)≥ ¥®• ¢©Ø£®°≤ ∞≤اµ£•§ ¢π
°Æ !Æ©¨° ≥¥Ø∂• ¨©´•¨π ¥Ø ¢• ° ¢•Æ•¶©£©°¨ ≥Ø©¨ °§§©¥©∂•
w L a{ ! 9 9 { / ! Ç
W !!" ÜY.w/ í' t) *
Richard Iliffe œ MSc Advanced Environmental and Energy Studies 1
L + ) + ! ' + + ,
W w L a{ ! 9 9 { / ! Ç
t ÜY . w / í ! " ! # $ " "% & $ Ç & ! ! " & ( ) ! ÜY . w /
--- + '
Richard Iliffe œ MSc Advanced Environmental and Energy Studies 2
. !+
Y - . ) )I Ç ! $ + & & , && # ," $ " & . ! ! & ", ! & , & + " $ " & !!$ Ç ! " ! ! ! " & && & ! " ! " ! & ! "
Ç I# !$ ! ! & " $ & ! ! ! + ! !&& . & $ / ! !
& " & Ç ! & + + ! $ " ! ! & !
Ç I $ ! " ( I 00,1 ) ! & !$ (231,114 5{ ) " # ! " Ç I !$! " , , " & & I Ç ! & " $ ! 172 ! $ ! ! ". + & " ! ! & ! ! " " & ! ! & ! + ! 82 ! & ! # " ! $ , $ ! $ " & && & ! # " $ " & ! $ # &
. . L
L # $ " !+! (/h ) # &+ !# " " && $ && ! t # & # " ! /h & + . $ # " ; ! # $ " ! /h " " ! & !
í # # ! " & + ! # ! ! ", ! ! 1# # " . " " " ! /h . $ & /h & ! & & , $ & &
5 # " ; " + ! " & & & ! ! ! Ç & " (D # 1) ! ! & & ! > Ç ([ # 0) $ " " ! & " , " #
1 Charcoal, biochar and char are different names used to describe the same substance, depending on its end use; the term biochar was coined by Dr Peter Read of Massey University, (New Zealand) in attempt to differentiate it thusly. The terms charcoal and char imply use as a fuel, whereas biochar implies an application to soil. Richard Iliffe œ MSc Advanced Environmental and Energy Studies 3 ! $ ! $ ! " !! # !! ! " & & /h !
Ç ! + + ! & ! " " & $ " / & ! $ & (& ! ) $ ! " & " # !&& && & Ç & & & $ "# " $ ! $ & ! ! t & ! $ & !&& & " ! @ (IÇÇ)# ! # # ! ! # ! # & ! > ! Ç $ " " ! " & ! ; " & & ! . $ # & & $ " ! !&& "
. " $ $ (Y A { # 1B2. a A !" # 12. ! # )# $ && & Ç & $ # $ "$ " !! ! ! " & + " $ " " # ! $
. . t {
Ç & ! " ! ! & " & ( $ " ) , ! & !!$ ", ! t $ + & # " ! ! &!# ! && ! $ ! $ ! t $ " $ ! , ! # ", ! # ! ! $ { " ! " ! & & # ! ! & ! ! & ! $ " $ ! D " &
L ! & " $ " && $ $ #
# ! ! & ! " ! " & + ! Ç
& $ $ " ! ! 17 ! ! !# " " , & , " ! ! " $ Ç " $ 0# " " & " " $ ! $ ! $ . & $ # ! $ " ! & $ & ! & $ ! ! " / " &
! " ! " ! & $ ! # ! $ " ! & # " & Ç + & . & & " !! ! $ & # && & " ! " C # & ! " ! $ ( @ ! ", ! ) ! " !&& & ! ,
2 Examples include sewage and municipal solid waste treatment, papermill waste and animal manures 3 No information exists in the literature concerning the invention date of biochar-producing stoves. Dr T.Reed invented micro-gasification stoves using a similar principle in 1985, but ash - rather than biochar - is the by-product. Richard Iliffe œ MSc Advanced Environmental and Energy Studies 4 $ % & & ! ! & " ! ! ! & , $ " ; ! !! "
Ç ! $ # $ ! " t& Ü b w $ " + & $ & " " "% + # & "! & Ç " ! " & $ " ! " & $ " ; " ! " ! & " $! !
Ç !
Ç & ! ! ! & ! !$ & " ! & ", ! & ! ! $ I !! & ; ! ", ! # " ; ! " & ! $ # $ ! ! & & ! !
Ç ! ! $ ! & & ( & 1)# !! & " & ! ! " ! " " Ç $ ! & ! ! 1. " ! ! " ! $ $ # ! ! & . ! $ $ " $! ! " C D ! & $ " L
C .1 [+ ! - ) )
Burnspace Cool air is heated and rises, drawing air through the ventilation cone. Air provides oxygen that Biomass Jacket fuels the combustion of firewood Ventilation Cone
Combusting firewood drives pyrolysis of biomass in jacket. Gases released during Removable Bottom pyrolysis of biomass pass out into the Plate burnspace and are combusted
Bottom Plate Clamp (Legs)
Cool air enters burnspace but cannot enter the biomass jacket, preserving low oxygen conditions for pyrolysis
3 a
Ç $ & ! ! $ ! ( ! $ !) && " & . ! & " "% " ! ! " ! Ç # & # Richard Iliffe œ MSc Advanced Environmental and Energy Studies 5 !! & & ! $ ! " ! ÜY & # ! ! ! , & " !# & # $ D$ # ! & & " ! " ! ! " ! $ ! & && " !
3 . /
Ç " ! & " & ! " & " & & ( 23# [ A W ) L & !&& & " " ! & " / " $ ; ! Ç ! & " ! ! ! & " ! $ t $ " ! & ! & " & @ & # " ! # ! $ " ! # + # & ! " (D # . [ # 0. . 3# Y 2. [ # 4)
Ç+ .1 Ç + )) + ) + 4 . t) Ç 4 [ a $ " !í/ ! ! í ! Gt (!í/) & & . { (ÜY) + $ " .
