International Journal of Research p-I SSN: 2348-6848 e-I SSN: 2348-795X Available at https://edupediapublications.org/journals Volume 03 Issue 1 1 July 2016

An assessment of India's role under UN Peacekeeping Operations in

Arief Hussain Ganaie

Research Scholar, School of Studies in Political science Vikram University, Ujjain -M.P (India)

E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract Africa, one of the most conflict-ridden and when it served in the UN mission to the insecure places of the world has Congo (1960–1964) during the cold war experienced some of the most violent period. Since the end of the cold war, India conflicts in the world over the last five has been engaged in most of the United decades. From the early 1950s and Nations peacekeeping missions in Africa. especially in the post cold war period, The present paper sets out to explore Africa has witnessed an increasing number India's role under UN Peacekeeping of internal conflicts arising from ethnic Operations in Sierra Leone. and religious rivalries. The conflicts have caused the increased number of failed Keywords: - United Nations, Security states and regional destabilization in Council, Peacekeeping, Sierra Leone, Civil Africa. The ethnic strife so-called “new Defense Force (CDF), UNOMSIL, UNAMSIL, Sierra Leone Army (SLA) wars” are accompanied by a mixture of humanitarian emergencies, major human Historical Background of rights violations, the fall down of law and order, and the collapse of functioning The is a product of governments. In response to these mixed grievances from its colonial period. challenges, the United Nations (UN) A two-class society with a weak launched a series of peacekeeping bureaucracy was established during British missions throughout the world, particularly colonial rule, thereby sowing the seeds for in Africa. India participated in only one the later popular discontents. Post-colonial UN Peacekeeping Operation in Africa,

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mismanagement, poor governance, society.2 The entire generation of the endemic corruption, exclusion and disillusioned youth were attracted to the marginalisation especially of the youth, rebellious message of the Revolutionary even made the already weak state system United Front (RUF).3 Upon Sir Milton completely collapse. The young Margai’s death in 1964, Sir Albert Margai, population both in cities and rural areas was appointed as Prime Minister by became even more marginalised from their parliament. Albert Margai, half-brother of society, without access to appropriate Milton saw the state as a tool for personal education and employment. This directly gain and self-aggrandizement and even fuelled political and economic grievances used the military to suppress multiparty against the feeble government and ruling elections that threatened to end his rule.4 classes. Due to Albert Margai's growing Sierra Leone gained its authoritarianism from 1964-1967, the independence from the United Kingdom in democratic process became limited. 1961. After gaining its independence from Following a year of military British, successive regimes in Sierra Leone interregnum, Albert Margai’s great rival, failed to deal with the collapse of a Siaka Stevens, leader of the All People's patrimonial system of wealth redistribution Congress (APC) party headed the and inequitable exploitation of the government from 1968-85.Sierra Leone country's natural resources.1 In the years was a constitutional democracy when following the death of Sir Milton Margai Siaka Stevens in 1968 entered into politics Sierra Leone’s first prime minister in and when he stepped down in 1985 Sierra 1964, politics in the country were Leone was a one-party state.5 increasingly characterized by endemic Siaka Steven’s seventeen years corruption, mismanagement, poor rule, sometimes called “the 17 year plague governance, electoral violence and the of locusts,”6 saw the destruction and collapse of the education system. The perversion of every state institution. consequential social tensions created Parliament was undermined, judges were military governments and armed rebels bribed, and the treasury was bankrupted to who shared a common origin in the ranks finance pet projects that supported of the disaffected and unemployed youths insiders.7 When Stevens failed to co-opt on the fringes of both urban and rural

