CYBERNETICS FORUM THE PUBLICATION OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR CYBERNETICS Spring/Summer 197 6 VolumeVIII Nos.1&2

IN THIS ISSUE

Editorial: Open Letter to Our Readers, V.G. Drozin ...... i

Articles: The Cybernetics Thesis and Mechanism, Martin Ringle ...... 5 Philosophical Precursors of Cybernetics, Richard Herbert Howe ...... 11 Cybernetics and Yom Kippur, Melvin F. Shakun ...... 13 Cybernetic Research Applied to National Needs, Harold K. Hughes ...... 15 Cybernetics and the Oillssue, Herbert W. Robinson ...... 19 Cybernetic Factars in Economic Systems, Edward M. Duke ...... 21 Ethical Dimensions in Design and Use of a Socio-economic Model, Frederick Kile ...... 25 The Different Meanings of Cybernetics, V.G. Drozin ...... 28 On Dissipative Structures of 8oth Physical-and lnformation-Space, Roland Fischer ...... 31 Analysis of Brain Software: A Cyberntic Approach, N.A. Coulter, Jr...... 35 An Analysis of the Theory of Knowledge in Powers' Model of Brain, Stuart Katz ...... 41 Toward a Philosophy of History, Robert Sinai ...... 50 Toward a Unitary Concept of Mind and Mentallllness, George T.L. Land and Christina Kenneally ...... 57 Lang Term Ga ins from Early Intervention Through Technology: A Seventh Year Report, 1968-1975, Doreen Ray Steg, et. al...... 67 Book Review: To Draw a Line, John R. Kirk ...... 70

Features: From the Desk of the President, Mark N. Ozer ...... ii Conference Calendar ...... 49 About the Authors ...... 71 Editorial Policy and Information to Authors ...... 74

(cJ 1977 American Society for Cybernetics BOARD OF EDITORS Editor V.G. DROZIN Department of Physics Gertrude Herrmann Robert M. Landau Buckne/1 University Conference Calendar Editor SIA Science Information Assoc. Lewisburg, PA 17837 1131 University Blvd. West, No. 2122 3514 Plyers Mi// Road Si/ver Spring, MD 20902 Kensington, MD 20795 ASSOCIATE EDITORS Harold K. Hughes Christopher Longyear Charles I. Bartfeld The State University College Book Review Editor School of Business Administraion, Potsdam, NY 13767 Department of English American University University of Washington Mass. & Nebraska Aves. N. W. Akira lshikawa Seattle, WA 98195 Washington, D.C. 20016 Graduate School of Business Administration, New York Mark N. Ozer N. A. Coulter, Jr. University The George Washington Department of Surgery 100 Trinity Place University School of Medicine Curriculum in Biomedical New York, NY 10006 and Health Seiences Engineering 3000 Connecticut AvenueN. W. University of South Carolina Frederick Kile Washington, D.C. 20008 School of Medicine Aid Association for Lutherans Chape/ Hilf, NC 27514 Appleton, W/54911 Doreen Ray Steg Department of Human Charles H. Dym Felix F. Kopstein Behavior & Development, Dym, Frank & Company 1913 Walnut Street Drexel University 1875 Connecticut Ave. , N. W. Philadelphia, PA 19103 Philadelphia, PA 19104 Washington, DC 20009 Julius Korein Paul Studer Roland Fischer ELG Laboratory, Bellevue Hospital School of Library and Information Maryland Psychiatrie Research Dept. of Neurology, New York Science, State University College Center University Medica/ Center of Artsand Science Box 3235 550 Fifth Avenue Genesco, NY 14454 Baltimore, MD21228 New York, NY 10016

OFFICERS- 1977 Mark N. Ozer, President Louise G. Becker, Vice President (Educational) Israel Feld man, Vice President (Administrative) Gertrude Herrmann, Secretary David D. Bergan, Treasurer

DIRECTORS ASIS LIAISON

Roy Hermann, Chairman of the Board Eleanor lson Franklin Laurence B. Heilprin Mark N. Ozer, President (ex officio) Carl Hammer University of Maryland Gary D. Bearden William E. Hanna, Jr. 4800 Berwyn Hause Road Melvin S. Day Kumpati S. Narendra College Park, MD 20740 Bonnie W. Dunning Carlis A. Taylor Charles H. Dym Heinz Von Foerster Laurence B. Heilprin, Director-at-Large

PUBLISHED AND DISTRIBUTED BY: Western Periodicals Co. 13000 Raymer Street North Hollywood, Calitornia 91605 (213) TR5-0555 American Scciety SUBSCRIPTION RATES: for Cyternetics ASC Cybernetics Forum Journal of Cybernetics and Information Science Both Publications Domestic $35.00 per year Domestic $55.00 per year Domestic $80.00 per year Foreign $40.00 per year Foreign $60.00 per year Foreign $90.00 per year EDITORIAL

Open Letter to Our Readers I apologize for the long interruption in the publication of this issue of the "Cybernetics Forum." This was due to a number of factors beyond my con­ trol, including a change in the editor and publisher. Unfortunately, for per­ sonal reasons Dr. Milton Kotz, whose skillful editorship did so much to improve the Journal, feit compelled to resign. ln the search for a new editor I was recommended. After some consideration I accepted the position. As the new editor of the "Cybernetics Forum," I would like to express my views about what I think would be a desirable relationship between the Journal and its readers. I feel that the Journal should have as close a con­ tact with its readers as possible. lt should be realized that we are a relatively small society and that this Journal should bring us closer together. Therefore, I invite you to write me about your professional activity involving cyber­ netics, publications, awards, promotions, etc. The major function of the "Cybernetics Forum" should be to serve as your forum. To promote this role, I intend to publish regularly articles on topics which would hopefully inspire creative discussion. I expect that these articles would stimulate controversy and interest and thus increase reader-journal interaction. Such articles would include the various views on cybernetics, reductionism vs. anti-reductionism, cybernetics and teaching-learning pro­ cesses, cybernetics and the solution of social problems, cybernetics and re ligion, cybernetics and the arts, and the philosophy of cybernetics. lt seems to methat in the post, these potentially controversial and exciting issues have been somewhat ignored. Finally, I would like to explain the focus of cybernetics in the "Cybernetics Forum." ln this issue, the article "The Different Meanings of Cybernetics" points out the two rather opposing views about cybernetics. According to Norbert Wiener and Gordon Pask, we should Iimit cybernetics to mathema­ tically describable systems and their corresponding models. On the other hand, Stafford Beer argues that cybernetics should deal only with the ex­ ceedingly complex systemssuch as society, the brain, etc. which cannot be mathematically described. Since the first point of view is represented in our sister journal, "Journal of Cybernetics and Information Science" (editor Kumpati S. Narendra), it seems to be only logical that the "Cybernetics Forum" should focus on the latter. Thus, this journal would concentrate primarily, but of course not exclusively, on the cybernetic approach to extremely com­ plex systems . I feel that the most surprising, interesting and useful develop­ ment of cybernetics will take place in the domain of such systems. V . G . Drozin, Editor

From the Desk of the President The post year has been a difficult one for ASC but one which has pre­ sented apportunifies as weil. Since my election in early January, 1976, I have seen 'my role in this organization to reestablish means of communication concerning cybernetics. The Forum of the ASC has been reestablished on a regular basis with this issue. Dr. Drozin has become the new editor and the Western Periodicals Company has become the new publisher. This same company is the publisher of the new Journal of Cybernetics and Information Science, whose second issue is ready for distribution. lt has been inex­ cusable for a society devoted to information and communication not to have an ongoing basis some means of communication with its members and the general public. Such efforts to reestablish the journals have now been successful but can remain successful only with the continued contribution of material. The communication of ideas concerning cybernetics also depends upon the presence of the ASC in conferences and other symposia. A full scale conference is now being planned for the Spring of 1977 under the auspices of ASC for the firsttime in several years. This meeting is in the context of the ideas expressed by Norbert Wiener in the field of cybernetics leading to a morehuman use of human beings. At this meeting, the value of cybernetics has been to highlight the interaction between the individual and large scale systems to emphasize the enhancement of human control. I believe that cybernetics as a method of thinking has enormaus potential for the humanization of systems and it is to that purpose that I believe that ASC should provide leadership. With the renewal of both the journals and meetings as the rationale for ASC, there is the potential for the renewal of membership which supports such activities. Mark N. Ozer, President

The Cybernetic Thesis and Mechanism

Martin Ringle State University College New Pa ltz, New York 12561

I. The Problem of Mechanism etc., feit that a study of bodily-mechanism could be pur­ sued without relinquishing a commitment to the existence A. Historical Roots of Mechanism of the "soul" or some sort of "elan vital." On the other The belief that man may be some sort of "organic hand, the mechanists viewed their task as one of accep­ machine" is anything but new. The idea received its first ting the Cartesian "body-machine" and augmenting it by precise formulation in the mid-eighteenth century by showing how the immaterial "residue" of sentience, Julian Offray de La Mettrie[1] but allusions to the "Man­ cognition, etc., could be analyzed and incorporated (by Machine" doctrine areevident in the writings of Mauper­ reduction) into the mechanistic model. Thus, we find that tuis, Voltaire, Hobbes, Descartes and many others of the both vitalists (anti-mechanists) and mechanists alike seventeenth century.[2] As far back as the thirteenth cen­ claim Descartes tobe their intellectual progenitor.[7] tury we find the motions of man being compared to the movements of a clockwork[3] and, if we care to make the B. The Cybernetic Revision connection between mechanism and materialism, we can The mechanical hypothesis seemed to emerge from ob­ find evidence for the origins of mechanistic thought in scurity each time an advance in neurophysiology was the atomism of Demokritus and Leukippus.[4] made but, by and large, it remained as a philosophical The concept of mechanism underwent a peculiar fantasy. The reason for this was that the micro­ development in the hands of the Cartesians. While complexity of the central nervous system seemed to Hobbes, the material ist, argued that "mental experience" preclude the sort of empirical investigation which would was to be understood wholly in terms of corpuscular provide concrete support for mechanism. Freud, for movement.[5] Descartes, the defender of immaterial sub­ example, speculated on a mechanical model of psycho­ stances, was convinced that the human body was physiological activity, but soon despaired of the project nothing more than a machine. Descartes, in fact, went in­ when he realized the experimental obstacles to brain to far greater detail than Hobbes to examine and explain research.[B] the nature of the bodily mechanisms which formed the in 1948, however, a new approach was taken to the foundation of Sensation, emotion, and so forth.[6] The ap­ question of mechanism and "mentalism" by Norbert parent inconsistency in the Cartesian doctrines of Wiener. While research in neurophysiology seemed to "body-machine" and "immaterial soul" is easily resolved have bogged down because of technological barriers, once we recognize that, for Descartes, the powers of sen­ pure mathematics was taking a sudden torward leap with tience, cognition (ratiocination),- and vol ition, etc., are the introduction of the electronic, digital computer. properties of the soul and are, therefore, completely Wiener outlined a new path of study of "control and autonomaus with respect to the mechanisms of the body. communication" in organic and artificially created A study of the latter, therefore, revealed the nature of systems which he called "cybernetics."[9] The concepts physical movement but said absolutely nothingabout the of feedback, goa/-oriented homeostasis, programming, intrinsic nature of the former. hierarchy of control, etc., which formed the jargon of in a sense, it was this attitude which set the stage for cybernetics, soon kindled the imagination of the all future debates between mechanists and anti­ mechanist-philosopher, and the cybernetic thesis was mechanists. Following Descartes, many natural scien­ born. Essentially, the thesis asserts that man is indeed a tists, especially neuro-anatomists, neurophysiologists, mechanism. lt breaks with tradition, however, in denying 6 Cybernetic Thesis

that man may be understood according to the model of inspired by the Wittgensteinians. While the meaning of a a clock (the mechanical paradigm of Descartes, LaMettrie, term is indeed established by its usage, the usage itself et. al.) and likens him instead to a computer. is in turn influenced by conceptual evolution. lf empirical The cybernetic thesis came under heavy philosophical science teils us that the pancreas, and not the brain, is fire almost at once.·Turing's classic paper, "Computing the real seat of cognitive activity, then we may expect Machinery and lntelligence,"10 has been the subject of that one day the idiom of "pancreas-child" or "pancreas­ discussion and criticism in hundreds of books and storm" or "racking one's pancreas" will be altogether or­ ,articles.11 Yet comparatively little has been said about the dinary, however absurd it may sound at present. nature of the cybernetic revision of the mechanical The real question is the conceptual analysis which ac­ hypothesis. The differences, if there are any, between the counts for the usage; in other words, what, specifically, is clock-paradigm and the computer-paradigm have either packed into (or excluded from) the concept of mechanism? been ignored or taken for granted, with the result that both proponents as weil as critics of the cybernetic 3. The third and fourth objections focus on this analysis. thesis have been arguing about the wrong things. What I The third objection states, in effect, that man cannot be a shall do now is briefly examine the criticisms of the anti­ mechanism because the latter is incapable of intelligent mechanists, the cybernetic response, and the errors in behavior, rationality, intentionality, and so forth.[12] A both positions. I should like then to offer some machine, as understood by the anti-mechanists, operates desiderata for future research and modifications of the blindly, according to the laws of physics. The movements cybernetic thesis. arenot governed by any comprehension on the part of the mechanism itself and an exhaustive explanation of those C. Critique of the Mechanical Hypothesis movements can be given without any reference to "reasons, purposes, beliefs, desires," etc. The ability to 1. There are numerous sorts of objections which have cognize the world from a certain perspective, to been levelled against mechanism, but I would like to note manipulate symbolic representations of reality, to what I taketobe the four most important kinds. The first, genealize experiences into concepts and linguistic struc­ which is now considered somewhat passe, is that of the tures, are all excluded from the concept of mechanism vitalists. The essence of the objection isthat man (and to and included in the concept of man. a lesser degree, all living organisms) posesses a "vital The anti-mechanist argues that, no matter how in­ principle" or "soul" which distinguishes him from the telligent the behavior of a machine may appear (and even rest of nature. The arguments adduced for the traditional in Descartes' time there were robot-like mechanisms varieties of vitalism are often based on religious con­ capable of sophisticated behavior, e.g., flute-playing[13]) siderations, such as the need for an immortal soul, and true intelligence depends on understanding.[14] How we may stand or fall with the soundness of the religious are to interpret this requirement is a problern which I premisses. shall consider in a moment. Present-day humanists often raise the vitalist claim without the attendant religious undertones by simply 4. The final objection, and perhaps the most telling, is appealing to the requirement of "human dignity," "Free­ that machines Iack a crucial quality which man dom of the will," and suchlike. Apparently, the beliefthat possesses, namely sentience. However sophisticated the man can aspire to creativity, poetry, moral worth and re­ workings of a machine .may be, the anti-mechanist sponsibility is taken to be incompatible with the notion argues, no increase in complexity willever be able to ac­ that man is a machine. The implicit assumption, of course, count for feelings and sensations (i.e., consciousness). isthat a machine must be unfeeling, non-cognitive, in short, Sentience is taken to be an irreducible property of living something like a clock. While the vitalist appeal is based organisms and one which plays an integral role in the more on emotional than deductive grounds, it is descri-ption and explanation of our mentallife. nonetheless an important consideration. I believe, lt is important that we notice the distinction between however, that the real thrust of the vitalist claim is to be sentience and cognition as aspects of human mental life. found in the third and fourth objections and that the When we seek to identify and analyze "thoughts" or cybernetic thesis has a plausible response for each. "thought processes" we may have varying success in 2. The second sort of objection is the semantic one.[10] unpacking their "cognitive content." We can dissect ln general, the claim is made that man cannot be "reasons," fill in missing steps to "deductions," probe mechanism because there are terms which we use to into hidden "motives," and so forth; virtually nothing is describe the "mental" life of human beings which cannot adequate, ho.wever, as an analysis of primitive sen­ be translated into the language of mechanics (or sations, such as "color," "pain," etc., except insofar as physics). A typical example would be the use of the term we can extract the cognitive content which resides in the "purpose." A machine can have a "goal" (or terminal sensory experience itself. Thus we can, for example, state) or possibly even a "derivative purpose," in the sense characterize a pain as "cutting," "stabbing," "dull," or that is has the function of executing the purposes of "burning," but these terms only convey the faithful its designer. lf cannot (so the objection goes[11]) have its quality of the experience to one who has undergone own purposes because it Iacks the appropriate concomit­ similar sensations described in a similar manner.[15] tants for purposeful existence; i.e., sentience, cognition, They do not serve to give us further insight into the nature and consciousness. of the primitive sensations themselves. While the objection has a prima facie plausibility, I Let us now see how the cybernetic thesis attempts to think it rests on a somewhat dogmatic view of meaning deal with these criticisms of traditional mechanism. Cybernetics Forum 7

II. The Cybernetic Thesis the program will have to include a symbolic represen· A. Response to Objections tation of the rules of the game, an internal representation of the current game itself, a method of recognizing game 1. ln the first place, the cybernetic thesis is committed advantage, and a direction to execute only those moves to supplying an explanation of human activity, such as which are conducive to winning the game. How would we poetry, composition, problem-solving, etc., and not to now answer the question of whether or not the machine "explaining these things away" as Illusions. in answer to was "playing" checkers?[16] the outcry of the humanists, the cyberneticist would be lf we want to discover why our mechanical checker­ I ikely to say that he takes these sorts of activities as player makes a particular move, we cannot simply open it primary data from which to draw his conclusions. The up and trace the connections between its internal parts; bone of contention may be that the cyberneticist finds the physical or mechanical analysis will only provide an the appeal of these data tobe undimished if we learn how answer to the question of why such-and-such a they come about, while the humanist requires an aura of movement occurred at some particular time. lf we wish to magic and mystery in order to appreciate human discover the explanation for a particular move, then we creativity. must Iook at the machine's programs, at its heuristics To put it another way: for a humanist, part of the and evaluation procedures, at its method of represen· beauty and power of an aria by Mozart lies in the fact that tation, and so on. in short, we must ask why it madesuch the manner in which the aria was composed is unknown. a move (in terms of cognitive strategies) and not how it Were we to be able to discover the metrod (or did so (in terms of relevant mechanical conditions). mechanism) which underlies its construction, the beauty The critical difference between our hypothetical would soon pall and Mozart's musical genius would be clockwork checker-machine and our real checker-playing re-cast as a neural assembly·line of musical symbols. program isthat the latter employs and manipulates sym­ The cyberneticist is somewhat indifferent to this con· bolic Information whereas the former responds in a cern. Learni1ng that there are pain centers in the brain purely non-symbolic, non-cognitive manner to mechani­ which are aroused through internal, psycho-genic cal inputs. processes, diminishes our sensations of pain not a whit. A cybernetic device is therefore a machine (or Similarly, learning that there are neural assernblies and organism) which is capable of receiving, storing, mani­ cognitive structures which operate to produce the ex­ pulating, and acting upon information. A clock, the plicit forms of consciousness we are acquainted with will traditional mechanical paradigm, is incapable of such cause no direct alteration in consciousness. The only behavior. possible effect of such knowledge on our con· A second aspect of the cybernetic type of model isthat sciousnesses will be the (gradual) conceptual evolution it has the capacity to adaptively change its behavior. A towards a new, cultural self-image. in other words, the striking feature of the checker-playing program written by music will still sound just as good. Samuel is that it is able to learn from its games. When it 2. The more serious objection is how the cybernetic was first run in 1959 Samuel hirnself was able to beat it. thesis handles the problern of cognition. Let us imagine a After thousands of games (and some program hypothetical device, built in the seventeenth or eighteen­ modification) it succeeded in playing and beating an ac­ th century, which is constructed of Ievers and gears and credited master. pulleys, and so contrived that it will "play" checkers with A third feature of the cybernetic model is that it em­ a man. By "play," I mean that when a man moves a red ploys decision-making techniques in order to execute its piece the machine will respond by pushing a black piece. behavior. The "Input" of a cybernetic machine is not sim­ lf we open the machine up we find that there are metal ply a physical stimulus, but rather a function of the world connections between all the checker·pieces and that the impinging on it, tagether with its own internal states. in motion of the red pieces causes the motion of hidden other words, Information is synthesized by the machine, counter-weights which in turn result in the motion of rather than simply fed to it. lt then processes the Infor­ black pieces. mation in order to determine its subsequent activity (if We should not, except in jest, suppose that the any is called for). The resulting action is, therefore, a machine is actually playing (without quote marks) product of both the "internal logic" and the "perspective checkers, even though it is making moves, and possibly and past history" of the mechanism, not simply a law-like the appropriate moves for a successful game. The reason relationship between a one-dimensional input and a one­ we deny that the machine is actually playing is that it dimensional output. fails to have any understanding of the situation, any This means that, if we are to fully understand the recognition of the rules, any purpose in "winning," etc. nature of cybernetic behavior, we must examine its The explanation of its movements can be exhaustively cognitive structure, its decision-making techniques, its given in terms of mechanics and physics. method of assigning differential values to input in terms But now, Iet us suppose that we take our original of its hierarchical program structure, and so forth. We machine and hook it up to a computer. Between the input cannot except to understand the behavior (though we state (i.e., the board which results from the human move) may achieve a limited amount of success in predicting it) and the output state (the machine's move) we interprose by simply employing behavioral analysis. Were a a sophisticated set of programs which can analyze the behaviorist to employ his observational techniques on a comparative value of the machine's possible moves, and truly sophisticated cybernetic machine, he would have as execute the most advantageaus one. in order to do this, little success in extrapolating its law-like structure as he 8 Cybernetic Thesis has in determining the law-like structure of human of objection, the attempt was made to build programs beings.[17] Unlike the traditional mechanism of a clock, which could deal with a variety of Situations, and could the internal transformations of a cybernetic device are far develop its own strategies and techniques. The Al star too complex to be explained without reference to the of the '60's was the program GPS (General Problem program (or cognitive) Ievei of analysis. Solver) developed by Newell, Sirnon and Shaw.[25] 3. The cybernetic thesis has a different sort of response GPS was designed to extract key features from to the final objection, concerning the Iack of sentience of problems, analyze the logic of the problem, generate machines. Neisser,[18] Putnam,[19]Dennett,[20]1and others procedures for dealing with the problem, and then attem­ have adopted the view that if we take sentience to be pt to solve it. The focus was on the generality of GPS, i.e., "raw feels" with the emphasis on the ward "raw," then its ability to handle a wide range of situations, and on its excluding them from our account of cognition and action capacity to develop its own heuristics. Unfortunately, a will do nothing to diminish the explanatory power of our careful examination of the major routines of GPS[26] account. For example, once we extract all the cognitive reveals that the key-feature analysis depends on the logic content of an experience of "pain," that is, once we say found in the "table-of-connections" which is pre­ all that can be said about it in terms of its relations to the programmed, and the technique-generator depends on a world and to persons, the primitive, experiential content selection, by GPS from its "main-methods" table. ln will add nothing to our explanatory schema. Thus, if we short, the critical features which would emancipate GPS know what causes the pain, how it is apprehended, the from the stigma attached to tradtional mechanism are value it has for the subject, the role it. plays in decision­ obscured but not removed. Given a vague problern to making, action, and so forth, we shall have all that we 'solve (or one which fails to fit into the' logical schemata require as far as our explanatory needs are concerned. GPS uses for key-feature extraction) GPS is at a loss. This Ieads to the sort of position Hamlyn takes[21] con­ Moreover, increasing the size of the table-of-connections cerning cognition, action and consciousness, namely or the main-methods group would not help to answer the that with regard to sensations per se 'epiphenomenalism' Initial objection, that the program fails to actually is entirely plausible. ln effect, then, sentience as a "cognize" its environment, although it would serve to in­ primitive quality of mental processes is taken to be crease GPS's ability to appear cognitive. irrelevant to explanation. Putnam further emphasizes the 3. The real problern lies in the fact that the task environ­ point by saying that the logical (cognitive) structures of ment for GPS and other Al programs is only an "internal our mental life could be effectively modelled in any representation" of the world in a limited way. GPS does pl'lysical form,[22] without any need for the sentience not produce its own symbols and values, but merely which seems to be empirically attached to a special sort manipulates the symbols and values according to its pre­ of matter, i.e., protoplasm. programmed instructions. Consequently, it fails to "ap­ prehend" relationships and perspectives which are not B. Difficulties With the Cybernetic Position already present in its explicit, atomistic logical structure. 1. A persistent problern with artificial intelligence Put another way, its symbols Iack "meaning" for it, research has been the predisposition to a behavioristic although they possess logical significance. ln effect, it is account of cognitive activity. lnspired perhaps by the not dealing with a language proper, but rather an unin­ Turing Test, Al workers have often sought to build com­ terpreted calculus. puter Simulations which operate on superficial, Augmenting the symbols of this sort of calculus will behavioral similarities to natural intelligence, rather than not invest the program with meaning. Al researchers who on the underlying cognitive structures. A good example have hoped and expected that the answer to the program of this is Weizenbaum's "ELIZA"[23] ELIZA will, at least failures in cybernetics would lay in higher-power for a short time, give the Impression of a sophisticated programs have, as Dreyfus has pointed out[27], been semantic analyzer-and-synthesizer. After a while, ,sorely disappointed. What is required is a new direction; however, the Impression will diminish as ELIZA repeats ironically, the most promising Iead comes from an area stock phrases in order to acquire more syntactic Informa­ which cybernetics has chosen to ignore, the area of tion. ln fact, ELIZA is simply a clever syntactic device, a sentience. "conversation-continurer"[24] which Iacks a semantic Interpreter altogether. C. Up-dating the Cybernetic Thesis A good deal of the early simulation attempts in game­ 1. Let us imagine a child being born paralyzed from the playing, problem-solving, and pattern-recognition suf­ neck down and capable of receiving sensory Stimulation fered from the shortcoming that, because behavioral along the auditory channel only. Furthermore, its similarity was given precedence over (cognitive) struc­ auditory sensations would be particularly tenuous, ad­ tural similarity, they could not deal with diverse, complex mitting of virtually no variation in tone, volume, pitch, in­ or vague Situations. Each program addressed itself to flection and so forth.[28] such a narrow slice of cognitive behavior that its ability Conceivably, our hypothetical child could be con­ to mirnie real intelligence was quite small. ditioned to elicit differential responses (of a vocal sort) to 2. The charge was subsequently made that "computers auditory input and, presuming that its brain werein good could only do what they were programmed to do, hence it working order, we might eventually train it to perform was the intelligence of the programmer, and not the various sorts of calculations. Could we suppose, machine, which solved problems." To deal with this sort however, that this child actually "understood" the mean------

