Begović V., Schrunk I., Kereković D. (2011). The project “A new GIS procedure for the reconstruction of the landscape in classical antiquity (territory of today )”. In: D. Kereković, R. Źróbek (ed.). The Future with GIS. Croatian Information Technology Association – GIS Forum, University of Silesia, , 82-93.

THE PROJECT "A NEW GIS PROCEDURE FOR THE RECONSTRUCTION OF THE LANDSCAPE IN CLASSICAL ANTIQUITY (territory of today Croatia)"

Vlasta Begović Institute of Archaeology Gajeva 32, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia

Ivančica Schrunk University of St. Thomas St. Paul, Minnesota 55105, USA

Davorin Kereković GIS Forum Ilica 191 e, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia

Abstract In the course of the ongoing research project “Archaeological Topography of Croatia in Classical Antiquity” the application of a new GIS procedure made it possible to make reconstructions of some Roman sites and past landscapes (landscape in classical antiquity) on the territory of today Croatia. The GIS approach to the study of changes in historical landscapes indicated that the greatest transformation of the landscape occurred in the Roman period. Territorial creativity was high in the Roman time, when a completely new landscape identity appeared after the 2nd/1st century BC in and Histria, and after the 1st century AD in . The new markers in the landscape consisted of: 1) Military camps; 2) Cities – colonies and settlements; 3) Roman villas; 4) A network of roads and aqueducts. Agro- landscapes were unbalanced even in prehistory, with clearing of forests and expansion of agriculture. However, the most noticeable changes came in the Roman period with new exploitation of the land and the intensive planting of new cash crops - grape (vineyards) and olive trees in Dalmatia and Histria, and wheat and other cereals in Pannonia. Roman villas as the centres of the agriculturally productive landscape were settled between the towns and cities. The Roman beginning of settlements had the roots in the commercial and strategic needs of the expanding power in the eastern Adriatic territory and in the Pannonian region and in the exploitation of the local resources. The network of roads had the main aim of connecting the different parts of the along the major rivers of the Danubius (), Dravus (), Savus (), Colapius () and Naron (), and also along the eastern Adriatic coast. The project "A New GIS Procedure for the Reconstruction of the Landscape in Classical Antiquity (territory of today Croatia)" is at the beginning. We started with the study of Roman architectural features as the markers in the landscape. We are presenting here the preliminary results of the first phase of our study.

Key words: GIS, archaeological topography, historical landscape in classical antiquity, archaeological landscape, 4th century BC to 6th century AD

Introduction The objectives of the GIS project are: 1) Building a geocoded database of the archaeological sites in the Republic of Croatia. The first stage is to build a geocoded database of the sites in classical antiquity (4th century BC-6th century AD), then of the prehistoric and medieval sites. 2) Facilitating the use of the graphics data (of different precise value) for different spatial and expertise analyses. 3) Preparing a database of the archaeological sites for the wider circle of data and analysis users. 4) Designing the database to accept the installation of various new graphical data. The graphical database in the project “Archaeological Topography of Croatia in Classical Antiquity” are digital maps in 1:3000 000, 1:25 000, 1:1 000 (and even more detailed maps), satellite images, electromagnetic surveys, aerial photographs, 3-D models of the terrain, photographs,

82 drawings, and other types of graphical documentation. For each archaeological site a series of 20 data entries are given – number, county, municipality, region, geocode (geographical width from Greenwich, England, geographical length from the equator), site (by spatial data and abc), name, part of the site, neighbouring settlement, archaeological museum with the jurisdiction over the site, toponyme, identification data, historical dating, and conducted archaeological excavations and investigations. The professional classification of the archaeological sites and features are: settlement, road, castrum, bridge, villa, architecture, grave, church, monastery, city, forum, temple, theatre, amphitheatre, aqueduct, individual finding, etc. The study of archaeological topography is the basis for knowing the total number of sites, their type, degree of preservation and value, as well as their spatial setting and precise position. The data refer to the entire Republic of Croatia (land, underground, and underwater), with a special emphasis on the architectural heritage of both urban and rural character, as well as archaeological finds and documented historical road network, up to the Roman border - limes on the Danube River. The data also include historical sources and toponomy. To supplement the data from the existing literature and reports on archaeological excavations, we use data from non-aggressive archaeological methods, such as the interpreting satellite images and aerial photographs, as well as the results of electromagnetic survey - following the recommendations of the European convention on protection of the archaeological heritage. A database is formed and mapping is performed on a topographic map and on a digital map of Croatia. Determination of geographic coordinates (geocode) is done on the basis of topographic maps in the scale of 1:100 000 and town plans (HGU 2002) and by Global Positioning System by reading on the archaeological sites. For the requirement of mapping topographic data a printout was acquired from the graphic base of the registry of spatial units in the digital record in the DWG format. Each attribute card received its datum on the digital map.

