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Ma‘I Lepera : a History of Leprosy in Nineteenth-Century Hawai‘I

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Ma‘I Lepera : a History of Leprosy in Nineteenth-Century Hawai‘I Ma‘i Lepera Ma‘i Lepera Disease and Displacement in Nineteenth-Century Hawai‘i kerri a. inglis University of Hawai‘i Press Honolulu © 2013 University of Hawai‘i Press All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America 18 17 16 15 14 13 6 5 4 3 2 1 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Inglis, Kerri A., author. Ma‘i lepera : disease and displacement in nineteenth-century Hawai‘i / Kerri A. Inglis. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-8248-3484-5 (cloth : alk. paper)— ISBN 978-0-8248-3635-1 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Leprosy—Patients—Hawaii—Kalaupapa—Social conditions. 2. Kalaupapa (Hawaii)—History—19th century. I. Title. RC154.5.H32K345 2013 362.1969'98—dc23 2012029619 University of Hawai‘i Press books are printed on acid-free paper and meet the guidelines for permanence and durability of the Council on Library Resources. Designed by Josie Herr Printed by Sheridan Books, Inc. For Naia and Puni No nā kūpuna o Makanalua Contents Acknowledgments ix Note to Readers xiii Mō‘ī of the Hawaiian Kingdom xv Significant Events in the History of Leprosy in Hawai‘i xvii Introduction 1 1 A Land and a Disease Set Apart 17 2 The Criminalization of Leprosy in Hawai‘i 46 3 Accommodation, Adaptation, and Resistance to Leprosy and the Law 78 4 Living with Disease and Death at Makanalua 109 5 The Journey into Exile 141 6 Ma‘i Ho‘oka‘awale—The Disease That Separates 169 Epilogue 196 Appendix A: He Kanawai—E Kaohi Ai I Ka Laha Ana O Ka Mai Lepera 199 Appendix B: An Act to Prevent the Spread of Leprosy 203 Notes 207 Glossary 243 Bibliography 247 Index 259 vii Acknowledgments What began more than ten years ago as an examination and explora- tion into a social history of medicine, concerning patients’ experiences with leprosy in nineteenth-century Hawai‘i, has become for me a much more extensive journey into Hawaiian history, culture, and worldview. While it will never be complete or without flaws, the work strives to present this episode in Hawaiian history from the patients’ perspectives, the overwhelming majority of whom were Native Hawaiian. Therefore, Kānaka Maoli (Native Hawaiian) voices are privileged in this mo‘olelo (history), Hawaiian language sources are examined, and nineteenth-cen- tury indigenous Hawaiian cultural concepts are sought to be understood as they relate to concepts of self, disease, health, and well-being. Leprosy was experienced in nineteenth-century Hawai‘i in numerous and challenging ways. Yet in the face of exceptional tragedy and even moments of triumph, Kānaka Maoli voices call out to be heard and to be learned from. Their stories need to be told. Many have helped me to become a better listener and, I hope, a better historian and storyteller. First of all, I am grateful for the many kumu (teachers), community members, and friends who have so generously taken the time to teach me throughout the years and share their learning with me. I am also very grateful for the assistance of the many librarians and archivists, most notably those of the Bishop Museum, the Brigham Young Uni- versity–Hawai‘i Archives, Hamilton Library at University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa, Hawai‘i State Archives, Hawaiian Historical Society, Hawai‘i Medical Library Archives, Mission Houses Museum, and the Kalaupapa Research Center, who help to make historical research such a pleasant and exciting experience. I am very grateful for the input of so many who have helped to shape my ideas and thoughts concerning ma‘i lepera (leprosy) in the nineteenth century, whether it be through research assistance, thought- ful discussions and comments, or merely reflecting upon their work—I am especially grateful to Patrick Boland, Emalani Case, Jennifer Cerny, ix x acknowledgments James Flexner, Laura Gerwitz, Anwei Skinsnes Law, Valerie Monson, Puakea M. Nogelmeier, Maile Reeves, Alan Rowland, Craig Rowland, Paul Spickard, Erika Stein, Philip K. Wilson, Benjamin C. Young, and Marilet Zablan for their various and thoughtful contributions to this project. I would also like to express my deep gratitude to the members of my doctoral committee—Pauline King, Jerry Bentley, Nina Etkin, David Hanlon, and Richard Rapson—who guided me through the founda- tional years of this research. May I also express my deep mahalo to the many, many students who have engaged with me in this subject during my time at both BYU–Hawai‘i and the University of Hawai‘i–Hilo. I am especially grateful to the following for their various contributions and assistance over the years: Patrick Taylor, Leslie Mahinakauahiahi Gron- quist, Laura Jeanne K. Springer, Kellen Pā‘ani Kelson, Christine Kalei Holt-Mizuguchi, and Aolani Ka‘ilihou. I