Gottfried Kellers Leben, Briefe und Tagebucher,II III, 452.
18. Ermatinger, Gottfried Kellers Leben, Briefe und Tagebucher,II III, 476.
Chapter II
1. Udo Kultermann, "Bildformen in Kellers Novelle 'Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe, 111 Deutschunterricht, 8, H. 3 (1956), 100.
2. Hermann Kunisch, "Gottfried Kell er: 'Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe, '" Mllnchener Universitl:its-Woche an der Sorbonne zu Paris vom 13. bis 17. Marz 1956 (Mllnchen: Banaschewski, 1956), p-.-1~ ---
3. Reginald H. Phelps, "Keller's Technique of Composition in 'Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe, 111 Germanic Review, 24 (1949), 37.
4. Phelps, p. 37.
5. Phelps, p. 38. 33
6. Helmut Rehder, "'Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe:' An Analysis," Monatshefte f~r deutschen Unterricht, 35 (1943), 419.
7. Rehder, p. 420.
8. Rehder, p. 420.
9. Phelps, p. 38.
10. Ernst Feise, "Kellers 'Romeo und Julia' und Stifters 'Brigitta:' Aufbau und Gehal t, 11 Xenion: Themes, Forms, and Ideas in German Literature (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1950), p. 156.
11. Rudolf Nikolaus Maier, "Gottfried Keller: 'Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe, "' Deutschunterricht, H. 2 (1951), 58-59.
12. Rehder, pp. 427-28.
13. Rehder, p. 427.
14. Lee B. Jennings, "Gottfried Keller, 1819-1890," Einf'tihrung in die deutsche Literatur: Essays on the Major German Authors from Lessing to Brecht, John Geary and Willy Schumann (New York: Rinehart and Winston, 1964), p. 261.
15. Hans Richter, "Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe," Gottfried Kellers frlihe Novellen (Berlin: Rlitten & Loening, 1960), p. 118.
16. Richter, p. 119.
17. Phelps, p. 43. See also Maier, p. 57; Mary E. Gilbert, "Zur Bildlichkeit in Kellers 'Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe, "' Wirkendes Wort, 4 (1953-54), 357; Walter Silz, "Motivation in Keller's 'Romeo und Julia, "' German Quarterly, 8 ( 1935) , 6.
18. Richter, p. 135. See also Wiesmann, p. 69.
19. Louis Wiesmann, Gottfried Keller: Das Werk a1s Spiegel der Pers~n1ichkeit (Frauenfeld und Stuttgart: Huber, 1967), p. 64.
20. Richter, p. 135.
21. Wiesmann, p. 73.
22. Kultermann, p. 96.
23. Lee B. Jennings, "Gottfried Keller and the Grotesque," Monatshefte flir deutschen Unterricht, 50 (1958), 11. See also Jennings, "Gottfried Keller, 1819-1890," p. 262.
24. Rehder, p. 426. 34
25. Rehder, p. 426.
26. Rehder, p. 431.
27. Feise, p. 161.
28. Hildegarde Wichert Fife, "Keller's Dark Fiddler in Nineteenth- Century Symbolism of Evil," German Life and Letters, 16 (1962-63), 121.
29. Fife, p. 119.
30. Kultermann, p. 91. See also Kunisch, p. 119.
31. Kunisch, p. 119.
32. E. Allen McCormick, "The Idylls in Keller's 'Romeo und Julia:' A Study in Ambivalence," German Quarterly, 35 (1962), 269.
33. Gilbert, p. 355.
34. McCormick, p. 269.
35. Wiesmann, p. 84.
36. Johannes Klein, Geschichte der deutschen Novelle von Goethe bis zur Gegenwart, 2., verbesserte und erweiterte Aufl. (Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner, 1954), p. 276.
37. McCormick, p. 277.
38. Wiesmann, pp. 72-73.
39. Fife, p. 118.
40. Rehder, p. 432.
41. Kultermann, pp. 94-95.
42. Edith A. Runge, "Ein kleiner Blick in die kUnstlerische Verwandlung: Zu Kellers 'Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe,'" Monatshefte flir deutschen Unterricht, 52 (1960), 250-51.
43. Keller became acquainted with Ludwig Feuerbach, a nineteenth- century German philosopher, during his stay in Heidelberg, 1848-1850.
44. Runge, p. 251.
45. Silz, p. 3. 35
46. Silz, p. 5. See also Richter, pp. 120-121.
47. McCormick, p. 273.
48. Maier, p. 57.
49. Maier, p. 57.
SO. Runge, p. 250.
51. Phelps, pp. 47-48.
52. McCormick, pp. 274-75.
53. Kultermann, pp. 97, 99.
54. McCormick, p. 276. See also Silz, p. 7.
55. Rehder, p. 423.
56. Wiesmann, p. 77.
57. Richter, p. 134.
58. Fife, p. 124.
59. Runge, p. 251.
60. James Martin Lindsay, Gottfried Keller: Life and Works (London: Wolff, 1968), pp. 149-50.
61. Wiesmann, p. 78. See also Rehder, p. 431.
62. Ermatinger, Gottfried Kellers Leben, p. 321.
63. Emil Ermatinger, Krisen und Probleme der neueren deutschen Dichtung: Aufs~tze und Reden (Zurich: Amalthea, 1928), p. 276.