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his opponents, he often resorted to state democratic foundation and structure of the sanctioned executions or exile.8 nation. However, Momoh was not taken In 1985, Stevens stepped down, seriously as there was increasing abuse of and handed the nation’s preeminent power in Sierra Leone. position to Major General Joseph Momoh, The biggest victims of the former head of the Sierra Leone Army. patrimonial system collapse were, in fact, With government being almost bankrupt, it young people who were not able to be became impossible to pay most civil educated and employed in this servants, those desperate enough deteriorating situation. To make things ransacked and looted government offices worse, President Momoh delivered a and property. Even in , important speech in the eastern district of Kailahun commodities like gasoline were scarce. saying that education was not a right but a But the government hit rock bottom when privilege and then, not surprisingly, the it could no longer pay school teachers and RUF promptly used his speech as ‘one of the education system collapsed. Since only its justification to go to war’.11 Sierra wealthy families could afford to pay Leone was ranked as one of the poorest private tutors, the bulk of Sierra Leone’s countries in the world by 1991, even youth during the late 1980s roamed the though it benefited from abundant natural streets aimlessly.9 To overcome the lack of resources including diamonds, gold, state resources, Momoh tried to revive bauxite, iron ore, coffee, cocoa and fish.12 Sierra Leone's flagging political and In March 1991, the fighters of the economic fortunes by talking of a ‘New Revolutionary United Front (RUF) led by Order’. Momoh’s government pursued Mr Foday Sankoh, a former army corporal, structural adjustment measures and launched a war from the east of the embarked upon a slow process of political country near the border with Liberia to liberalization in the early 1990s.10 In 1990, overthrow the government. With the President Momoh set up a constitutional support of the Military Observer Group review commission to review the 1978 one (ECOMOG) of the Economic Community party-constitution with a view of of West African States (ECOWAS), Sierra broadening the existing political process, Leone's army tried at first to defend the guaranteeing fundamental human rights government but, the following year, the and the rule of law and consolidating the army itself overthrew the government in

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1992. Despite the change of power, the Revolutionary Council (AFRC) under RUF continued its attacks, however on Major Johnny Koroma overthrew contrary, it brought about widespread President Dr Ahmad Tejan Kabbah on 25 destruction across the country, both in May 1997;invited the RUF to form a terms of human lives and material loss. In government and formed the ruling Junta. addition to forcing about a tenth of the President Kabbah and his government population to seek refuge in neighbouring went into exile in neighbouring Guinea. states and making some thirty percent A new Special Envoy, Mr. Francis internally displaced, the hostilities also G. Okelo (Uganda) and other destroyed much of the infrastructure and representatives of the international ruined the country’s economy.13 In community tried, but failed, to persuade February 1995, the United Nations the junta to step down. The Security Secretary-General appointed a Special Council imposed an oil and arms embargo Envoy, Mr. Berhanu Dinka (Ethiopia). He on 8 October 1997 and authorized worked in collaboration with the ECOWAS to ensure its implementation Organization of African Unity (OAU) and using ECOMOG troops. After 10 months ECOWAS to try to negotiate a settlement in office, the junta was ousted by the to the conflict and return the country to Nigeria-led ECOMOG forces, and the civilian rule. Parliamentary and democratically elected government of presidential elections were held in president Kabbah was reinstated in March February 1996, and the army relinquished 1998. Kabba took power once again with power to the winner, Alhaji Dr. Ahmed Albert Joe Demby as vice president. The Tejan Kabbah. The RUF, however, did not Security Council terminated the oil and participate in the elections and would not arms embargo and strengthened the office recognise the results.14 of the Special Envoy to include UN Amidst the Chaos, in November military liaison officers and security 1996, Special Envoy Dinka assisted in advisory personnel. negotiating the Abidjan Accord- a peace agreement that took place between the United Nations Observer Mission in Sierra RUF and the government. However, these Leone (UNOMSIL) July 1998- October peace efforts were derailed due to military 1999: In June 1998, the Security Council coup when the Armed Forces established the United Nations Observer

