China Country Profile
(Does not cover Hong Kong or other Chinese territories)
Introduction
China has one of the world's oldest continuous civilisations, consisting of states and cultures dating back more than six millennia. In 2007, the estimated population of China was 1.3 billion, accounting for 24% of the world total.
Historically, Chinese people have always emphasised the importance of learning and education. This attitude has been part of a distilled cultural tradition which exerts a huge influence on the educational mentality of the Chinese. It is common for Chinese families to choose to support their children to receive further and better education at the expense of a lower living standard on the part of other family members. The traditional highly competitive imperial examination system is a major component in the concept of education. Pupils and students at all levels are frequently examined throughout the years of their study. In the traditional system education was a means through which students could improve their social position. It still has a strong influence on the way of thinking, although the attitude towards, and the understanding of education, is changing in recent years due to the influence of the West.
Since the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the government has adopted a centrally planned political and economic system. The political system is centred on one party with certain powers delegated to provinces, municipalities and autonomous regions. To a great extent, China's education structure and policies are deeply rooted within this system. Central planning is crucial to education institutions at all levels.
From 1949 to the late 1950s, China's education system was patterned on that of the Soviet Union, with Russian as the second language taught at school. After the 1950s, however, the Soviet pattern was rejected.
The Cultural Revolution period (1966-76) was a time of great political and social turbulence, and had an extreme impact on the education system. Most schools and universities were closed to prepare for a reorientation and restructuring of the whole system. The college entrance examination system was then abolished. Students entered university without having taken any examinations, and there was no form of assessment during the university course.
From 1977 onwards, the education system assumed the structure it has today. The National University Entrance Examination system was re-introduced; the programme for schooling has been gradually restored to 12 years, and, from 1997, uniform curricula have been developed. Significant progress has been made at all levels.
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Currently, the education system in China is divided into three major sectors: school education, technical education, and higher education. Each sector has its own components and goals.
The 1986 Compulsory Education Act extended compulsory schooling to nine years, covering primary and lower middle school level.
Language of Instruction
The medium of instruction is Mandarin.
Academic Year
The academic year runs from September to July, divided into two semesters.
School Education
Pre-Primary
Pre-school education is an important component of education in China. Pre- school education is mainly provided in kindergartens and generally caters for children from the age of three to six. Provision can be on a full-time, part-time, boarding or hour-reckoned basis.
Primary
In China, primary and secondary education takes twelve years in total to complete, divided into primary, junior secondary and senior secondary stages. Nine years of primary and secondary education are compulsory. Primary education lasts either five or six years with the former accounting for 35% of the total enrolment and the latter 65% of the total enrolment. The curriculum includes:
Chinese language Mathematics Nature Social Studies Physical education Music Fine Art Ideology and Morality Labour
2 A foreign language can increasingly be studied as an option.
Qualifications Attainable
Certificate of Graduation (from Primary School): To receive a certificate of graduation pupils need to pass examinations in Chinese language and mathematics and meet minimal physical education standards. The examinations are usually administered by schools under the guidance of local educational authorities. On completion of primary education, pupils continue their education at secondary schools. There is no entrance examination for secondary education.
Secondary School Education
Secondary education is divided into junior and senior schools. Each stage lasts for three years. It is possible to study for four years at junior-secondary level following a five year primary cycle.
Junior Middle School Junior middle school pupils study eleven or twelve subjects. The curriculum covers:
Ideology and Politics Chinese language Mathematics Foreign Language (usually English) History Geography Physics Chemistry Biology Physical education Music Fine Art Labour
Qualifications Attainable
Certificate of Graduation (from Junior Middle School): To receive a certificate of graduation pupils need to pass examinations in Chinese language, mathematics, foreign language, politics, physics and chemistry and meet minimal physical education standards. The examinations are usually designed and
3 administered by local educational authorities or schools according to provincial guidelines.
Senior and Vocational Schools
Upon completion of the nine-year compulsory education period, students are streamlined through entrance examinations to decide whether they go on to senior secondary school, or to a vocational school to learn practical skills oriented towards the job market. The entrance examinations are in the same subjects as the junior school graduation examinations and are designed and implemented by provincial educational authorities.
General Academic Senior Middle Schools
General academic senior middle schools provide general academic education specialising in humanities or science. The main purpose of these schools is to prepare pupils for the National University Entrance Examination and subsequently for admission to higher education. The demand for places at higher education institutions is very high and the standards for the national entrance examination are rigorous.