Cybernetics Forum 9

ing of those operations, that it possessed concepts, way towards the Man-Machine doctrine, although the that it used language? I think not. Yet this is pre­ Cartesians were bitter critics of La Mettrie's "perversion" cisely analogous to the situation present in the contem­ of the bete-machine doctrine. porary approach to artificial intelligence. The end­ 8. ln 1895, Freud prepared a lengthy paper entitled product of human cognitive development, symbolization, "Project for a Scientific Psychology" in which he took is isolated from its lengthy and intricate origins and ex­ up the problern of psycho-physiological relations. ln pected to, as it were, "stand on its own." lt is no wonder it, he speculated on the structure and processes of that semantic information processing has bogged down: the brain although virtually no attempt is made after the attempt to get symbols to "speak for themselves" is 1895 to "carry out" the "Project" or further clarify it. futile. 9. Wiener, N., Cybernetics, Wiley & Sons, New York, 1948. The primary question that cybernetics must turn to is 9a. Turing, A.M., "Computing Machinery and lntelligence, how symbolization evolves in the child. Perhaps the most reprinted in A.R. Anderson, Minds and Machines, challenging area of research in cognitive development Prentice-Hall, Publ., N.J., 1964. Anderson states lies in the period between birth and the moment, some (in 1964) that "since 1950 more than a thousand papers twenty-odd months later, when the child first begins to have been published on the question as to whether speak. As Piaget has pointed out,[29] one of the greatest 'machines' can 'think.'" mysteries is how the neonate develops from the sensory­ 10. The sort of objection used by Sellars, for example, in motor stagetothat of pre-operational thought. One thing "The ldentity-Approach to the Mind-Body Problem," in seems fairly obvious: the ability of the child to synthesize S. Hampshire, Philosophy of Mind, Harper & Row, a meaningful internal representation of the world is con­ New York, 1966. tingent on the variety of his sensory experience together 11 . cf. Richard Taylor, Action and Purpose, Prentice-Hall, with his capacity to act on the world itself. An action­ N.J., 1966, eh. 15 "Mechanism and Purpose." oriented approach to cognition may weil be essential to 12. For want of a better word, I use the term "cognition" producing a symbol-synthesizing artifact. Equally impor­ to cover the broad category of "mental" words which tant, however, is the role that sensory information plays have discursive use. Thus, I lump " intentionality," in the i"nitial stages of sensory-motor development. ln " rationality," "decision-making" etc., under thr rubric other words, in order to provide a device with the of "cognition." Any mental faculty, state, or process ingredients required to generate a rich internal represen­ which can be analyzed into descriptive components is tation of the world it may be requisite to give its faculties spoken of as "cognitive." Anything which cannot, i.e, for sentience similar to our own. the variety of "raw feels," are lumped together in the For these reasons I am inclined to agree with Dreyfus' category of " sentience." somewhat controversial remark that "intelligent behavior 13. cf. Gunderson's remarks concerning Descartes, La requires that the agent have a body."[30]1f the cybernetic Mettrie, and the mechanical flute-player designer, investigation is to continue, it must Iook into the Vaucanson in Mentality and Machines, Doubleday & relations between the logical-descriptive account of the Co., N.Y., 1971, pp. 2,3,6,28. contents of consciousness and the genetic-biological 14. An int~resting attack on the behavioral analysis of account of origins and development. intelligence, especially with reference to mechanism, may be found in P. Ziff, "The Feelings of Robots," A. Anderson, op. cit. NOTES 15. This in no way conflicts with Wittgenstein's argu­ 1. LaMettrie, J.O. de, L'Homme Machine, trans. by G.C. ments against private language. lnsofar as the Bussey, Open Court Publishing Co., lllinois, 1943. " meaning" (qua use) of a word is concerned the Witt­ 2. cf. Rosenfield, Leonora, From Beast-Machine to gensteinian analysis is generally correct. lndeed, Man-Machine, Oxford University Press, New York, 1941 . Geach (in Mental Acts) is generally correct in arguing 3. A source of this type of discussion may have been that a blind man can have the proper meaning of Aquinas, cf. Summa Theologica, Quaestio XIII , Art. 2 vision words even though he is blind. What I am ad fin. asserting is that the extensionality (in this case the 4. cf. Dijksterhuis, E., The Mechanization of the World experiential content) is lost although the intention­ Picture, Oxford University Press, London, 1961, ality is not when the subject has no sensation to pp. 9-13. relate to certain linguistic expressions. 5. ln Oe Corpore, Hobbes offers an analysis of sense 16. ln fact, such a program exists, viz., A.L. Samuel, perception and cogitation which combines the Aristo­ "Same studies in Machine Learning Using the Game telian account of the mechanics of perception and of Checkers, 11-Recent Progress. IBM J. Res. Dev., the Democritean account of the atomistic nature of vol. 11, no. 6, pp. 601-617. matter. He denies the concept of "mental sub­ 17. An interesting analogue to this is the problern that stance" and refers to mental events as "fancies" faces a programmer who attempts to access and or " illustions." operate a computer for which he Iacks the appropri­ 6. A typical examaple of Descartes' fascination with the ate instructions. An amusing story concerning this mechanics of perception may be found in his work on problern may be found in M. Apter, The Metaphorical vision, essays 4-7 of the Dioptrie. Brain, Wiley & Sons, N.Y., 1972, pp.11-12. 7. La Mettrie, for example, expresses his gratitude to 18. Neisser, U., Cognitive Psychology, Appleton-Century­ Descartes (p. 142 of L'Homme Machine) for paving the Crofts, New York, 1967. 10 Cybernetic Thesis

19. Putnam, Hilary, "Philosophy and Our Mental Life," 24. Cf. Apter, M., The Computer Simulation of Behavior, paper delivered to the Philosophy Department Lec­ Harper & Row, New York, 1970, p. 132. ture Series, SUNY-Binghamton, Binghamton, N.Y., 25. Ernst, G., & Newell, A., GPS: A Gase Study in 2.5.75. Generality & Problem Solving, Academic Press, N.Y., 20. Dennett, Daniel, Content and Consciousness, Rout­ 1969. ledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1969. 26. Vid., Ernst & Newell, op. cit., pp. 3, 4, 63, 82ff. 21. Hamlyn, D.W., "Causality and Human Behavior," 27. Dreyfus, Hubert, What Computers Can't Do, Harper & in Gare, N., & Landesman, C., Readings in the Theory Row, N.Y.,1972, Part 1, "Ten Years of Research in of Action, lndiana University Press, lndiana, 1968, Artificial lntelligence (1957-1967)." vid. p. 65. 28. This example is one I have used before and elaborat­ 22. ln the discussion of Putnam's paper, (op. cit., ftnt. 19) ed on somewhat in M. Ringle. "An Application of he suggested that if we Iook at human mental struc­ Piagetian Methodology to the Problem of Encoding ture as that of a Turing Machine then, in order to and Recognition," in S.A.T. Document Seies, Vol. 75, understand it, we may concentrate solely on the logic No. 28, Spr, '75. and ignore its physical instantiation. The logical 29. Piaget, Jean, The Origins of lntelligence in Children, machine may be realized in protoplasm, metal, or International Universities Press, New York, 1952, even sawdust without any loss in cognitive structure. Part 1, "Eiementary Sensarimotor Adaptations." 23. Weizenbaum, J., "A Computer Program for the Study 30. Dreyfus, H., op. cit., pp. 147ft. of Natural Language Communication Between Man and Machine," Communications of the ACM, 1966 9, 36-45. Philosophical Precursors of Cybernetics

Kant and Adam, or the Model of Cognition Richard Herbert Howe The Biological Computer Laboratory Department of Electrical Engineering The University of lllinois, Urbana, II. 61801

Were it far-fetched to claim the esoteric figure of Pascal precedes the naming) or the archetypical realist (for as a precursor of our discipline, would it be less so to whom the naming precedes the named)? claim the exoteric Kant? But is this a problern for our discipline? And were it tobeheldas such, what could we Nominalism vs Realism learn from it? But is this problern really in the branchings of our family tree, or is it rather in its roots? Not: "Who Over the ages since the Fall, the underlying question has are to be counted among our precursors?" but: "What is not ceased to exercise the philosophers, as in the a 'precursor' in any sense we can accept?" famous medieval controversy, largely because of its Let me pose this problern drastically: ls Adam-the theological implications. Stepping outside that mode of archetype of the precursor, the tather of mankind and thus thought, we may say that the problem-still with us-is of philosophy as well-a "precursor" of cybernetics? this: nominalism implies ultimate continguency; ultimate Now there are three ways to deal with such a question. necessity implies realism. These are the extremes of We can answer "yes," ,we can answer "no," we can say Hume and Leibniz. For Hume, universals are but names simply "nonsense"! Despite the latter way's attractions, for the mere habit and custom of cognition in an in keeping with the kindred spirits of inquiry and whimsy, ultimately contingent universe; for Leibniz, ultimate I would propese we answer "yes" and see what follows necessity is guaranteed through the composition of the from this affirmation. universeout of universals: the nomads. Nominalism, con­ tingency, scepticism on the one hand, realism, necessity, dogmatism on the other comprise the epistemological Adam as Philosopher legacy of Adam from before the Fall on down to Kant. Certainly Adam mustrank as one of the most successful What Kant was after can be approached from this side of philosophers, if not of scientists, for "whatsoever also: the reconciliation of nominalism and necessity. As Adam called every living creature, that was the name everyone knows, he effected this by making universals thereof," but we may consider whether this success was the necessary framewerk of cognition, by making names due to his special genius or the favorable environment in its "categorical" framework, by giving it to the universals which he worked: not only was it his privilege to reside in to be not names of classes of objects but of the Paradise at that time but, as its first resident, he did not possibility of those classes. The Kantian cognizer of the have to centend with confusions perpetrated by any fore­ world is not its passive recipient (nor certainly its creator) runners or precursors in his field. Be that as it may, the but its active organizer: the act of naming and the act of problern remains whether the success of his naming was cognition are for him at bottom one. due to his unique and powerful position as the first Now what is important for us and what gives us the namer or rather to his perfect cognition of the creatures' sense that Kant was a "precursor" of cybernetics (at true names-the names which God in creating them had least insofar as cybernetics has turned to the problems given them? Or in other words, are we to consider Adam of epistemology, which might be called its McCulloch the archetypical nominalist (for whom the named tradition) is that he proceeded not by erecting a system 12 Philosophical Precursors of metaphysical statements about the world but rather by remains its namer and its name. constructing, in a double·sense, a "model" of cognition. Which brings us back to Adam and his Fall. You "Model" first of all in the sense of a miniaturization and remember that God looked out upon Creation and saw thus abstraction of our cognition of our own cognition that it was good. Whence then the evil of which the apple (for every change of scale is an abstraction) into a net· gave them knowledge? Answer: through the act creating work of anxioms and propositions; second in the sense it while knowing it by naming it. Or for Kant: the world the that for him the set of all entities (all namings) that knower knows by naming it rests upon the ethics of his satisfy these axioms (that "model" it) are at the same naming. Or for cybernetics: Ashby used always to say in time a model (our model) of "the world" (about which his seminar, again and again, that the system is what the nothing can be said except in relation to the model of scientist chooses to call the system (may our choices be cognition). Furthermore, the Kantian model of cognition good choices.) -May we name "Adam" our "precursor"? "satisfies" itself; the model can mode.l itself with in­ We must say "no" not only because "he" is a creasing abstraction but without contradtion, recursively mytholigical figure but also because "precursor" em­ until a single point remains: the point that we can be and pirically makes no sense no matter to whom we give this are cognizant of our own cognition, that we name our­ name; we would say "yes" because consideration of this selves even as we name the things. -Every naming naming reveals to us the logic and the ethics of our names the namer just as he names the thing he names. namings. And therefore, finally, we would not say "non­ But the thing he names escapes his naming while he sense"! Cybernetics and Vom Kippur

Melvin F. Shakun New York University

Abstract This note explores the applicability of a cybernetic paradigm of systems to the religious holiday of Vom Kippur, the annual Day of Atonement in Judaism.

I ntrod uction ln control theory this cybernetic cycle is expressed at the operational Ievei as the pursuit of operational goals. ln [5) Shakun develops a hierarchical model for purposeful These are goals and means to attain them which are search, adaptation, and self-organization in purposeful defined by specific, unambiguous operations and systems. This includes a referral process between performance measures. Thus the cybernetic paradigm in operational goals and values wherein goals and/or values control theory is normally viewed as an operational can be changed. These goallvalue adjustments are inter­ model. lt is, however, also applicable to the non­ preted in [6) as discontinuous changes in operational operational or values Ievei as weil. As discussed in [4, 5), constraints and related values associated with discon­ the values and operational Ieveis are heirarchically tinuous changes in cognition (more generally, conscious­ related in a goals/values referral process. ness). We note here that such discontinuities can follow Turning to Yom Kippur, we note this is the annual Day from positive feedback within the cybernetic process. Of of Atonement for past sins and of turning back to God course the latter, through the use of negative feed­ through repentance. ln the Yom Kippur liturgy the word back, also allows for continuous change at both opera­ most often used for sin is het, which means "a miss"­ tional and values Ieveis. This view is consistent with an missing the target as an areher might miss it [1]. ln ernerging cybernetic paradigm of systems incorporating Judaism the target is to find God. The means is through nonequilibrium and hierarchical concepts [2, 3). right deeds. The Hebrew word for repentance, teshubah, lt is within the above context that we shall explore, in means "turning back"-turning back to God. This part, a religious paradigm. lt is for the Jewish Holy Day of involves deep sorrow for sins committed and a resolve Yom Kippur-the annual Day of Atonement. The explora­ not to repeat them. Thus the basic Yom Kippur paradigm tion is .of interest in its own right and indicative of the involves wide class of systems for which the above cybernetic 1. A target-to find God; paradigm is relevant. 2. A means-through right deeds; 3. Missing the target (sin or het) and repentance Cybernetics and Vom Kippur (teshubah) or correction-a turning back towards the ln modern control theory the basic cybernetic paradigm target. of control involves three steps [4): This Yom Kippur paradigm is evidently cybernetic at 1. Specification of goals and performance measures the nonoperational or values Ievei. Weshall develop it in influenced by feedback from step 3; a little further detail and relate it to the operational Ievei 2. Operation in pursuit of the goals through a course of as follows: action selected in step 3; 1. A target-to find God. This is perhaps the ultimate 3. Evaluation of performance resulting in respecifica­ value. The challenge is to translate this ultimate value tion of goals and reselection of a course of action for into more specific values-right deeds-by which to further operation. pursue it. 14 Vom Kippur

2. A means-through right deeds. The Torah as book may be interpreted as sins in choosing means-i.e., in and tradition [7] provides guidance to right deeds and choosing right deeds (values). They require positive feed­ oparational goals, thereby linking the values cycle to back, whereas het is handled by negative feedback. the oparational cyc!e which delivers the values. Thus the referral pr'ocess is guided by the Torah. REFERENCES 3. Missing the target-sin. lt is interesting that this in­ 1. Jacob, L., A Guide to Yom Kippur, Jewish Chronicle cludes sins of commission as weil as omission Publications, London, 1957. (opportunity costs). Repentance or correction­ 2. Jantsch, E., Design for Evolution, George Braziller, repentance, prayer, and charity avert the evil decree New York, 1975. and Iead man back to God. The Rabbis distinguish 3. Jantsch, E., and Waddington, C. H., (eds.) Evolution between repentance from fear (which is acceptable) and Consciousness, Addison-Wesley, Reading, and repentance from Iove (the highest form of Massachusetts, 1976. repentance). 4. Lewin, A.Y., and Shakun, M.F., Policy Sciences: The cybernetic cycle allows for use of negative and Methodologies and Gases, Pergarnon Press, New positive feedback. Negative or deviation-reducing York, 1976. feedback operates to bring the system on target when 5. Shakun, M.F., "Policy Making Under Discontinuous the goals remain fixed. Positive or deviation-amplifying Change: The Situational Normativism Approach," feedback permits a system to break out of its present Management Science, Vol. 22, No. 2, October 1975. structure and develop new goals [2]. lt is interesting that 6. Shakun, M.F., "Design, Values, Negotiations and in addition to het, meaning "a miss," there are two other Cognition in Adaptation of Purposetui Systems," Biblical Hebrew terms for sin. One is avon, which comes Computer Seiences and Management, Institut de from a root meaning "tobe crooked." The other is pesha, Recherche d'lnformatique et d'Automatique, Le meaning "rebellion" in the sense of a man who sets Chesnay, France, 1976. hirnself as the sole judge without reference to God, 7. Steinberg, M., Basic Judaism, Harcourt, Brace & evolution, or laws outside ot himselt. Avon and pesha World, New York, 1947. Cybernetics Research Appl ied to Nationa I Needs

Harold K. Hughes State University of New York Potsda m, New York 136 76

I ntrod uction passing through a boundary between two ages and is facing many of the same psychological adjustments that ln February 1971 a small group of American Society for people faced at previous boundaries, such as the Cybernetics members met at Arlie House in Warrenton, Renaissance and the industrial revolution. This new Virginia to consider the future of the Society and its boundary is marked by familiar signs. Technology has publications. This paper is a revision of the talk I pre­ achieved its goal of creating a surplus of goods and sented under the title "Agape-The Missing Box on services yet, even in America too many people live in Cybernetic Charts." poverty. While science has answered many of philo­ sophy's ancient puzzles it has failed to inform, much less ln his Ietter of invitation then-president Dr. Carl Hammer satisfy the majority of people that these answers are stressed the opportunity that the conference provid­ valid. Dramatic advances in health care capabilities have ed to examine how the ASC could assume "its right­ only shifted the problern from death by disease to catas­ ful place on the American and international scenes trophe by starvation and pollution. ln advanced countries for goal-directed research." While I applaud that higher education may have become too universal. lt has objective and will contribute to its realization, I wish to certainly failed to solve the identity crisis for half of the advocate a bolder agenda for the Society. lt seems to me occupants of hospital beds. that the numerous crises about us provide strong stimuli for science, and in particular the American Society for Present Perspective Cybernetics, to make unique contributions to society. We may recognize the belief of some that science and the The prospect isthat for at least five more years (in 1971 I management of society have little in common. For wrote ten more years) the nation will continue to show example, Lee A. Dußridge, Nixon's science adviser the signs of deterioration which so distress us, such as revealed that the president insisted that science prove its rising crime, low public morality, neglect of the work claim to being an instrument for solving social problems. ethic, and a declining sense of personal responsibility. ln Nevertheless, it is not true that for the ASC to accept any agreement with the Judeo-Christian heritage I assume lesser challenge is to belie the finest boast of its tradi­ that some agencies can and should intervene tostop this tion ..Said Plato in Cleitophon, " . . . the art of steering deterioration. Such a moralistic position is arbitrary, of (kubernetiken) men which is the name that you, Socrates, course. lt is subject neither to proof nor disproof, and frequently give to politics ... " One of Wiener's success is in doubt. associates and a participant in the conference stated this boast as follows: "Wiener viewed such subjects as At Arlie House I labeled the 1970's "The Decade of sociology and economics as branches of cybernetics." Values." Today, I would expand the title to "The Decade Theseare proud words. Are we ready to start delivering of Values and Systems" to recognize the importance of on their implied promise of a total systems approach to interactions among parts of society. This decade will human organization? Probably not, yet I believe we continue tobe a period in which the United States seeks should be devoting some of our resources to the task. a new consensus on goals, call them values if you wish, following the debacle summarized by the word "Watergate" but encompassing much more than Nixon's wrong­ Historical Perspective doings. The last formalconsensuswas published in 1960 By way of background to my proposed agenda for the by the President's (Eisenhower) Commission on National ASC, Iet us commence by recognizing that the nation is Goals under the title "Goals for Americans." 16 National Needs