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Mission in Sierra Leone (UNOMSIL), In the aftermath of the rebel attack, with the authorized strength of 70 military the Special Representative Francis G. observers, for an initial period of six Okelo of UNOMSIL, in consultation with months. The UN Secretary- General the West African States initiated a series of named Special Envoy Francis G. Okelo as diplomatic efforts aimed at opening up his Special Representative and chief of the dialogue with the rebels. On 7 July 1999, mission. Brigadier S.C. Joshi of India was all parties to the conflict came together and appointed as the Chief Military Observer. signed an agreement in Lome known as The mission monitored and advised efforts the Lome Peace Agreement, to end to disarm combatants and restructure the hostilities and to form a government of nation's security forces. Unarmed national unity. According to the power UNOMSIL teams, under the protection of sharing agreement, RUF leader Sankoh ECOMOG, documented reports of became minister of Mines and was granted ongoing atrocities and human rights abuses the status of Vice President. The parties to committed against civilians.15 In spite of the conflict also requested an expanded the continuing peace process, fighting role for UNOMSIL, which would work in went on and more than half of the country conjunction with the regional ECOMOG.16 came under the control of the rebel alliance. In December 1998 the alliance United Nations Assistance Mission in began an offensive to retake Freetown, and Sierra Leone (UNAMSIL): Nov 1999- in January 1999, they overran most of the Dec. 2005 city, following which UNOMSIL On 22 October 1999 the UN personnel were evacuated. Later in the Security Council through a resolution 1270 same month, the Military Observer Group (1999) established the UN Mission in (ECOMOG) of the Economic Community Sierra Leone (UNAMSIL) with an initial of West African States (ECOWAS) authorised force of 6,000, including 260 managed to regain control over the capital military observers and acting under and again installed the civilian chapter VII of the charter, decided that government, although thousands of rebels UNAMSIL “to take necessary actions to were still reportedly hiding out in the ensure the security and freedom of surrounding countryside. movement of its personnel, and, protect civilian under imminent threat of physical

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violence, taking into account the Council further extended the mandate first responsibilities of the Government of through resolution 1299 (2000), increasing Sierra Leone and ECOMOG”.17 the troop level to 13,000, and later, UNAMSIL a new and much larger through resolution 1346 (2003), to 17,500 mission than UNOMSIL was to assist the and also revised the mission’s concept and government in implementing the Lome pledged to provide better equipment and peace agreement with the RUF. more financial resources.19 The Guinean UNAMSIL was also given the Forces, in conjunction with the Civil responsibility to assist the government of Defense Force (CDF) and Sierra Leone Sierra Leone in the implementation of the Army (SLA) offensives, inflicted disarmament, demobilisation and casualties on the RUF, leading it to reintegration (DDR) program; establish a capitulate in Abuja II Peace Agreement of presence at key locations throughout the May 2001. From May 2001 to January territory of Sierra Leone including 2002, UNAMSIL was able to disarm most disarmament centres and demobilisation of the remaining RUF and CDF forces in centres; ensure the security and freedom of Sierra Leone. By the early 2002, movement of United Nations personnel; approximately 47,000 combatants have monitor adherence to the ceasefire; been demobilized and 30,000 weapons facilitate the delivery of humanitarian were destroyed.20 The Government of assistance, and to provide support for the Sierra Leone expanded its authority elections. throughout the country and the country On 7 February 2000, the Security held peaceful democratic elections in May Council with resolution 1289 UNAMIL’s 2002. authorized strength to 11,000 soldiers and Over the course of its mandate, the also added new provisions for civil affairs, UN assisted in holding national and local civilian police, and administrative and government elections, which enabled technical components. By the early 2000, people to participate in decisions that UNAMSIL had succeeding in disarming affected their daily lives; helped to rebuild more than 10,000 men and by mid April, the country’s police force to its pre-war more than 24,000 troops were strength and contributed towards demobilized.18 In response to the rehabilitating the infrastructure and challenges on the ground, the Security bringing government services to local

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communities. The UN also helped the of atrocities. Working together with UN government stop illicit trading in diamonds agencies, the Mission launched quick- and regulate the industry. During the war, impact and income-generating projects to rebels had used money from “blood” or provide jobs to thousands of unemployed “conflict” diamonds to buy weapons which youths and ex-fighters and basic services then fuelled the conflict. Now diamonds to local communities. UNAMSIL troops have become an engine of growth, with reconstructed schools and clinics, launched government income from diamonds and funded agricultural projects, and soaring from just $10 million in 2000 to sponsored free medical clinics in far-flung $160 million in 2004, according the areas.21 International Monetary Fund figures. In spite of concerns about UNAMSIL completed most of the tasks government authority outside Freetown assigned it by the Security Council: the and the capacity of the Sierra Leonean mission assisted the voluntary return of army to provide security, the strength of more than half a million refugees and the UNAMSIL was reduced and by internally displaced persons. It helped the October 2004, only 5000 peacekeepers Government restore its authority and social remained in Sierra Leone. Although services in areas previously controlled by several organizations expressed concern rebels, trained thousands of police over the downsizing of the UNAMSIL, but personnel with the help of a team of the repatriation process had proven to be a officers from common wealth countries, success so far. At the beginning of and constructed or reconstructed dozens of December 2005, UNAMSIL mandate police stations. came to an end and was succeeded by a UNAMSIL monitored and trained new mission- the United Nations Sierra Leoneans in human rights and was Integrated Office for Sierra Leone. instrumental in setting up the Special Court for Sierra Leone to try those most responsible for war crimes. The Mission also assisted the Government in setting up a Truth and Reconciliation Commission, tasked with healing the wounds of war by bringing together perpetrators and victims