/9/ & & " "
! ! a ! ! & / 9+ / (/9/) (/ 142) /9/. +
! (14 )
b ! ! /9/ & . & . ! ! ! . { $! & ! ! ; ! ! a ! " Ç ( ; ! + ! " .9Ç {& ! & " {& ; (. # " + !). 9 ! Ç # 10B) w ; ! ! $ " ; b ! ! & ( {& { / t & "$ )
! " & " 1# & & $> & ! # " ! " " ; $ D # ! # " $ $ ! ! w # & & I ! " /9/# " ! IJ $ & ! # " & 3 /9/ ( ! & " )
4 Consider if a equally high surface area biochars are introduced into a sandy soil (which has low nutrient retention) and one biochar possesses high CEC the other low. The high CEC biochar is very likely to have a beneficial effect on plant growth but the low CEC will likely not, a fact overlooked by surface area measurements. Richard Iliffe œ MSc Advanced Environmental and Energy Studies 6 " " , ([ # 0)# ! !&& " " ! " ! " Ç , & ! ! " & & ! Ç & " $ ! $ & . # !# I " " $ " + " Ç & " ! " !$ ! ! ! "! ! ! & ! " !# ! ! && & "$ # & $ " ! # & $ % & !
3 . )I
I ! ! " $ " # " (IK ) $ & ( 370# 9 3) . " ! ! I " 3 ! 1 ([ 7)# & $ "# " ! ! & !# !$ ! L # ; $ " $ " # & + # & ({ !) # ! & ! ! & & ; $ " $ " & ! $ 2
í & " ! 3# I $$ !# + # & # ! # + ! " L ! !# & $ + " ! ( 2# / B)# I " " ! ! & " & ! C (4) $ & ," & " ! ! " I , , & ! , ! $ $ ! # !! & $ & " I !
Y I & " ! & ! & !G ! " I " I ! $ $ ( 73# [ A W ) ! + ! !# I & " $ " ! $ ! ! (Y A { (1B2)# a A !" (12))# & $! & " I ! ! & " & L !! ! !$ & " # ! " & & !
3 . 3 /
. $ " # ! ! & & & ! ! ! Ç ( ) & " " " ! ! $ " # && " $ Ç ! & " ! , " ! # " ; + & a !$ & " & ! $ ! . !&& " & " & & ! ! $ ! " Ç ! " # " && & !!
5 Contrast: A biochar of pH 4 – we know that it is acid and therefore unsuitable for acid soils and alkaline-loving plants. A biochar of 300m 2/g S.A - we know that this is technically a high SA, but questions remain to be answered i.e is this high for biochar and importantly, what relationship to fertility can be expected for this measurement? Richard Iliffe œ MSc Advanced Environmental and Energy Studies 7 " # & $ " ! & " (. , 5 # 7) ({ 3)
3 . ò
Ç ! & " & & ! " ! ! + # $ ! & " " ! ! ! & ! $ Ç ! & ! $ ! ! ! & !! & ! ! $ # ! & ! " # " ", ! L ! & ! " & $ ! !# , " ! & , ! $ ! " + & $ " & ! & # ! " " ! + " ! ! $
3 3 / C '
Ç " ! ! $ $ & ! " " ! & . & $ ! " ! !G " " D" # & (C!h 1B4)# ! # # > # " # ! ! ( " BL# 2L# 7L# 1L# ! 4L & # $ ) Ç ! & " " " ! + & " ( ,!) "
I " " " # # # # ! + $ ( ) $ Ç % 1 & + # $ $ " 4 " " $ " " $ & " " " & & & h + & $ ! & ! ! $ " ÜY# " ! + & ! $ & " " " ! ! $ C ! ! & ! $ " " # " ! $ & ! $ " + & & &
3 * í +
L "% ! $ ! + ! & " ! " " ! " Ç $ " ! ! ! 2 ," ! " ! $ / 7 && & $ ! + ! && # & ! $ ! ! , ! & & " ! !"
3 6 t {
Ç ! ! ! & $ / ! & " + @ w @ 3 & " & ! & % ! @ 42 +
6(Cellulose 29-39 weight%; Hemicellulose 20.6-26.8%; Lignin 19.4 to 26.6 %, Reith and de Bont 2007 ) 7 Advanced Studies in Appropriate Technology Laboratory, a certificatory authority based in the U.S.
Richard Iliffe œ MSc Advanced Environmental and Energy Studies 8 w @ 1 & !! & # & ! & ! @ 2 & ! & ; ! !$ Ü & # " 42 & + & & ! ! $ !. D! (1 & !! & ) ! C ! (2 & !! & ) Ç ! ! & + + ! $ " ! ! & ! (! ) ! " + ! ! # $ $ (& !)
* a
Ç $ ! ! " $ . + " ! ,$ !# $ ! a # í " G3G, 10G3G t $ ! # (M )
C 1 t ) ! ) + + 7í 595 [9[ - 1
Burnspace 650g straw in biomass jacket
Wood shavings and Wood shavings and straw straw 400g of <20mm D 250mm 100g of withies L+ 100g of withies < <10mm D 10mm
300g <25mm D split 600g <25mm D split in in half @125mm L half @250mm L 300g 1kg
Field Regime (200g Ventilation Cone hardwood added later) Guideline regime (all hard wood used at once)
• Ç % & ! ! ! $ & ! 42 & !, ! í # ! $ Ç ! ! ! " & $ !. , ! & !! & !! & • Ç " & $ & ! {$ . ( . ) &$ # $ / ! ! ! & @ ( $ ! $ & ) L C ! . ! 2 !! # & ! ! & " ! ! " , ! $ & # $ & & (I & & ! ! ! ) b & ! , & > & " LL D! . ! 1 & !! ! $ / ! • Ç ! " ! & ! " & 2 & ! & $ ! + " , , ! $ ! ! & & Richard Iliffe œ MSc Advanced Environmental and Energy Studies 9 • Ç " 2 & ! & • !& " # ! $ ! & " ! ! ! & + Ç ! ! & + " • * . . ! * . . í
• !& ! $ ! ! && ! # " $ ! ! ! ! ! " & Ç " ! ! ! > & !! 9; tDí 320 Ç & " ! " " & " • . ! ! + " # $ ! " & $ " I ! !$
* . / !