The Archaeological Sites The Roman provinces of Pannonia, Histria and Dalmatia (Roman administrative division of the imperial territory) are today situated in the 20 administrative counties of the Republic of Croatia. Rivers and mountain ranges were ethnic borders in ancient times. The same geographic features generally serve as the present-day administrative borders of the counties.

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Fig 1 Map of Histria, Pannonia and Dalmatia on the territory of today Republic of Croatia

The location of each archaeological site is related to the closest existing town in order to facilitate geographic references.

ROMAN PROVINCE PANNONIA Baranja County In the angle formed by the confluence of the Drava and Danube Rivers there is an extensive swampy area that stretches further toward the north, which has arisen as a result of the Danube’s course shifting gradually eastward. Today’s Kopački Swamps is what remains of a once much lager wetland. East of Osijek, between Nemetin and Aljmaš, the swamp also takes in the right bank of the lowest course of the Drava River. Aside from the Danube and the Drava, the largest rivers in that area, there are the River and the Karašica. Such topographic conditions made human habitation of this area possible and led to the rise and development of settlements. From the very beginning of human habitation, the places most favourable for building settlements were the high river terraces and edges of swamps. During the Roman rule, the decisive role in the development was played by the border on the Danube (Danubian limes) and the good possibility of communicating in the region. Roman cities and military border camps were founded here: Colonia Aelia Mursa (today Osijek) on the Drava River and Teutoburgium (today Dalj), Ad Militare (today Batina) on the Danube River. Other Roman settlements were found in Kamenac, Vladislavci, Tenja, Kneževi vinogradi (Mons Aureus), Erdut, Čepin, Đakovo, Našice, Valpovo, Kolođvar and Štrbinci (Roman Certissia). Traces of were uncovered at Podravlje near Bilj. (Bulat 1969; Thomas 1964; Rauning 1980).

Vukovar Srijem County The county is located between the Danube and the Sava River. The terrain is rather flat with some smaller rivers in the middle, such as Vučica, Vuka, Biđ, Berava, Spačva and Bout. In the time of classical antiquity this was a swampy area, according to a Roman literary source which mentioned the

84 draining of swamps at the time of Emperor Probus in the 3rd century AD. The northern part of the county is on the slopes of Fruška Mountain, which descend to the plateau and on the slopes of Dilj, which turn into the -Đakovo plateau, while the lowest parts are along the river Sava. This was the territory of the Roman province of , with the centre at Cibalae (today Vinkovci), which was a commercial and manufacturing settlement. It was located at the intersection of the roads that linked it with the main Roman routes.

Fig 2 Map of Vinkovci, Roman Cibalae with archaeological sites

Military border camps were at Sotin (Cornacum), further east at (Cuccium), and near Županja (Vragorilo) the Roman Ad Basantae, at the crossing over the Sava River and connection with the River. Villae rusticae were at Oriolik-Rajterovo Hill, Privlaka-Zvirinac, Andrijaševci-Fabrički Gaj, Retkovci-Staro Selo, Petrovci. Along the road were way stations - stationes and rest stops for travellers to stay – mansiones – , Cerić-Plandište, Gradište-Kamenište. Trading posts for military needs – canabae - have been found at Nagoslavci. Remains of Roman architecture and the evidence of settlements were found at Cerić (coins from 1st c. BC-4th c. AD), Plandište, , Privlaka, Retkovci, Grabovo, Svinjarevci, , , Orašje, Babina Greda, Gradište, Podgajci Posavski, , Bapska and Županja. Villae rusticae were located at Petrovci, Sotin and Zlopolje. At Petri skela (Vukovar) remains of an amphora factory (figlina) were uncovered. A Roman road was documented at Štitar. (Dorm 1977; Bulat 1965; Durman, 2008)