The values which I saw in 1971 and still see in 1977 as This is a wise note of caution. Rather than "design" in likely to gain attention in the 1970's are as follows: the engineering sense I have come to think of the cyber­ 1. Recognition of human dignity. lncreased freedom, netic process when applied to society as closer to equality of the sexes, privacy of life and records. dynamic programming. One does not choose a static 2. The ecological v(sion, but this will not be achieved goal but rather asks the ongoing question, "Where do we until the late 1980's because of the energy shortage. go from here?" All static social designs fail. Short-term, some forms of pollution will increase. Boiler plate is a term borrowed from business to 3. Mandatory family planning. China and lndia have describe the housekeeping and other services that a adopted this policy. professional society, such as the American Society for 4. Highjob mobility, multiple careers. Both are common Cybernetics should perform for its members and its in the United States. lt is estimated that some 20% of discipline. lncluded are publications, meeting arrange­ the population moves each year. ments, and the like. Possibly the most important pro­ 5. lncrease in imposed and self-discipline; probably will ject this Society could perform in the next few years be delayed to the late 1980's. would be to promote an educational and experience 6. Guaranteed annual income and anational health plan. program for future managers. More will be said of this Theseare being discussed but arenot likely tobe law shortly. in the U.S. until1982 at the earliest. A major thrust of this paper, to be discussed further below, is that values should be included in cybernetics. What is Cybernetics? They are generally overlooked. Choosing to analyze nothing less than the universe of knowledge and experience, cybernetics can achieve dis­ Proposed Agenda tinction by fathering the holistic application of resources I propose that the ASC examine the opportunities pro­ needed to satisfy human needs or it can be a decaying vided by the crises about us in the perspective of the four ripple on a sea of timidity and small purpose. I would like areas described above. This can be done by establishing to think it can become the dominant discipline in the four or more task forces under the rubric Cybernetics interface between the post-industrial revolution and the Research Applied to National Needs (CRANN). The target next period before us which we might call "the age of of each CRANN task force should be specific cybernetics." recommendations for action (or no action) in its assigned There are at least four main areas of cybernetics, only area. A subsequent conference could set priorities, two of which have received much attention. These are allocate resources, consider strategies for theoretical cybernetics, practical applications, boiler implementation and seek sources of outside support. To plate, and values. provide a focus but not a Iimitation for each task force a Under theoretical cybernetics I would include most of few suggested topics are given in the following para­ the presently-available literature, including Golovin's graphs. The order is random and does not imply a ranking fourth branch of government, international monetary of priorities. exchange, and the whole field of policy science. Given the backgrounds and interests of Wiener, Bigelow, McCulloch, Pitts, Craik, Von Foerster, and other founders Theoretical Cybernetics it is not surprising that most developments up to the Targetsofthis CRANN task force would include develop­ present time are in theoretical cybernetics. ing a mechanism for society to make its social wisdom Practical applications of the cybernetics of inanimate cumulative just as science is cumulative, and to tabulate objects, such as control theory and linear programming, in the spirit of Berelson and Steiner[2]1aws of economic is a well-filled class. But when it includes humans, such and social interaction, with carefully delineated as in sociology and economics, practical applications is boundaries outside of which each law is invalid. almost an empty set. Unless the ASC fills this set its 1. Publish a "Handbook of Cybernetics" with chapters future will be quite limited. One participant wrote: "We composed by the most knowledgeable authors in each must design a world society which can communicate area. with and accommodate the seven billion people who will 2. With others outside the ASC examine the status of exist by the time we can implement it so they can all co­ Golovin's fourth branch of government. Does it now exist in peace." exist in part? Should it be promoted? A triend added a note of caution to this statement. 3. Develop flow charts showing the many ways that lt is always a question in my mind how much we can social changes come about. design a new world society. Wehave to understand man's 4. Even though life is non-linear cybernetic charts are still nature and the necessary interrelationships in society drawn as linear models. There is needed a theory of (whether we call them sociological, economic, cybernetic large, non-linear systems. Such a theory might prove or systemic) to do any design. ln any case, one cannot consider the human psyche or society infinitely plastic. to contain rich insights into bottlenecks which are im­ We must understand the nature of the material we deal peding social and economic progress. ln particular with if we are to manipulate it successfully, or at least there is needed an understanding how initial condi­ to guide it in certain directions, or get it to guide itself. tions determine the steady state solutions, how these This means you must explain your philosophy, proselyte steady states compete and cooperate, and how they and act.[1) grow, decline or merge with others. lf for the term Cybernetics Forum 17

"steady state" we substitute the word "nation" the opportunity to develop an equitable distribution system. immediate usefulness of this study becomes obvious. When that problern is solved he must learn new Some of the work of this CRANN task force might be motivations for service to his fellows which do not derive supported by a grant from the NSF's RANN program from competition for scarce resources. That such service (Research Applied to National Needs). is a requirement of his psyche is a clear message from many youth.[5] The ancient Greeks had a word for it which is still Practical Applications of Cybernetics appropriate, agape. Lest you have only an abridged As a summary of the importance of the work of this dictionary which stops with the meaning "Iove feast" CRANN task force we could use the words that Goethe here is a fuller definition: puts into the mouth of Mephistopheles in Faust: "My Unselfish Iove of one person for another without sexual dear friend, all theory is gray; the only green is the golden implications; brotherly Iove. A meal eaten in token of tree of life."[3] brotherly Iove and charity; a fellowship meal; a banquet Th is is a very important area for the ASC to work in. or gathering of persons to promote good feeling, restore Here are some possible topics for the task force on friendly relations, honor a special guest. practical applications: Agape is an important value and we must learn how to 1. International balance of payments. Special drawing put it into analyses, how to make group interest and self­ rights. Foreign economic aid to developing countries. interest coincide, how to generate feedback error signals Famine. The implications of a gold crisis and which make good social behavior attractive, how to maxi­ devaluation. mize the payout matrix for ethical action. We must learn 2. Must there be a trade-off between full employment how to connect a box labeled "agape" on cybernetics and inflation? The Phillips curve. charts and realize its embodiment in real life. ln short, 3. Jobs for welfare recipients. what is needed is a clear cost statement for agape vs 4. Population control. selfishness.[6] There is also a need for a Leontieff-type 5. The economic consequences of full employment, a input/output matrix of social values and costs. steady-state, anational health plan, and a guaranteed Democracy is one of the great values of the West. annual income. Since in some cases it is inefficient, slow, and dis­ organized it is certain to remain under attack for some Boiler Plate years while pressures mount for solutions to social pro­ blems. Another committee of the ASC should examine Topics which this CRANN task force could consider the foundations of democracy and how these may be include: affected by mass communication, synaptic manage­ 1. Prepare grant requests. ment, electronic surveillance, centralized personal data 2. Strengthen the Journal of Cybernetics and Information banks, and new techniques of chemical, electrical, and Science, and the Cybernetics Forum. surgical brain control. 3. Form a committee on cybernetic nomenclature. 4. Establish a flexible program to educate national man­ agers. Alternate them between work and training Perspectives of the Future periods. France and Russia already have such pro­ grams active. ln musing about the Arlie House conference in the inter­ vening six years l've wondered how practical the proposals above are for the ASC or for any other pro­ Values: Wither Are We Tending? fessional group. Has the time come for cybernetics? As From among the numerous stable cultures which have an aid to answering that question l've prepared a series persisted over long periods, or from among new possible of forecasts extending into the next century. Each fore­ cultures, which ones do we prefer? Some famous per­ cast is stated without reference to the forces which may sons have asked the same question. cause it, whether controllable or not. The reasons for lf we could first know where we are, and wither we are each are beyond the scope of this paper. tending, we could then better judge what to do, and how to do it. (Abraham Lincoln) 1980's: The Decade of Famine and Pollution There is only one quality more important than know·how. 1. Millions die of starvation every year. This is know·what by wh ich we determine not only how to 2. Dematerialization of values among prosperous accomplish our purposes, but what our purposes are to nations. be. (Norbert Wiener) 3. End of the protestant ethic and of economic man in A triend has said it rather succinctly in these words. developed countries. 4. End of conspicuous consumption. Cybernetics is concerned with steersmanship but it doesn't say what your journey should be.[4] Comment: I am not as certain of 2-4 as of 1.

Agape 1990's: The Decade of Euthenics The Missing Box on Cybernetic Charts 1. Rebuilding after the famine. For the first time in history man has a temporary abun­ 2. Decline of crime and war. dance of goods, but is destroying by overpopulation the 3. Decay of computer-assisted instruction. 18 National Needs

4. Psychological crisis of the West in a plateau culture. Conclusion 5. Rise of the scholar and the artist. I believe today, even more strongly than in 1971 that the 6. Conservation comes of age. time for a cybernetics (systems) approach to social 7. Growth of international law; a strong United Nations. organization is now. While Goedel's theorem may Iimit 8. Poverty about gonein the United States. the completeness of an analysis there do appear to be 9. Complete integration of races and groups. extensive areas of commonality between science and the ln 1971 Rubin commented on the last prediction as management of society. Professionals should be about follows: the task of exploring those areas. I do not believe that complete integration of races (as distinct from desegregation) is something we REFERENCES want, because with the removal of specialization and of differentiation there will be more com­ 1. Milton D. Rubin, private communication. petition. There will always be resources to com­ 2. Berelson, Bernard, and Steiner, Gary A., Human pete for. Specialization and speciation make for Behavior: An lnventory of Scientific Findings, New less intense competitiori.[1] York, Harcourt, Brace and World, lnc., 1964. 3. I am indebted to Edward A. Ruestow for this rendering 2000's: The Homeostatic World of the original German, "Grau, teuer Freund, ist alle 1. Eugenics by control of genes (DNA). Theorie und gruen des Lebens goldner Baum." Personal 2. Population of USA leveled at 300 million. communcation. 3. Three days of make-work per week. 4. Myron A. Coler, personal communication ~ 4. Low productivity, end of the Taylor-men. 5. Comment by Milton D. Rubin in 1971: "I maintain that 5. Low studentlfaculty ratio in colleges. as we reach abundance our systemic relations become 6. Philosophy flourishing. more closely coupled, resulting in serious pollution, 7. Brain control of criminals. and there will always be competition for scarce re­ 8. Theorems of Goedel, Church, and Heisenberg taught sources like low-sulfur oil. As we use more materials in primary grades. we will have to be more concerned about wastes, so 9. Synthetic life; artificial organ banks (not brains); there may not be a cheap abundance." Ionger life. 6. Comment by Milton D. Rubin in 1971: "I think we need 10. The ultra-intelligent machine challenges man at to understand trade-off amongst values. ln many ways severallevels. group interest and self-interest may tend tobe irrecon­ 11. Long-range planning by decades or more. cilable. We would like to optimize the relationship but 12. End of war we must understand them first." ------

Cvbernetics and the Oillssue

Herbert W. Robinson Internationa I Management Systems Corporation Washington, DC 20036

The United States is faced with the problern of increasing Then, obviously, at any time: self sufficiency in energy in order to reduce the threat to national security stemming from the present U.S. critical Oillmports = dependence on oil imports under the complete control of n = N 11 =__N a wholly foreign international cartel. Proposed solutions I: Consumption 1u- 2.: Domestic Production 11 . t to the energy problern have tended to focus on oil rather n=l 11=! than on other forms of energy. Arriving at a sound n=N national long-run policy on oil consumption, production + I; !:::, I nventory 11. t n=J and imports has become a highly controversial issue, polarizing the Congress and the President, Democrats Where 6 lnventory 11 . t is the increase in inventory of and Republicans. source n between time t-1 and time t. The oil issue is extremely complex. A host of interacting factors must be considered if the problern is This fundamental supply-demand equation can be to be solved rigorously. Yet, in public discussion, the extended over time by means of tunetionals so that a issue seems to have revolved mainly about only one of dynamic model of future oil imports is derived. the variables, namely the price of oil. This focus of ln elaborating this fundamental market equation, the attention on one variable, and the resulting simplistic Cybernetician would identify certain economic coeffi· approach being taken to the solution of the energy cients which relate demand for each type of energy to its problem, has resulted in two diametrically opposite price in the marketplace, domestic production to its price solutions by the Congress and the President­ in the marketplace, and imports of each non-oil form of astounding when the Cybernetic approach offers means energy to its price in the marketplace. These of identif'{ing a range of optimal alternative strategies. relationships are, of course, of the normal form. Demand lt might be worth while elaborating how the Cybernetic falls with increase in price and domestic production approach would attempt to contribute to a solution of the increases with an increase in price. oil problem. First, the Cybernetician would insist that a lt is significant, however, that in the first place, comprehensive view be taken of the whole energy Government restrictions on prices of oil and natural gas economy, and that all variables for all existing and have created not a single market price of oil and natural potential sources of energy anc;l their interactions with gas in the U.S. marketplace, but a spectrum of prices each other, be included in the analysis. For the sake of covering imports, old production and new production. this article Iet us assume that there are N different And in the second place, no one apparently, has sources of energy available, including oil, natural gas, developed the precise shapes of the curves relating propane, coal, hydroelectric power, wood, as weil as demand for each form of "energy" to its market price, or many presently uneconomic sources such as solar relating production of such "energy" to market price if power, geothermal power, tides and oil shale. Assurne oil only one equilibrum price-the free marketprice-were is the Nth source. Measure all quantities in energy units. to prevail. 20 The Oillssue

To complete the Cybernetic approach we should also numerous variables involved in the problem; it would be a array the whole set of alternative government actions truly cybernetic solut+en. - which might conceivably be utilized in solving the energy A variety of political, social and economic constraints problem. These consist of: physical control of the volume may also be imposed in implementing such a solution of imports, tariffs on imports, price control, rationing, technique. Such constraints might be that the cost of the taxes on different 'products which use energy, taxes on reduction of imports be spread over different income consumption, subsidies to energy-saving investment (e.g. groups in proportion to their marginal tax rate, that insulation), subsidies to various forms of energy different areas of the country not suffer a higher cost per investment, subsidies to production, etc. capita than others, that employment impacts in different The Congress and the President, in their proposals to parts of the country be distributed evenly, and so on. solve the problem, have given passing attention to a Most of these kinds of constraints are essentially number of the basic facts and relationship§ and possible political in nature and their introduction could obstruct Government interventions which are involved. However, any feasible solution to the problem. Discussions of the the Cybernetic approach must insist that every oil issue in the Congress, by the President and by the conceivable variable be given its due weight simul­ media merely ignore mos·t of the complexities and impli­ taneously. Moreover, we must establish from the outset, citly use intuitive, extremely simplified (and therefore a national objective function which will control the fallacious) models. optimization of the solution of the problem. We must lf one regards the overall discussion as presented in also introduce constraints which would exclude or the media as some indication of the implicit desired confine those areas in which solutions might be found Gbjective function of society and the types of constraints but which are unacceptable for one reason or another. . which the nation would like to impose on any solution of ln the case of the objective function, one simple the problem, two main thrusts seem so far to have been objective might be "to eliminate oil imports, by some dominant. First, there has been an implication that no date, regardless of the cost to society." Another objec­ solution is acceptable which would raise oil prices tive might be "to minimize imports subject to no addi­ significantly or even increase the cost to society in any tional cost whatever to society," or "to minimize oil im­ way. Obviously there can be no reduction in imports, ports subject to some upper Iimit to the cost to society," given the technological and economic relationships or "to minimize imports subject to no increase in the involved, which can satisfy this condition. The other price of oil," or if we wished to become more sophisti­ thrust, which has only been implicit, is a desire in some cated, to develop a set of indifference curves of cost to quarters to utilize the oil problern (and, incidentally, any society as a function of a given reduction of oil imports, other problem) as an opportunity to achieve each curve representing the combinations of cost and redistribution of the national income. This, of course, is amount of curtailment which are subjectively equally perfectly legitimate so long as everyone is aware that acceptable, the higher curves representing the least this objective has been added as part of the objective costly indifference curves. function, but I suspect that since it is implicit rather than We can then confront the indifference curves (the explicit much of the disputation and polarization we objective function) with the opportunity curve, the latter encounter arises out of the fact that the different parties being the curve relating a given reduction of oil imports involved have different views of the degree to which to the lowest cost to society of achieving that reduction, those two objectives should be combined in solving the given the technological and economic relationships and problem. the various constraints. The optimal solution for society Clearly the oil issue is one which might benefit enor­ at any time would be represented by that particular point mously from the cybernetic approach. lf the true trade­ on the graph which enables society to climb to its offs were only known between all of the various possible highest possible indifference curve (opportunity curve combinations of Government action and regulation per­ tangential to the highest achievable indifference curve.) haps even the politicians would amend their rigid And that point would imply the particular set of Govern­ stances and narrow the choice to alternative solutions ment interventions associated with minimizing the cost which, while perhaps not optimal, would at least be in the of achieving that particular reduction of imports. lt is to restricted domain of the most efficient solutions and not, be noted that such an approach would take account of as now, at diametrically opposite and, possibly, quite every feedback and every feedforward of every one of the inefficient ends of the spectrum. Cybernetic Factars in Economic Sys-tems

Edward M. Duke The Cybertechnic Institute San Jose, California 95123

lntroduction total economic balance. lf either internal or external dis­ Many studies have been made to explain the complex order develops, the system will be forced to change its behavior of economic systems. One of the most famous behavioral response. ln extreme cases, response may is the input-output analysis of Wassily Leontief.1 ln this cease altogether. Because of this, these capabilities study he showed the interrelationships of consumer become the inherent cybernetic Iimits of the system. This inputs and producer outputs. Like many matrix analyses, phenomenon is explained by several behavioral cyber­ this one does not fully identify the cybernetic nature of netic concepts. the factors involved. Feedback can be present which has Behavioral Cybernetics recognizes two dimensions of a cybernetic nature. Other factors generally exist that order that influence all organismic systems. These are have a cybernetic effect on system response. ln his ex­ the physical and biological dimensions of order. The plorations into behavioral cybernetics, John Voevodsky biological dimensions are zero for purely physical sys­ hypothesizes that there are major cybernetic I imits tems, but with organismic systems, physical, physiologi­ beyond which the system cannot continue to operate.2 cal and psychological dimensions are present. Where Theseare Iimits where the Iosses will exceed the gains. lf restricted to humans these dimensions are commonly these Iimits are examined with respect to the termed human factors of order. When applied to communication processing that takes place within all economic systems, they are known as the physical, dynamic systems, other cybernetic factors emerge to economic and judicial capabilities of the system. The explain why economic systems behave the way they do. balance between these three dimensions will affect the total weil being of the economic system. Behavioral cybernetics also identifies two major ex­ Behavioral Cybernetic Concepts ternal factors that are important in explaining system Behavioral cybernetics maintains that the response of all behavior. Theseare the external source of inputs and the organismic systems is the sum of two actions. These are external consumer of outputs. Each has a physical, the maintenance of internal and external balance. economic and judicial nature that will affect the balance Interna! balance is achieved through a three-step of order in interacting systems. The points of maximum communication process consisting of input processing, available inputs and outputs are cybernetic Iimits that response programming and transformation processing. cannot be exceeded. The balance maintained during each step influences the ln summation, the economic system is constantly ability of the system to exist dynamically. This internal involved with maintaining an internal and external en­ balance can also be affected by the manner in which vironment. The internal environment is established by external balance is achieved. The ability of the system to proper input processing, response programming and sustain external balance is alsodependent on the degree transformation processing. External balance is achieved of internal balance. The establishment of external by acquiring inputs and marketing outputs. The overall balance involves the manner in which inputs are obtained process of generating internal and external balance can and outputs are transmitted. ln economic systems these be shortened to the steps of acquiring, producing and two steps are termed acquiring and marketing. marketing. This process exhibits physical, economic and The establishment of internaland external balance can judicial properties. These properties are internal be abbreviated into a three-step operation consisting of cybernetic Iimits which will influence the behavior of the acquiring, producing and marketing. The capability of the system. There are also two external factors cyberneti­ system to properly perform each step will determine the cally limiting the performance of the system. These 22 Factors in Economic Systems

factors are the availability of inputs and markets. They all three functions can be reduced by introducing feed­ too are cybernetic Iimits beyend which the system back. Feedback diminishes the interrelationships to a cannot operate. Like the internal factors, these factors practical Ievel. will have physical, economic and judicial characteristics. Accumulating inputs and outputs within the system is The manner in w~ich all of these factors of order a form of feedback. lt helps the system to develop a more influence the behavior of economic systems can be stable balance. Stockpiling inputs allows the acquir­ determined through input-output analysis. ability tobe less than the producibility. lt also decreases the dependency of producibility on acquirability. in addition, if an adequate amount of stockpiled inputs is Input-Output Analysis mtaintained, the etfect of acquirability on marketability When conducting input-output analysis, the general pro­ is lessened. Accumulating inventory outputs can cedure is to chart accumulative inputs consumed versus eliminate the need for the marketability tobe matched to accumulative outputs produced. Either linear or log-log the fluctuations in producibility. Sudden increases in graph paper can be used. The use of log-log paper makes production wastes can be absorbed without upsetting it easier to analyze large amounts of data and it reduces the economic balance. The net results of using both the significance of minor variations in system response. forms of feedback is to increase the general economic lf each data point charted on linear paper represents uni­ balance. form passage of time, the variation between points The etfect of introducing equal acquirability and defines the rate of action (reference Figure 1). lt the marketability feedback into economic systems is shown