• Ç " ! " ! ! ! & 0 ! ! 1 !! ! 12 " # !&& " Ç ! ; ! & ! ! ! $ " " 1 & ! , ! !! ! 1, # " ! ! !# ! , ! & • !& , ! !# ! & !$ ! I 9/ ILB1 !$ . I ! " ; " ! I I1 I . ! ! & / • ! & !! "% ! & &
* a / {-
• Ç & ! ! .{ 9b 127@ ! ! & & & "! ! ! @ 5 & " ! $ ! ! " ! # ! ! & ! !" ! ! ! ! Ç & !, ! ! # % ! & " h" $ $ ! ! & " !!$ ! ! ! & ! !
Richard Iliffe œ MSc Advanced Environmental and Energy Studies 10
6 w
6 . a ) -
{- L í 5 í í 71 a 7:1 1 1 B 03 1 744 17 1 B 0B 1 4 14 0 1 B 3B4 1 213 12 3 1 B 230 1 327 12 2 1 B 132 1 23 ! ± !" ± # $ ±#
Ç & $ " 12 ! L# 7 2 ! 10 & 42 & ! + Ç $ 14 4L# ! ! & " ! "
6 . ) + + +
C D . ò 71 : ò 7:<5a1 ò 71 : ò 7:<5a1 1 1BB 02 142 2 0 13 00 0 13 00 0 0 17B 7 00 144 4 01 3 10 1 4 13B 0 7 2 123 3 B 171 4 0 ! % ±#" # ±% ## ±! # ±#% # ± 01 B( ±3 3) N5a O !
Ç ! & " " 1 ! 00L & & (0 ! 0L ! " ). ! $ " + ! $ " 72 & ! ({5 0) ! 44 ! ({53 4)
Ç $ ! & " $ 173 4 ! 17 B # " " G ! ! " ! ! & Ç Ü,ë ! & a ,í Ü, "$ ! 1 ( Q 2# $ ). " ! !! !&& & !
5 $ " " ! ! & & !&& # " ! ! & ! ! " + ! ! > ! & " ; ! & " $ ! $ " ! # " # ! " ! !
Richard Iliffe œ MSc Advanced Environmental and Energy Studies 11
6 3 )I + 6 3 . )I + ) + +
C w ) . . ò 71 )I7.1 )I7 1 )I731 ! 1 1BB 20 20 37 21(R 0) 13 32 33 04 3(R 2) 0 17B 4 30 33 2(R 11) 3 10 4 20 23 24(R 2) 2 123 3 31 33 32(R 3)
í! , 7 41 7 01 7 B 7 3(R 1B)
R ! ! ! $
Ç " ! ! # I $ ! ! "$ I 04 + I & 4 Ç $ " & " # " ! ! + & ! $ & I $ "
Ç !&& " $ ! I & " +" $ + !&& & 13 " ! $ . " ! ! & & I & ! í ! ! " ! & ! " # I " ! $ "
6 3 )I + ) + +
D . . ò 71 )I7.1 )I7 1 )I731 ! 1 .=6 B4 B3 73 B1(R 0) .* * 31 00 7 3(R 1) 0 .== 1 2 1 1 (R 0) 3 .*> 1 1 1 1 3(R 1) 2 .?. 1 B 1 1 3 1 7(R 0)
í! , 7 41 7 01 7 B 7 3(R 1B)
R ! ! ! $
Ç " "$ " ! ! # I $ "$ 00 + & 1 Ç $ " & " # ! ! " ! ! ! $ # , " ! ! + ! $ & & I $ "
Ç !&& " $ ! I & " +" $ ! ! # + !&& & 1 4# " ! ! $ " " í ! ! " ! & ! " # I " !# # $ "
Richard Iliffe œ MSc Advanced Environmental and Energy Studies 12 6 3 3 /) + -
Ç + " # a , í Ü,Ç & ! $ I ! ! & " Ç " ! ! & ! I ! ! a@í Ç ! )I ) {) .< {) < {) 3A . C D C D C D 1 32 31 31 00 04 7 3 B4 30 B3 33 73 0 20 1 2 33 33 3 4 1 20 1 1 37 1 2 4 1 B 20 1 23 1 3 20 1 2 33 3
5 "
í & "$ " # { 1 ! N +" & !&& " " # 0S ! ! & !&& I ! " Ç & a ,í Ü + ! > & &$ + ! & Ç & !&& " & ! ! ! " & I
C 31 . ) C D + )I Bar chart showing average pH for Field & Guideline pH data
10.4
10.2
10
9.8
Field pH 9.6 Guideline 9.4
9.2
9 9.47 9.93 8.8
{ C ! !? D ! 3
Ç ! & 0 ! ! $ ! ! & # ! ! " " . !&& I " & ! ! " Ç $ ! ! & 4 ! 1 # $ ! I & "$ 1 ! ! & ! ! I & 37 ! ! & & ! ! & 0 & ! . & & ! ! " & I
Richard Iliffe œ MSc Advanced Environmental and Energy Studies 13 6 3 * { )I +
! I " ! ! " " . & ! & ! & ! $ ! ! " " ! " && & Ç !&& " (Q 1 I)# & & " !