have also greatly benefited from the quality research and incredible generosity of a particular few; I wish to express my unending mahalo nui to scholars Pennie Moblo, Pualeilani Fernandez, and Noenoe K. Silva for all that they so willingly shared with me of their research in the Board of Health records and Hawaiian-language newspapers, respec- tively. I hope that my contribution to this aspect of Hawai‘i’s history will be a fitting tribute to their scholarship and kindness. I wish also to acknowledge my former colleagues in the Social Sci- ence Division at BYU-Hawai‘i, with a special mahalo for their constant encouragement to Cynthia Compton, Jennifer Lane, Dale Robertson, and Jim Tueller. My colleagues in the Department of History at the Uni- versity of Hawai‘i–Hilo have been particularly encouraging and support- ive—I am especially grateful to Michael Bitter, Sandra Wagner-Wright, and Howard Van Trease—who all helped me maintain that delicate bal- ance between research and teaching, while encouraging me to “finish it”! Much appreciation also goes to the Research Council of the Univer- sity of Hawai‘i, Research Relations Fund, who supported research trips during which I was able to complete critical components of my study. I am grateful to those who offered their observations on previous versions of the manuscript. Whether they examined it in its entirety or portions thereof, they have helped to make this a better work. While the errors that remain are mine alone, I know that this project has benefited greatly from the contributions of all those listed above and below in myriad ways. I would especially like to acknowledge the anonymous reviewers for their attentive reading of the manuscript, insightful com- ments, and probing questions that encouraged me to dig a little deeper acknowledgments xi and refine my ideas further. Thanks also go to Marilyn Brown, Helen Wong-Smith, Tom Smith, and Philip K. Wilson for their time, energy, and comments at various stages of the project. I would also like to express deep gratitude for my editor, Masako Ikeda, whose insights and experience have helped to shape this work. She gave me advice about the most sensitive of concerns and the smallest of questions, and always did so with patience and a splash of humor—mahalo nui! Another group, whose strength, aloha, and desire to educate others constantly inspire me are the residents of Kalaupapa, past and present. Ku‘ulei Bell, Richard Marks, Bernard Punikaia, and Clarence Naia were especially encouraging to me, and while they are no longer with us, they are forever cherished in my heart and mind. Finally, I wish to express deep gratitude and aloha to my many friends and family—my ‘ohana—both near and far, for the love, support, suste- nance, and encouragement they have given me over the many years and pathways this particular journey has taken me. Note to Readers A few words about terminology and language use in this work. Readers will notice that I use many Hawaiian terms and their English counterparts interchangeably throughout the book—this interchange is not meant to confuse but rather to illustrate the space this history inhabits. It should also be noted that Hawaiian words, such as mo‘olelo (history), are not italicized out of respect for the indigenous language of these islands; Hawaiian terms should not appear to be foreign in a history that has been written and published in their place of origin. Further, the majority of my historical sources stem from the nineteenth century, when no diacritical marks were used in Hawaiian-language texts. Thus when presenting those sources diacritics are not added, which sometimes allows for nuanced meanings or multiple understand- ings in translation. Also, I variously use the terms Hawaiians, Native Hawaiians, and Kānaka Maoli to refer to the indigenous population of these islands. Leprosy (also known today has Hansen’s disease) also deserves men- tion. It was referred to by many different names during the nineteenth century: “leprosy,” “ma‘i pake,” “ma‘i ali‘i,” “ma‘i lepera” (sometimes “lepela”), and, by the end of the century, “ma‘i ho‘oka‘awale ‘ohana.” It just as often appeared in the Hawaiian language newspapers as “ma‘i lepera,” which, along with the English term “leprosy,” is the term I have chosen to use throughout the text, unless quoting directly from histori- cal sources. The term “leper” will not be used unless quoting directly from historical sources as it is considered derogatory and hurtful to many. It should also be noted that I refer to the peninsula on Molokai’s north shore as Makanalua and only occasionally as it is known today, as Kalaupapa. Makanalua is a traditional name for the entire penin- sula upon which the ahupua‘a (districts or land divisions) of Kalawao, Makanalua, and Kalaupapa are found. There were also villages at both Kalawao and Kalaupapa during the era covered in this history.
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