Brod Posavina County The terrain is flat with gentle slopes of the hills Psunj, Požeška gora and Dilj in the north and the border on the river Sava in the south. Smaller, regional rivers are Rešetarica, Crmac, , Mrsunja and Biđ. The Sava River was an important transportation route and there was a network of roads in its valley. The imperial road -Emona-Siscia-Marsonia- connected Italy with the Danubian region and with the Near East. Major Roman settlements were Marsonia (today ) and Servitium (village Pivare near Nova Gradiška) which was mentioned on the Peuntiger’s Map from the 4th century. Marsonia was on the confluence of the rivers Mrsunja and Sava, at the point of an island in the Sava, which was the easiest crossing bridge point for the south-north road. The Mrsunja changed the course since antiquity and a part of Marsonia became submerged. Roman

85 settlements and villae rusticae were located in Cage, Benkovac, Gornji Andrijevci, Kupina, Oprisavci, Oriovac, Sibinj, Slavonski Kobaš, and Slavonski Šamac. (Durman 2008)

Virovitica County The county extends to the Drava River in the north and the hill in the south. The rivers are Ođevica, Lendava, Čađavica, Karašica and Klokočevac. The region contains archaeological sites and remains of a network of Roman regional roads, of which the most important was Poetovio-Mursa. Along this road were found mansiones and mutationes – stations for horse changes. The village of Orešac was probably the mansio Bolentium mentioned in ancient itineraries. Outside of the road network were Roman agricultural sites - villae rusticae. The water castle was in the 13th century documents mentioned as ˝magna villa˝, supposedly referring to a Roman villa, just as in the case of Collentum and the villa on the island of .

Koprivnica Križevci County The county is bordered by the river Drava on the north side and the range of hills called Kalničko gorje on the west side. The rivers are Glogovica and . The regional Roman road Poetovio- Mursa passed trough the northern part of this county. Remains of classical architecture probably from the Roman settlement Piretis were found in Draganovec near . Roman necropolises excavated in Gola, Novačka and Kunovec indicated other settlements.

Požega Slavonija County The county is the plain between the Papuk mountain in the north and Požeška gora in the south. The rivers are Orljava, Lonža and Veličanka. Roman Incerum was located near today Požega. Its location is hypothesized to be in the vicinity of the village Tekić on the basis of a late antique graveyard discovered on the site Gradina near the village of Treštanovci. Over 100 graves were discovered with finds mainly from the 4th century AD. A Roman settlement was near Biškupci and villae rusticae were in and Draga, while traces of a Roman road were found at Selište. At Sloboština a Roman villa with a bath complex was discovered; another one at Imbijevci was a metal-working centre. Roman architectural remains were found in Radovanci, Striježevica, Trenkovo and Vukojevica.

Bjelovar Bilogora County The county lies between the hills of Moslavačko gorje in the south-west and Ravna gora in the south- east. The regional rivers are Račačka, Čazma, Grđevica, Česma, Bijela and . Today there are artificial lakes with fisheries (Ribnjaci) in the south and west parts of the county. The largest Roman site was a military and civilian medicinal spa, Aquae Balissae (Daruvar). Military camps were in Bjelovar, Veliki Zdenci and Hercegovac, while rural agricultural sites were found in Gornji Križ, Kraljevac, Markovac Trojstveni, Severin, Kupinovac, Gornji Miklouš and Veliki Bastaji (with remains of mosaics). Traces of roads are most clearly visible in Bjelovar and environs, in Gornji Miklouš, Narta and Dautan (Szabo 1932).