Ç & ! ! " & I ! # $ # " ! " & ! & " , # " " " & & > & &$ ! &
6 * / 6 * . / + ) +
C D . / 7B{ @.1 7.1 / 7B{ @.1 7 1 / 7B{ @.1 7.1 / 7B{ @.1 7 1 1 712 273 B07 43 231 442 34 0B 0 BB 114 B0 B70 3 1 1 104 2 77 B4 1 77 ! " # R " %! R## " R R #! í! 0(R0 ) 00(R0 ) 03(R0 ) ! ! R ! ! ! $
OÇ !$ & " " # ! & ! " # ! ! & Ç $ " ( ! ! ! $ B0# 12# 1B# 4) + ! " & & " & . $ " & " ! " ! # ! ! Ç & " " ; $ , ; $ , ! & " ( ! " " )
6 6 . C
C *1 . {- + . í +
Straw (1g) Wood (1g)
Ç " ! ! " # " # & & ! ([ 11. í! ! 5 " # 11) L # ! & & " . " & " ! ! ! ! L ! " # Richard Iliffe œ MSc Advanced Environmental and Energy Studies 14 $ $ ! ! # ! & 1B , ! " & & # & & $ " " $ ! !$
6 = / )
Ç $ & & . & + # " & " ! Ç & & ! & $ " % " ! & , & & !! ! & (& ! )# " ! Ç & " ! ! & ! " & ! !
= 5 = . . ò
! ! " " ! & ! 02L (.! # 7) ! " ! 0BL ( 07# [ A W # ) Ç ! + (4,0) & & ! ! ! ! & # $ &' ! 170,172 " D " ! !
í ! $ " (4,0L) ! # " ! " + ! + " $ " L& # " ! ! ! # + , ! & "% $ " , " & ! í I $ # ! & $ " 1 & " ! 42 + $ # ! + $ " " ! " ! T / & +,&$ 1 ( ! $ ! && $ ) Ç $ " & # ! (w A 5 . # 7) , ! ! ! D & $ " ! Ç + + " & $ " " ! ! ( ! ) D $ " " ! " & $ " + " w $ ! (12) $ ! !&& ! ! & $ & ! " + ! " !&& ! , && $ & ! $ & & Ç + ! ! ! !&& ! & ! !&& ! & " $ $ h & 5 " (3) ! " ! # ! " $ " & $ " "
! > & &$ ( & " !) # & ! $ " " ! ! $ " & ! "
= /
{ " & !$ ! " # ! $ " ; " ! ! " & ! " $ !$ (! , ! O 05{ G # ! 05{ G ) ! & # & & ! Richard Iliffe œ MSc Advanced Environmental and Energy Studies 15 ! Ç !$ " ! & # + & ! " h " # $ " " $ ! ( ! ! ! $ & 0) ! " ! & (B0,4) ! " & ! $ ! ! # " ! " ! & " # (. # 103 [ A W ). ! ! " ! &
= . h
Ç & ! $ " ( & ! " !$ & " ) " . $ # " $ ! ! " Ç & ! & ! Q1L ! 7L (t A Y # B) ! & # ! " $ !$ & 25{ ,1 ( 11# [ A W # ) "# " ! " $ ! ! " # " !$
L + + && & !$# D ! A 5 [ # (4) ! !$ " $ ! ! & & " +! & # " + & + # $ I Ç & +! ! I & , " + ! " . $ (1)# ! ! & + " ! ! " ({)# (C ) ! (!) +! B Ç & " & ! ! "
Ç !$ + 815{ ,1 (1 5{ ,1) " 15{ ,1 ! ! & 02 °/ ! & 1,12 5{ ,1 ! ! B °/ D ! ! 5 !# ! ! & ! Ç ! & !&& ! ! ! " & ! ! " ! " # ! ! ! ! $ $ ! +
L ! ! ù " (7) $ " 1,L # ! " ! " " # " Ç " + ! " ! " $ (t # 2)# & " " B °/ ! "$ L & !&& " + ! " & ! !# w $ ! (12) $ " 3L !# " " & !
= ! +
í ! " ! ! " ! $ ! " ! & # C (1B4) ! ; ! $ " 2 ! 2L ( & $ B,00aWGY) ! & 1,L " !# # + ! ({! # 4) &
, ! & !
8 The biochar was created from sewage, which can have mineral content of up to 70% (Shinogi, 2004) and is therefore dramatically different from botanically derived biochar. Acidity in wood biochar is generally caused by organic functional groups, but little work exists on basicity. 9 Ninth Annual Report on Carcinogens 2000 Richard Iliffe œ MSc Advanced Environmental and Energy Studies 16 ! & & " ! ! # L . L $ ! " 22 °/ (a %# ) ! & ! & Ç $ ! " % # & $ ! > ! & ! I $ # $ & & & + ! 11 °/ (D ! # 120)# ! " "; !! !! & " L& ! ! # ! $ & ! ; + ! & ' ' ( # ! & & & ! $
= 3 9 )
5 /#I ! h ! $ ! " ( ) ! & " ! " Ç $ ! ! , ! + # $ !&& & ! !&& & ! Ç & $ ! & & " ! & " !$
! ) - - ) - - C ' ! ! / C a b Y t { { @ : ,1 í! { && * , 4 41 1 41 1 í! (í)N 1 1 0 0 04 12 13 03 , í { V 11 2 77 10 30 7 1 33 Nw $ ! # (12)# V{! (4)
{ & # " ! ! $ !# " !$ L # & ! # " & ! ! (í! # 147. Y # 0. t # 4). ! & " " !# $ $ & 1 , 17L (C!h# 1B7) !# # ! " "
= * t+
! + !&& !$ " ! ! # ! $ " " & " & !&& & ! a (a) " ! $ " ! ! & $ ! (Y ! # 3) ! & " " ! +! ! " ! ( + " ) í ! ! # & (Y)# ! (b ) ! " (/ ) t ! # & " $ " & # " Ç " & !# $ # $ . & # " ! # " ! " . ,5 (7) ! { (3) ! !# " & & !! ! " && & !