The curriculum in senior middle schools is changing and from 2007 all new entrants are commencing programmes with the following subjects:
Language and Literature – Chinese language and Foreign Language (usually English) Mathematics Humanities and Society – Ideology and Politics, History and Geography Science – Physics, Chemistry and Biology Technology – Information Technology and General Technology Physical education and Health Arts – Arts or Music and Fine Art Comprehensive Practice – Research Orientated Study, Community Service and Social Practice.
The General Senior Secondary Unified Graduation Examination is undertaken in many provinces on completion of senior schooling. It is designed and administered by the provincial authorities and is known as the “provincial exam”. However, with the introduction of the new curriculum referred to above, graduation examinations are increasingly undertaken by individual schools.
Secondary Vocational Schools
There are three types of secondary vocational schools – specialised senior secondary schools, vocational senior secondary schools and skilled workers
4 schools. The distinctions between the various types are reducing and all such schools are being re-titled secondary vocational schools.
Specialised senior secondary schools mostly have programmes with a strong applied focus. Students may only have to pass practical examinations. Students typically receive a Certificate of Graduation from a specialised senior secondary school as well as a mid-level occupational certificate. During the 1990s many specialised senior secondary schools were upgraded to higher-level vocational colleges. These colleges take students to higher level vocational qualifications paralleling the standard of two-year diploma courses in the universities (See section on Higher education and training). There are still a small number of such higher-level programmes remaining in specialised senior secondary schools which have not been upgraded.
Vocational senior secondary schools are similar to specialised senior secondary schools and are very employment-orientated. Students typically receive a Certificate of Graduation from a vocational secondary school and may also receive a Certificate of comparable educational competence of general senior secondary school.
Skilled worker schools are under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Labour rather than the Ministry of Education. Typically these comprise three years of study and training people as skilled workers. Students typically receive a Certificate of Graduation from a skilled workers school, as well as a mid-level occupational certificate.
Since around 2000 the progression opportunities for graduates from secondary vocational schools have been improving. They now can take the National College Entrance Examination (NCEE) immediately (rather than waiting a number of years) and there are increasingly options into higher level vocational colleges.
Qualifications Attainable
Certificate of Graduation (from Senior Secondary School; Specialised Senior Secondary School; Vocational Senior Secondary School and Technical Workers School). All generally now give access to the National College Entrance Examination, which gives access to higher education and training.
The National College Entrance Examination (NCEE, known as Gaokao)
The National College Entrance Examination (NCEE), also known as the National Matriculation Test, which was introduced in 1977, is standardised and taken nationwide. The examination results determine students' entry to higher education institutions. Compulsory subjects are Chinese, mathematics and politics. In addition, pupils take subjects according to specialisation. A foreign
5 language may also be included. In general a mark of 550-600 is required for university entrance. The demand for places at higher education institutions is very high and the standards for the national entrance examination are rigorous. There is a particularly fierce competition for places at universities with high reputations.
From 2003, the current national examinations system are being changed whereby three compulsory subjects are determined nationally and there are also one or two subjects set by the local government reflecting the particular needs of a local community. Marking of national entrance examination papers is conducted locally by the commission of university representatives in the area within a set national standard. Selection marks required for admission to higher education institutions are established by category and determined by the local authority. This results in different entry requirements between provinces.
The subjects taken for the NCEE and the maximum scores depend on the chosen academic track (science or humanities), the province or major city where the student is resident and the time period. Most subjects have a maximum mark of 100, though it can be up to 120 for Chinese or mathematics and 50 or 70 for biology. The same subject might have different examination papers for different tracks. For example, the mathematics paper for the humanities track might be easier than for the science track. Thus there is a need to interpret any individual NCEE scores.
Vocational Education and Training
Regulated Professions and Vocational Qualifications
A vocational qualification in China is the basic requirement of knowledge, skills and abilities essential for performing a particular occupation. Vocational qualifications can be classified into qualifications necessary to enter into an occupation and qualifications necessary to perform the duties of an occupation: Qualifications to enter into an occupation refers to the basic starting standard of knowledge, skills and abilities for performing a particular profession (skilled trade); Qualifications to perform the duties of an occupation refers to the implementation of the Employment Permission System (i.e. taking up a post with a qualification certificate) by the government for professions (skilled trades) that have relatively more accountability, wider accessibility and are related to public interest; it is the essential standard of knowledge, skills and abilities for setting up an independent business or performing in a particular profession (skilled trade).
The National Vocational Qualification Certificate System was introduced and places equal stress on school certification and vocational qualifications. The System establishes the rules and implementation of assessment and verification
6 of the level of skills or vocational qualification of candidates, according to the standard of occupational skills or qualification to perform the duties of an occupation established by the state. Such assessment and verification is conducted by assessment entities recognised by the government, and which award those qualified with the corresponding Vocational Qualification Certificates.