BO 100

~ ::::> a. Cf) z f­ ::::la. z

OUTPUTS OUTPUTS FIGURE 1 FIGURE2 0 FEEDBACK FIGURE3 action rate is increasing, the space between the puints will be increasing. When a line is drawn through these in Figure 3. Studying this chart reveals the nature of points, the slope of the line is a measure of the etficiency these functions and indicates the manner in which the of the system to produce the response being measured. lt plots should be interpreted. As stated earlier, the acquir­ the response is constantly 100% etficient, a straight line ability plot indicates the efficiency at which inputs are will be produced with a slope of torty-five degrees. The acquired to the quantity consumed. As the acquirability line 0-100 in Figure 2 is such a response. lf the system is decreases, the plot will take a more horizontal path. On only constantly 80% efficient, a plot-like line 0-80 is pro­ the other hand, the marketability shows the efficiency at duced. The straight line indicates that the system has which outputs are marketed to the outputs produced. As adapted and learned to control the response. A curved the marketability decreases, the path will be more line indicates the system has not adjusted. vertical. The producibility is a measure of the efficiency lf the acquirability, producibility or marketability of the ot converting inputs into outputs. Decreases in produci­ economic system is charted using accumulative input­ bility moves its trajectory toward the vertical and closer output analysis, a plot similar to Figure 2 can be to the acquirability Iimits while increasing producibility obtained. All three functions can be plotted simulta­ moves the path toward the horizontal and closer to the neously on one chart without any interference occurring. marketability Iimits. Acquirability can be plotted showing the ratio ot inputs The amount of teedback that can be developed by the acquired to inputs consumed. Producibility can be system is dependent on its ability to acquire inputs and plotted showing inputs consumed to outputs produced. market-produced outputs. in turn this capability depends Marketability can be charted showing the ratio of outputs on the physical, economic and judicial order the system produced to outputs marketed. When all three modified can sustain. lt is a measure of the external balance functions are plotted on one chart the cybernetic achieved and the power to acquire and market. lt is also a relationships of each becomes apparent. measure of the control obtained. Profits (the measure of Assurne a simple 100% efficient system in which the economic order and control) must be realized on the inputs are consumed as rapidly as they are acquired and energy invested or a loan must be obtained before transformed immediately into outputs that are marketed feedback can be realized. 1he degree to which this as soon as they are produced. The line 0-100 in Figure 2 is economic order is successfully applied to maint?ining representative of this system. in this simple system all internal and external balance is a measure ot the judicial three functions must be matched to maintain economic order. A low degree of judicial order may erase the balance. This may prove to be a difficult if not an economic order achieved. This will also reduce the power impossible task. However, the need to constantly match factor of the system. The power tactor is the total of the ' Cybernetics Forum 23 physical, economic and judicial order established. The economic stability of the producer or passed on to the area between the acquirability and marketability in consumer. ln some businesses this could amount to an Figure 3 is representative of the power factor of the increase in income of 5 percent if only manufacturing system. lt is indicative of the capability of the economic waste was controlled. There are similar Iosses in pur­ system to establish and maintain the control needed for chasing, marketing, engineering and customer service. its own welfare. lncreasing production efficiency, by the 5 percent The previous graphs do not indicate the effects of the indicated, would give us time to develop more efficient externallimits of maximum available inputs and markets. methods of acquirability and marketability. Obviously, These Iimits are shown in Figure 4. When acquirability, many countries have not been able to determine the amount of feedback needed to maintain economic I I _ MAX A'01LABLE I':!_PUTS I __ MAX AVAILABLE INPUTS I balance. As most countries have found, you can't solve -. ------,, ... ,:"1: this problem by legislating how this is to be w w /' I ~ accomplished. Rather, it appears that our best ho;:>e is to ~ I~ ::::> ~ , ...... ' ,/ ~ Q. I~ a. ••~. ~4.., I o:: borrow from industry and apply some of the principles z , ... <'' ' , <( ~ •••<0,\; ~'v IK: I::;: and methods of quality control...... ~~\X ::::,0' /~ UJ ••••• 1'0: o<:> / :p aj Ii • ~~ 14: :s 1:::! ..: /~ l:cc Quality Control for Economic Systems ,/,;r ~ I><( The first act needed is to establish standards that define I X what quality Ievei is acceptable. The standard can come OUTPUTS I; / OUTPUTS ~ from without but the solution must come from within the ° FIGURE4 I 0 FIGURE 5 I economic system. lt must be permitted to establish in­ ternal controls that will assure success but not adversely producibility and marketability are optimally related to affect the economic balance of other economic systems. these Iimits, the conditions illustrated in Figure 5 are This is not a simple task. The present economic con­ present. They indicate the economic cybernetics that ditions are evidence that we have not yet learned how to must be considered to understand economic system develop economic control standards. lt is as though we behaviour. have no controls and have not learned that all systems without control tend toward disorder. Economic Cybernetics One way to overcome this situation is to perform input­ The importarit consideration depicted in Figure 5 is that output analysis of acquirability, producibility and the acquirability and marketability of the system, marketability to identifY. the failure factors. ln quality coupled with the input and market availability are cyber­ control, the type of waste (material, equipment and netic boundaries for producibility. The area enclosed by Iabor), the manner in which the waste was produced acquirability and marketability represent the only zone of (procuring, manufacturing, engineering, marketing, etc.), economic order for production. To maintain economic the action taken to minimize the effect of failure stability, producibility must be adjusted to this zone. lf (restoration and salvage) and the human error that the acquirability or marketability are approached by produced the waste (design, planning, equipment selec­ producibility, either the producibility will have to be tion, equipment maintenance, workmanship, etc.) are improved or reduced, or the specific capability being identified and costed. With this information, it is possible exceeded will have to be altered to compensate for the to identify the group or person responsible for failure and degree of producibility that exists. lf this latter condition request that action be taken to correct the condition and is not possible and the producibility cannot be changed, produced the failure. a state of disorderwill occur and production must stop until order is restored. The Iosses will exceed the gains. Performance Prediction lt appears that improved efficiency of acquirability, producibility and marketability is the only real corrective Input-outputanalysis can also be used to predict system action 'possible for economic systems in a non­ behavior if the system is not changed. The author has ac­ monopolistic environment. Of the three, producibility curately predicted manufacturing losses. When the seems to be the one factor that the system can most predicted inbalance was identified and the cause was easily control. Acquirability and marketability, as pointed fully defined, the responsible unit corrected itself. out earlier, are influenced by external factors. The Prediction of failure costs is not difficult provided the priorities in correcting economic instability become first method of obtaining data is not changed and the system to improve the producibility and then to improve the has not changed its mode of operation. The planned system capability being exceeded. Reversing these consumption-production can be added to the existing priorities can Iead to disorder. data and the path of past performance can be extended Most economic systems, however, have not worried to indicate the unknown parameter. about waste. As a result, waste has been accelerating at lf input-output analysis can be used to accurately 3 to 10 percent per year in many businesses. This has predict manufacturing losses, it is evident that this been an inflationary force and an economic depressant analytical method should be capable of predicting for many economic systems. lf this trend could be halted behavior of national economic systems. Unfortunately, and reduced , the savings could be utilized to improve the the author has not had all of the information needed to 24 Factors in Economic issues substantiate this hypothesis. The stock market has been REFERENCES suggested as a valid index of marketability but it appears 1. Leontief, W. Input-output Economics. New York: Ox­ to be more an index of economic aspirations than per­ ford University Press, 1966. formance. What is needed is actual acquirability, 2. Voevodsky, J., Behavioral Cybernetics. San Jose, CA: producibility and rnarketability performance data. For An exploration by San Jose State University, 1970. those who have access to such national data for the last ten years, it would be interesting to see if, when the producibility was plotted against the acquirability and marketability, the present and past economic conditions could have been predicted and explained. The author would welcome the result of any such analysis.

Conclusions. When input-output analysis is modified by the concepts of behavioral cybernetics, additional cybernetic factors for economic systems can be identified. lt is also evident that these factors can be used for predicting economic response and for planning the failure prevention and corrective action needed to maintain economic balance. The degree to which this awareness exist can affect the economic balance obtained. Ethical Dimensions in Design and Useofa Socio-economic Model*

Frederick Kile Aid Association for Lutherans Appleton, Wl54919

Abstract attempt at size; this Ievei of subdivision of the social/ economic/political world system permits selection of at This paper describes design assumptions, rationale, and least one specific nation within each majortype of region methods used in the design, construction, and ongoing as a focus for Observation. For example, we have select­ redesign of a thirty-region world model. The model is a ed Bangladesh as the representative of the Fourth World practical vehicle for scenario analysis via modeler inter­ (resource-poor Third Wprld nations). Other nations repre­ vention based on quantified presuppositions. This sented individually for varying reasons include: Iran, approach enhances the ability of the decision maker to West Germany, Brazil, lndonesia, Nigeria, and Turkey, use computer-based models. This model is also a vehicle besides those nations generally regarded as great through which one can test the feasibility of introducing powers. ethical factors into scenario analysis. We chose to regionalize RW 111 by nations and group­ ings of nations because of accessibility of data and rela­ Purpose tive ease of comparison, especially with respect to Regional World 111 (RW 111) was designed as a working tool validation. Obviously, a much finer breakdown could be to gain insight into the ethical implications of computer offered by increasing the number of regions. However, modeling of social Situations. The model is intended to fineness of breakdown loses some of its significance if provide an interface between those in the scientific/ the sizes of regions become too disparate, whether mea­ technical community who are beginning to apply sophis­ sured in people, economic strength, agricultural pro­ ticated analytical techniques to social/economic/ duction or any of several alternative ways. political Situationsand those whose concerns have tradi­ There are sound reasons for choosing different modes tionally been ethical/humanitarian but are now interact­ of regionalizing, e.g., linguistic, ethnic, religious, geo­ ing across a broader spectrum with scientists/engineers graphical breakdowns, but we have temporarily bypassed and with social decision makers. This project is an these alternatives, in part because of data problems attempt to increase awareness of this interaction within but more importantly because we believe that political the Christian community in particular, but the ethical and considerations prevail in the short run, and political value dirnensions of the current world situation cut boundaries cut across almost every kind of social across boundaries of creed and philosophical persuasion. boundary. We cite the following examples of political considerations superseding other factors in the short run: The differing economic behaviors of East and West Regionalization of the Model Germany in spite of linguistic identity and ethnic ties, The currently operating version of RW 111 encompasses divergences in political behavior between the lslamic approximately 99 percent of the earth's population community within the Soviet Union and the lslamic (omitting only the population of a few relatively minor nations in general, and geographic anomalies such as islands in the Pacific). The model divides the world into the Separation between Chinese in Hong Kong and other thirty regions (three times the number of the next most Chinese or the division of the naturally unified St. highly disaggregated model). This is not simply an Lawrence River basin by the U.S.-Canadian boundary and (at bottom of poge) *Paper presented at 1975 International Conference on Cybernetics and Society, sponsored by Systems, Man and Cybernetics Society, 23-25 September 1975, San Francisco, California. 26 Ethical Dimensions the formerly economically integrated Danube Basin by even computer-based models, depending on one's frame the lron Curtain. of reference). For example, in the model of an America in I have been in frequent touch with Robbin Hough of which a dollar I spent created new employment which Oakland University, Michigan1 regarding a river basin upgraded the economy which redounded to my economic model which I respec;:t highly as a long-term descriptor of benefit, I was encouraged to consume an ever-broader socioeconomic phenomena but consider less reliable range and !arger quantity of goods. Conversely, in a than a politically differentiated model in tracking short­ model of America which sees this nation as term behavior of the world system. One could make a unfortunately dependent on foreign oil for economic well­ strong case for the point that the initial endowments of being I am encouraged to save goods, especially regions determine their history, but I believe a stronger petroleum-based products. The shift. in public con­ case can be made for the thesis that, given the present sciousness from one model to another is occurring at nexus of international relationships, political considera­ the same time as the causal events themselves. More­ tions often define thresholds of tension which require over, differing response times among economic pheno­ a quantum socio-political jump to cross. lt seems further mena and social phenomena give rise to many insta­ that this threshold value has been raised substantially bilities, some localized but nevertheless with long-range by the threat of nuclear war. effects, e.g., rising unemployment has altered many ernerging economic groups' perceptions of the hope for Gontributions to the State of the Modeling Art long-term justice and shifted the tactics governing their actions. This project hopes to advance the state of the modefing Obviously, the challenge to modelers dealing with art in two ways: 1) by introducing new combinations of ethics and values is staggering, but people are working in proven techniques to permit a dynamic simulation which this area. [3, 4] Weshall be among these people. is interactive on three bases: intra-region, inter-region, and year-by-year, 2) by introducing sliding scale social­ choice equations into a dynamic model and testing Application Techniques ranges of choices to attempt to predict their effects, and The combination of techniques we presently use permits more importantly, to illustrate the relative effect a poten­ us to study the sensitivity of regionallglobal behavior to tial user might experience by increasing or decreasing a selected perturbations. Our method is patterned after the chosen social priority. I shall comment briefly on each of technique of observing control system outputs these two aspiring advances in the state of modeling. associated with inputs of known characteristics. We First, we believe our mix of techniques has the advan­ study output of both the total system and the Sub­ tage of replacing one type of dynamic representation of systems (nations and relatively homogeneaus or the world by a more dynamic representation of the same cohesive groupings of nations). lndustrial economic system. Earliest dynamic Simulations tended to re­ activity is tracked over eight separate sectors, and present major socioeconomic phenomena on a world­ natural resources are divided into coal, oil and others wide basis. Later Simulations represented the same or (primarily ores). We anticipate further sub-dividing the parallel phenomena on a multi-region, worldwide basis petroleum resource sector into oil and natural gas without representing interactions among regions and sectors and incorporating nuclear electrical generating among various socioeconomic phenomena each year. capacity as aseparate industrial sector. The most recent We believe we have added a third dimension to this effort additions have included regional measures of the by tracking similar phenomena on a multi-region basis material standard of living and of waste. Waste and with year-by-year interaction. industrial production are used as inputs to an algorithm Surely, we know that in the world system there are too designed to show relative increases or decreases in many inputs to be dealt with to hope to represent more pollution. than a few in dynamic terms. Remaining inputs must be We have incorporated a special algorithm to deal with assumed constant and thus either totally external to the a regional shortfall in available oil. The algorithm assigns model or at best represented by constant coefficients. the shortfall burden to each of seven basic sectors Some improvement in representation can be achieved by according to a rationing array. The renewable resource the Deiphi method mentioned below. Aside from production sector is exempted because this sector repre­ potential Delphi-related improvements in technique, the sents renewable energy production (hydroelectric, tidal best hope in improving our method of dealing with a !arge power, etc.). Iterative solution of this algorithm is number of variables seems to lie with some sort of semi­ necessary whenever the shortfall is greater than the automated modeling technique. Some interesting allowable burden per sector. For example, if consumer groundwork has been laid in this area by James Burns.2 demand for oil were 20 percent of normal consumption Second, sliding-scale social choice equations offer great and there was a 30 percent shorttall, other sectors would promise in that this technique may point to the kinds of have to share the burden even if the consumer sector change needed to avoid severe problems in a region or series were cut off completely. This algorithm not only appor­ of regions. I must point out at this juncture that while some tions shortfall burdens but provides measures of demand modelers and model analysts would have us develop a set of supplied by sectortobe used in figuring industrial output world equilibrium criteria, that equilibrium will be only a mir­ and demand for new equipment as weil as an energy satis­ age unless the regions within this world (at least those re­ faction fraction which serves as a building block for use gions capable of precipitating a holocaust) are also stable. in constructing the measure of material standard of living. Cybernetics Forum 27

Values assigned in the rationing array are inputs based ported resources on the price os those resources. A on subjective modeler assessment of regional priorities. simulated doubling of other resource prices results in a As in the case with many social priorities, better input rapidly accelerating out-flow of funds, especially from values can be furnished by panels of area experts using vulnerable regions such as the United Kingdom, but the the Deiphi technique. benefits aremorediffuse than in the case of oil. A Ionger The methodology is a mix of finite difference equa· run (10-20 years) showsextreme pressure on oil and other tions with input/output balancing techniques. Socio· resource deficient nations (Western Germany, Japan). economic priorities of the various regions are presently set by the modeling team, but the application lends Additional Notes itself very weil to the Deiphi technique of multiple-blind interaction among experts. 'Provisions are also incor­ The model is coded in FORTRAN using just under 800 porated for automatic fine adjustment of priorities if lines of active instructions with a number of nested loops target values (which can also be set by the Deiphi accommodating the multiple interactions among regions technique) for selected parameters are not met. For and sectors of economic activity. Execution in the batch example, if targeted industrial exports from one mode requires about 100K on an IBM 370/158. As the economic sector, e.g., agricultural equipment, from a model has grown we have gradually increased use of the region fall short of a preselected percentage of total batch mode and decreased testing in the TSO (Time economic activity within the region, the quotas for the Sharing Option) mode using interactive debug. This region can be retargeted automatically (or, if the modeler change was necessitated as the program reached the prefers, only at his/her intervention). size Iimit provided for the TSO mode in our computer installation. However, we still use the TSO mode to make Results data entries and to submit program changes and test results. Moreover, we are committed to continuous Results of this project are primarily in the area of model review and improvement of data to enhance model improvement at this state. Two design emphases have performance. guided development of RW 111: 1) modifications to promote greater internal consistency (verification); 2) modifications to enhance tracking of real-world socio­ REFERENCES economic phenomena (validation). Since validation 1. Robbin Hough and Kenneth Moberg, "Initial based on observed behavior is a prerequisite to use of a Endowments and Regional Definitions," presented at model as a credible vehicle for forecasting, successes in 1975 Meeting of the Michigan Economics Society, tracking empirical socioeconomic phenomena can be Grand Rapids, Michigan. classed as results. The following examples represent 2. James R. Burns, "Toward a Mathematically Rigorous some of these successes. Wehave succeeded in tracking Methodology for Simulation of Social Processes," population growth/stability of most regions to a degree of presented at Summer Computer Simulation Conference, accuracy weil within the Iimits of present census San Francisco, July 1975. reliability. Wehave been able to demonstrate the rapidly 3. Barry B. Hughes, Gase Western Reserve University, accelerated shift of funds from the industrialized nations Cleveland, Ohio, June 1974, "An Approach to UTOPIA," to the major oil producers following a quadrupling of oil a working paper, prepared in conjunction with Hartmut base price. For example, raising the base price for oil Bosse I (see Reference 4). from $20 per metric ton to $80 per metric ton resulted in 4. Hartmut Bosse!, "Notes on Basic Needs, Priorities and raising surplus funds of oil exporting Arab nations from Normative Change," Institut für Systemtechnik und $11 billion to $56 billion in the fourth year. Innovationsforschung (ISI), D 75 Karlsruhe, Breslauer We have shown the parallel but less critical de· Strasse 48, West Germany, June 1975. pendence of industrial nations relying on other im- The Different Meanings of Cybernetics

V.G. Drozin Bucknell University Lewisburg, Pennsylvania 17838

lntroduction Wiener [4] is the most outstanding representative of this As we know Cybernetics has different meaning for various point of view. ln his first book, Cybernetics, he defines experts using this term. lt should not disturb us. After all, cybernetics as the "theory of control and communication the meaning of physics was also ambiguous for a long in the animal and the machine". (lt seems that the term time. lt took time for natural sciences to establish them­ "communication" in this definition is redundant since no selves as sciences independent from natural philosophy control is possible without communication.) The book is under which name they were originally taught. lt is rather mathematical in its content. Wiener [5] claims that possible that at its present stage Cybernetics plays the "Cybernetics is nothing if it is not mathematical if not iri same role for future sciences of control as natural esse then in posse" (p. 88). This requirement effectively philosophy played for natural sciences. Conceivably, a excludes social systems from cybernetic consideration: number of new disciplines may emerge from cybernetics, " ... social sciences are a bad proving ground for the each dealing with a special kind of control. However, we ideas of cybernetics ... " He suggests that social appli­ should carefully follow the development of Cybernetics cation of cybernetics be delayed until sufficient progress to identify its various directions and degree of success in is achieved in the technological use of cybernetics. each direction. Particularly we should refrain from ex­ Somewhat coherent with Wiener's views are those of cessive claims so common for any new branch of Pask. [6] "Cybernetics is primarily the science of construct­ knowledge and promise only that which we can deliver. ing, manipulating, and applying cybernetic models which Otherwise we run the risk of losing reputation among our represent the organization of physical entities (such as fellow scientists and confidence of the general public. animals, brains, societies, industrial plants, and The major disagreement exists about the nature of machines) or symbolic entities (such as information Cybernetics. ls Cybernetics a science as the majority of systems, languages and cognitive processes)". cyberneticists think? The argument for this point of view Ashby's [7] definition reflects similar ideas. According to is presented by S. Beer. [1] ls it an art to assure the him, "Cybernetics deals with all forms of behavior inso­ efficiency of action, as suggested by Louis Couffignal? far as they are regular, determinate, or reproducible". The [2]1s cybernetics a method? subject matter of cybernetics is the domain of "all possible machines . .. What cybernetics offers is the framework in which all individual machines may be Two Extreme Views ordered, related and understood" (p. 2). lf cybernetics is a science, then the next question The second extreme view is that "Cybernetics begins concerns the systems dealt with in cybernetics. ln where the possibility of algorithmization of the controlled answering this question, lvakhnenko [3] discusses two system ends." Beer [1] is the best known representative of extreme points of view. this view. According to him, cybernetics is the science of One of them stresses the mathematical description or exceedingly complex probabilistic system such as the the algorithmization of controlled systems as a precon­ economy, the brain, or the company (p. 18). Suchsystems dition for the system to be treated in cybernetics. are self = organizing and self = learning. Beer claims that "Cybernetics is first of all the algorithmization of the "operational research" should deal with problems in less controlled system." Correspondingly, cybernetics should complex probabilistic systemssuch as the efficiency of a deal primarily with deterministic systems such as firm. computers, systems of automatic control, etc. or simple lvakhnenko [3] suggests that cybernetics should deal probabilistic systems. Being himself a mathematician, with both kinds of systems. According to him, "cyber- Cybernetics Forum 29