10 As discussed in (1.1.5) , lignin has been shown by Demirbas (2004) to have a positive influence on biochar yield Richard Iliffe œ MSc Advanced Environmental and Energy Studies 17 {! + & # " ! # ( 120# [ A {# 0) # && & ! !! &!# & ! ! ! C ! " ; ! " ! & ! ! ! $ # " " & ! # ! " ! " ! ( !) Ç " & ! ! ! " ! " !! ! ! # " !! ! " $ && ! ! " $ ! ! í ! $ " " " # & ! $ I & ( 177# Ç 2) I & " ! "
Ç + & Y# b ! / % , ! ! " & !$ " $ !# " $ ! $ ! ! " ! " + ! " " & & ! "
= 3 )I = 3 . / )I
Ç & + $ " " ! & " " ! ! D Ç & I ! " ! ! ! & " $! !
! ! # ! ! $ " $ ! " ! & ! ! I & " ! ! ! " # & + " I 00,1 L ! # & $ ! ! ! # ! ! !# & ! & " ! ! & ! {# > & &$ & " # + $ I ! ! ! " " , ! & !
= 3 ! ' . !
Ç & ! ! $ " & (!) I # + ! ( 1# / B) ! # ; & ! " " I# $ ! ! $ " # " $ ! (I # 1. [ # 0. ò 4. w ! # 7. ë ù # 7) & & " $ ! I ! " (M 00) & + " ! !! ( IM7) !$ & ! ! " & & !! ! & " I ! 4,B
! & " ! ! ! " & ! & " & ! ! ! ([ A W # )# " && & ; . $ & I# " ! ! " ! $ ! && " & & ! # " & I " " ! ! !&& & ! ! & ! ! & "
Richard Iliffe œ MSc Advanced Environmental and Energy Studies 18 = 3 3 b +
L + " # & I ( I3,1) ([ # 7) $ " " ! !&& & + " (. # 1). "+# ! " !# ! " í " ! " & !&& ! $ ({ > # 7) (Y # 7) { $ " & ! && !G" ! $ ! ! & " (9> ! ,D > > # 7)
í $ " & I + # !&& & ( !) " ({ > # 7) ! & " + ! " $ !&& !! ! Ç & & +! ! " D ! A 5 [ (4) ! " + & " $ ! + # " & & " " $ ! , & & & " ! " ! $ ! ! Ç & & " " ! && I " & ! " , + ; ! & &
Ç & " # " ! ! # ! " ! ! ! ! & ! (w # 17. . # 3) C # " $ !$ & & ( " & & )# $ " ! I $ # $ ! " & ! " && " ! " " ! " & & &
L " " !! # ; & & ! " (. ,5 # 7. { # 3)# & ! ! & ! & " " & Ç &
" " ! ! $ $ # $ " " & ([ A W # ) I $ # " " & ! " " . & w ! . "$ " ! & $ & # # "$ & " !! # " !
= * v h+
Ç ; $ " $ " & ! . ! "$ $ & " Ç & & ! " ! & ! & + ! " # ! ! & ! " " " ! & & & Ç & " & " ! # $ # ! & & + # ! " ! ! ! ! " ! " # & ! ! ! , & & 25 ,5 , ! " ! ! $ (.!# 1B3) ! !
Ç ! & " ! $ ! $ " ; ! " ! + { " & > ! (b % # 1B2) , , ! $! # Richard Iliffe œ MSc Advanced Environmental and Energy Studies 19 " " ! ! ! " !&& ! ! Ç ! & , & " " & & " " ! ! " ! $ b ! $ " ! !# & + # ! $ $ & ! # ! !# ! " ! ! ! ! " ! " ! ! !$ ! " ! " $ " + ! ! & ! !$ && (ë # 4. w # 4) ! $ ! " $ " ! ! & ! (5 A /"# 17. . !# ) Ç & + & ! " ! # ! $ & " & ! ! Ç ! $ & & ! & & ( L ! ) ! ! & ! " & ! $ " Ç " & ! " ! " ! ! # ! ! " $ !
! # ! ! " # ! " " !&& ! # ! " && !$ " " ! " ! ;# & & ! "
= 6 t ò
! ! ! " + # ! & ! $ " # $ # " " ! $ ! " & $ ! & " " ! & ! Ç & " C ,D ! {/!5 (B) $ & ! $ Ç b !# L ! ! ! 1 & !
í + ) ) ) + C @D F {/!5 7 !!>1 í .@ G ) G . ) G 1 2 2 1
L $ !&& ! $ & & & ! $ ! $ & $ "# # & > # & &! !# # $ (ù # 1) " & ! ! Ü $ $ # { (1B7) 1 7 & ! ; ! # ! ! ! L ! $ # " ! " & & & # ! && &! (í! / $ Ü # 3. Ç í! . # B)# " & ! & " I $ # ! $ $! # ! " !
Ç $ ! & " 8172 ! & ! " , $ & ! & ! Ç " $ & & # & ! $ " % ! " ! ! & ! & ! & " $ # 172 & " & "
. ) ) ) H) . ! . ! . . G !G !G! ! !G! 42 12 22 .". = 6'
Richard Iliffe œ MSc Advanced Environmental and Energy Studies 20
! & & ! + 1 & " # ! 042 ! " C ,D (B)
= 6 . !)) +
{ & " $ ! & 2 (L # 1B) 1 ,1(/ 7) ! $ " ! ! !! D ()# $ $ " ! ! & ! , ! " & ! " & & ! " " & ! ! " ! ! ! $ " ! Ü & # $ " ! & & ! ! " ! " & && & ! . ë ù ! 1 ,1 " " ! # $ & " , ! " $ ! (ë ù # 7) Y A { (1B2) $ ! I & , ! & 2 ! 12 ,1. & # & ! # $ " ! ! && I ( $ ) " ! & $ && $
! + ) + ) + 4 ) +
b 4 G6 b 4 G.6 .G G )) )) 11 42 4 7B B
Ç ! 4 & ! ! & " ! (1 ) ! " " & !! { (1B7) 11 " & 7 ; ! & ! # 1 & 9$ & 4 & $ $ 1 ( $ & & ! !! B ! . Ü ! b # B)# ! " ! ! ! " ! " & ! ! Ç ! ! " && # " ! & 7L ! " ; ! ! $ " b " ! ! ! & & " , ! $ & ! ! ! ! , " ! ! & " I $ # && $ ! ! ; D # ! ( IQ2 2) " & & & ! ! ( I 2 2,7) Ç ! " & " + & & # ! 0K # ! & " I 3 2 (w" A I ! # 173) ( 1 9 # B). & I ! "$ $ ! ! " & t ! " $ ! " $ & I ! & + C & ; ! " & " ! $ $ (
& ! ) " $ " &
11 This figure is used by organisations of the UN as a threshold index Richard Iliffe œ MSc Advanced Environmental and Energy Studies 21 C ! + )I ) + ) ) + )) +
. + @. 3 C + @. 11 42 273 B72 h & ! & ( + & ) (C!h# 10). " 4 " & ! " ! $ ! & 2 ,1 & " & " & " " L (1B) $ $ & 2 ,1 " & " & & ! " ! " & $
= = !