Krapinsko Zagorska County The county is a hilly region between the Ivančica mountain in the north and Medvednica in the south. The important river is with the Krapina valley, while the river is on the county's west border. Smaller rivers are Horvatska and Reka. A Roman fort was located at Gornje Brezno. Roman villas were found at Gornja Batina and at Miljana, on the site of the castle Miljana. Roman architecture was found at Zlatar, Donja Plemenšćina, and Krapina, on the site of Mihaljekov Jarek. In Lobor a Roman shrine (2nd-3rd century AD) was found under an early Christian basilica with a baptistery. Roman roads passed through the valley of the Krapina River, whose traces were found at the village of and near the cave Veternica. (Vinski Gasparini 1973; Filipec 2003)

Varaždin County The county borders on the river Drava in the north and extends to the Ivančica mountain in the south. The regional rivers are and Bednja. The best researched and published Roman site is the religious and spa complex Aquae Iasae, still functional today as Varaždinske toplice. The other known towns were Aqua Viva (at Petrijanec) and Iovia – Botivo at Ludbeg . A Roman fort and settlement was

86 at Varaždin. Villae rusticae were at Jalžabet and Šemovec, while at Kelemen, 3.5 km NW of Jalžabet, there was a villa rustica and traces of a Roman road 1986). Other settlements were evidenced Jalžabet, Babinec, Bartolovec, Križovljan Radovečki, Gornji i Donji Martijanec, Poljanec (also traces of a road), Brezje Dravsko (toponim Veliki Gorenek) and Šemovec. Some of those sites were probably stations for travellers to rest and change horses. The main regional road from Poetovio to Mursa passed trough this area. At Hrastovsko was a Roman figlina with finds of pottery and bricks produced there. (Tomičić, Šarić 1969; Gorenc, Vikić 1984; Vikić Belančić 1986; Šimek 1989)

Međimurje County The county is located between the Drava and Mura rivers. The most significant Roman settlement was Halicanum (today Sveti Martin on the Mura). Villae rusticae have been found at Ferenčica, near Prelog, dated to the 3rd-4th century, and at Trnovčak, Vratišinec, Vularija, Muršćak Komparija, Goričan and Preseka.

Sisak-Moslavina County The county is surrounded by hills and mountains - Vukomeričko gorje in the north-west, Petrova gora in the south-west, Zrinska gora in the south and Moslavačko gorje in the east. The major regional river is the Sava River. From its source in the Alps to Zagreb the Sava has a steep gradient, almost as a mountain river. Downstream of Zagreb it is a plain river, fully navigable. On the left bank of the Sava a whole series of smaller rivers such as the , Lonja and , which occasionally during seasonal floods flow into one another and overflow, even forming a lake more than150 km long. Those swamplands in the past hindered transportation and made east-west travel difficult. The other rivers in the county are the Kupa and on the west. The most important Late Iron Age (Hallstatt) settlement and then a Celtic strategic centre for the Pannonian region was Segestica. The Roman colony Siscia – centre of – was established at the same site. It owed its importance to its location on the transportation route between Pannonia and the Adriatic Coast and by becoming an imperial mint and a regional centre for iron industry. The network of roads has been attested by the findings of Roman milestones. One was found at Dragotina, on the road which connected Siscia with Topusko, an important Roman thermal spa centre, still functional today. The road continued toward Senia on the Adriatic coast. New transportation routes were opened downstream along the Sava and Kupa rivers and on to the Adriatic. Important roads were -Servitium-Siscia. A number of Roman villae rusticae were in this region, such as the sites at Poljana Čička near Andautonia, Osekovo (Ciglenica, villa with baths) and Okešinec (Stićina). The region had a network of roads from Siscia toward and the city of Andautonia (today Šćitarjevo), whose traces have been located west of the villages of Dužica and (Durman 2008).

Zagreb County and the City of Zagreb The county is bordered by the mountain Medvednica in the north and the rivers Sava, Odra and Lomnica in the south. This area began to be included in the Roman Empire in the last decades of the 1st century BC. The largest settlement in the region was Andautonia on the Sava River (today Ščitarjevo), with the status of a municipium. Another large settlement was located in Stenjevac. Two imperial roads passed through: Siscia-Poetovio and Siscia-Emona. Traces of those roads were found in Blato (New Zagreb), Gornji Čehi, Mala Mlaka, Donja Pešćenica. Jelkovec and Sesvete (Mokro Polje). Villae rusticae were discovered at several places – Vugrovec, Donji Markuševac, Čučerje.

Karlovac County The county extends from the Velika and Mala Kapela mountain ranges in the south and the Kupa River in the north. The smaller rivers are Mrežnica, Tounčica, and . Since and its surroundings are the place where the south-western corner of the Pannonian Plain comes closest to the Mediterranean, this area has been at the crossroads of different cultures and influences since prehistory. From the north to the south of the county the low-lying, partly swampy Pannonian area gives way west and south of Karlovac to a hilly, mainly karst area and to the southern mountainous part.