A Vocational Qualification Certificate proves that the holder has the knowledge and skills essential for the practice of a particular occupation and qualifies the holder to set up a business in China.
Occupations included in the Vocational Qualification Certificate System fall into the categories of:
1. Occupational Skill Testing of skilled trades, which includes: a. production, transport equipment operators and related workers b. agriculture and water conservatory labors c. business service personnel d. clerks and related workers e. professional and technical personnel.
In accordance with the Regulation for the Employment of Technical Trade Personnel (2000), decreed by the Ministry of Labor and Social Security, personnel from more than ninety trades have to obtain corresponding Vocational Qualification Certificates to be engaged. Personnel who are engaged in individual industrial or commercial operations have to obtain Vocational Qualification Certificates before the relevant departments of industry and commerce arrange the procedures necessary for the setting up of their business.
2. Vocational Qualification Assessment for professional and technical personnel
As of the end of 2004, the Ministry of Personnel, together with other relevant departments, has established vocational qualifications for professional and technical personnel in thirty-five areas, namely involving areas of accounting, translation, health, auditing, computing technology and software, statistics, economic, registered pharmacist, registered architect, registered structural engineer, registered civil engineer (geotechnical), registered civil engineer (harbor and waterway), registered public facility engineer, registered electrical engineer, registered chemical engineer, supervising engineer, cost engineer, certified public valuer, cost estimator, gemstone quality examiner, certified tax accountant, enterprise legal consultant, registered town planner, cost evaluator, cotton quality examiner, mining rights assessor, registered consulting engineer (investment), registered nuclear safety engineer, constructor, international
7 business personnel, estate agent, land registration agent, quality engineer, certified safety engineer and publisher. Among these, twenty- three are qualifications to perform the duties of that occupation.
There are 5 levels in a Vocational Qualification Certificate:
Occupational Skill Testing Vocational Qualification Assessment for professional and technical personnel
Level 1 NVQ Senior Technicians Senior (can be further divided into “Senior” and “Vice-senior”) (technical level)
Level 2 NVQ Technicians Middle Level
(technical level)
Level 3 NVQ Advanced-grade Skilled Junior (can be further divided Workers (skill level) into “Senior” and “Assistant”)
Level 4 NVQ Intermediate Skilled
Workers (skill level)
Level 5 NVQ Elementary Skilled
Workers (skill level)
Individuals who pass assessment , organised by any labour department of the state, province or city, are awarded a National Vocational Qualification Certificate by the respective occupational skill testing authority of the Government, which are uniformly published by the Ministry of Labour and Social Security. The issued certificate is recognised throughout China.
Higher Level Vocational Colleges
Higher-level vocational educational colleges incorporate a wide range of colleges, including vocational universities, which were established in the 1980s;
8 institutions that developed from secondary vocational schools and radio and tv colleges or universities.
Programmes in higher-level vocational colleges typically are of two or three years’ duration and have a strong applied focus.
Qualifications Attainable
Upon successful completion of a programme, students receive a zhuanke Certificate of Graduation. Unlike graduates from a general zhuanke programme provided in a university, students may find progression difficult to a programme leading to a benke certificate and Bachelor degree, as courses in the relevant discipline may not be available.
Higher Education and Training
The Chinese system of higher education includes a range of types – regular higher education, adult higher education, military institutions or self-study examinations (effectively distance learning). A distinction is also made between educational qualifications and academic degrees.
There are eleven academic disciplines in China. Bachelors, Masters and Doctorate qualifications are awarded in all eleven disciplines. In 1980, legislation, termed Regulations of the People’s Republic of China on Academic Degrees, was implemented, which regulated the conferring of Chinese Academic Degrees. This legislation regulates the standards for three grades of academic degrees, Bachelors Degree, Masters Degree and Doctors Degree.
University students are evaluated frequently through examinations in all subjects. Examinations are marked on either a percentage scale with a minimum pass mark of sixty, or on a pass-or-fail basis (A, B, C, P and F).
Qualifications Attainable
Academic degrees have been in use in China since the early 1980s. An academic degree indicates the level of academic achievement as opposed to a qualification indicating the level of educational experience. Upon successful completion of a degree programme, a student may get both a Certificate of Graduation and a degree. The three typical types of academic degrees are Bachelor Degrees, Masters Degrees and Doctoral Degrees.