!'' ' • ! ' , & - & , & , ' • Ç- -& ' & '' ' - ! ' - , + & - , ' ( ' - '-+ - ' .
!! / ( 07# B) I Q2 2 !# " ! ! & " & & & ! " C!h,Üb9{/h ! ! " ! ! + & && $ ! " (C 2)
{" ! I $ !&& # ! ! " . " $ " " " & & ! " $ & ! ! &
C 61 C!h@Ü í { a) - D + + ! +
Richard Iliffe œ MSc Advanced Environmental and Energy Studies 22
! & # & ! $ " # " & & ! , !! " ( 10# [ ! 4) ! $ " ! 5 $ ! & í! . (4) & " ! & ! ! " # ! $ & ! & " & ! $ ! ! " !# $ " ! " &#
C =1 h + ) ) + ) + - ! + D" ! $ ! ! & í! . ! $ 4. " & ! ! & C!h# " ! ! !+
í & & 4# + ! & " ! & " $ " & & ! $ " {",{ !& # {,9 ! # {,! / !# / ! # a A b / $ & ! $ ! "
L ! & ! L ! # t # b # { [ ! . ! " & & ! $ " . ! 01 2# 3B 2# 12 1 A 1aÇ & " $ 10 (. # ) ! & . (Üb# )
Ç " & " " $ & I C ! $ ! & , " I (2 2,7 ) && , ! ! ! Ç & ! & " & & $ , ! ! ! ! , " ! " & " !
Richard Iliffe œ MSc Advanced Environmental and Energy Studies 23 ? /
! ! $ & " & ! " ! & !. " ! $ $ I# ! " " ! , & ! & $ Ç " ! ! ! $ ! ! " ! & ! Ç & I & " ! " / # $ # ! $ ! ! 172 & " ! ! " & ", ! & # + " " + ! & ! 82 ( ) Ç & # ! # & & " ! " !! ! & ! ( $ ) $$ ! " ! ! Ç & ! " ! " " !&& ! # ! ! # !
Ç & ! " ! ! $ ! ! , $ $ " &
? 3 [
Ç % & ! & " " + ! ! ! ! , " ! " ! & ! ! & Ç $ " ! ! $ " $ ! & & . " & ; !# ! && & 5 & & $ " # & ; % & ! , ! ! ! , & & ! ! $ ! ! &
5 ! ! # " & & + ! / & " & " & . &$ > & $ " + ! Ç & # # " , " ! & ! " + ! ! !
! + ! # " " & ! $ " ! ! Ç &! ! & , ! D " ! " & " &
Ç & & ! "$ " & ! + & & ! ! & ! , I $ ! $ & ! " " I $ # & & & ! $ " $! & ! ! " !&&
? * C -'
C $ ! ! & & " && ! " ! $ " & $ , ! ! & 2Ç ,1 $ " ! & ! " ! ! $ $ . & ! " ! ! Ç $ ! " " ! ! Richard Iliffe œ MSc Advanced Environmental and Energy Studies 24 " " & ! # ! $ " ! ! $ &
C ! ! $ ( ) & + & I ! " # && Ç && & + & ! " I
! " + ! & # & ! ! & !
! & & " ! " &# & ! . & ! ! " & $ && & ! $ Ç & ! " + !# " " $ Ç & ! " ! !&& ! ! ! & ! w &
!{!L I # {!a{hb . Y # {Ç9tI!b I a # {hbDòLYI!bD{ Y # Ihaa! Y # YLòhbh ò # LbhÜ9 ò # {ILw!Lí! Ç # IhwL9 Ç # B . ! ; & ! ! b [ @ 1 { # & {t!5 ! ! C ' '-0 ... (1)# B1,B2
.!Dw99ë ! # .!b5h{ù Ç W # [h/Y9 5 / 1 t ! & & ! " " ! " & ! $ ! & /& # 3" # 171,17
.!{L[9,5h9[{/I L # !aÜb5{hb w # {Çhb9 í 9 9 # .hw{/Ib9/Y 5 # .hÇÇ9wh W ò # ahÜ{ÇL9w Ç # a!{Lb C # /h[Lb C 7 a & " $ > D0 .3? 377,3B
.9[!bD9w b L # /hÇ9 . Cò[9{ W í /IhÜw/I9{b9 C # I9b59w{IhÇ í I 3 C & & $ " 72 & & ! ! & v " t { 0 = 040,07
.I!{Y!w 5LóLÇ / { 0 t!Ü[ t W 0 aÜYÜb5! I { 4 / {! t$ ! C {$ (t ,LL) . '' 4 & 0 3! # 4B3,41
.hb5 w Ç & $ ! ! ! @ ! & $ ! ' , 3" # 70,B4
.w9bb!b W Y # .!b5h{ù Ç W # ÇIhat{hb Y Ç # DÜ..Lb{ Y 9 1 í " /! ! & ! @ t- ' - '' # .>? # 20,24B
.w9bb!b w C # .h[[!b5 a 5 ! # .hí59b W í 3 t ! "! ! & ! + ! !& # $ " " & ! , ! ! ' W . # 33# 243,247
.wL5D9í!Ç9w ! 7 L9! . ! 7@ . t # . '' & 3. L,ë
.wh5ò ! w 1B3 L ! t I ! ! ! ! @ Ü & " # 9 I- t' '0 6= 13,14
.wÜb!Ü9w { # 9aa9ÇÇ t I # Ç9[[9w 9 10B W ! /- { =! 0
/I!ta!b I 5 142 / + # ! 0 "()# B1D1
Richard Iliffe œ MSc Advanced Environmental and Energy Studies 25 /I9{íhwÇI í (9!) B 9 ! & { { # { Ç b !