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India's Contribution to UN Peacekeeping number of officers to establish the newly in Sierra Leone formed UNAMSIL Headquarters. India initially deputed Brigadier SC Joshi, Gradually Indian troops got involved in Chief Military Observer with two military almost all the activities of the mission and observers to the UNOMSIL. India also were deployed in all the parts of the provided a medical unit and civilian police country even to the remote Eastern part of personnel to UNOMSIL. the country at Kailahun which borders the When the mission was changed to Liberia.22 a full-fledged peacekeeping mission and With its participation in Sierra renamed as UNAMSIL, Indian was the Leone, India had the second largest second largest troop contributor after number of troops in UN Peacekeeping Nigeria, until its unilateral withdrawal operations worldwide at that point in time. from the mission. Major General VK This was the first UN assignment, in Jetley of the Indian army was appointed as which the Indian contingent carried a Force Commander of the UNAMSIL. indigenously made INSAS rifles. 5/8 GR The Indian contingent was initially Battalion Group consisting of the battalion the largest contingent in Sierra Leone headquarters, two rifle companies and two numbering over 3,000 personnel which mechanised companies, one engineer field included peacekeepers and military company, a field artillery battery, a level- observers. The Indian contingent in Sierra III field hospital, and other service support Leone was deployed for diverse tasks units was deployed in December 1999, ranging from providing a Guard company arriving at Lungi airport in 31 An-124 for the security of the UNMASIL Cargo planes.23 Headquarters, Quick Reaction Company The Government of India also (QRC) to provide escort duties to convoys contributed an Indian air Force (IAF) moving from Freetown to Port Loko and to contingent initially consisting of eight deal with the emergencies, Indian Air helicopters. The contingent compromising Force contingents to provide valuable four Mi-8 and four Chetak helicopters, reconnaissance, casualty evacuation, commanded by Group Captain B.S. communication, troop deployment, search Siwach, arrived at Lungi on 15 March and rescue, air patrol, provisions of air 2000, before moving to a more permanent support to ground forces and a sizeable

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base at Hasting airfield, 25 kilometres “The Indian contingent in that from Freetown. operation did a brilliant job and I think you In May 2000, the Revolutionary all recall Operation Khukri, where they United Front (RUF) laid siege to two freed the peacekeepers that had been taken Indian peacekeeping companies at hostage. I pay tribute to them who took Kailahun and took 23 peacekeepers as part in that operation and redeemed the hostage. After protracted efforts by the UN honour of United Nations peacekeeping”.25 and the Indian government, RUF released the Indian peacekeepers held hostage but In the meantime, in June 2008, Indian the siege of Kailahun continued. During contingents launched Operation ‘Rogberi’ the first week of July when all other means to clear RUF from an important junction to come to an agreeable solution had point, which was under the clutches of the failed, it was decided to execute OP rebels. The operation was successful in KHUKRI. The plan was to relocate the chasing away the rebels and won two besieged companies from Kailahun to accolades. President Kabbah of Sierra Daru, through a combination of road and Leone personally praised the battalion for air extrication. The operation was launched its brave action and visited the location. In by British Special Forces, along with the an another operation, troops from 18 Indian contingent, led to the relocation of Grenades of Indian battalion freed the two besieged companies from Masiaka, a big township, 110 km southeast Kailahun to Dam. Operation Khukri not of Freetown, from the rebels and re- only put to rest myths about RUF established normalcy in the war-ravaged capabilities, it is also put the RUF on the town. defensive and helped solve the crisis to a During the period until its return to large extent. The resounding success of the India, Indian battalions carried out operation executed by Indian peacekeepers extensively operational and civic activities in the heartland of RUF controlled territory and made efforts to encourage the RUF won praise from all quarters24 and even cadres to disarm and join the peace India earned praise from Kofi Annan for process. 18 Grenadiers operations like its efforts: Thunderbolt dismantled illegal checkpoints set up by the West Side Boys,