Educational qualifications indicate that someone has gone through formal education with qualified results and that the person is entitled to pursue further education or a level of salary in the public sector. This is documented by certificates of graduation. There are four levels of educational qualifications:
9 short-cycle study of two or three years’ duration (zhuanke), long study of four or five years’ duration (benke), graduate study at Master’s level (two or three years) and graduate study at Doctoral level (four or five years and entrants must have a master’s degree).
There are some add-on programmes from zhuanke to benke of typically two or three years. Almost all benke programmes offered by public institutions in the higher education sector are integrated with Bachelor degree programmes. Upon successful completion of such a programme, students receive a Bachelor degree as well as the benke qualification.
There are also self-study examinations overseen by the Ministry for Education. Students receive a certificate of course completion through self-study for individual subjects and may accumulate these into a certificate of graduation through self-study. This is usually either a zhuanke or benke.
While three categories of zhuanke or benke certificates of graduation and of Bachelor Degree are recognised, those from regular higher education are more highly regarded in China that those from adult higher education and self-study examinations.
In addition to educational qualifications and academic degrees, a third type of credential, called educational ability or competence, is also sometimes used. Comparable educational competence describes the learning of a person who has demonstrated the educational competencies comparable to a certain educational qualification or academic degree. This credential does not have formal documentation and is used to access further learning.
Within higher education there a distinction is also made between qualification- based education and non-qualification based education. In order to receive recognised educational qualifications a student must be in the qualification-based education sector. The Chinese Ministry has a formal list of recognised institutions in this sector. The most common credential issued by the non- recognised sector is a certificate of completion, which is not allowed to refer to zhuanke or benke titles. Private sector employers sometimes recognise the certificate of completion for employment purposes.
Another important way to categorise zhuanke or benke programmes is according to whether they belong to regular education or to adult education. Credentials earned in the adult education sector are formally on a par with those from regular education; however, regular education is more highly regarded in China.
Note: It appears that the common English translation for many of the Graduation Certificates is Diploma. Thus, it is important to check which body is making the award in order to determine its comparability.
10 Recognised Institutions
There is a system of recognised institutions listed on the website of the Chinese Ministry for Education: http://www.moe.edu.cn/english/index.htm. From an Irish perspective, the Chinese authorities send the National Qualifications Authority of Ireland (NQAI) a list of recognised higher education institutions, including the types of academic degrees that they are recognised to make. This is published on the Authority’s international qualifications recognition website: http://www.qualificationsrecognition.ie/recognition/rec_pro_init/rec_agree.html.
Note on recognition of Chinese higher education qualifications in Ireland
Information on the international agreement between the Irish and Chinese governments for the mutual recognition of higher education qualifications, signed on 23 February 2006, is available from the following weblink: http://www.qualificationsrecognition.ie/recognition/rec_pro_init/rec_agree.html The agreement provides for the recognition of higher education awards from sub- degree to doctorate levels. It will ensure that students and graduates travelling between both countries for the pursuit of further study or employment will have their existing qualifications recognised. The agreement concerns eligibility to access programmes in the two countries, subject to specific requirements determined by the admitting institution.
Quality Assurance of Higher Education and Training
In order to confer Bachelor degrees, institutions apply to the Academic Degree Committee of the relevant province which has been approved by the Ministry of Education via the Education Committees of the province. Higher education institutions, or scientific research institutes, submit applications for newly- established Masters and Doctorate programmes to the Academic Degree Committee of the State Council for accreditation. The Committee conducts constant reviews of the quality of programmes accredited. There are dozens of research organisations in China which have the right to confer Masters and Doctorate qualifications.
National criteria for standards within the three levels of higher education have been set in China. All higher education institutions that offer academic qualifications are examined and approved in China. The approval system operates as follows:
Higher Diploma – approval made at provincial level Bachelor Degree and Graduation Certificate – Approval made by the Ministry of Education via nominated provincial education committees
11 Postgraduate – Approval made by the Academic Degree Committee of the State Council
Piloting has been going on in relation to quality assurance since 1994, and a national system was introduced in 2003. This system allows for institutional inspection every five years. The results of the quality assurance arrangements are made publicly available on the website of the Ministry. Within the Ministry, there is a Centre for Quality Assurance in Teaching and this is the body that undertakes the inspections. While the Ministry is responsible for administration, the advisory body within the centre has sixty-five members and is responsible for the approval of inspection results, and also does research in relation to the standards to be associated with inspections.