netics should be a science of combined deterministic systems, common to various domains of reality." and self-learning systems requiring minimum instruc­ Klaus [14] considers cybernetics tobe "the theory of in- tions from a person. Cybernetics is a science of re­ . terconnectedness of possible dynamic self = regulated cognition, organization and most effective control of systems with their subsystems." Using Wiener's warning complex dynamic systems". ln the foreward to the against application of cybernetics to social systems, he Russian edition of S. Beer's book, A. I. Berg (quoted in 3) refuses to apply cybernetics to social problems since they criticizes the exclusion of deterministic systems from are in the domain of Marxism. cybernetic consideration, claiming that "such discrimin­ ation is analogaus to exclusion of arithmetic from mathe­ The Cybernetic Method matics." lvakhnenko feels that there arealso attempts to substitute the whole field of mathematics by arithmetic I presented in this journal [15] the point of view that cyber­ alone. He holds this Situation responsible for what he netics is a method-the only method of purposeful activity. considers as a very slow progress in cybernetics. The cybernetic method consists of the following steps: However, he Iimits the application of cybernetics to 1) identifying the goal or the desired state of the controll­ complex engineering systems alone. ed system expressed in certain parameters, 2) obtaining Same cyberneticists want to restriet their science pri­ feedback information about the actual state of the system marily to one field or to one aspect of this science. For using the same parameters, 3) comparing both states, example, Cherry [8] considers cybernetics as the "theory 4) making decisions directed towards the elimination of of feedback" and George [9] suggests that "one theme the discrepancy between both states; 5) executing these de­ more than any other seems to fairly recommend itself as cisions. Steps 2- 5 are repeated until the goal is reached or modified. The scientific method is a special case of the representing the fundamental theme of cybernetics and that is the problern of artificial intelligence". cybernetic method when the goal is not to create a particular state of a system, but to learn about all possible states of this system within a certain range of its para· Definitions Stressing Information meters. Naturally, one should know the possible states of Kolmogorov [10] whose work on information theory par­ the controlled system in order to select the desired state. allels that of Wiener, accepts Wiener's definition of Thus the application of the scientific method should cybernetics but expands it by stressing the informational preceed the use of the cybernetic method. aspect in cybernetic systems. "Cybernetics studies When an economist is learning about a given economic machines, living organisms and their combination ex­ system, he uses the scientific method and he is a clusively from the point of view of their ability to receive scientist. When however he tries to transform this system certain information, store this information in memory, into a desired state he uses the cybernetic method. A transmit it through the channels of communication and psychologist can try to change the mental state of a sub­ process it into signals directing this activity in a certain ject by influencing the parameters of the person only after way." ln a more concise form, he defines cybernetics as learning these parameters and their interdependencies. "as science of the methods of processing and use of Thus a person workin_g in a field dealing with controlled information in machines, living organisms and their systems should wear two hats: one of a scientist and combination." another of a cyberneticist. ln the second capacity he uses Steinbuch [11] considers cybernetics "a science of the cybernetic method. informational structures in technical and non-technical The scientific method as such is applied to systems in domains" where the term informational structures every science although the findings belang only to the means control, data transmission and data processing science studying this system. ln a similar way, the cyber­ (p. 325). He claims that cybernetics allows "an exact netic method is applied to controlled systems in many scientific analysis of mental functions" (p. 353) where the sciences (biological, psychological, engineering, social) mental functions are understood as an expression of and the results of its application belang to a particular "receiving, processing, storing and transforming of science and therefore do not constitute the science of information." cybernetics. One, however, can make a point that the According to Frank, [12] "Cybernetics is the theory and study of control as such, i.e. the common properties of all technique of systems which transform messages" (p. 30). controlled systems, can be done in one science­ He differentiates general mathematical cybernetics, cybernetics. This raises the question about the possi­ material cybernetics (information science, bio­ bility of the application of this general theory of con­ cybernetics, engineering . cybernetics) and cybernetic trol to systems with special kinds of controls. Let us Iook machine techniques. Cybernetics strives to relate "the for the answer to this question by analyzing various text­ various scientific disciplines. This is accomplished by books on cybernetics. means of unifying points of view especially by the use of terminology of control and theory of information as weil as Textbocks on Cybernetics (p. 11). common methodology" The content of textbooks on cybernetics reflects the pre· Cube [13] distinguishes between cybernetics in a nar­ vailing view that cybernetics is primarily a science of in­ row sense which is "the science and technique of infor­ formation and information processing machines. mation transforming machines" and cybernetics in a Ashby [7] is the author of the first textbook on cyber­ broad sense which is "mathematical and constructive netics published in 1956. The titles of three parts are: treatment of general structural relations, functions and Mechanism (the determinate machine, stability, the black 30 The Different Meanings box, etc.); Variety (its quantity and transmission) and Re­ REFERENCES gulation and Control (regulation in biological and in very 1. Beer, Stafford, Cybernetics and Management. New large systems, requisite variety, error controlled regulator, York: John Wiley & Sons, lnc., 1959. amplifying regulation). The text stresses the mathematical 2. Couffignal, Louis, Essai d' une definitiongenerate de description of systems and offers many exercises. Ia Cybernetique. Flechtner's[16) textbook deals almost exclusively with 3. lvakhnenko, A.G., Cybernetic Systems with Com­ information theory and its applications. lts chapters have bined Control (in Russian). Kiev: Tekhnika, 1966. the following titles: Communication, Information, Trans­ 4. Wiener, Norbert, Cybernetics. Cambridge, MASS: mission of Information, Treatment of Messages, Be­ The M.I.T. Press, 1946 and 1961. havior of Systems. No exercises are included in this 5. Wien er, Norbert, God and Golem,. lnc. Cambridge, textbook. MASS: The M.I.T. Press, 1964. ln his textbook, Sachsse[17) defines cybernetics as the 6. Pask, Gordon, Entry on "Cybernetics," Encyclopedia science of systems, parts of which are mutually connected Britannica, V. 6, 1968. through direct interaction. As examples of such systems 7. Ashby, W. Ross, An lntroduction to Cybernetics. he gives a clock, a human organism, a business, a stock New York: J. Wiley & Sons, lnc., 1963. exchange. Complete title of his textbook is lntroduction to 8. Cherry, Colin, On Human Communication. New York: Cybernetics with Special Consideration of Technical and Technology Press & John Wiley, 1957. Biological Systems. The chapters of the book have the 9. George, Frank H., "The Foundation of Cybernetics" following titles: Basic Concepts, Theory of Information, in the Proceedings of Sixth International Congress Closed Loop Control, Open Loop Control, Learning, on Cybernetics. Namur (Belgium), 1970. Sensory Perception, Bipolar Systems, Achievements and 10. Kolmogorov, A.N., "Cybernetics," Bolschaya Sovet­ Limits of Cybernetic Approach. skaya Entsiklopediya, 51st Supplementary Volume, Lerner's[18) textbook is essentially engineering cyber­ 1958, p. 149. netics. lt was reviewed in Cybernetics Forum (Vol. VII, 11. Steinbuch, Karl, Automat und Mensch, 3rd ed. Berlin: No. 3, 1975). Springer Verlag, 1955. Glushkov[19) in his textbook states that the modern 12. Frank, Helmar, Kybernetik und Philosophie, 2nd ed. cybernetics deals with the "general theory of the trans­ Berlin: 1969. formation of information, and ... the theory and prin­ 13. Cube, Felix von, Was ist Kybernetik? Bremen: ·c. ciples of building various transformers of information". Schunemann Verlag, 1967. The text contains chapters on Theory of Algorithm, 14. Klaus, Georg, Kybernetik ln Philosophischer Sicht, Theory of Discrete Automata, Theory of Discrete Sel·f­ 4th ed. Berlin (East): 1965. Organizing Systems and Mathematical Logic. Thus, its 15. Drozin, V.G., "Complexology: the Science of Negen­ contents overlap somewhat with that of Computer tropy . . . " Cybernetics Forum, VII, Nos.2, 3, 1975. Science as taught in our country. 16. Flechtner, H.J., Grundbergriffe der Kybernetik, 3rd As we see, these textbooks deal primarily with techni­ ed. Stuttgart: Wissenschaftliche Verlagsgesellschaft cal, deterministic systems, so that geneticists or social m.b.H., 1968. scientists would not gain many new insights into their 17. Sachsse, Hans, Einfuehrung in die Kybernetik. Braun controlled systems by studying cybernetics from these schweig: F. Vieweg and Sohn, 1971. books. At the same time they cannot avoid using the 18. Lerner, A. Ya., Fundamentals of Cybernetics (trans­ cybernetic method in their research. Their major problern lated from Russian). Chapman and Hili, 1972. is how to apply this method to their particular system. 19. Glushkov, Victor M., lntroduction to Cybernetics (translated from Russian). New York and London: Academic Press, 1966. On Dissipative Structures in Both Physical- and Information-Space

Roland Fischer Maryland Psychiatrie Research Center Baltimore, Maryland 21228

The aim of this essay is to draw attention to common fea­ formed when, for instance, malonic acid is oxidized in the tures of two type of structures, dissipative structures in presence of cerium sulfate and potassium bromate. physical space-time and event-structures-like fairy tale, Zhabotinsky has been able to observe in this system myth and narrative fiction-in information space. Let me sustained oscillation of the cerium ions in the + 4 and retrace the genesis and describe the nature of event­ + 3 states. They represent a symmetry breaking, weil structures and their re-presentation. I will start out with defined and stable dissipative structure, illustrating the simple structures and then go introducing gradually ability of a chemical system to undergo self-organization more complex ones. under non-equilibrium conditions. Another example should illustrate structure formation On Physical, Chemical and Biological and selective (in-) formation on the molecular Ievei, when, Structures and Their Re-presentation for instance, silica gel is prepared in the presence of a quinine solution. By forming the gel in the presence of How do structures arise? This question is anchored to quinine molecules the gelwill be imprinted with the mole­ the 2nd law of thermodynamics (formulated by Garnot cule structure of this organic compound and will 152 years ago) the thrust of which isthat instead of build­ "remember" it. After removing the quinine by extracting it ing up, the universe as a whole is inevitably running from the gel, the latter may be desiccated to a powder down. Living structures, however,-i.e. dissipative, non­ and stored in a refrigerator. Even after weeks of storage, equilibrium, self-organizing structures (Prigogine, the powder when re-made to a gel-through addition of Katchalsy, et a/.)-given large enough flows of matter water-will do (lo and behold) "remember" the quinine and energy and suitable energetic conditions can locally structure by being able to selectively absorb Stereoiso­ and temporally reverse this trend. The appearance of mers configurationally related to quinine (such as cin­ these living structures is the "way of life" of the 2nd law; chonidine) but not cinchonine (configurationally related or in other words it is a characteristic of matter-energy to to quinidine). Evidently quinine made an unforgettable pay a price for becoming alive and conscious of itself. impression on the silicagel; the "active-site" footprints That price is called heat-death. re-present an engram or informational matrix (Fischer, The first example of structure formation and structure 1967). this is then a classical short story of structure re-presentation should be illustrated from hydro­ formation and re-presentation. [1) dynamics. What happens when a pot of water is heated An even more complex but familiar example reters to by a flame? First, heat will travel by conduction but from the information stored in DNA which consist exclusively a certain critical gradient on there is an abrupt onset of of instructions for the synthesis of the very agents thermal convection leading the system to a higher state responsible for the implementation of the program. One of organization. There is a more even and somewhat of the main "aims" of the program stored in DNA is to delayed thermal propagation in form of mostly hexagon­ reproduce unchanged the structure of DNA itself. The al, convection cells. This is the Benard instability medium is indeed the message and hence the DNA phenomenon, i.e., the appearance of dissipative struc­ structure may be a model for self-referential con­ tures and their re-appearance under similar conditions sciousness. of heat-transfer. Let the hexagonal structures be a model Self-reference, in analogy to the "chicken and egg" in of living organisms, while the pot of water and the flame modern biology, may weil be compared here to "protein model the earth and sun respectively. and nucleic acid," or in more abstract terms, to function Such dissipative, non-equilibrium structures are also and information. The question "which comes first" is 32 On Dissipative Structures 0 meaningless (Eigen, 1973) because function-in order to fiction-one firmly rooted in mythology-the fairy tale. ll evolve-needs to be represented by Information, this In­ Analyzing a collection of a hundred fairy tales, Propp a formation acquiring all its meaning only through the (1970) found that though the personages of a tale are V. fi function for which it is coding. lndeed, in all living sys­ variable, their functions in the tales are constant and i. tems proteins and ·nucleic acids are linked up in a limited. Describing function as "an act of a character, s complex hierarchy of feedback loops and hence a causal defined from the point of view of its significance for the g first would have as little meaning as beginning and end in course of action," Propp discovered that s a closed cycle. 1. Functions of characters serve as stable, constant ele­ ln "consciousness" or con-scientia both meanings "to ments in a tale, independent of how and by whom they know with" and "to know in one self" refer to the domain are fulfilled. They constitute the fundamental compo­ of self-description, i.e. self-observation. The DNA-Iike, nents of a tale. self-referential structure of consciousness is reflected in 2. The number of functions known in the fairy-tale is Maturana's (1970) description of consciousness: limited. ... if an organism can generate a communicable description 3. The sequence of functions is always identical. of its interactions and interact with the communicable 4. All fairy tales are of one type in regard to their description, the process can, in principle, be carried out in a structure. potentially infinite recursive manner, and the organism be­ comes an observer. lt can describe its interactions and com­ ln comparing the functions of tale after tale, Propp municate its descriptions to others or to itself, and through found that histotal number of functions never surpasses the very same process it can describe itself describing itself. thirty-one, and that however many of the thirty-one So far we have traced the evolution of structures (or the functions a tale had (none has every one) those that it structure of evolution) through representative examples had always appeared in the same order [italics mine]. from physics, chemistry and biology and conclude with Propps discovery is born out, I believe by the way Eigen (1973) that an evolutionary. feedback in form of a children subject a fairy tale to reality-testing. A fairy succession of instabilities or catastrophes (Thom & table-when told to children [2] may not be altered but must Zeeman, 1975) may have moved a system further and be re-presented day after day in the original sequence; further from thermodynamic equilibrium and thus otherwise the child would not fall asleep. The slightest enabled the amplification of fluctuations until a (macro­ alteration would alert the child and to sooth him into molecular) co-operative structure arose which was stable sleep the tale has to be retold in its original form. The enough to withstand its own fluctuations. The self­ sequence of functions does not obey the Aristotelean referential nature of structure formation, in Information logic of our life of daily routine, but the structure of a space rather than geometric space, is clearly reflected in master tale abstracted by Propp is the same one we have the "structure" of consciousness since we perceive it as all encountered in our reading of fiction from tales to another self-referential creator of self-referential novels. I would call the structure of such a mastertale creations or structures. "archetypal" (Goethe's Un-Form) and define archetypal structures as those in which (like in DNA) the medium is Structures of Consciousness the message. Reflected in Nariative Fiction ln an independently conceived project Lord Ragfan Being conscious of the world in and around us implies (1936) described the twenty-two persistent and recurring the making of distinction (yes-no, similar-dissimilar) and features in the life of a typical mythic hero. The first and last five features are listed here so as to give a general then associating these distinctions with already idea of Raglan's "features": perceived-conceived structures, or gestalts. 1. The hero's mother isaroyal virgin; Things that are in a single world are not parted from one another, ... neither the warm from the cold nor the cold 2. His tather is a king, and from the warm. When Mind began toset things in motion, 3. Often a near relative of his mother, but separation took place ... and all that Mind moved was 4. The circumstances of his conception are unusual, separated (Anaxagoras, as quoted by Jammer, 1974) and And God said (Genesis 1, 6), Let there be a firmament in 5. He is also reputed to be the son of a god. the midst of the waters, and Iet it divide the waters from 18. He meets with a mysterious death, the waters. 19. Often at the top of a hill. Our concepts, like branches of trees allow us to grasp 20. His children, if any, do not succeed him. and hold on to them. Concepts (from the Latin con­ 21. His body is not buried, but nevertheless capio; con-captum, grasp or con-cept) refer to the struc­ 22. He has one or more holy sepulchres. ture of both fact and fiction with no sharp distinction Ragfan uses his pattern of features to score certain between them. Their language obeys the same grammar, famous heroes (Schofes, 1974). Theseus, for instance, the universal grammar of our self-referential universe. gets twenty points, Heracfes seventeen, Jesus, rather This structuring and structured universe of hopes, inten­ pointedly omitted, would obviously score weil. Ragfan's tions and expectations has to be recreated from moment analysis suggests therefore, the existence of a law of to moment, re-affirming its structure by re-presenting it composition, or some fundamental grammar of narrative time and again. over a wide range of humanity. Some of the main Let me illustrate the nature of this grammar by illumi­ structural elements of the hero journey are the self­ nating the structure of a particular genre of narrative consistency of the. hero, his adaptation to and sur- Cybernetics Forum 33 mounting and over-compensating of difficulties, justice again, to assist in the survival of the next generation. and victory over villains and intrigue (all pertaining to ln this evolving creation and re-creation within a wish fulfillment), repression of ultimate defeat and trans­ system which appears to be programmed and is at the figuration. These event structures may come into being, sametime self-programing: chance and necessity arenot i.e., are re-presented again and again like dissipative alternative but complementary forces. structures are evoked du ring heat transfer when a critical Mutation, sexual recombination and natural selection­ gradient has been reached. They gradually delay and and in higher organisms 'free choice'-are linked to­ structure the dissipation of "heat". gether in a system which makes biological evolution the only process apparently lacking in foresight which is On the Stability of Biological nevertheless creative. (Thorpe, 1975) and Narrative Structures Biological evolution or Bergson's "evolution creatrice" may then be compared with the evolution of myth, drama, We have analyzed the structure of narrative fiction and poetry and narratives in general. The literary genres may now compare it to that self-referential primordial correspond to various · biological species who's (macromolecular) structure which through the evolu­ functional or phenotypic language shows many ana­ tionary feedback of successive instabilities or catastro­ logical correspondences to our phonetic language. The phes became stable enough to withstand the fluctua­ 20 amino acids of the protein language may be con­ tions it itself was producing. ln man, and in neuro­ trasted with the 30 phonemes and the letters of our physiological terms, stablity refers to the closed unity of alphabet abstracted from them. Let's consider the way in perception and behavior to maintain internally generated which the twenty amino acids are coded by the natural reference Ieveis. genetic code of nucleotide triplets. Each amino acid is A cognitive system is a system whose organization de­ coded by a triplet of quaternary digits and hence-as in fines a domain of interactions .... relevant to the mainte­ the I Ching-there are 64 codons. There is a correlation, nance of the system itself. (Maturana, 1970) as Mackay (1967) has shown it, between the frequency of Thus God created the world so that he might keep on occurrence of an amino acid and the number of triplets creating. (Meister Eck hart) coding for it. We perceive, in other words, only that which is appro­ And how do we perceive structure in language? Here is priate to our behavioral repertoire. The organism's the concise story of what I have nicknamed as the Zipf stability requires that certain internally generated Ieveis code. lf English (or Chinese, or Latin, etc.) words of a be maintained in the face of perturbations; hence vocabulary are ranked in their order of frequency on the behavior is the compensation, for those perturbations. Or ordinate and the reciprocal of their frequency, i.e. the in the formulation of Powers (1973) " ... we know nothing period of a word, on the abscissa: the periods turn out to of our own behavior but the feedback effects of our own be multiples of ten, or in Zipf's (1935) words "we are outputs. To behave is to control [what is sensed as] speaking in terms of harmonic series." Sirnon (1935) perception ... "[3] And this pertains to the fighting of developed a stochastic model of information theory i dragons perceived as real or fictitious .... lt pertains to which accounts not only for the distribution of word fre­ the declaration of wars, the Iiberation of holy graves, hero quencies but for the distribution of authors by numbers journeys, myth, fairy tale and narrative fiction in general. of papers published and the distribution of biological And since we behave only to control our perceptions­ species by genera (Fischer & Rockey, 1968). in order to compensate against perturbations or to The phenotypic re-presentation of a genetic remem­ provide stability, we may say that our structure, which is brance of things present is the creation and re-creation of made up of self-referential inter-actions is closed for selective information. The "word becomes flesh." And computation and information (Varela, 1976). while I am uttering these words, I too am creating selective information (selecting creative information) Cybernetics might, in fact, be defined as the study of from a vast pool of available knowledge, a knowledge of systems, that are open to energy but closed to informa­ tion and control-systems that are information tight. which I am co-consciously amnestic. lncidentally, we (Ashby, 1955) have just witnessed the birth of my own thought, or: the flesh became word. Being, as it were, our own captive audience, we have no choice but to grasp the consequences of our informa­ tionally tight structure. The sameness of fairy tales and Why do we see everywhere structures? lt could be that myth, the standardized nature of works of art, re-written, our own structure is the reflecting mirror which we hold re-structured around the same stereotyped, stable up to Nature and therefore we have no chance at all for archetypal pattern ... all fall into a pattern. Hence generating or noticing random events or processes. structure formation and the re-presentation of event­ One of the principles which "works" against random­ structures recall the heating up of a pot of water ... and ness is the processing mechanism of our nervaus sytem. at a critical gradient the appearance in that hot water of At its periphery the nervaus system extracts non-random regular convection patterns, the mostly hexagonal features from its own excitatory processes and trans­ dissipative structures .... forms these inputs to coded interpretations or outputs. One would be tempted to theorize that myth, fairy tales The non-random outcome of the matehing of output and narratives which contribute to the survival of our and input, or the transformation into perceptual states species, survive, i.e., are selected as behavioral according to unique numerical base systems is repre­ templates to be re-written and re-composed time and sented, for instance, in Stephens' "power law," says 34 On Dissipative Structures

Baird (1975) who notes that subjects when generating New York: Wiley, 1974. random numbers clearly "prefer" certain frequency cate­ Katchalsky, A. and Curran, P.F.: Nonequilibrium Thermo­ gories over others. Apparently the subjects employ cogni­ dynamics in Biophysics. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard tive strategies with numerical stimuli similar to those U. Press, 1965. they use with ordinary stimuli. They seem to perform a Katchalsky, A.K., Rowland, V. and Blumenthal, R.: "Dyna­ "spacing along an internal response scale." mic Patterns of Gell Assemblies." Neuroseiences Res. What we call Laws of Nature, are the functional Iimita­ Progr. Bull. 12,46-55 (1974). tions imposed by our own structure, i.e. the laws of our Mackay, A.L.: "Optimization for the genetic code." Nature own nature (Fischer, 1974). 216, 159-160(1967). Maturana, H.: "Neurophysiology of cognition." Cogni­ NOT ES tion, a Multiple View. Garvin, P.L. (ed.) New York: Spartan Books, 1970. 1. For other examples in structure-formation see Fischer, Meister, Eckhard in the translation of Blackney, R.B., 1967 pp. 472-5. Harper & Brothers, New York, 1941 as quoted in 2. Until about 200 years ago fairy tales were told by Suzuki, D.T.: On Indian Mahayana Buddhism, Harper adults for adults (Heuscher, 1968). TB 1403, New York, 1968 (p. 253). 3. For example, asthmatic attacks can be precipitated in Powers, W.T.: "Feedback: beyond behaviorism." Science patients who are allergic to horse dander by having 179, 351-356(1973). them view a picture of a horse-or patients allergic '='rigogine, 1.: "Symmetry breaking chemical instabilities," dust by exposing them to the view of a sealed glass Irreversible Thermodynamics and the Origin of Life. tube containing dust (Dekker & Groen, 1956). Wolf! Oster, G.F. et al (eds.). New York: Gordon & Breach, (1953) did not use symbols but provoked arousal in 1974. chronic rhinitis patients by reminding them of anger­ Propp, V.: (1928) Morphology of the Folktale. lndiana provoking material; they developed nasal hyperfunction Research Center in Anthropology, Folklore and Lin­ and almost complete obstruction of nasal passages. guistics, Ed.: C.F. Voegelin, Dir. of Publications: Th. A. Sebeok; Publ. 10, pp 134, Oct. 1958. · REFERENCES Raglan, Lord: The Hero. London, 1936. Ashby, R.V.; lntroduction to Cybernetics. London: Scholes, R.: Structuralism in Literature. New Haven: Yale Chapman & Hall, 1955 (p. 5). Univ. Press, 1974. Baird, J.C.: "Psychophysical Study of Numbers," V. Simon, H.A.: "On a class of skew distribution functions." Psychol. Res. 38, 189-207 (1975). Biometrika 42, 425-440 (1955). Benard, quoted in Prigogine[loc. cit.]. Thom, R. and Zeeman, E.C.: Catastrophe Theory, lts Pre­ Eigen, M.: "The origin of biological information," in The sent State and Future Perspectives. Warwiek 1974, Physicist's Conception of Nature. Mehra, J. (ed.) Proceedings of a Symposium, Manning, A. (ed.), Dordrecht-HollandiBoston, U.S.A.: D. Reidel Publ. Co., Berlin: Springer, 1975. 1973. Thorpe, W.H.: in a paper presented at the Fourth lntl. Fischer, R.: "The Biological fabric of time," lnterdiscipl. Conference on the Unity of Sciences, New York City, Perspectives of Time. Fischer, R. (ed.), Annals of the Nov. 27-30, 1975. New York Acad. Sei. 168, 440-488 (1967). Varela, F.: "On observing natural systems." The Coevolu­ Fischer, R.: in Cybernetics of Cybernetics. The Biological tion Quarterly, No. 10, pp 26-31 (June 1976). Computer Lab. Urbana, 111.: Univ. 111., May 15, 1974. Wolff, H.S.: Stress and Disease. Springfield, 111.: Thomas, Fischer, R. and Rockey, M.A.: "Psychophysics of excita­ 1953. tion and tranquilization," in Neuroseiences Research Zhabotinsky, A.M.: Oscillations in Biological and Chemi­ 1, 263-314. New York: Acad. Press, 1968. cal Systems. Moscow: Acad. Sei. U.S.S.R., Nauka, Heuscher, J.E.: "The meaning of fairy tales and myths." 1967. · Confin. Psychiat. 11, 90-105(1968). Zipf, G.K.: The Psychobiology of Language. Cambridge: Jammer, M.: The Philosophy of Quantum Mechancis. Houghton-Miffin, 1935. Analysis of Brain Software: A Cybernetic Approach