87 The most attractive areas for long-term habitation in most cultural periods were the fertile alluvial terraces – the valleys of the Kupa, Korana, Mrežnica and Dobra rivers. The rivers offered the possibility of easy flow of trade and transportation through the territories where they ran. Roman settlements – on the Mrežnica River, Kamensko, Ozalj on the Kupa, Novigrad on the Dobra, on the Korana, and Čakovec near Josipdol, which could be Roman Metulum. The evidence of river was the sunken boat found in the Kupa near Kobilić. Roman quarries were found at Dugi Dol, Mračin and Štirkovec. Caves with archaeological finds are quite numerous, some with burials placed in cavern chambers. (Durman 2008).

Primorje County A part of Gorski Kotar - the Mountain District - to the upper course of the Colapius River (Kupa) was in Roman Pannonia.

ROMAN PROVINCE HISTRIA County covers most of the Istrian peninsula, both coastal plains and mountainous interior, and encompasses most of the territory of the Roman province of Histria. The Roman provincial border with Dalmatia was on the river Raša in the east, while the present-day county's border is further to the east. Other regional rivers are and . The islands are islands and the islands in front of city. The Roman colonies were Pola and Parentium, while several smaller settlements were Piquentum, Rotium, Aemonia, Flanona, Alvona, and . Roman maritime villas and villae rusticae were located at Katoro, Zambratija, Loron, Červar-Porat, Sorna, Fažana, Barbariga, Brijuni islands, Val Bandon, Banjole and Vižula near Medulin.

Fig 5 Maritime villa on Brioni islands

Traces of the regional road (name known from an inscription) and others roads have been found in several locations (Šonje 1991, Matijašić 1998).

88 ROMAN PROVINCE DALMATIA Primorje Gorski Kotar County The county extends from the eastern part of Istrian peninsula (Učka mountain, Mala Učka mountain to village Zagora on the coast) to the coastal territory of Bay (Kvarner) up to Sibinj Krmpotski, including the islands of , Lošinj, and . In the Roman period many cities grew in the area, most at the sites of pre-Roman settlements: Tarsatica (near hill fort Trsat, today Rijeka), Apsorus (Osor) and Fulfinum (Omišalj). Other Roman towns – municipia - were Crexi (Cres), Caput insulae (Beli), Curicum (Krk) and Arba (Rab). Along the main road Via publica Aquileia-Tarsatica there arose a system of smaller settlements, fortifications and way stations: Castra (Kastav), Volcera () Ad Turres (Crikvenica) and Grobnik. Villae rusticae were built in the coastal and island areas – on the island of at Jadranovo-Havišće and Selce; on the island of Krk at Baška, Njivice, Pinezići, Punat and Vrana; on the island of Lošinj at Veli Lošinj; on the island of Rab at Supetar and Lopar; on the island Cres at Hamlac, Miholašćica, Martinšćica and others. From the late antique period remained traces of a fortification system, the limes. It stretched from Tarsatica across Grobnik Field to Prezid in Gorski Kotar. The remains of Byzantine coastal fortifications and early Christian churches are visible on many sites on the islands of Krk, Rab, and Cres.

Lika County The county extends over the coastal plains and mountainous interior with high elevations of mountain (the highest point 1699 m) in the west and Mala Kapela in the east. The largest river is the River and the smaller ones are Krbavica, Jadova, Bužimica and Brušanica. The coastline is rather steep and the county includes the northern part of the island of . Ancient Roman settlements arose on the flats, under the Iron Age hill fort settlements of Monetium (Humac near Brinje), Avendo (Crkvina in Kompolje), Epidotium (Kvarte), Ancus (Široka Kula), Ausancalio (Medak or Lovrinac), and Arupium (Prozor). On the coast were Senia (Senj), Lopsica (Sveti Juraj), Ortopla (Stinica), and Vegium (Karlobag), while Cissa (Caska) was on the island of Pag. Traces were found of the road Senia – Siscia and remains of a way station were discovered at Žuta Lokva. A custom station - publicum portorium was located on the Vratnik Pass.