59/Y9w í ! # /hw.ò 5 D 17 !$ ! ! @ 9+ + ! "% / . 3# 1,3
59aLw.!{ ! 3 9&& & ! > " ! & & ! # W , ' ' # ? # 30,3B
9[Lù![59,Dhbù![9ù a t # a!ÇÇÜ{/I W # t![!9ù,/L5 ! ! # í9bbwL/I w 7 / & " " ! & !$ ! ! . b # $ ! ! " ! & W , ' ' ?> # 1B2,10
9{{LbDÇhb a 3 { ! @ ! /w/ # Ü{!
9ÇIh{ W 0 {$ Ç A 5 { !$ " & í! í! í " @ " G !G G{ G { L L L !& !'' ##8%8 "
C! ! ! h > (C!h)# t ò&: # 1B2# 3" # C! ! ! h > & Ü ! b # w # 1B4
C!h 1B7 { Ç & # C!h C t 31# w !$ " & í! í! í " @ @GG & G! Gó20B !'' #%8%8 "
C!h,Ü í! { a !$ " & í! í! í " @ @GG & G G $G G $ Z!O024BA& O [ A O " !'' # 8%8 "
CL9w9w b # W!/Y{hb w . # 4 Ç 5$ ! " & " t ' , - b ! , { ' .!3 # 44,401
Ch[9ò# D / a 5 $ / . 9 @ [ ! # 1B4
Cw9L{9 Dw99b 5 Ç { L (B) . ! {/!5 t !$ " & í! í! í " @ " G $ !G $ G. [! !& !'' ##8 8 "
D!ò5hb ! D íh[ÇI!w5 D . 120 C @ # ! ! # / ! I # [ !
D[!{9w . # I!Üa!L9w [ # DÜDD9b.9wD9w D # ù9/I í 1 Ç Ç t D ! & " ! b + '' '-, >> 07D31
D[!{9w . # [9Ia!bb W # ù9/I í ! ! & ! D $ . C { '0 36 1D0
DÜb5![9 a W # 59[Ü/! Ç I 4 Ç ! " & & t ! G 5 & C' 9 a 0 3. B4,0
I!ò59b t [ # wÜ.Lb ! W 173 { $ & ! ! & (LLL) !( ' - ' , ! W w" # ! !"# 01B,07
Ih{IL Ç 1 D & " " " L t ' , # L / , h/- Ç / { 0 Ç: 0 W % !
Richard Iliffe œ MSc Advanced Environmental and Energy Studies 26
I ! 9 ! I t # { C ! (7) Ç í . Ç (í.Ç) .!L[L{ w # hD[9 5 # a!//!wÇò b # {ÇL[[ 5 # {aLÇI Y w # 95í!w5{ w !$ " & í! í! í " @ @GG " !G G G Gí.Ç[ë [0 [W 7 !& !'' #8%8 "
L[LCC9 w {! ! & " ! $ ! " & ! > Z a{ / # / & ! $ Ç # í
L . L $ () ! D! / ! . Ç a % W !$ " & í! í! í " @ @GG " , G GL.L[. [Ç [D! $1 0 !& !'' !8!8 "
L . L $ () L.L a " t% !$ " & í! í! í " @ @GG " , G % ! G " % !'' ##8%8 "
Lh!bbL5hÜ h # ù!.!bLhÇhÜ ! 7 ! ! & $ ! " ! @ ! $ w +& ' ' & +'0 .. 144,2
L{í!w!b ë W!ÜIwL Y { # {9b ! 1B 9&& & # ! ! & " ! { & & - ' 0 . # 11,1
Y!atw!ÇI 9 W 17 9+ " & ! { { { ! t * # 2,23
Y99/I h # /!w/!L[[9Ç / # bL[{{hb a / 2 !! & ! " ! ! $ ! @ Ç & ! t ' ? 1,0
YL{ILahÇh { # {ÜDLÜw! D # 1B2 / ! L !- C 6 1D0
YbÜ5{9b W b # W9b{9b t ! # [Lb í # Cw!b5{9b C W # 5!a,WhIb{hb Y 3 { & ! $ & " " # 9 C '0 .> B1,B1
YhÜÇ/I9LYh { # ahbw9![ / a # Yh5!a! I a//w!/Y9b Ç YhÇ[ò!w Ç 7 t ! & $ ! " ! $ ! & , $ & . ' - 0 "> # 32,343
YwÜ[[ 9 { # {YW9a{Ç!5 W h # Dw!9Çù 5 # 5ÜbbLbD í # /hhY D 5# t!ww W C 0 10/,5 ! & /0 ! /3 ! & ! ! " h D- ' 3* # 1007,102
[!Lb9 W # {Lahbò { # /![[9{ w 11 & $ ! " & /- '0 "" 12,0
[!b5hb a 4 9 $ # ! " ! $ # aD ,I L
[9Ia!bb W # 7 ., " C ' - 0 6 0B1,0B7
[9Ia!bb W # 5! {L[ë! W t # {Ç9Lb9w / # b9I[{ Ç # ù9/I í # D[!{9w . # 0 b $ " ! ! ! C & / ! > " @ & > # ! ! t ' 0 *" ()# 030,027
[9Ia!bb W # Wh{9tI { . & $ ! 9 # [ !