N.A. Coulter, Jr. Department of Surgery, School of Medicine University of North Carolina Chapel Hili, North Carolina 27514

lntroduction A computer programmer does not need to know the details of a computer's circuitry, or even its instruction code, in order to One of the germinal ideas of cybernetics is the brain­ write programs that work. Similarly, to understand brain computer analogy (Wiener, 1948). While this analogy is often software, it is sufficient to identify contents and operations; criticized (Dreyfus, 1972; Weizenbaum, 1976), it has inspired the neurophysiological details are not essential for such an and guided the work of a number of investigators (Arbib, understanding. 1972; Colby et al, 1971; Loehlin, 1968; Simon, 1969; Minsky, 1968; Schank and Colby, 1973), and may be regarded as 2. A distinction is usually made in computer science basic to work in such fields as artificial intelligence and between application programs, designed to handle particular computer simulation of personality. problems, and computer software. Computer software ln a previous article, I applied this analogy to the mind­ consists of special programs designed to make it easier for body problern (Coulter, 1974). lt was suggested that, if the the applications programmer to write programs. brain is a computer, then it must have software, to enable it A similar distinction can be made in the case of brain to function effectively. lf this is true, it is reasonable to ask: software. The conscious Ego performs various Operations what is the software of the brain? A simple answer is: the upon contents, in a manner similar to the activity of an mind. While this conjecture cannot be vigorously proved (or applications programmer. The software of the brain consists disproved) in the present state of our knowledge, it seems at of an incredible variety of programs which facilitate the least as reasonable as the various other "solutions" to this actions of the Ego. puzzle that have been offered (such as Cartesian dualism, lndeed, the conscious Ego may itself be regarded as a Berkeleyian idealism, materialism, psycho-physical par­ special component of brain software. Just as computer allelism, double aspect theories, etc.)* software requires a special component-sometimes called Those of us who are intrigued by this analogy are (almost!) the Supervisor-tc direct all the other software, so does brain always aware that it is only an analogy and should not be software require a similar component. The conscious Ego taken too literally. lt is useful if it suggests new ideas, new clearly performs this function, approaches, new scientific paradigms (Kahn, 1970). But differences between brains and computers are as important 3. An important distinction, however, needs to be made. A as similarities, and should be duly noted. computer is designed to do what it is told to do; it is controlled by programs fed into it from outside. A brain, however, has been designed by evolution to survive, in an Similarities and Differences uncertain and sometimes hostile environment. ln contrast to Between Brains and Computers a computer, a brain is a teleogenic system (Coulter, 1968; Locker and Coulter, 1976) capable of generating its own 1. ln a computer, the basic element of activity is a binary goals. While under some conditions a brain may be number, usually called a word. A word may either represent controlled by outside goals or forces, it necessarily includes data, or, according to some code, an instruction. The a self-determined component. Some implications of this self­ instruction teils the computer to perform a particular determinism will be considered below. operation upon data. Similarly, in a mind we can distinguish between 4. The concept of a Supervisor of brain software pro­ contents-sights, sound, smells, body sensations, feelings, vides us immediately with a new, operational definition ideas, images, desires, etc.-and operations upon contents, of consciousness. Consciousness may be defined as the such as looking, listening, comparing, recalling, etc. We reception and manipulation of data by the Supervisor. lt cannot at this time identify a mental content with a particular should be noted that this definition does not require con­ brain state (such as a pattern of nerve impulses), and we are scious processes to be located at any particular part of far from a knowledge of the instruction code of the brain. But the brain, since the Supervisor could function from a from the standpoint of brain software, this is not necessary. number of equivalent locations.

'ln a delightful response to this probe, Fischer (1975) suggested that the mind might be regarded as the software of the whole living organism, not just the brain. This is at least as reasonable-and unprovable-as the viewpoint I proposed. ln this article, I will confine my attention to that part of organismic software associated with the central nervous system and sense organs. c 36 Analysis of Brain Software

ln accordance with this definition, an unconscious Difficult though his problern is, it is not insurmount­ o1 content or process does not involve the Supervisor. able, however. A clever and experienced systems pro­ at grammer, given sufficient time, would sooner or later be Cl 5. The brain-computer analogy also provides us with a z< new oparational definition of intelligence. lntelligence able to solve it. A similar problern confronts an individual who seeks to w may be defined as the set of software programs which b enable the Supervisor (or Ego) to acquire, create, and determine the software of the brain. The most important 4 execute application programs. difference isthat the brain is self-determined, and cannot This definition has a number of important implications: be programmed, without the consent of its Supervisor­ Ego. c a) From this perspective, the genes provide the basic ln acknowledgment of this distinction, I refer to the a instruction set of the brain. Since (except for identical efforts of an outside observer to understand brain soft­ p twins) no two individuals have a completely identical ware as reading the software. An evolving set of reading tl set of genes, it follows that each person has a unique techniques are under development. Theseare essentially t instruction set from which application programs and techniques for analyzing the verbal output of a human brain software may be developed. But, while some in­ brain, for the purpese of understanding the brain soft­ struction sets may be superior to others in particular ware (and application programs) producing this output. ways, the instruction set for a particular computer is One of these techniques-Reading Procedure RP-1-is adequate for writing programs to solve almest any described below. solvable problem. Just as the basic moves of chess Experience to date with reading has enabled us to as­ permit an infinite number of different games to be certain certain basic characteristics of the brain's played, so does an instruction set permit an infinite software. variety of programstobe written. b) That part of brain software which constitutes hu­ 1. A distinction needs to be made between individual man intelligence may, in principle, be increased. characteristics, which express the unique individuality of Basically, this is simply a matter of adding new soft­ each person, and common, social or public attributes ware components and improving the quality of existing which are more or less the samein all minds, or at least components. Of course, a great deal more needs to be in all minds of a particular population (or culture). lt is known about these components before this intriguing desirable toseparate the two. Other approaches tend to prospect can be effectively realized. But the old regard these differences as "statistical fluctuations" "nature vs. nurture" controversy over human intelli­ variations from a mean or "norm." We consider the~ gence is outmoded by this new viewpoint. lnstead, new instead as expressions of the unique individuality of the techniques of cybernetic analysis may now be de­ person. veloped and used to study brain software and to For example: each person has a Personal Cognitive create, test, debug, and make available new software System (PCS), a repertoire of programs used to acquire components which people can then add to their exist­ and/or to apply knowledge and skills. While there are ing intelligence. Similarly, the existing intelligence similarities among PCS's, each is unique as-a-whole, and software of a mind may be examined, analyzed, de­ best regarded as an individual characteristic. Appre­ bugged, and improved. ciation of this is helpful in teaching and communicating new ideas. 2. ln reading the verbal output of a mind, a distinction Programming Computers must be made between the verbal expression per se and and Reading Brains the nonverbal content or system of contents that the As mentioned above, the self-determinism of brains is one verbal expression represents. To emphasize this distinc­ fundamental difference between brains and computers. tion, we refer to the non-verbal content as the primary This means that a brain can only be programmed by its process. A particular primary process can be described own Supervisor-Ego, or with the Ego's consent. From a verbally in a large, perhaps infinite variety of ways. We humanistic standpoint, this is both fortunate and ethi­ are so accustomed to communicating in words that there cally right. is a natural tendency to identify a verbal expression with Another important difference is that the instruction the primary process it represents. ln reading, the distinc­ code of a computer is known, as weil as the rules govern­ tion between the two soon becomes evident. ing use of high Ievei languages. The task of a pro­ Typically, what happens is that the primary process grammer, when coding an algorithm, is relatively simple occurs, often in a fraction of a second. The result is and straightforward. stored, temporarily in a register. Verbalization then Suppose, however, a programmer were confronted with proceeds at slower tempo, guided by the content of that a strange new computer of advanced design. No manuals register. The actual process of verbalization is itself a are avallable and, while readout is in English, the in­ very complex one, of interest primarily to the Iinguist or struction code and programming language or languages the psycholinguist. Our main interest is in the primary are unknown. The computer, however, will accept English process itself, and related processes which may not input. The problern is to determine the computer software. actually be verbalized. (This problern differs, it should be noted, from that con­ 3. Associated with any verbal representation of a pri­ fronting an electrical engineer who is asked to construct mary process, and the process itself, there are a variety a set of wiring diagrams and schematic diagrams of the of other contents which arenot represented by the verbal computer, by tracing its circuits and connections.) expression, but which are nevertheless an important part

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1 Cybernetics Forum 37 of the mental events associated with the primary process Second Step. ldentify contents, operations, and modifiers and its verbalization. We refer to these contents as tacit which correspond to the primary process. contents. ln ordinary conversation, for example, verbali­ The primary process consists of Operations applied to zation is often incomplete; but the receiver understands one or more contents, with modifiers specifying contents what is meant anyway. The search for tacit contents can and/or Operations. The result of the primary process is a be very fruitful. complex content stored in a register for verbalization. 4. Reading soon discloses that there exist a number of ln this case, we obtain the following: "software components" which are used in mental pro­ cesses but which arenot immediately apparent. Wehave A. Content 1 - 8ehavior (all) already referred to the existence of registers which tem­ Content 2 -Context (cultural [particular]) porarily store contents. To spell a word, for example, Operation -ls relative to. This operation assigns there must exist a register which holds the word so that attribute A2 to A 1. the letters spelling it may be written or typed in the "correct" order. ln executing a program, there mustexist There is a crude similarity here to diagramming a sen­ a program register that holds the operations so that the tence to show its syntax. However, our purpose is individual, when he finishes one operation, knows what different. We arenot studying language, but a mind-the the next will be. software of a brain that produced a verbal expression Sometimes, in executing a program, the individual representing a primary process. ln the above, we have experiences a distractiön-the phone rings, or he identified two contents, to which we have assigned suddenly gets a new idea not directly related to the verbal Iabeis. Each content has one or more modifiers, program. This is like an interrupf in computer software. which we also Iabei. After the distraction is over, the individual finds that his A content is analogaus to a ward in a computer. A word program register has been "cleared." He searches, consists of a set of binary digits-e.g., 100 010 110 001. however, and finds that the program has been stored We don't know exactly what a content consists of; it elsewhere, in what we refer to as a stack. He transfers might, for example, be a pattern of nerve impulses. 8ut the program from the stackback to the program register, just as a ward, in an assembler language, may be repre· and continues to execute the program. sented by a mnemonic code, so may we assign a verbal Iabei to a content. Similarly, a content modifier is analogaus to, for Reading Procedure RP-1 example, a base address in a computer word, or a dis­ placement from that address. Again, we assign a verbal 1t will be convenient to describe Reading Procedure RP-1 Iabei to the modifier. We bear in mind, however, that the with respect to a particular verbal statement. The sample content itself, and its modifier, are non-verbal. We use is a single sentence, selected at random from the book, parentheses here to indicate that what is enclosed is the Normality, by D. Otter and M. Sabshin, 8asic 8ooks, lnc., verbal Iabei of a modifier. New York, revised edition, 1974, p. 68. ln a computer, a ward may represent either numerical "ln its purest form, a cultural-relativity position views data (expressed as a binary number), or it may be a code all behavior as relative to its particular cultural context." for a computer operation. The number 100 000 000, for example, might be a code for the operation: "Load the First Step. Re-state the verbal expression accumulator". The mnemonic for this operation might be in canonical verbal form. LDA. Similarly, there are operations in the mind, which Much or perhaps most written or printed verbal output is may do various things to contents. ln this example, we a compound of simple verbal expressions, and reflects have identified an operation which we describe verbally the "style" of the author. lt may include metaphors, as "Assign attribute A2 to A1". This corresponds to the humor, or idioms. Since any content or set of contents 'words "is relative to" in the canonical verbal form of the may be represented verbally in many different ways, it is verbal expression which represents this operation. convenient to use a simple format which is equivalent to What we end up with, then, isasimple mental process: the actual sample, but easier to analyze. the application of an operation to two contents. The This is the canonical verbal form. lt consists of simple operation, which we may Iabei "Assign sentences, with idioms, metaphors, etc. eliminated. Even content as attribute to content _____, here, more than one canonical verbal form is possible. may be included in a List of Operations. 8ut this need not concern us, for our interest is in using (Actually, the Situation may be more complex than we this to reconstruct the primary process that is being have indicated. The operation may not be a simple basic verbalized. operation, but a complete program composed of a ln this case, we obtain the following: number of basic operations. At this stage of analysis, we cannot be sure. However, we won't pursue this further.) A. All behavior is relative to its particular cultural ln a similar way, simple verbal expression 8 may be context. analyzed as follows: 8. A cultural-relativity position has a purest form. 8. Content 1 -Position (cultural-relativity) C. "8" views "A". Content 2 -Form (purest) We can now analyze each simple verbal expression in Operation -Has. This Operation assigns attri­ turn. bute 82 to 81. 38 Analysis of Brain Software Cyl

Note that a different word, "has," in the canonical verbal "tree" may be constructed with the original· content as gra form corresponds to the same operation as in verbal the "root." The tree may or may not have been present in clo: expression A. the original mind; various different trees are possible. But sof the exploration of trees sheds light on individual And expression C: differences among minds, and can be the basis for better C. Content 1 -8 (This is a Iabei for simple verbal understanding of misunderstandings and improved com· 'expression 8) The munication. and Content 2 -A (This is a Iabei for simple verbal The verbal representation of a process of tree con· expression A). are struction may take the form of a definition of terms. Thus, p Operations -Views. This operation is one in for example: ten which 8 affirms the validity of A in a Behavior (human) consists of overt actions and ver­ perspective 81. thn balizations. The actions may be reactions to stimuli or hav We have identified a second operation to add to our List purposive (voluntary acts). The verbalizations may be ger of Operations. vocal, written, or typed. has tior Third Step. Search for software components which per would be required in a computer Simulation of the BEHAVIOR poi mental process that has been identified. Ps~ There are (at least) two processes involved in the fore­ bal going. The first is the primary process that we have iden­ I an tified. The second is the verbal representation ofthat pro­ ACTIONS VERBALIZATIONS pro cess, originally in the form of the sample quoted from the 1 book. lt is evident that the verbal representation process mir has not yet been analyzed at all, even in the equivalent ~ ~ REACTIONS PURPOSIVE VOCAL WRITTEN TYPED see canonical verbal form. TO STIMULI ACTS res We won't undertake that analysis here. 8ut we can sys assert that the primary process as a whole would have to As: be stored in a register in order for the verbalization pro­ Without reading this verbal expression in greater mir cess to be executed. Such a register is an example of a detail, it is evident that a tree of contents is being 1 software component. described, as indicated in the diagram. ln comparing two Thi Other software components that would be needed for a minds which are using the same verbal expressions to ger computer Simulation are: represent a content, the trees in the two minds may weil Ch1 1. Search routines for selecting words to use in the be different. an< verbal representation. Constructing a tree is often useful in clarifying an idea. gra 2. Grammatical and syntactical subroutines for pro­ And definitional trees are not the only kind possible; we cessing the words chosen to represent the primary association trees, and trees corresponding to emotional ser process in the verbal expression. connotations, fantasies, images, incident chains, etc., a ~ may also be constructed. stn 3. Registers for holding words so that letters may be lt is evident that other "sweeps" of the verbal output of of · chosen in correct order in writing or typing the words. a mind might be added to the foregoing. lt is also evident mir that other "reading procedures" are possible, which may the Fourth Step. Search for tacit contents that are involved supplement or even supplant RP-1 . These may be stn in the various mental processes but which are not expected to emerge as our experience with reading mi! represented by verbal expressions. grows. 19€ ln this case, the context of the Statement was a consi­ · ln the foregoing example, RP-1 was applied to printed deration of various theories of normality, of which the material, and it is immediately apparent that, since all cultural-relativity positionwas one. printed (or written) material (except computer output) has Tacit contents are more easily detected in other types been produced by human minds, a considerable amount of verbal output. However, they are almost always of data are available for analyzing the software of brains. present, and while a search may Iead to erroneous The prospect of applying RP-1 to the verbal output of identifications, the search itself is instructive. geniuses is especially intriguing. However, this readout has much that is unique to the individual filtered out, as Th Fifth Step. Construct trees of plausible primary pro­ weil as the self-correcting and exploratory processes re1 cesses that might be associated with contents. that characterize the work of a careful writer. We have seen that a mental process may be stored as-a­ RP-1 may also be applied in other contexts. The verbal whole in a register, as a content. lndeed, each content report of individuals describing their thought processes may be regarded as a telescoped coded representation of while solving a problern or performing other clearly a variety of mental processes. lt is instructive to start defined tasks, is one. The verbal output of patients under­ with a particular content and to construct a mental pro· going psychoanalysis or other forms of psychotherapy is cess that may have produced the content. This mental another. Recordings of conversations, group meetings, process, in furn, consists of contents, operations, and and other forms of verbal intercourse provide still modifiers. Each of these contents may in turn be the another source of data. ln all these contexts the ver­ result of another mental process; and so on. ln this way, a balization process is usually incomplete and often Cybernetics Forum 39 grammatically incorrect; however, the data are much The surface structure can be produced from the deep closer to the spontaneaus thought processes of brain structure by applying the following operations: software than is printed matter. 1. Assign the marker wh- to the most deeply imbedded NP, "man" Discussion 2. Replace the NP so marked by "who" There are similarities and differences between reading 3. Delete "who is" and two other approaches that are worth noting. These 4. lnvert "man" and "wise" are: psycho-linguistics and psychoanalysis. Paradigms of psycho-linguistic research have been ex· The significance of the deep structure can be appreciat­ tensively discussed by Reber (1973). He distinguishes ed by the following example. Consider the sentence: three perspectives: "an Associationist position with be­ "Fiying planes can be dangerous." lt may not be haviorist traditions, a Process approach with origins in immediately obvious that this sentence is ambiguous. general cognitive theory, and a Content approach which However, this ambiguity is exposed when we consider has evolved along with the resurgence of a nativist posi­ that the sentence can be produced, by simple operations tion in linguistic theory." The basic interest of all these of the type just described, from either of two sentences: perspectives, of course, is language. From our Stand­ "Fiying planes are dangerous." point, we may formulate the difference as follows. or Psycho-linguistics is primarily concerned with the ver­ "Fiying planes is dangerous." balization process (as weil as with other aspects of language). in reading, our focus is on the primary in ordinary verbal intercourse, a readerllistener process, which is non-verbal. determines the "correct" interpretation from the context The Associationist position, of course, excludes the in which the sentence appears. He is able to do this mind as such from its paradigm of explanation, and because he has what Chomsky calls "linguistic seeks to explain all verbal behavior in terms of Stimulus­ competence"-the ability to determine the underlying response sequences, hierarchies, and "mediation deep structure which corresponds to the correct systems." Our position is in basic conflict with the semantic interpretation. Associationist position, since our primary interest is the Chomsky (1968) emphasizes the distinction between mind, regarded as brain software. linguistic performance and linguistic competence. The The Content orientation is closest to our own position. latter, he believes, is an innate characteristic of the This orientation has emerged with the development of human mind; and he insists that introspective data are generative grammars in modern linguistic theory by both valid and necessary for linguistic insight. He is, in Chomsky (1957, 1965, 1968), Katz (1964), Perlmutter (1971) short, a mentalist-which, he points out, does not and others. Chomsky (1965, page 8) defines a generative necessarily imply a philosophical dualism, although it is grammar as "a system of rules that in some explicit and not inconsistent with dualism. well-defined way assigns structural descriptions to We need not pursue this further here. Clearly, sentences." in the syntactic analysis of a sentence, such Chomsky's approach is similar to ours, but the goal is a grammar it is held, must specify not only a surface different. For Chomsky, the goal is to understand structure, which determines the phonetic interpretation language-in one aspect, the verbalization process. Lin­ of the sentence, but also a deep structure, which deter­ guistic analysis, accordingly, deals with words and mines its semantic interpretation. Consider, for example, phrases in a very precise way. in reading, our goal is the the sentence, "A wise man is honest." The surface analytical reconstruction of brain software. We use ver­ structure, familiar in the traditional analysis of syntax, bal output essentially as clues to the primary process, might be represented in the form (following Chomsky, which is non-verbal and antecedent even to the deep 1968). structure. Our use of words and phrases in this analytical reconstruction is somewhat sloppy from a linguistic standpoint, because we use them merely as convenient Iabeis, analogaus to the mnemonics of an assembler. ------s------The Process approach in psycho-linguistics is similar /r~ /VP~ to the Content approach, but differs mainly in attributing A WISE MAN IS HONEST a much greater role to learning. Linguistic competence is regarded as a particular expression of general cognitive The deep structure, on the other hand, would be mechanisms. 8oth learning and biological development represented by are involved in the development of these cognitive mechanisms. The focus of interest is still on language behavior-the verbalization process per se. ------s------Psycheanalysis also deals with verbal behavior, and /r~ /VP~ like reading, its focus of interest is the human mind. A MA/ S~ IS HONEST There are, however, several important differences. 1. Technique. Psycheanalysis is based on the y /VP~ technique of free association. in classical (Freudian) MAN IS WISE psychoanalysis, the patient lies on a couch, and freely reports whatever comes to mind, without censorship or critical evaluation. A special relationship emerges-the 40 Analysis of Brain Software transference relationship-in which the patient components. This may be of value in efforts to develop "transfers" unconscious feelings originally directed natural and artificial intelligence. toward parents in childhood to the analyst. At critical moments, the analyst provides interpretations of phenomena to the. patient. (This is an admittedly highly oversimplified description, for purposes of comparison.) REFERENCES RP-1 can be used, of course, on recordings of Arbib, M.A., The Metaphorical Brain. New York: Wiley­ psychoanalytic sessions. lt would not, however, be lnterscience, 1972. feasible to apply it during a session, since the "sweeps" Chomsky, N., Syntactic Structures. The Hauge: Mauton take time to execute. And, of course, these sweeps are and Co., 1957. clearly different from the intuitive analyses, based on Chomsky, N., Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. Garn­ psychoanalytic theory, made by the analyst. They consti­ bridge, MA.: The M.I.T. Press, 1965. tute a major investment of effort to understand precisely Chomsky, N., Language and Mind. New York: Harcourt, a relatively short segment of verbal output. Brace & World, lnc., 1968. 2. Orientation. ln psychoanalysis, the patient usually, Colby, K.M., Weber, S., and Hilf, F.D., "Artificial para · though not always, has serious neurotic, psychotic, or noia." Artificiallntelligence 2:1, 1971 . psychosomatic disorders. He seeks help from the Coulter, N.A., Jr., "Towards a Theory of Teleogenetic analyst. The goal, in other words, is therapy for what is Control Systems." Gen. Syst. 13:85, 1968. considered mental illness. To accomplish this, the Coulter, N.A., Jr., "Mind: the software of the brain," ASC analysis seeks to bring into consciousness repressed Cybernetics Forum 6:10, 1974. unconscious material, by means of the techniques Dreyfus, H.L., What Computers Can't Do: A Critique of described. Artificial Reason. New York: Harper & Row, 1972. ln reading, the goal is to identify and to characterize Fischer, R. , "Reverberations: mind: the software of the the components of brain software. "Bugs" in the brain." ASC Cybernetics Forum 7:15,1975. software are of interest, but primarily because analysis Katz, J.J., "Mentalism in Linguistics." Language 40:124, of these "bugs" may contribute to an understanding of 1964. the software. lt is, of course, possible that readings may Kuhn, T.S., The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Iead to new techniques for diagnosis and treatment of Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970. mental disorders, but much work needs tobe done before Locker, A. and Coulter, N.A., Jr., "Recent progress toward this prospect can be evaluated. a theory of teleogenic systems." Kybernetes 5:67, 1976. 3. Theory. The psychoanalytic model of the mind, ori­ Loehlin, J.C., Computer Models of Personality. New York: ginally topographic (conscious, preconscious, uncon­ Random Hause, 1968. scious), later evolved into a structural model which Meissner, W.W., Mack, J.E., and Semrad, E.V., "Ciassical views the mind as composed of three main components. Psychoanalysis". ln Comprehensive Textbook of Psy­ These are: (1) The Ego, largely but not entirely conscious, chiatry - II , Valurne I, pp. 482 565. Freedman, A.M ., which perceives, thinks, guides voluntafy actions, main­ Kaplan, H.l. and Sadock, B.J., Eds., Baltimore: William tains contact with reality, etc. (2) The ld, which is the un­ and Wilkins, 1975. conscious repository of instinctual drives. (3) The Super­ Minsky, M., Semantic ·Information Processing. Garn­ ego, mainly unconscious, representing the ego-ideal and bridge, MA.: The M.I.T. Press, 1968. conscience, which forms in the resolution of the Oedipus Perlmutter, D.M., Deep and Surface Structure Constraints complex. in Syntax. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, lnc., 1968. A comprehensive theory of the mind, based on the Reber, Arthur S., "On Psycho-Linguistic Paradigms". cybernetic concept that the mind is equivalent to the J. Psycholinguistic Research 2:289, 1973. software of the brain, remains tobe developed. Concepts Schank, Roger C. and Colby, K.M., Computer Models of derived from computer science may be tested and Thought and Language. San Francisco, CA: W.H. evaluated. A systematic program of reading verbal Freeman, 1973. outputs, using RP-1 and other procedures as they Simon, H.A., The Science of the Artificial. Cambridge, emerge, may provide the basis for the gradual develop­ MA: The M.I.T. Press, 1969. ment of such a theory. Weizenbaum, J., Computer Power and Human Reason. One further distinction: the primary process in reading San Francisco, CA: W.H. Feeman, 1976. is not the same as the primary process of psychoanalysis Wiener, N., Cybernetics. New York: John Wiley & Sons, which governs unconscious mechanisms. lnterestingly, 1948. the primary process of reading is "unconscious," in the sense that it does not involve the Supervisor (Ego); but it is not repressed. The cybernetic concept of the mind as brain software thus provides the basis for a new paradigm for investi­ developed, and how fruitful its applications may be, deveoped, and how fruitful its applications may be, remains tobe seen. One feature of this paradigm is worth noting: it facilitates the formulation of algorithms for computer programs which simulate brain software e ip

