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IMO Publication, 78. Provisional Guide to Meteorological Instrument And r . • - C•L-f, tVlC ORGANISATION METEOROLOGIQUE INTERNATIONALE Publication No 78 . '\0-r I :--{' ·;.·' ', ,,,," ~ y \ 1J iv: it1 c·,, \ :~, .·: ~ :, ~! . i .- ,, / ~<:,· ' : , PROVISIONAL GUIDE TO INTERNATIONAL METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENT AND OBSERVING PRACTICE CHAPTERS I to 10 PRICE : Sw. Fr. 8.- (Chapters 1 to 10 including cover) IMPRIMERIE LA CONCORDE - LAUSANNE (SUISSE) 1950 ( ( )J11 / h~! •.J ,, t . ' J O? ftZ -~ f/o l. CONTENTS Page PREFACE .. .... 10 1 CHAPTER I - GENERAL 1.1 Historical 13 1.2 Scope of the Guide 13 1 .3 Classification of stations 14 1.4 Times of observations . 14 1 .4.1 Time standard . 14 1.4.2 Times of surface observations 14 1.4.3 Times of upper air observations 15 1.5 General requirements of a meteorological station 15 1.5.1 Instrumental equipment . 15 1 .5.2 Site and exposure of the instruments 15 1 .5.3 Observers 15 1.5.4 Inspection of stations . 16 1.6 General requirements of instruments 16 1.6.1 Desirable characteristics . 16 1.6.2 Recording instruments 16 1 .6.3 Recording drums and clocks 17 1 .6.4 Standardisation of instruments 17 1.7 Units and constants 18 1 .7 .1 Units 18 1.7.2 Constants 18 2 CHAPTER 2 - CLOUD AND WEATHER OBSERVATIONS 2.1 General . 19 2.2 Cloud forms . 19 2.3 Cloud amount 19 2.4 Cloud height . 20 2.4.1 Definitions and methods 20 2 .4.2 Pilot balloons . 21 2 .4.3 Light beam projectors 21 2.4.4 Range finder and allied methods 22 2 .4 .5 Estimation of cloud heights . 22 2.4.6 Accuracy of cloud height observations 22 4 Page 2.5 Cloud movement . 23 2.5.1 General . 23 2.5.2 Direct vision nephoscopes 23 2.5.3 Reflecting nephoscopes 23 2.6 Observations of weather phenomena 24 2.6.1 Specifications and recording 24 2.6.2 Hydrometeors 25 2.6.3 Optical phenomena 25 2.6.4 State of ground 26 3 CHAPTER 3 - MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE 3.1 Basis of graduation of barometer scales 27 3.2 Mercury barometers 28 3.2.1 Basic requirements . 28 3.2.2 Exposure and management 28 3.2.3 Methods of observation. Limits of accuracy of readings 29 3.2.4 Correction of barometer readings to standard conditions 30 .1 Correction for index error (CJ) ,. 30 . 2 Correction for gravity (Cg) . 30 . 3 Corrections for temperature (C t) 3'1 3.2.5 Chief sources of error . 32 . 1 The effect of wind . 32 . 2 Uncertainties in the temperature of . the instrument 32 . 3 Defective vacuum space . 33 . 4 The capillary depression of the mercury surfaces 33 . 5 Lack of verticality . 33 . 6 General accuracy of the corrected pressure readings 33 . 7 Comparison with standard instruments · 34 3.3 Aneroid barometers . 34 i . 3.3.1 General requirements . 34 3.3.2 E;xposure etc. and method of observation 34 3.3.3 . Corrections . 34 3.3.4 Sources of error . 35 .1 Incomplete compensation for temperature 35 . 2 Elasticity errors . 35 3.4 Reduction of pressure to standard levels . 35 3.4.1 The levels to which pressure should be reduced and the vertical distance through which the reduction is allowed 35 3.4.2 Methods of reduction . 36 3 .Ii. 3 Publication of reduction methods 36 3.5 Barographs 36 3.5.'1 General requirements . 36 5 Pnge 3. 5. 2 Installation and method of observation 37 3. 5. 3 Corrections . 37 3 . 5 . 4 Sources of errors. General Accuracy 38 3. 6 Barometric change . 38 4 CHAPTER 4 - MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE 4.1 General requirements 30 4.2 Thermometer exposure 39 4.2.1 General requirements 39 4.2.2 Thermometer screens 39 4.2.3 Artificial ventilation of thermometers 40 4.3 Speed of response of thermometers 40 4.4 Liquid-in-glass thermometers 41 4.4.1 Constructional requirements 41 4.4.2 Accuracy requirements 41 4.4.3 Maximum thermometer 42 4.4.4 Minimum thermometer 42 4.4 .5 Grass minimum thermometer 43 4.4.6 Earth thermometers 43 4.5 Reading thermometers 43 4.6 Thermographs 44 4.6.1 General requirements 44 4.6.2 Bimetallic thermograph 44 4.6.3 Bourdon tube thermograph 45 4.6 .4 Mercury-in-steel thermograph 45 4.6.5 Electrical thermographs . 45 4.6.6 Checking of thermographs 45 5 CHAPTER 5 - MEASUREMENT OF HUMIDITY 5. 1 Definitions, units and methods 46 5.1.1 Definitions of terms 46 5. 1.2 Units of measurement 48 5. 1.3 Classification of methods 48 5.2 Psychrometers 49 5.2.1 General requirem ents 49 5.2 .2 Exposure of psychrometers 49 .1 Simple psychrometer without artificial ventilation 49 . 