Zadar County The county extends from Velebit mountain in the north to the River in the east and Vransko lake in the south. The rivers are , Otuča, Bašinica and Krupa. The county contains the coastline from Tribanj to Pakoštane and the islands of the archipelago, part of island Pag and the islands of , , , Pašman, , and . The Roman colony was Iader (today Zadar), while smaller settlements were Aenona (Nin), Nedinum (Nadin), Corinium (Karin), Argyruntum (Starigrad ) and Asseria (Podgrađe kod Benkovca). Roman maritime villas and villae rusticae were located at Muline and Mala Proversa on the island of Ugljan, and on the coast at Pridraga, Puntamika, Diklo, Pakoštane, Dračevac, Begovača, Kument, Vilišice and Petrčane (Begović, Schrunk 2005).

Šibenik County The county is situated in the central part of the eastern Adriatic with the mountain on the north- east side. The most important river is (Roman Titius), which forms Prokljansko Lake in its delta. The coastland is from Pirovac village in the north to Rogoznica and Ražanj village in the south. The islands are islands, Žut, Murter, , , , Žirje, and . Roman towns were Scardona (Skradin) on the river Krka, Collentum (Murter) on island Murter, Burnum (Ivoševci), Rider (Danilo) and smaller settlements were Varvaria (Bribir) and Arausa (Velika Mrdakovica). Roman maritime villas and villae rusticae were found at Murter on the island of Murter (mentioned in medieval documents as Villa Magna), Piramatovci, Kijevo and Donje Polje. A legionary camp was at Burnum (Ivoševci). Fortifications from the Byzantine period were at Žirje and Toreta on (Begović, Schrunk 2005).

Split Dalmatia County The county includes the mountains of Svilaja and Kozjak in the north and Dinara in the north-east. The River (Roman Hippus) flows from Peručko Lake into the Adriatic near Omiš city. The

89 smaller rivers are Vrba, and Šija. The coastal zone extends from Sevid village in the north to Zaostrog and Gradac village in the south. The islands are Drivenik Mali, Drivenik Veli, Šolta, Brač, , Sv. Klement, , Biševo, and Jabuka. Greek colonization dates from the 4th century BC in this area. The colonies (and later Roman towns) were Issa (Vis on the island of Vis), Epetion (Stobreč), Tragurion (), and Pharos (Starigrad on the island of Hvar). The capital city of the whole province of Dalmatia was Salona (today Solin), while other settlements were Aequum (Čitluk), Siculi (Bijači), (Muč) and Novae (Runovići). A legionary camp was Tilurium (Gardun near Trilj). Maritime villas and villae rusticae were found at Stari Trogir, Žrnovnica, Stobreč, Lora, Spinut and Resnik; on the island of Šolta at Rogač- Banje, Nečujam and Mirine; on the island of Brač at Lovrečina, Povlja, Bol and Postire; on the island of Hvar at Jelsa, Kupinovnik and Dol; on the island of Sv. Klement at Soline; on the island of Vis at Velo Polje and Smokovo Polje. Architecturally most significant is Diocletian palace at Split, built in the late 3rd-early 4th century. The remains of Diocletian’s aqueduct still exist near Salona (today Solin) (Kirigin, Marin 1989).

Dubrovnik Neretva County The county covers the coastal mountain area with the lower course of the Neretva River, the with coastal swamps, and the islands of Korčula, , , Šipan, and Lokrum. The landscape was quite different in classical antiquity because of the sinking of the Eastern Adriatic coast and the change of the river banks of the Neretva and Norin. In the 4th century BC historical sources mention the emporium Naron on the site of the Roman colony Narona (Vid near Metković). The remains of the forum in Narona with the imperial shrine (the Augusteum) are famous. Another roman colony was Epidaurus (Cavtat). The line of the city aqueduct was documented in traces near Epidaurus. Roman villas were found in Tiha Bay and on Sustjepan promontory near Cavtat, at Polače on the island of Mljet, Erešove bare, Borovci near Kula Norinska, Orebić, Trstenice, Sreser, Rat, Lumbarda on the island of Korčula, Tučepi, Zaostrog, Ubli on the island of Lastovo, Ston, Prapratno and Slano. Early Christian churches at Ston, Slano, Pelješac and Vid near Metković add to the rich archaeological corpus in this area. (Marin 2004)