y- An Analysis of the Theory of m Knowledge in Power's Model n- t, of Brain

I - ic

!C Stuart Katz of 2. Department of Psychology 1e University of Georgia Athens, Georgia 30602 4, s. A short time ago, William Powers [1] published a book en­ or apprehend. By object, I shall understand that which rd titled Behavior: the Contra/ of Perception (Powers, 1973) can be known and which, in virtue of the distinction, is 6. in which he set forth a global, integrated theory of brain. independent of the subject. ln addition, I shall treat mind k: Considering, as Lindsay (1974) pointed out in a review of and brain as equivalent to subject and to each other, and that book, that there have been few such theories in environment and real world as equivalent to object. For al recent years, this attempt at comprehensiveness is wel­ those who may wish to take exception to the equivalence :y­ come respite in a science that says less and less about of mind and brain, I have treated the two as identical, not ~ .. the subject matter in which it professes interest. ln my only because I think Powers does, but because the activi­ m opinion, Powers' theory is a very good attempt, primarily ties of mind and brain can together be regarded as be­ because it confronts the most fundamental but (perhaps longing to a knower; for present purposes, therefore, I do !TI- for that very reason) least discussed problern of models not think they need tobe distinguished. of brain-the problern o.f knowledge. Just what role, we Everything that follows is concerned with the two sides ts may ask, does the brain play with respect to knowledge? of the subject-object distinction and in what manner they i8. What does the brain "know?" How does it come to know? might be related. There are, as we shall see, three ,·" . ln Behavior: the Contra/ of Perception we are given a aspects of Powers' model which need to be considered theory of knowledge which faces just such enduring here: I. Contra/ system theory; II. Neural computation; of questions as these, and the answers are provocative. and, 111. Hierarchy. Control system theory refutes three H. Unfortunately, however, the theory of knowledge comes dicta commonly held in the sciences of mind concerning to us unsystematically, in bits and pieces as it were, so the subject-object relation, while neural computation and Je, that its significance tends to remain in the background, hierarchy are more directly concerned with the nature of overshadowed by the more concrete discussion of the the distinction itself and the problern of the origins of m. workings of various brain mechanisms. Therefore, it is knowledge. These last two are, therefore, of greater im­ my purpese here to explain Powers' epistomology more portance for a theory of knowledge. lS, systematically and to evaluate how weil it comes to grips with the problern of knowing. Whether or not the reader agrees with the substance of what follows, I would hope Control System Theory that he or she will at least come to appreciate, if the A control or negative feedback system is the basic unit of appreciation is not already there, how intimately linked organization in Powers' model. Let us quickly review the are a theory of knowledge and a theory of brain. I begin basic elements of this system. with abriet overview. A control system in the present context is a closed The theory of knowledge implicit in Powers' brain loop involving a subject in interaction with its environ­ model may be understood as built around what William ment. The part of the system which is subject contains James called the "cognitive relation;" i.e., the distinction three functional units in special relation. These three between subject and object. The subject I shall regard as units are input, comparator, and output. Information the knower-that side of the distinction which can know which is sent to, or received by, each of these functional Cy 42 An Analysis

eh: units is in the form of a "neural current," which Powers qo = koe (3) mc: takes as the basic measure of nervaus system activity. where q0 is the "output quantity," i.e., the magnitude of re< The input is a neural computer, and what it uses as physical effects produced by the subject and ko is the I in computable information are neural currents from "output function" (a constant) relating e to q0 . (3) is the frc: "below," i.e., from control systems located lower in a subject equation and shows quantitatively how the hierarchy (the nature of which I shall describe later), or subject affects the environment. 2. from neural currents generated by a sense organ trans­ di< ducer at the subject-environment interface. The (4) cc computed product of the input is a neural current bE where ke is the "environment function" (a constant) The computed product of the input is a neural current a< relating q to qi , D is the "disturbance," and kd the called a "perceptual signal." lt is transmitted to the com­ 0 te parator, another neural computer, whose function it is to "disturbance function" (a constant relating D to q ). s: sense a difference proportional to the algebraic sum of (4) states that the physical input affecting the subject is the net effect of the subject's output and some physical u the perceptual signaland a "reference signal." The origin si effect dependent of the subject. of the reference signal is from "above," i.e., from control si systems higher in the heirarchy. lf the perceptual and Now is the equations are solved for p in terms of r, D and p reference signals are not equal in magnitude, a neural the four constants (k;, ke, k0 , and kd)and the "loop gain" b (k; . ke. k )is assume tobe large, the resulting equation current called an "error signal" is transmitted from the 0 b comparator to the third of our functional units, the out­ can be simplified to: puts, where neural energy is transduced and amplified p = r (5) il into non-neural ("physical") energy at the subject­ (We must assume, of course, that kdDis not large enough b environment interface. to overwhelm system and ke and k0 are the primary The part of the system which is environment is the sources of amplification, which is the case in a subject­ world of physical energy. The subject is affected by this environment control system). physical energy through (a) what Powers calls a "dis­ turbance," i.e., physical energy whose source is inde­ Let us now see what the above analysis means for the pendent of the organism's behavior and (b) its own be­ three dicta to which I earlier alluded and which are part of havioral output. The net effect of the disturbance and the the stock-in-trade of scientiests who study mind. ln order subject's output is the physical energy that the sense to avoid ambiguity in what follows, I will need to make argans sense; it thus provides the raw material that the precise three common terms in the language of behavior: input makes into a perceptual signal. Hence the system, stimulus, response, and behavior itself. Because there is, as I have already mentioned, is a closed loop. The as Gibsan (1960) once pointed out, little consensus as to function of the system as a whole is to maintain the Ievei what these terms mean, I will not suppose that the de­ of the perceptual signal at the Ievei of the reference finitions I offer here will please everyone. They are, signal. The reference signal is, therefore, a goal, and however, the definitions that Powers hirnself uses, expli­ within the appropriate time framework the system may citly or otherwise, and are therefore necessary to an be considered goal maintaining. understanding of the implications of contror system As Powers explains to us, this control system can be principles as he employs them. By stimulus I mean given a formal description which is, as we shall see physical energy, in whatever form one chooses to shortly, revealing. An abbreviated form of this description characterize it, that (a) actually (not potentially) partici­ is presented below. Let us disregard the "transient" pates in the excitation (or activation) of sensory effects of a control system, i.e., those short-lived events receptors, and (b) is independent of any activity which the which precede the stabilization or "settling down" of the subject may engage in. For purposes of discussion in system. Let us also assume that the system equations this section, I shall ignore the problern of whether the which bring tagether the important variables of this stimulus is structured or unstructured. ln later sections system are linear. The assumption simplifies exposition of the paper this problern will be considered anew, but it but does not affect the integrity of the argument. The is not necessary to do so here. The readerwill notice that equations are as follows: the term stimulus is identical to what Powers calls a disturbance. (1) By response I mean any physical energy produced by the subject in the form of muscle tensions or glandular where p is the perceptual signal, qi is the "input activity. I shall take behavior to mean exactly the same quantity," i.e., the magnitude of physical effects thing. impinging on the subject's sensory appratus, and k; is 1. A stimulus causes receptor activity. ls this statement the "input function" (a constant) relating p to q;- (1) is the true from the perspective of control system theory? input equation and shows quantitatively how the According to system equations (1) and (4), the perceptual environment affects the subject. signal is a function of the stimulus and the behavior of the subject. Therefore, the onset of, or change in, a stimu­ e = r-p (2) lus alone does not affect receptor activity. ln fact, according to equation (5), the subject will behave in such where the e is the error signal and r is the reference a way as to counteract or oppose the potential effects of signal. (2) is the comparator equation. the stimulus so that the perceptual signal remains un- Cybernetics Forum 43 changed (at the Ievei of the reference signal). Thus we moderns would now entertain. Recognizing the role of may say that a stimulus does not cause the activation of the organism in the act of behaving, these individuals receptors. Any theory which asserts that such a causal would almost certainly invoke the concept of link does exist is incorrect within a control system "mediation" or "intervening variable," in light of which framework. the stimulus would more properly be considered the occasion for a response or, in other words, necessary but 2. The subject contro/s its behavior. According to this not sufficient for a response. But this contemporary view dictum, that "higher" part of the brain which is will not do either. For as we have just seen, control connected with volition has the power to command system principles allow for the occurrence of a response behavior. ln other words, when a subject wishes to without any stimulus if the reference signal happens to achieve a goal, it "orders" a specific set of muscle change. Thus, it is not even true that a stimulus is tensions. Let us see what control theory says about this. necessary but not sufficient for a response. 1t is neither System equation (3) states that behavior is a function of necessary nor sufficient. the error signal while equation (2) states that the error lf these three dicta are not correct when control signal is a function not of the reference ("command") system principles are applied, what, if anything, can be signal, but of the difference between itself and the said definitely about the subject-environment interaction perceptual signal. Let us assume that the subject is within such a framework? The title of Powers' book behaving in a specifiable way. lf a change in a distur­ answers that question. According to control system bance occurs, equations (3) and (2) predict that behavior theory, the subject controls what it perceives. ln the will change. This may happen, however, with no change model, the reference signal determines the magnitude of in the reference signal. Conversely, it is possible that the perceptual signal, as is evident from equation (5). both a disturbance and the reference signal may change When a control system is functioning properly, the in a way that will produce no change in the error signal perceptual and the reference signal are equivalent. Since and hence no change in behavior. We see then that since the perceptual signal is yoked to the reference signal, behavior can change without a change in the reference any change in the latter will result in a corresponding signal and the reference signal can change without a change in the former. ln the final analysis, then, the way change in behavior there is no direct causal link between the world appears is the way the subject commands it to the two. Therefore, the statement that the subject appear. controls how it behaves is incorrect. Freedom to act in any way is not possible. That, however, is of little con­ sequence to an entity for which purposes, not specific Neural Computation muscle tensions, are important. lnterestingly enough, this conclusion was reached more than 30 years ago in To understand the significance of what is to be said in the classic paper by Rosenblueth, Wiener, and Bigelow this section, we need to draw a distinction between the (1943) when they stated " ... we do not command certain terms "control," which mechanism was described in the muscles to contract a certain degree and in a certain last section, and "construct." Control is what control sequence; we merely trip the purpose and the reaction systems do; such systems govern the magnitude of a follows automatically" (p. 19). perceptual signal so that it matches the magnitude of a reference signal or goal. The subject, then, is free to 3. A stimulus causes a response. lt is upon this state­ perceive in a variety of ways, those ways defined by the ment that the whole of the mechanistic philosophy of the range of magnitude of the reference signal. ln essence, subject-environment interaction is built. Organisms are control simply means the regulation of magnitude. Now pricked by the environment and behavior follows in a to say that something is regulated implies that it may reliable way. Again, we may ask, what does control assume any of a number of values, i.e., it may vary or is system theory have to say about this? The theory says variant. Yet, the very fact that we refer to it as "it" or that it is wrong, and for precisely the same reasons we "something" implies that the something being regulated found for criticizing the second dieturn above. As system has also a permanent aspect about it, i.e., has a charac­ equations (3) and (2) show, specific behaviors are a . teristic that remains constant or is invariant. This per­ function of error which, in turn, is a function of the sistence of something must, too, be accounted for, and relation of perception to goal. lt is entirely possible to there are, broadly speaking, two ways to do it. The first is introduce a disturbance (stimulus) without a concomitant to treat the invariance as originating in an external world. change in behavior (response) if the reference signal The invariance would then be thought of as a structured changes in such a way as to maintain the identity item existing quite independently of the subject. This between itself and the perceptual signal. Conversely, it is item would be mapped on to the sensory apparatus possible toproduce a change in behavior without a new whose function it would be to re-present what is disturbance if the reference signal changes. The new "out there." By means of control systems, the organism behavior would besuch as tobring the perceptual signal would be able to vary the way the item might appear, thus into line with the new reference signal. A causal link giving a veridical perception of it. When understood in between a stimulus and a response, therefore, cannot be this way, the result isaform of realism (the philosophers forged under these circumstances. would, perhaps, call this "representative realism") with Some might argue that this third dictum, which in its control principles taken into account. strongest form implies that the stimulus is a sufficient The second way to explain the invariance is to treat it cause of the response, is a Watsonian relic very few as constructed within the subject. Powers (1973), like other 44 An Analysis