64. Runge, pp. 251-52.
65. Lindsay, p. 148.
66. Thomas Roffler, Gottfried Keller: Ein Bildnis (Frauenfeld und Leipzig: Huber, 1935), p. 79.
67. Maier, p. 60.
68. Wiesmann, p. 78.
69. Wiesmann, p. 80. 36
70. Gilbert, p. 354.
71. McCormick, p. 278.
72. Rehder, P· 433. See also Feise, PP· 161-62
73. Silz, P· 7.
74. Silz, P· 9.
75. Richter, P· 140.
76. Richter, p. 127.
77. Fife, p. 124.
78. Silz, p. 9.
79. Klein, p. 277. 37
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bibliographies
Preisendanz, Wolfgang. "Die Keller-Forschung der Jahre 1939-1957." Germanisch-Romanische Monatsschrift, 8 (1958), 144-78.
Zippermann, Charles Carl. Gottfried Keller Bibliographie, 1844-1934. Zurich: Rascher & Cie., 1935.
---Books Ackerknecht, Erwin. Gottfried Keller: Geschichte seines Lebens. 4., von Carl Helbling hrsg. Aufl. Konstanz: Rosgarten Verlag, 1961.
Alker, Ernst. Geschichte der deutschen Literatur von Goethes Tod bis ~ Gegenwart. 2 vols. Stuttgart: Cotta, 1949-50.
Baechtold, Jakob. Gottfried Kellers Leben, seine Briefe und Tagebucher." 3 vols. Berlin: Hertz, 1894-97.
Brandt, Rolf. Gottfried Keller. Bielefeld: Velhagen & Klasing, 1920.
Ermatinger, Emil. Deutsche Dichter, 1750-1900: Eine Geistesgeschichte in Lebensbildern. 2., neu bearb. und bebilderte Aufl. von J~rn -::1TGores. Frankfurt: AthenaumII Verlag, 1961.
Ermatinger, Emil. Gottfried Kellers Leben, Briefe und Tagebucher auf Grund der Biographie Jakob Baechtolds. 3 vols. Stuttgart: Cotta, 1919-20.
Ermatinger, Emil. Gottfried Kellers Leben mit Benutzung von Jakob Baechtolds Biographie. 8., neu bearb. Aufl. Zurich: Artemis Verlag, 1950.
Ermatinger, Emil. Krisen und Probleme der neueren deutschen Dichtung: Aufs~tze und Reden. Zurich: Amalthea, 1928.
Held, Martin. Auf goldenen Spuren: Der Schauplatz von Gottfried Kellers Novel len ''Die Leute ~ Seldwyla." Zurich: Sorrnner, 1920.
Heyse, Paul Johann Ludwig von. Deutscher Novellenschatz. 24 vols. Berlin: Globus Verlag, 1903.
Jaeggi, Frieda. Gottfried Keller und Jean Paul. Sprache und Dichtung: Forschungen zur Linguistik und Literaturwissenschaft, H. 14. Bern: Francke, 1913. 38
Kayser, Wolfgang. Das sprachliche Kunstwerk: Eine EinfUhrung in die Literaturwissenschaft. 8. Aufl. Bern: Francke, 1962.
Keller, Gottfried. Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe. Ed. with introd. and notes W.A. Adams. Boston: Heath, 1900.
Keller, Gottfried. S~tliche Werke. Hrsg. Jonas Frankel. 24 vols. Bern: Benteli, 1926-46.
Seldwyla Folks: Three Singular Tales. Tr. Wolf von Schierbrand. New York: Brentano, 1919.
~ Village Romeo and Juliet : ~ Tale. Tr. A.C. Bahlmann. Introd. Edith Wharton. New York: Scribner, 1914.
Klein, Johannes. Geschichte der deutschen Novelle von Goethe bis zur Gegenwart. 2., verbesserte und erweiterte Aufl. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner, 1954.
Lindsay, James Martin. Gottfried Keller : ----Life ---and Works.----- London: Wolff, 1968.
Lockemann, Fritz. Gestalt und Wandlungen der deutschen Novelle: Geschichte einer literarischen Gattung im neunzehnten und zwanzigsten Jahrhundert. Munchen: Hueber, 1957.
Neis, Edgar. Romantik und Realismus in Gottfried Kellers Prosawerken. Berlin: Ebering, 1930.
Reichert, Herbert w. Basic Concepts in the Philosophy of Gottfried Keller. Univ. of North Carolina Studies in the Germanic Langs. and Lits., No. 1. Chapel Hill, 1949.
Roffler, Thomas. Gottfried Keller: Ein Bildnis. Frauenfeld und Leipzig: Huber, 1935.
Vischer, Friedrich Theodor. Altes und Neues. Stuttgart: A. Bonz & Comp., 1882.
