Tamara Keating

A 2004/9303 Constructing the Gaullist Consensus

A Cultural Perspective on French Policy toward the United States in NATO (1958-2000)

Nomos Baden-Baden Table of Contents

Foreword 9

1 Introduction 11

2 Franco - American relations in NATO 21

2.1 De Gaulle's policy toward NATO (1958-1969) 22 2.1.1 Discussions on a great power directorate and the Multilateral Force 22 2.1.2 • Increased efforts toward an autonomous European defense and the withdrawal from NATO's integrated military structures 26

2.2 The post-de Gaulle-period: continuity under Pompidou and repositioning under Valery Giscard d'Estaing (1969-1980) 32 Improved working relations until the clash of the "Year of Europe" 32 A new impetus for Franco-American relations under Valery Giscard d'Estaing 35 Gaullist orthodoxy returns 37

Francois Mitterrand: Gaullism prevails (1981-1995) 40 A beginning rapprochement between France and NATO 40 Shaping the European security system during thel980s 42 European defense at the end of the Cold War 44 Allied cooperation in the Persian Gulf War and in the war in the former Yugoslavia 48

2.4 Adapting to NATO's new tasks: Chirac's NATO policy (1995-2000) 52 2.4.1 The resumption of nuclear testing, and intensified cooperation with NATO 52 2.4.2 Stronger European defense structures as a result of the war in Kosovo 56

2.5 Conclusion: Plus 9a change... 61

3 The analytical context: constructivism and the role of norms and identity in International Relations 63

3.1 Constructivist approaches to the analysis of foreign policy: definitions and conceptual history 63

3.1.1 Definitions 63 3.1.2 'Critical'constructivism 65 3.1.3 'Conventional' constructivism

3.2 Operationalizing strategic culture, identity and norms

3.2.1 Strategic, or political-military culture 3.2.2 Excursion: identity and the problem of conceptualizing change 3.2.3 Norms, institutions, and concepts of consensus 3.2.3.1 The definitions of norms and institutions, criteria for their existence and effectiveness, and a typology of norms 3.2.3.2 Norm dynamics: the question of power and the 'life cycle'of norms 3.2.3.3 Effects of norms on policy: norms as constraints, norms as motives, norms as instruments for promoting change 3.2.3.4 Concepts of consensus: the role of consensus in liberal democracies and consensus as a cultural institution 3.2.3.5 Methods 3.3 Conclusion

4 Domestic determinants of French foreign and defense policy

4.1 Formal determinants: the constitution and political system of the Fifth Republic (1958)

4.1.1 The roles of the President and Prime Minister and the socially constructed domaine reserve 4.1.2 The roles of the Minister of Defense, of the military, and of the Minister of Foreign Affairs 4.1.3 The roles of the National Assembly and Senate in a system of "rationalized parliament" 4.1.4 The French party system and its evolution under the Fifth Republic 4.1.4.1 Parties of the left a) The Parti Communiste Francais (PCF) b) The Parti Socialiste (PS) c) Les Verts and Generation Ecologie 4.1.4.2 Parties of the center a) The Parti Radical (PR) b) The Centre des.Democrates Sociaux (CDS) 4.1.4.3 Parties of the right a) The Union pour la Democratie Francaise (UDF) and its predecessors b) The Rassemblement pour la Republique (RPR) and its predecessors c) The Front National (FN) and its predecessors

4.1.5 Conclusion Ideational determinants: the evolution of the Gaullist consensus on foreign and defense policy 130

The French strategic culture: ideological origins of the Gaullist consensus 130 Charles de Gaulle 131 The origins of Gaullism in French foreign and defense policy 135 Gaullist principles of foreign and defense policy 139 Conclusion: Gaullist defense policy as a national symbol 145

Emergence: spreading the Gaullist foreign and defense policy norms (1958-1970) 146 Norm Entrepreneurs 146 Debates on Gaullist defense policy 151 a) Perceptions of the force de frappe (1960, 1962, 1966) 151 b) Reactions to the withdrawal from NATO's military structures (1966) 163 Continuity after de Gaulle 171 Conclusion: Gaullist norms gain predominance in defense policy discourse " 176

Acceptance: the establishment of the Gaullist consensus in May 1977 and January 1978 177 Reactions to new policies under Giscard (1974-1976) 180 The Socialists' acceptance of Gaullist defense policy (1972-1978) 193 The Communists' acceptance of Gaullist defense policy (1972-1977) 201 Conclusion: the myth of consensus is born 205

Internalization: continuity and change in the role of consensus until 1990 207 Dealing with consensus: a Socialist defense policy for France? (1978- 1983) 209 A strained consensus: the first cohabitation (1986-1988) 220 The Gaullist consensus in the New World Order: coming to terms with the end of the Cold War (1989-1990) 230 Conclusion: the Gaullist consensus is internalized under Mitterrand 240

Decline or revival? The Gaullist consensus on defense policy since 1991 242 The aggiornamento: defense policy under Mitterrand (1991-1993) 244 The second cohabitation (1993-1995) 253 Gaullism returns to the presidency (1995-1997) 267 Conclusion: toward a new consensus? 279

Concluding remarks 281