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a gang formed by the deserters from the with the aim to alleviate the trauma and Sierra Leone Army (SLA). sufferings of the local population located The Indian contingent’s operational at ‘Mile 91’ and in areas surrounding it. It professionalism, willingness and readiness also initiated vocational training to determinedly pursue the UN mandate programmes to develop job skills to the yielded great dividends and generated war-ravaged local populace in the ‘Mile goodwill and trust within UNAMSIL 91’ area. The battalion launched a massive circles, as well as among the local campaign to spray insecticides and DDT in population of the Sierra Leone. all community areas with the fear of a Apart from their operational role, the cholera epidemic breaking out. In addition Indian contingents also took part in taking care of health and hygiene, the humanitarian activities by repairing and battalion built a large community hall maintaining the Daru-Kailahun road. The named as Shanti Bhawan (Hall of Peace) contingents provided safe drinking water, for the local population at Mile 91. The medical assistance to the civilians and battalion with the help of the local regularly disturbed the food to the hospital population repaired and generally gave a patients and civilian in Kailahun. The 5/8 facelift to all the mosques and churches at GR battalion organised a ‘Kick Polio out ‘Mile 91’ which touched the hearts of all of Sierra Leone’ campaign in Daru and sections of society.26 Kailahun. The battalion also organised The Indian units in the mission weekly medical clinics for the children at were 18 Grenadiers, Companies each from Daru and also provided mid-day meals and 14, 23 and 11 Mechanised Infantry stationary to the primary children while in Battalions, two Field Company Engineers, Kailahun. Many items of sports an Artillery Battery and a Medical Unit equipments, facilities of library and from the Indian Army.27 Moreover, it also reading room were provided by the Indian included Special Forces, Logistic and contingents to various villages located in Engineering Groups Force, Head Quarter their area of responsibility (AOR). Personnel as well as a fully functioning The officers and men of 18 and independent Aviation Unit from the Grenades interacted with the government Indian Air Force.28 officials, Sierra Leone police and locals The Indian troops and their before launching peace building projects commander in the Sierra Leone were

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subjected to controversy and physical difficulties with insubordinate Nigerian pressures. Unnecessary allegations were officials disobeying his commands, circulated by West African governments specifically naming his Nigerian second- about the Indian Force Commander. The in-command Gen. Mohammed Garba, as Heads of State and Governments of West well as the UN Secretary-General's Special African countries in a resolution adopted Representative, Oluyemi Adeniji. Nigerian by the ECOWAS asserted that the Indian officials vehemently denied all these Commander, being unfamiliar with West charges, alleging that Jetley had been high- African conditions had mismanaged the handed and aloof, often acting without operations and that he should be replaced consultation with close colleagues.30 by a commander from the West African The Secretary-General, Kofi Annan region.29 However there was public tried to reconcile the two commanders but acknowledgement of the outstanding was unsuccessful with no options left success of operation Khukri and other except to fire one of the commanders. operations launched under General Jatley’s India was the choice because the UN could leadership. not antagonize Nigeria, given the fact that Jetley's increasing strife with army it was the largest contingent in Sierra officials and diplomats from Nigeria came Leone. Moreover, Nigeria had led a West into the open after the international press African peace force that fought against the published several official documents he RUF during the nine-year civil war in had submitted to UN headquarters, which Sierra Leone. So, as of December 2000, had allegedly been stolen from his India was replaced by Kenya as the Force computer in Freetown. However, an Commander of UNAMSIL. New Delhi embarrassed Jetley subsequently denied also put forth the argument that the UN has the existence of these reports, in which he been seeking to mandate UNAMSIL under informed the UN that some Nigerian Chapter VII of the UN Charter and that officials were directly linked to the would conflict with India's policies on lucrative diamond trade in Sierra Leone peacekeeping.31 De-induction was and neighbouring Liberia, and that this completed by February 2001. was undermining the position of the Conclusion peacekeeping mission. Furthermore, Jetley India can be regarded as the most confirmed rumours that he was having consistent and active supporter of UN