2 Artificially ventilated psychromet ers 50 5.2.3 Observational procedure . 50 .1 Simple psychrometer 50 . 2 Artificially ventilated psychromet ers 50 , 6 Page 5.2.4 Management of psychrometers . 51 .1 General . .... 51 . 2 Operation of wet bulb below freezing 51 5.2 .5 Sources of errors in psychrometry . 52 . 1 Index error of the thermometers 52 . 2 Errors connected with the ventilation 52 . 3 Errors due to thick covering of ice on the wet bulb, to contamination on the muslin or to impure water 53 . 4 General accuracy . 53 5.2.6 Special requirements for polar and tropical regions 53 5.2 .7 Psychrometric formulae and tables 53 5.3 Hair hygrographs 55 5.3.1 General requirements 55 5.3.2 Exposure and management 55 5.3.3 Methods of observation . 56 5.3.4 Sources of errors, accuracy etc . 56 . 1 Changes in zero . 56 . 2 Errors due to dust etc. on the hairs 56 . 3 Comparison with standard instruments 56 . 4 Special requirements for polar and tropical countries 56 5.4 Recording psychrometers 57 Tables of Saturation Vapour Pressure . 58 6 CHAPTER 6 - MEASUREMENT OF WIND 6.1 General 64 6.2 Wind direction measurement 64 6 .2. 1 Definition and units 64 6.2.2 Wind vanes 64 6 .2.3 Direction recorders and indicators 65 6.2.4 Estimation of direction 66 6.3 Wind speed measurement 66 6 .3.1 General 66 6 .3.2 Instrumental methods 66 6 .3 .3 Cup and fan anemometers 67 6 .3 .4 Pressure-tube anemometers 67 6.4 Exposure of wind equipment 68 6.5 Estimation of wind speed . 68 7 CHAPTER 7 - MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATION AND EVAPORATION 7. 1 General requirements 70 7 .1.1 Units of measurement 70 7 Page 7.2 Rainfall measurement . 70 7.2.1 Rain-gauges 70 7.2.2 Rain-measures 71 7.2.3 Exposure 72 7.2.4 Errors and accuracy of reading 73 7.3 Rainfall r ecorders 73 7.3.1 General 73 7.3.2 Float type . 74 7.3.3 Tilting bucket type . 74 7.3.4 Weighing type . 75 7.3.5 Rainfall intensity recorders 75 7.4 Snowfall measurement 76 7.4.1 Methods of observation 76 7.4.2 Recording snow gauges 77 7.5 Measurement of dew 77 7.5.1 General 77 7.5.2 Methods of measurement 77 7.6 Measurement of evaporation . 78 7.6.1 General 78 7.6.2 Methods of measurement 78 7.6.3 Evaporation tanks 79 8 CHAPTER 8 - MEASUREMENT OF VISIBILITY 8.1 General 80 8.2 Visibility objects . 80 8.2.1 Plan of visibility objects 80 8.2.2 Daytime visibility objects 80 8.2.3 Night visibility objects 81 8.3 Relation between day and night visibility 81 8.3.1 Theoretical basis 81 8.3.2 Conversion of night visibility observations to daylight scales 82 8.4 Estimations of visibility . 84 8.5 Visibility meters 84 8.5.1 General 84 8.5.2 Telephotometer instruments 84 8.5.3 Visual extinction meter . 85 8.5.4 Photo-electric transmission meter 85 8.5.5 Scatter coefficients meters . 85 8 Page 9 CHAPTER 9 - MEASUREMENT OF RADIAT ION AND SUNSHINE 9.1 General requirements for radiation measurements 86 9.2 Radiation instruments 86 9.2 .1 Types of measurement 86 9.2.2 Pyrheliometers . 87 .1 Angstriim compensated pyrheliometer 87 . 2 Silver disc pyrheliometer 87 . 3 Michelson pyrheliometer . 87 . 4 Thermopile pyrheliometer 87 9 .2 .3 Solarimeters . 88 9.2.4 Solar and terrestrial radiation thermometers 88 9 .2.5 Reduction of radiation measurements 88 9.3 Methods of recording duration of sunshine 89 9.3.1 General . 89 9 .3.2 Campbell-Stokes sunshine recorder 89 .1 Chief requirements 89 . 2 Record cards 90 . 3 Adjustments . 90 . 4 Errors of adjustment 90 . 5 Measurement of the records 90 9.3.3 Jordan sunshine recorder . 91 9.3.4 Marvin sunshine recorder . 91 9 .3.5 Exposure of sunshine recorders 91 10 CHAPTER 10 - MARINE OBSERVATIONS 10.1 General requirements 93 10.1.1 Elements to be observed 93 10.1.2 Equipment required 93 10.1.3 Times of observations 93 10.2 Wind . 94 10.2.1 Methods of observation 94 10.2.2 Units of measurements 94 10.2.3 Basic requirements of wind instruments 94 10.2 . 4 Exposure and management of instruments 94 10.2. 5 Portable wind instruments 95 10.3 Atmospheric pre~s1,1.re , tendency and characteristic 95 10 .3.1 Methods of observation . 95 10.3.2 Basic requirements of barometers and barographs 95 .1 Mercury barometers . 95 . 2 Aneroid barometers and barographs 95 9 Page 10.3.3 Exposure and management 96 . 1 Mercury barometers 96 . 2 Barographs 96 10 .3.4 Corrections 96 10.3.5 Sources of error 96 10 .3 .6 Checking with standard instruments 97 10 .4 Cloud and weather observations 97 10.5 Visibility .
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