Fig 8 Map of Neretva Conty

90 At the beginning of the Roman domination, the legatus (governor) of the province of Dalmatia Publius Cornelius Dolabella (14 – 20 AD) with the legionnaires of the VII and XI legions built five roads, which began in the main city of the province, in Salona, and led to the borders of the province. The two longer roads led north to Servitium and east to Sirmium. Three of them (the shorter ones) were entirely within the territory of Dalmatia. There are the inscriptions carved in the rock near Epidaurus (today Cavtat) telling about the building of these roads (Zaninović 2008). Via Flavia was built in Histria, leading from Aquileia and Tergeste () to Pola (today ). Very important was the road Aquileia – Tergeste – Emona – Poetovio – and along the Drava River to Mursa, where it turned and ran along the Danube to the south. Very important was the road from the Adriatic coast, starting at Senia (Senj) and leading to Siscia (), and then along the Sava to Marsonia (Osijek) and to Ad Basante (Županja). Another major south-north road went connected Salona - Siscia – Poetovio.

Conclusion The goal of the project “Archaeological Topography of Croatia in Classical Antiquity” is to build a geocoded database of the archaeological sites on the territory of the present-day Republic of Croatia. The collaborative project "A New GIS Procedure for the Reconstruction of the Landscape in Classical Antiquity" has the objective to reconstruct ancient landscapes and study long-term changes in archaeological landscapes relative to the physical . In the initial phase we have focused on the Roman settlements (urban and rural, military and civilian) and on the Roman roads and aqueducts and studied their spatial interrelationship and their relationship to the physical geography. These were the most important markers in the landscape of the changes brought by the Roman domination. The prehistoric imbalance in agro-forestry landscapes was greatly increased with the new Roman exploitation of the land and the intensive planting of new cash crops - grape (vineyards) and olive trees in Dalmatia and Histria, and wheat and other cereals in Pannonia. The imperial exploitation of the countryside extended into the adjacent wetlands and forests, changing the landscape. Such lands were systematically drained or cleared and used for cash crops, what intensified the building of towns and of rural villas. Roman settlement had the roots in the commercial and strategic needs of the expanding power in the eastern Adriatic territory and in the Pannonian region and in the exploitation of the local resources. Roman villas as the centres of the agriculturally productive landscape were settled and connected in relationship to military camps, veteran colonies and civilian trading and manufacturing sites. The Romans established in the provinces a communication network of waterways and land roads, both imperial highways and regional roads, whose traces are often found archaeologically. Local roads are the least visible in archaeological record, but could be reconstructed based on spatial relationship between rural villas and urban settlements. During the Roman Empire arterial roads were first built in river basins and consequently population centers grew in size. Navigable rivers have always been major communication arteries, connecting nucleated or dispersed settlements and entire regions. The maritime routes along the eastern Adriatic coast were the easiest way in connecting the Mediterranean region with the middle Europe. The archaeological topography of the Early Roman Empire is best researched so far. The landscape of this period is studied on the base of several aspects: 1) The territory and agricultural area around cities and colonies (Roman ager); 2) The landscape around villas – agriculture and forestry area, riverside, coastal and island landscape, especially of maritime villas; 3) Agriculture and forestry landscape close to the Roman roads and aqueducts. The long-term change in natural landscape is most noticeable along the Eastern Adriatic coast, which has sunk about 2 meters in the last 2000 years. The consequences of this phenomenon are clearly visible on the now submerged Roman architectural features. Changes along the river banks and in the river courses are more difficult to document in archaeological record. Some have been studied on the territory of Narona in the Neretva delta and in the case of Mursa in Pannonia (see above). In our study we noticed a significant difference between the Early Empire period and the late antique period in the economy and the exploitation of the land with consequences on the landscape. In Late Antiquity, the economic and strategic function, especially of the villas near the main roads and on the shipping routes, was essential. The villas were still central in the landscape of Histria in the sixth century when Cassiodorus wrote in a letter how they glistened far and wide, like a line of pearls (Variae XII, 22). The development from Roman villas to late antique settlements, known from some

91 sites in Istria and Dalmatia, are not clear in Pannonia. The extent of research and archaeological excavations is uneven and the topographic data and the possibilities for reconstruction of ancient landscapes will be different for the Roman Istria, Dalmatia and Pannonia.

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