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peacekeeping operations throughout the 3Abdullah, Ibrahim (2004). Between globe. But Africa has a special emotive Democracy and Terror: The Sierra Leone resonance for Indian forces, which have Civil War. Dakar. Council for the Development of Social Science Research won great compliments from the in Africa. p-19 international community and also from the 4 Gberie, Lansana (2005). A Dirty War in local populace for promoting cooperative West Africa: the RUF and the Destruction living among various tribal communities. of Sierra Leone. Bloomington, IN: Indiana UP.p-161 India's cultural, religious and linguistic diversity have helped Indian forces to deal 5 Gberie, p. 28 effectively with African societies 6 Ayittey, George B.N. “A New Mandate comprising different tribes. The Indian For UN Mission In Africa”. CADS Global Network. peacekeepers fought so valiantly in Sierra

Leone and worked hard to win the hearts 7Abdullah, p. 93 and minds of the people. Though the 8 Pham, JohnPeter (2005). Child Soldiers, Indian experience in UNAMSIL was Adult Interests: The Global Dimension of the Sierra Leonean Tragedy. New York: unpleasant by the allegations made against Nova Science Publishers. p. 45 the Force Commander, and the speculation 9 Gberie, p. 45 that accompanied the withdrawal of Indian troops, but India still remains committed to 10 Zack-Williams, A.B and S.P Riley (1993), "Sierra Leone: The Coup and its the cause of UN Peacekeeping for Consequences", Review of African maintain the international peace and Political Economy, No.56. security and has not slackened in its 11 Peters, K 2011, War and the crisis of traditional support of UN Peacekeeping youth in Sierra Leone, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge operations.

12 “Sierra Leone”. The World Fact book. Central Intelligence Agency

1 Riley; Stephen P. (1996), "Liberia and 13Erik Brattberg, Revisiting UN Sierra Leone: Peace or Anarchy in West Peacekeeping in Rwanda and Sierra Africa” Conflict Studies, 287. Leone, Peace Review: A Journal of Social

Justice, 24:156–162 2 Mcgregor, Andrew (1999), "Quagmire in

West Africa: Nigerian Peacekeeping in 14 UNAMSIL: United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone: 1997- 98", International Sierra Leone Background, Journal, 54(3): 483.

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http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missio ns/past/unamsil/background.html 26 Satish Nambiar. p -395

15 United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone- 27 Indian Army, "UN Peacekeeping”, Background, file:///E:/UN%20Books%20and%20docum http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missio ents/somolia.html ns/past/unamsil/background.html 28 Indian Air Force, "UN Peacekeeping", 16 Nambiar Satish, For the Honour of [Online: Web, URL: India: A History of UN Peacekeeping, http://armedforces.nic.in/airforce/afunkp centre for Armed Forces Historical l.htm. Research, P-377-378 29 Bullion, Alan (2001), "India in Sierra 17 Erik Brattberg, Revisiting UN Leone: A Case of Muscular Peacekeeping in Rwanda and Sierra Peacekeeping", International Leone, Peace Review: A Journal of Social Peacekeeping, 8(4): 77-91 Justice, 24:156–162 30 ibid 18 james Dobbin etal , The UN’S Role in Nation – Building- From the Congo to 31 Krishnasamy, Kabilan (2003), “The Iraq, p—140 Paradox of India’s Peacekeeping”, Contemporary South Asia, 12(2): 263-280. 19 Erik Brattberg, Revisiting UN Peacekeeping in Rwanda and Sierra Leone, Peace Review: A Journal of Social Justice, 24:156–162

20 james Dobbin etal, The UN’S Role in Nation – Building- From the Congo to Iraq, p--142

21 UNAMSIL: United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone Background

22 Satish Nambiar, p-379-381

23 Satish Nambiar, p-385

24 Indian Air Force, "UN Peacekeeping", [Online: Web, URL:http:/ /armedforces.nic.in/airforce/afunkp l.htm

25 Ruchita Beri, India's Role in Keeping Peace in Africa, Strategic Analysis, 32:2, 197-221, 2008

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