Richard Iliffe œ MSc Advanced Environmental and Energy Studies 27 [9Ia!bb W # Y9wb 5 / # D[!{9w . # íhh5{ í L 0 ! > 5 9 @ h # t # a Y ! ! t" # Ç b ! # 20
[9Ia!bb W # whb5hb a 4 . ! ! ÜtIhCC b ( !) . " # /w/ # . . # C# 217,20
[9Ia!bb W # {/whÇI D 0 Ç # / ! { C @ / ! w a ! /!.L t"
[L!bD . # [9Ia!bb W # {h[hahb # 4 . " + { { { ! ?! 171D0 aLY!b / W !.w!a{ a 5 12 ! ! & ! & { t $ / ? , C' w'-0 6 # 4B7,44 b!ÜWhY!{ ! ! 1B2 { " & " " ! t 8h ' t''0 *# 1,14 t!ww W C 4 9&& & & D- @ ! ? . # 171,1B2 tw!Y!{I b # Y!wÜb!bLÇIL Ç B Y a! . t , ! w $ W , ! { ' w'-0 *(1)# 147,1404 t" 99Ç % Y1114 (7) /, ! & " # !# ! & " w9LÇI W I 59 .hbÇ W ! a !$ " & í! í! í " @ $ G & G99ÇY1114L/, ! L$ L", [ 3,2B33 !& !'' ##8%8 " tÜÇÜb ! 9 # hù.!ò b # hb![ 9 t # tÜÇÜb 9 2 C+ !," ! & & ;! ! ! ! C t'' Ç- >= 17D1 w!L{hb w W 17 a!& & $ " $ & # & & @ ! $ t ' 0 6. # 70,1B w!ë99b5w!b Y # D!b9{I ! # YIL[!w Y Ç 12 L & & " C 0 ?* (1)# 1B1,1B whDh{L/ W # tCL{Ç9w W # twhë9bù! C # Dw.9{! 5 4 Ç && & $ ! ! " & && ! & a ! " " ! ! &- ' 0 .!. 02, 017 whb5hb a ! # [9Ia!bb W # w!aLw9ù W # IÜwÇ!5h a 7 . &+ " " (t $ [ ) " !! . , , ' ' *3 # 4,7B
{/IbLÇù9w a L # ahbw9![ / a # C!/9ò D ! # Cw!b{I!a t . 7 Ç $ & , ", " & L ! & # ", ! " /,10 ! I,1 baw ! CÇLw { W , 9 { -- * # 71,77
{ILbhDL ò 3 b & " ! & ! # t ! !{!9G/{!9 ! # b 3340# h h / !
{Wh{ÇwÜa 9 10 í! / @ C ! ! # { ! 9! # ! ! t # { 5 # Ü{
{Yh5w!{ D # Dw!aa9[L{ t # .!{Lb!{ t # Y!Y!w!{ 9 # {!Y9[[!w!thÜ[h{ D 4 t ! " & " ! ,! $ ! ,': L ' - ' '-0 *6 # 071,07
Richard Iliffe œ MSc Advanced Environmental and Energy Studies 28
{aL[# ë / 1B7 9 0 C0 9 A w '0 a -'0 h ' h+&!@ / ! t
{aLÇI# Y w # 1B7 . , '0 0 -- # t t # b ò
Çwh9I C w #ÇIhat{hb [ a 2 { ! & í ,. # Ü{ t 5$ & 5 & 9 ! { !&& & Ü ! b { # í t t''A Ç- # w ' # !$ " @ @GG G G ! ! ! BG7G
Ü ! b 5 & 9 ! { !&& t 5$ () í! t t # Ç " ! 1 B $ !$ " @ @GG G G G " G BG B[ +[ " !& !'' #88 "
ë!b 5 Ç Ç # aÜL b Ç # [95Lb L 4 9&& & ! & & & ! ! & " " ! & & & ! , ' - # .3! 3,24
ë!b ùí9LÇ9b [ # YLa.9w { # 5híbL9 { # /I!b Y ò # /híL9 ! í!Lb.9wD w # ahwwL{ { 7 t @ . & ! ! t ! & & & L ! $ 0 ! , a 7# Ç # b{í# !
íL[5LbD [ t # .whíb w 9 # Ih[hí!ò/IÜY b 147 ! " ! & ! ! " " { ' .!3 # 24,41
íL[5a!b W 59w.ò{ILw9 C 11 ! & & $ ! " ! & ! C ?! 442,441
í! . 3 / 0 . ! 9 D !$ " & í! í! í " @ @GG !" G! "G G" !G" !G" [0 !& ! ! BG7G
í! . B# { W 9 5 $ . & t !$ " & í! í! í " @ @GG " !" Gí.{LÇ9G9óÇ9wb![Gb9í{G## a5Y@17B738 tY@4327308 tY@3070 748 { tY@347# ! ! BG7G
í! / $ Ü (LÜ/b) 3 Ç + a t I ! 9 $ !$ " & í! í! í " @ @GG " G ! G ! ["" G! Gt !& ! ! BG7G
ò!a!ahÇh a # hYLahwL ò # íL.híh L C # !b{IhwL { # hD!í! a 4 9&& & & ! " & ! ! & > # # ! { { # L ! { ' 6 3B,32
ùI!bD# W {aLÇI Y w # Üa! w # a! ò # YL{Ihw9 ë ë b # [!Ç! Y # YI![L[ a ! Y # w!{aÜ{{9b w ÇIwhb9[h9 { Ç 1 / " +! & $ ! $ @ 9+ /-'- D& /- { # .(1,0)# 047,072
Richard Iliffe œ MSc Advanced Environmental and Energy Studies 29