In relation to quality assurance for a whole institution, the following seven elements are assessed: philosophy/mission; teaching and research staff; physical infrastructure; establishment of courses/disciplines and reform of teaching; management; academic performance of students; effectiveness of results of learning and teaching. These seven elements are then broken down into a further nineteen sub- criteria and forty-five observation points. There are eleven key sub criteria. The inspection takes place over five days and is undertaken by seven – eleven experts from peer universities who are nominated by the Ministry of Education. Each institution gets a grade of either excellent, good, pass or not successful. Where an institution is not successful, a further review takes place the following year. To date, around five percent of institutions are generally not successful in an initial review and no institution has been unsuccessful on the re-examination. Each higher education institution prepares for the quality assurance inspection by completing pre-inspection self assessment according to guidelines provided by the Ministry, aimed at helping institutions to improve.
The outcomes of the inspections are published by the Ministry of Education in March every year. The information is disseminated to the media and also published on the website of the Ministry. Inspection results are not used as leverage for funding by the Ministry, but are sometimes used by local government as a basis for deciding investment funding etc. In general, the policy approach of the Chinese Ministry is that the government is moving from playing a central role in quality assurance to assigning these responsibilities to an advisory body which advises the Ministry on quality assurance and inspections.
12 There are different levels of quality assurance associated with postgraduate education provision at national level, provincial level and institutional level. There are also different approvals – one for initial power to make post-degree awards and then for the approval of individual programmes. Reviews of institutions which already have power to make awards are also carried out. At national level, there is an institutional accreditation group and a guidance group for a number of different specific disciplines. There is an independent body appointed to undertake the quality assurance inspection. This was initially separate, but was then incorporated into the development centre of degrees and postgraduate education. This centre has been affiliated to the Ministry since 2003.
This centre has three types of review processes as follows: Institution without post-degree awarding power, which is applying for its first initial awarding power. Institution with some awarding power looking to have a further programme approved. Approval of a professional degree such as an MBA or an education Masters
When an institution applies, an inspection takes place and if the institution passes a recommendation can go to the discipline committee in the relevant area. That committee then also assesses the application.
There are also quality assurance inspections where institutions are already making Masters and Doctorate awards. Masters evaluations are conducted at provincial level, while Doctorate reviews are conducted centrally. In addition, two national inspections took place in 1995 and 2003. The big focus is on programmatic reviews and now over 2,000 Doctorate programmes and 8,000 Masters have been reviewed – this is eighty percent of all such programmes available in China.
The format of the evaluation is as follows: Self-evaluation by the institution (provides statistics for the inspection) Expert panel checks statistics and self-evaluation, and a peer review is conducted. The whole panel drafts an overall review which is presented to the Ministry of Education and the Committee of the State Examinations Council.
Where the review results are not satisfactory, institutions are given a period of time to improve after which a further investigation is carried out. If they are not successful on the second attempt, the awarding power of the institution is withdrawn. Review results are published and can be very influential. On occasion results may influence policy at the level of central government. The 100 best Doctorates in any year are selected and listed.
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With regard to the examination of Doctorate candidates, external examiners are involved in their assessment. In addition, there is an oral hearing for every Doctorate and once the candidate is approved, an internal application process takes place within the university. There is classification of PhDs in China.
There is some linking of the policy approach in relation to quality assurance in China between undergraduate and research. Where there are separate ratings and inspections, they are viewed together within the Ministry and the results are used in a combined way for national purposes. For example, those involved in quality assurance reviews at Masters level look at the undergraduate results of an institution. Generally, institutions which receive a high rating at Masters and Doctorate levels have a high rating at undergraduate levels also. However, some institutions that achieve a high rating at undergraduate levels may not achieve a high rating at postgraduate levels.
Additional Information and Links
Chinese Organisations
Ministry of Education 35 Damucang Hutong, Xidan Beijing 100816 China Tel: +86(10) 66096114 www.moe.edu.cn/english/index.htm
China Academic Degrees and Graduate Education Development Centre (CADGEDC) 1 Wang Zhuang Road HaiDian District Beijing 100083 China www.xwzx.edu.cn/english/english.html
This offers a credential evaluation service for a fee.
Chinese Service Centre for Scholarly Exchange (CSCSE) No.15 Xueyuan Road, Haidian Beijing 100083 China Tel: +86(10) 82303957 Fax: +86(10) 82303957
14 EMail: [email protected] www.cscse.edu.cn/studyinchina/index.html
Office of the Academic Degrees Committee of the State Council Head: Boliang Xu, Director of the General Management Office 37 Damucang, Xidan Beijing 100816 China Tel: +86(10) 66096635 Fax: +86(10) 66097148 EMail: [email protected] www.moe.gov.cn
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