Wiesmann, Louis. Gottfried Keller: Das Werk als Spiegel der Pers~nlichkeit. Frauenfeld und Stuttgart: Huber, 1967.
Zach,II Alfred, ed. Gottfried Keller im Spiegel seiner Zeit: Urteile und Berichte von Zeitgenossen Tiber den Menschen und Dichter. zUrich: Scientia, 1952. 39
Articles
Casson, Allan. "'The Mill on the Floss' and Keller's 'Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe. '" Modern Languages, 75 (1960), 20-22.
Feise, Ernst. "Keller's 'Romeo und Julia' und Stifter's 'Brigitta:' Aufbau und Gehalt." Xenion: Themes, Forms, and Ideas in German Literature. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1950. pp. 153-79.
Fife, Hildegarde Wichert. "Keller's Dark Fiddler in Nineteenth-Century Symbolism of Evil." German Life and Letters, 16 (1962-63), 117-27.
Fleissner, Else M. "Die klinstlerische Bedeutung des Zufalls bei Gottfried Keller." Germanic Review, 17 (1942), 261-72.
Gilbert, Mary E. "Zur Bildlichkeit in Keller's 'Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe. '" Wirkendes Wort, 4 (1953-54), 354-58.
Hofmannsthal, Hugo Hofmann von. "Unterhaltung liber die Schriften von Gottfried Keller." Gesammelte Werke. Hrsg. Herbert Steiner. Frankfurt: Fischer Verlag, 1951. IV, 191-201. Jennings, Lee B. "Gottfried Keller, 1819-1890." Einflihrung ---in die deutsche Literatur: Essays ££ the Major German Authors from Lessing to Brecht. John Geary and Willy Schumann. New York: Rinehart and Winston, 1964· pp. 255-73.
Jennings, Lee B. "Gottfried Keller and the Grotesque." Monatshefte flir deutschen Unterricht, 50 (1958), 9-20.
Kultermann, Udo. "Bildformen in Kellers Novelle 'Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe. '" Deutschunterricht, 8, H. 3 (1956), 86-100.
Kunisch, Hermann. "Gottfried Keller: 'Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe. "' Mlinchener Universit~ts-Woche ~ der Sorbonne zu Paris ~ 13. bis 17. M~rz 1956. Munchen: Banaschewski, 1956. pp. 116-21.
Lewes, George Henry. "Realism in Art: Modern German Fiction." Westminster Review: American Edition, 70 (Oct. 1858), 271-87.
Lukacs, Gygrgy. "Gottfried Keller." Deutsche Literatur in zwei Jahrhunderten. Neuwied und Berlin: Luchterhand, 1964. pp. 334-419.
McCormick, E. Allen. "The Idylls in Keller's 'Romeo und Julia:' A Study in Ambivalence." German Quarterly, 35 (1962), 265-79.
Maier, Rudolf Nikolaus. "Gottfried Keller: 'Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe!" Deutschunterricht, H. 2 (1951), 49-63. 40
Phelps, Reginald H. "Keller's Technique of Composition in 'Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe. "' Germanic Review, 24 (1949), 34-51.
Rehder, Helmut. "'Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe:' An Analysis." Monatshefte flir deutschen Unterricht, 35 (1943), 416-34.
Remak, Henry H. H. "Vinegar and Water: Allegory and Symbolism in the German Novelle between Keller and Bergengruen." Literary Symbolism: A Symposium. Ed. with Introd. Helmut Rehder. Austin: Univ. of Texas Press, 1965. pp. 33-62.
Richter, Hans. "Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe." Gottfried Kellers frUhe Novellen. Berlin: Rlitten & Loening, 1960, pp. 111-41.
"Seldwyla und die Wirklichkeit." Weimarer Beitrl:l.ge, 4 (1958), 172-201.
Runge, Edith A. "Ein kleiner Blick in die Klinstlerische Verwandlung: Zu Kellers 'Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe. '" Monatshefte flir deutschen Unterricht, 52 (1960), 249-52.
Schneider, Wilhelm. "K~nnen Sie lesen? Der Anfang von Gottfried Kellen; 'Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe' interpretiert." Deutsche Kunstprosa. 1926; reprinted in Librarium, 1, H. 2 (1958), 56-59.
Seidl in, Oskar. "Eine Stilanalyse." r'Romeo und Julia auf dem DorfeJ German Quarterly, 15 (1942), 12-18.
Silz, Walter. "Keller: 'Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe. "' Realism and Reality: Studies in the German Novelle of Poetic Realism. Univ. of North Carolina Studies in the Germanic Langs. and Lits., No. 11. Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1954. pp. 79-93.
"Motivation in Keller's 'Romeo und Julia.'" German Quarterly, 8 (1935), 1-11.
Walz, John Albrecht. "The Life of Gottfried Keller." The German Classics of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries: Masterpieces of German Literature Translated into English. Ed. Kuno Francke. Patrons ed. New York: The German Publication Society, 1914. XIV, 1-16.
Zinunern, Helen. "A Swiss Novelist." Frazer's Magazine, 101 (1880) ; reprinted in Littell's Living Age, 145 (8 May 1880), 368-79.