"experimental espistemologists", has opted for the latter each independent of all others. But these invariances can approach.ln his own words: be established in neural computers by means of weighted summations of neural currents arising from the To speak of recognition implies tacitly that the environ· activities of many endings. Hence the invariances ment contains an entity to be recognized, and that all we emerge as a result of neural computation and are not have to do is learn to de.tect it. lt seems far more realistic simply identical to, or Iransformations of, structures pre­ to me to speak lnstead of functions that construct per­ ceptions, with the question of external counterparts to sented ready made to the nervous system. They are, in these perceptions being treated with much skepticism. Gestalt terms, "wholes" that are more than the sum (p. 114) of their "pl3-rts," more than the innumerable local effects of sensory endings. To use anexample by Powers The result in his model is the mechanism of neural the taste of lemonade is the experiential product of com­ computation. Neural computation may be defined as the putations that must certainly make use of the effects of ~ construction of invariances by means of neural mechan­ various chemical components upon numerous chemore­ isms. When these invariances are assigned a name and ceptors; but the taste of lemonade, the invariance, is not given significance or meaning within some framework, the same thing as those effects taken as individual they become what Powers calls "controlled quantities." events. Similarly, an experienced visual object is based Neural computation works in the following way (for upon the firings of enormous numbers of photoreceptors present purposes, I focus on those computing devices but, again, it is not identical to the activities of those located at the input of a control system, for it is these sensory endings. ln these examples, it is the neural which make contact with, and thus must in some sense computers that create the objects of taste and vision, make use of the physical energy of the environment). respectively, by operating on the individual sensory Neural currents generated "locally," i.e., by individual events, giving each their due according to a given set of sensory endings at the subject-environment interface, or weightings. Thus, as Powers makes clear, the require­ from control systems lower in the hierarchy of ments of his model aresuch that the items of experience control systems, are combined by means of weighted do not necessarily have any physical significance. They summations to yield a neural current that becomes a per­ are, in briet, of and by the subject. ceptual signal eilher for a comparator or for part of the Consider, now, a second argument. lf those input to the next highest control system. This "solution" invariances the subject constructs out of its experience to the neural computation, which Powers represents as are solely the products of specific neural functions, then the direction of a vector in n-dimensional space, is the other functions will yield new constructions, new ways of invariant outcome of the ever-shifting inputs into the experiencing that may or may not have anything to do neural computer; it is what, by virtue of the organization with what the subject, at that moment, regards as part of of the computer, stays the same. its reality. There is, in fact, an infinity of possible neural From a phenomenal perspective, neural computation functions, which means an infinity of possible construc­ provides the subject with whatever it may regard as the tions; and this, in turn, means an infinity of possible persistent items of its experience: sensations, objects, worlds, none of which may be considered more "real" relations, systems, and so forth. For example, the outpul than any other. Though the subject may attach on­ of a particular neural computation may appear to a tological significance to the items it knows, those who subject to be a particular object whose "form" and see the subject-environment relation within the frame­ "substance" remain unchanged no matter what the atti­ werk of neural computation believe differently. Au fond, tudeofthat object may be in three dimensional space, or each of those items is tobe found, not in a structured real whether that object is in full view or is hidden. lt is, universe, but in a computation of mind. despite transformations, still that object. (The example used here is precisely what Jean Piaget regards as the "Copernican revolution" in cognitive development, namely the construction of the permanent object by the Hierarchy young child; Piaget & lnhelder, 1969). The object may, of Thus far the discussion has centered for the most part course, appear differently to the subject depending on around the properlies of single control systems. Powers, the perspective from which it is viewed. The appearance, however, has constructed a model that includes many in this case, is what can vary, and is, therefore, what is control systems organized in a special way, namely under control. But the object qua object, stays the same. hierarchically. ln this section, I would like to say some­ By defining neural computation as a constructive thing about the arrangement which is of relevance to his activity occurring within the subject, the epistemology in theory of kno'wledge. ln Powers' model, a control system Powers' model is already apparent. But Iet us develop it a located at one Ievei of the hierarchy receives a neural little further. Consider, first, a set of sensory receptor current from the outpul of a control system located one firings caused by inputs to the nervous system. Neural Ievei above, and sends a neural current to a control currents derived from these firings cannot be directly system located one Ievei below. The neural current which equated with the firings because, as I have indicated, the it receives from above is its reference signal; the current activation of sensory endings is punctate in character. which it sends down is its outpul and is the reference The complex invariances the subject regards as part of signal for the control system below. Thus, the goal of a its world obviously cannot be represented at one or control system is dictated by what is above and its another of the sensory endings, nor even by a mosaic of outpul dictates the goal of the system below. The hier­ such endings considered as a collection of elements archial arrangement as a whole is designed to carry out Cybernetics Forum 45 the highest order goals of the organism; lower order definition, what is now the source of knowledge is no goals are simply means to this highest end. Ionger than which can be known at the lower Ievei ln the model, the hierarchy serves two functions. The because the input functions to the higher Ievei have first is the obvious one: coordination. Even the simplest operated on that source and thus created new skills require the cooperation of innumerable control knowledge. lt is this new knowledge, and only this systems, and the bureaucratic arrangement is a very knowledge, that can be known at the second Ievei, for the efficient way to achieve this cooperation since a control second Ievei has access to nothing but the creations of system acts only on orders from above. The second its input functions. Thus what is the subject, the knower, function is one of construction. As we saw in the at the first Ievei vis-a-vis the physical environment discussion on neural computation, a neural computer at becomes itself an environment vis-a-vis the next higher the input of a control system receives signals from below Ievei. This argument applies with equal force to the Ievei and produces an output which is sent either to a com­ above that one, and to the next, and so on. parator or to the input of the next highest control system. The point of the discussion is simply this: for every Thus, from an experiential perspective, new items are shift in Ievei, the domains of subject and environment constructed at each Ievei, the items at the higher Ieveis shift, since any particular Ievei can only "know" what is representing, in some sense, synthesis of items at lower given to it from its input functions. The subject­ Ieveis. The experience at the lowest is the primitive one environment distinction, then, becomes relative; where of "intensity," i.e., the experience of changes in degree or one decides to draw the line depends on where one magnitude and nothing more. As we move higher in the happens to focus in the hierarchy. Now the fact that a hierarchy, experiences become increasingly sophisti­ permanent dividing line is not possible is not a very com­ cated; we know objects, sequences, concepts, principles, fortable state of affairs, especially for those who, for one and ultimately, organized entities or systems. Thus, it is reason or another, need it in their respective theories of within this hierarchy that our experiential world is built. knowledge. For example, assume a claim is put forth (the From an episternological standpoint, this hierarchical classical "realist" claim) that what we regard as belang­ model of brain gives us an unusual perspective on the ing to environment exists independently of the knower subject-object distinction. Consider the various ways in and would persist were there no knower to know it which the distinction is usually made. There is, to begin existed. But how could one possibly make this claim if with, the common sense approach. Here a division is the boundary between knower and known is a relative made between an organic whole and its inorganic matter, a matter of a particular focus in the hierarchy? surround, with an envelope called the skin as the dividing Those permanent, independent, "ontic" items that are line. Everything inside (including the skin itself) is the initially counted as environment might on one occasion subject and everything outside, the object or environ­ be part of the knower and on another a source of ment. However, instead of drawing the line this way, Iet knowledge. Assertions of an ontological sort, therefore, us employ the definition setforthat the beginning of this would be difficult, or perhaps impossible. Be that as it may, paper. Make the subject the knower and the environment Powers in fact merely courts, he never does wed, the impli­ that which can be known. lf we do this, the place where cations of this relativisitic scheme. Rather than hold solely the line is drawn will change. The reason isthat there is, to the second definition, he simultaneously invokes a third: within the skin, an internal environment (blood, lymph, the subj_ect is tobe considered the entire hierarchical net­ joints, muscles, viscera, etc.) and a sensory apparatus work of control systems, and the environment the world that acquires information about that environment of physical energy outside that hierarchy. With the (proprioceptors and other sensing devices). This second addition of his mechanism of "awareness," a device that definition would then require that the line be drawn moves throughout the hierarchy, scanning all Ieveis but between the sensory apparatus and everything it may not beyond, this criterion very firmly, though arbitrarily, sense. Looking at things this way, we see that the subject establishes the boundary between subject and environ­ becomes equivalent to the nervaus system, for it appears ment. Powers does not abandon the second definition, that only it "knows," while the environment becomes but he makes use of it only after first employing this third everything the nervaus system may use as a source of one in order to establish a fixed boundary. By doing this, knowledge. Whether this definition is the better one or he is able to make the argument of the sort we encoun­ not, it certainly seems more in accord with traditional tered in the section on neural computation; to wit, that philosophical thinking and is the one accepted by vir­ what we regard as environment in the model is a struc­ tually all psychologists and biologists. Let us now carry tureless physical world, and what we regard as subject is this definition a little further. Consider the hierarchical the originator of structure. An argument like this could arrangement of control sysfems within the nervaus not be made if the model did not have a stationary system that Powers describes. What is the subject and demarcation between subject and object. what is the environment in this scheme? lf we begin with the sensory apparatus at the lowest Ievei in the hier­ archy, subject and environment will be exactly as Powers; Realist or Subjectivist? characterized by our second definition above. The ln what has been said to this point, I have tried to subject is the nervaus system and the environment all interpret for the reader the connections between Powers that lies outside the periphery of that system. However, model and various issues surrounding the subject­ as soon as we move to the next higher Ievei in the object distinction. As I indicated at the outset, I believe hierarchy, that which is subject and that which is this description tobe useful since the purpose of Powers' environment changes. ln keeping with our second book is to explain the brain model itself, and only 46 An Analysis Cyt secondarily to explore its epistemological implications. physical energy, like food, is necessary for the making of e Before concluding, however, I should like to elaborate structures, but the raw materials do not correspond to p further on Powers' theory of knowledge, point out what I those structures. ln sum, the model may be characterized (J regard as a contradiction in that theory, and finally as subjectivist only with respect to the origin of mean· ~ t suggest ways by which that contradiction might be ingful structures; Powers makes room for a material resolved. ln order to accomplish the first, I should like to world, but one whose role in the model is as supplier, not ask, for rhetorical purposes, the following question: does of real items, but (to continue the metaphor) of unpro· T Powers' model imply realism or does it imply cessed cognitive nourishment. ln this respect, his ideas pro1 subjectivism? ln the traditional way, I take realism to bear resemblance to Piaget, the "early" Karl Marx, and the mean that there are structures which exist independently possibly Kant as weil. beh of the experience of a knowing subject and, moreover, These remarks Iead naturally to a11other question, the tha1 that these structures are the cause of the subject's answer to which, I believe, reveals an inconsistency in m01 knowledge of them in virtue of the mechanisms of per· Powers' model. The question is this: lf it is assumed that can ception. I take subjectivism to mean that structures do an organized system of neural computers has some kind poil not exist apart from a knowing subject's knowledge of of history, what, we may ask, is the course of that enc them; that these structures belong solely "in" the mind of history? How, in short, does the system get tobe the way the the subject ~2]. From what has already been said, I think it is? lf it is correct to assess Powers' model as sub· .. Powers' model implies subjectivism, but, as I shall jectivist (at least with regard to the origins of structure), log explain, of a special sort. The relevant part of Powers' then consistency would demand the following kind of ner model is neural computation. As we have seen, objects, answer: the genesis of the organization of the computers wit relations, and other items of experience are, according to must be a wholly internal affair; there can be no external ehE the model, the products of neural computation. Hence, structural standard to which the organized hierarchy the the properties of the input functions aresuch that, given must ultimately conform. Since Powers takes pains to stn their flexibility, there are no structural constraints show the flexibility of neural computers, and argues that the necessarily exerted upon them by the environment. The the org~nizatlon of each of these is no "truer" than any me position is therefore subjectivist, at least insofar as it other, we might have expected him to account for the POl locates the source of structure to be "in" the subject. development of any particular organization in purely eff1 What is more, the assertion that structures embodied in intrinsic terms. One such approach would be some sort em the neural computers can be other than they are, i.e., can of internal dialectic, driven by goals of internal coherence wh be organized in innumerable ways, suggests that the and the attainment of ever higher orders of invariance. tio model is constructivist-all sorts of structures are Powers, however, takes another position, namely that me possible and whichever of these a subject possesses is knowledge is acquired which permits the subject, or sis independent of the structural porperties of a material more correctly the physical organism belanging to the virl world should the latter happen to exist. subject, to remain alive. ln the model itself, a it c Now if, in fact, neural computation implies sub· conceptually separate control system accomplishes this sul jectivism, one may then ask what an environment is by guiding the organization and reorganization of the rev doing in Powers' model at all? Why not, as some do, hierarchy. lt informs the hierarchy of an "intrinsic" to simply dispense with that side of the distinction and reference signal, the former indicating the current sa1 leave only a mind composed of neural computers? The physiological state of the organism and the latter the dis reason is that the model is not skeptical with respect to desired physiological state, the one which keeps the ph an unstructured external world. To show that this is the organism alive. lf there is a mismatch, the neural com­ erc case, I again quote Powers: puters in the hierarchy reorganize; at all Ieveis of the sh be This is a good opportunity to emphasize a "philosophical hierarchy incoming perceptual signals are reinterpreted­ tal fact" that merges trom this theory: perceptual signals given new meaning-and outgoing error signals are depend on physical events, but what they represent does given a new family of goals. ln effect, the subject comes dil not necessarily have any physical significance . . . (p. 113) to understand and to cope with a physical world in new For purposes here, the important word in the quotation ways, ways which will change the organism's physio· Ce is "depend." To Powers, the real world may or may not logical state so that it will remain alive. As Powers points As have structure, and even if it does, the structure of the out, this aspect of the model is an extension of the su mind may or may not be correlated to it; given the nature concept of "ultrastability" by the cyberneticist W. Ross ViE of neural COmputers, if SUCh a GOrrelation exists, it is Ashby (Ashby, 1952), which idea, like kindred others in re1 coincidental. The model does, however, insist that there traditional views of learning and motivation, is an lel is an environment, and that it does cause the mind to attempt to account for the plasticity of mind in an ever· to perceive. That is what Powers means when he says that changing and threatening environment. lt is, as I shall th perception "depends" on physical events. Now one may now try to show, inconsistent with the rest of Powers' Tc ask what can possibly be meant by "depend" if not bring model. th Consider the following quote from Power's book in about a mental structure in some correspondence with a of real structure? Apparently, Powers means nothing more which he attempts to clarify the distinction between the in than that the environment supplies the raw material for hierarchy and the reorganizing system: th the neural computers at the lowest Ievei in much the We must therefore consider that any behavior has two th same sense that aliment is the raw material organisms maior classes of effect. One kind of effect is sensory: SI use to construct biological struc\ures. Unstructured behavior alters the state of the world that affects sensory H Cybernetics Forum 47

endings, and by this means (ideally) keeps all Ieveis of tures. The subject is thus faced with the task of recon­ perception at their respective goal states. The other kind structing those structures, i.e., putting tagether the indi­ of effect is physiological: behavior alters the state of vidual receptor firings so as to create a pattern or struc­ physiological intrinsic quantities through physical and ture that is identical to, or some transformation of, the biochemical processes not involving the nervous system "real" structure. Now any act of reconstruction, as Plato at all. (p. 187) understood a very long time ago, must involve the follow­ The classes of effect he calls sensory refer to a ing: (a) that which is tobe reconstructed (in this case, it is process already discussed in detail, namely that in which the mental structure), (b) a model or standard on which the joint physical effects of both disturbances and the reconstruction is to be patterned (here, the standard behavior affect sensory endings. lt is at this interface is the real world structure) and (c) a comparator or obser­ that the first structural interpretations begin. From the ver, by which I mean something that compares the re­ modeler's point of view, what is considered "physical" construction and standard to determine the veridicality can be thought of as nothing more than a set of energetic of the former with respect to the latter. Within the frame­ point elements, each affecting individual sensory work of realism, it must be assumed that the subject endings. There need be no appeal to structure outside of compares its own structures to the real world standard the mind. so as to effect a match. Doing so, however, carries with it However, the classes of effect Powers calls physio­ the additional and often hidden assumption that the logical refer to processes both structured and outside the subject has prior knowledge of the real world standard; nervaus system. One cannot talk" about physiology how, otherwise, would a comparison be possible? Yet without at the sametime invoking certain biological and acquiring knowledge of the standard is the very problern chemical objects and their relations. Hence, that part of the realist set out to solve, so that he has involved the reorganizing system which is physiological is hirnself in a perfectly vicious circl~ (see e.g., .Hirst, 1959). structured. And since physiology does " ... not involve There isasimple way out of the circularity, of course, and the nervaus system at all," it must be part of the environ­ that is to establish a meta-subject in whose field of ment. Herein lies the contradiction. On the one hand, experience both subject and environment aretobe found. Powers claims that when we are concerned with sensory Since the meta-subject knows both subjective and real effects in the hierarchy we do not need a structured world structures, appropriate change in or additions to environment as part of the model. On the other hand, the former can easily be made. But while this approach when we are concerned with the process of reorganiza­ would complete the requirements for reconstruction, it tion, the model teils us we do need a structured environ­ simply replaces the problern of how the subject gains ment. Obviously, we cannot have it both ways. The incon­ knowledge with the identical problern of how the meta­ sistency could be resolved by making a structured en­ subject gains knowledge. For what we really wish to vironment an integral part of the model or by eliminating know is how a knowing entity acquires knowledge by its it altogether-in other words, by taking either arealist or own devices, as it were, and not by recourse to some subjectivist position. Since this would necessitate deus ex machina. I shall return to this point. revision of the Powers' model, it is certainly reasonable What the argument, therefore, comes to is that a to ask which position, if either, would be the better. At the realist perspective must, for logical reasons, fail to sametime it would, perhaps, be presumptuous for me to account for the acquisition of structure by a knowing discuss the issue here because the problem, as old as subject. lt is remarkable, in light of this, that the realist philosophy itself, cannot easily be given due consid­ position is so thoroughly pervasive among scientists eration in a few pages. lf the reader will permit me, I who construct models of mind. should like, nevertheless, to risk presumption because I Now what of the subjectivist position? According to believe the matter can be clarified, if not resolved, by the earlier definition, subjectivism means that the taking a perspective that is, to my knowledge, little subject is in some sense primary and that structures discussed in epistemology. Thus the following. exist solely within the mind. What the subject knows, it knows within and not outside itself in some independent Coda: Some remarks on the subject-object distinction. domain of existence. On the face of it, this point of view As a preliminary, Iet us consider, in turn, the realist and would seem to resolve the difficulty we encountered with subjectivist positions to see if, from a logical point of the realist position. lf everything that can be known is view, either or both can stand firm. First, according to the already within the mind, the sort of verification process realist position, the subject, or knower, in some way we required between internal structures and external learns about a world of objects independent of and prior ones would not be necessary for the simple reason that to the subject. The subject is thus nothing more or less true knowledge does not have to be transmitted from one than a mechanism for representing what already exists. location (external reality) to another (the subject); it To know, then, is to represent. The obvious query is how already reposes "in" the subject. But as Moore (1922), this representing takes place. Since every known model Ausseil (1959) and others pointed out, this solution does of brain takes a mosaic of sensory receptors as its start­ not work. For if we have structures in the mind, we can ing point for this process, it seems reasonable to assume mean only one of two things: eilher that known becomes that if real structures exist independently of the subject, knower (i.e., the known takes on the function or meaning they are (as I pointed out earlier) disassembled at the of knower), orthat knower and known are still to be dis­ subject-object interface. The reason, of course, is that tinguished but are tagether to be regarded as mental. lf receptors cannot individually represent external struc- the former, then we have simply defined away the relation 48 An Analysis between knower and known rather than coming to a apprehender, not a repository, of knowledge. Formally, deeper understanding of it. lf the latter, we have not, in the same argument applies to subjectivism. Here it is fact, solved the problern of circularity (thought to be the · assumed that the knower is prior to the known, which failing of realism) because we still have the two sides of again violates the logic of the distinction by giving the cognitive relation-knower and known-even though priority to one side of it. Or alternatively, if it is assumed we may have relocated them "in" what was originally the that whatever is known is "in" the subject, the functions knower. Since the distinction still remains, it also of knower and known arenot kept distinct, which again is remains for us to determine how the "knower-within-the­ a transgression. 3 knower" learns about the "known-within-the-knower." ln answer, then, to the question of which orientation, lt is by now apparent after these rather lengthy pre­ real ist, or subjectivist, would be the better one for Powers fatory remarks that the problern of knowledge devolves (and, indeed, all scientists of mind) to take, I must upon the subject-object (knower-known) distinction itself. conclude that neither will do. As long as we insist on I should like now to give a briet analysis of that distinc­ partitioning experience by means of the subject-object tion and toset forth what I believe tobe the implications distinction and, simultaneously, embracing either of the analysis for any of the Seiences of mind. realism or subjectivism, weshall encounter traps at every Logically, the "sides" of any distinction have what can turn because realism and subjectivism are in essence best be described as a "complementary parity." By this I opposed tothat distinction. mean that one side of the distinction cannot take on any sort of meaning without the existence of the other (or lf all this is true, the reader may weil wonder what path others); they are, in this sense, "equal" in the relation. we are left to pursue for building models of mind. The The reason isthat the act of distinguishing has behind it only alternative I see is to dispense with the subject an intent (conscious or otherwise) to divide a heretofore within the model itself. Everything we regard as uniform whole into mutually exclusive but complemen­ "physical," as "neural," as "physiological," etc., in short tary domains. ln perception, a paradigmatic case of all we take to be the data of science, must in conse­ a distinction would be the figure-ground relationship. quence be characterized soley as that which is known, Here we have two sides to the distinction: "figure" while we who stand as observers outside these domains and "ground." Each has parity with respect to the other of Observation must be the knowers. We may, of course, and the parity is complementary because neither can continue to think the concepts and talk the language of exist without the other. 1t would literally be impossible to science as we have in the past. For example, brain experience a figure without at the sametime calling forth theorists may continue to think in terms of the "trans­ a ground, and vice versa. At the same time, each serves a duction of energy" or the "transmission of information" quite different function in the relation. Figure is that from one part of our experience (as observers) to another; which is prominent in the perception; ground is that furthermore, these theorists may, for example, name one which forms a backdrop or a contrast to the figure. Thus, part "neural" and another "physical." But in no circum­ while the two sides "support" one another, they are also stances, under penalty of those difficulties I have already independent of each other. The same holds for the pre­ discussed, may they be permitted to treat the brain or the eminent case in epistemology, the subject-object distinc­ organism as the knower. tion. Again, the sides of this distinction have a comple­ At the same time, we should caution ourselves that mentary equality or parity; each is necessary for the this injunction creates certain limitations that we may be other. But, again, neither can be said to have primacy; by unwilling to accept. By forbidding a knower to be part of the very nature of the complementary relation each side what we observers experience, we exclude the possibility serves a function independent of the other. The subject of understanding, in the way we have traditionally apprehends, the object is that which is apprehended. defined them, those unique properties of organisms that Neither can take the role of the other without destroying have been the foundation of the sciences of mind, the very nature of the distinction. videlicet: learning, attention, and development. Foreach Thus it is that realism and subjectivism get us into of these properties contains implicitly the very special logical difficulties: both violate the inherent properties of premise that the organism itself is the primary agent in the subject-object distinction. Realism establishes a pri­ the knowing process; that the organism itself, without macy of real world structures over a knowing subject. the aid of an observer, can come to know. Consider Such structures, according to this position, exist inde­ learning, for example. To say that an organism can learn pendently of and prior to any· knower; known exists about its environment independently of an observer is to 'before knower. Realism, therefore, transgresses the say that it can autonomously come to know something meaning of the ·distinction, for if there is a real world outside of itself. But we have seen the circularity to before there is a knower, one side' of the distinction is which this premise Ieads. Only the observer can decide made to exist without the other, which assertion is not whether the organism learns, which is to say that only the permitted by the logic of the distinction. Or alternatively, observer can sense a correspondence between parts of the realist assumption that knowledge gets "in" the its experience. For that reason, without our deus ex knower (i.e., that the knower "learns") fails to keep machina-the observer, learning and other related pro­ separate the functions of knower and known since, as I cesses, when understood as the autonomous properties have pointed out, the distinction makes the knower an of a subject, must remain beyond explanation. Cybernetics Forum 49

NOTES 1. I acknowledge gratefully William T. Powers and W. Conference Calendar, Michael Tomasello for their critical reading of the manu­ script, their stimulation, and their encouragement; and 1977 also Ernst von Glasersfeld whose constructivist episte­ mology has influenced my thinking on the central ideas 25-27 July 1977: expressed here. I also wish to thank the members of my TIMS XXIIIINTERNATIONAL MEETING, co-sponsored Seminar in Cybernetics class for their criticisms and by European Operational Research Societies within their enthusiasm in connection with this piece. Of IFORS, on Gontributions of Management Science course, I am entirely responsible for any deficiencies that and Operations Research to Functional Areas of may be contained therein. Management, to lndustries and Public Goneern as 2. What I call subjectivism has been known traditionally weil as Methodologies, Athens, Greece. as idealism, but since the latter has very many distinctly different meanings, I prefer the former. The word 13-15 September 1977: " subjectivism" has fewer meanings and also the merit of MAX INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM on Extra­ containing within it the root word " subject" over which mal Methods and Systems Analysis, University of the novice in philosophy is likely to become less Texas, Austin, TX. confused. 3. Students of the contemporary philosophy of 7-9 November 1977: perception will recognize the similarity between this JOINT NATIONAL ORSAITIMS MEETING, covering problern and the debate over whether it is " sense data" or applications, methodology and critical problems of "real objects" that we perceive (see e.g., Machamer, our time, Peachtree Plaza Hotel, Atlanta, GA. 1970). Sensedataare "in" us, real objects are " outside" us; but formally both fall on the side of the distinction we call the known. Since sense data and real objects are formally identical, the debate amounts to the argument that x is true, or x is true, which, is obviously trivial. Notices

A comprehensive guidebook has been developed by REFERENCES San Jose State University to explain their Cybernetic Systems Program. This guidebook was written to Ashby, W.R. , Design for a brain. London: Chapman & acquaint interested parties about program subjects and Hall, 1952. requirements beyond what appears in the university Gibson, J.J., "The concept of the stimulus in psychology." catalog. American Psychologist, 5, 694-703, 1960. The contents include detailed course descriptions and Hirst, R.J., The problems of perception. London: Humani­ outline, syllabi sheets for all courses, example questions ties Press, 1959. in the required comprehensive written examination, Lindsay, R.K., " 8ehaving man." (Review of Behavior the thesis writing instructions and procedures, lists of pre­ Contra/ of Perception by W.T. Powers). Science, 184, vious graduates showing occupation and thesis pre­ 455-457, 1974. senteu, past and present faculty indicating their fields of Machamer, P.K., "1. Recent work on perception." Ameri­ expertise, and a bibliography. There are also sections can Philosophical Quarterly, 7, 1-22, 1970. that explain how the program started and the adminis­ Moore, G.E. , Philosophical studies. New York: Harcourt, trative problems overcome. The editor's personal ex­ 8race, & Co., 1922. perience and opinions formed in administrating the pro­ Piaget, J. & lnhelder, 8., The psychology of the child. gram complete the guidebook. Thus, the guidebook New York: 8asic 8ooks, 1969. should be of value to the many individuals and those Powers, W.T., Behavior: the control of perception. Chi­ institutions having or considering such programs. cago: Aldine, 1973. Copies of the guidebook are being offered for sale at Rosenblueth, A., Wiener, N., & 8igelow, J., " 8ehavior, the cost of reproduction. lnquiries of cost should be purpose and teleology," Philosophy of Science, 10, directed to the Spartan 8ookstore, Textbook Department 18-24, 1943. of San Jose State University, San Jose, California 95192. Russell, 8., The problems of philosophy. London: Oxford University Press, 1959. Toward a Philosophy of History

Robert Sinai The State University of New York College of Potsdom Potsdom, New York 1367 6

The liberal and Marxist concepts of unilinear progress lts unfolding constitutes what we call the rise of civiliza­ have no basis either in contemporary reality or in history. tions; its cessation or reversal, their decline or disintegra­ All civilizations are finite, time-bound and mortal. All tion. Any civilization will thus tend to move in the direction social orders are marked by conflict and contradiction of greater coherence, definitiveness and decisive action and driven by a negativity that is sooner or later bound to as the way toward its culmination; and its peak and destroy them. All things in history move toward both ful­ apogee can be considered the point beyond which the fillment and dissolution, toward the fuller embodiment of "master design" no Iongershows increase in plastic Co­ their essential character and toward decline and fall. ordination but begins to fall apart, or to harden into Nothingis evergreen, each source of life is eventually ex­ rigidity, or both. hausted and each concentration of energy eventually Like every idea, however, this one, too, should not be dispersed. Alllife suffers from thedeepestrangementand applied simplistically or mechanically. Not every civiliza­ animosity which exists between man's creative processes tion has a history of simple rise, maturity and fall. Room and their content and products. The cultural products must be left for complications of structure and develop­ which man creates become the enemy of their creator. ment. Some civilizations destroy themselves when they Every civilization thus carries within itself, as if by an in­ are young; some are undermined in their maturity; and trinsic fate, something which is determined to block, some continue to live a death-in-life for hundreds of years burden and distort, to obscure and defeat its innermost in their decline. Others may seem to attain a realization purposes. Decay and disintegration, ruin and defeat are of the patterns which they had gradually achieved and as inherently interwoven into the plan of the world as shaped; but then, instead of either stereotyping or success and progress. smashing these patterns and thereby dissolving their civilizations they may experience a renaissance and make a fresh start with reconstituted or partly new pat­ A Coherent Design for Society's Functioning terns. Wehave in such a case a renewed pulse of activity Taking the broadest possible view it is possible to under­ within the same society. Yet this new pulse of activity stand all civilizations as being shaped by a "master does not save the civilization from ultimate decline or design" of class relations, ideology and productive disintegration. forces. This design constitutes an assemblage of forms, Every "master design" or cultural style or system thus a coordination of patterns. These include: a system of imposes certain ineluctable boundaries on every civiliza­ government and laws; an ideology or a way of thinking; a tion. Every notable cultural achievement presupposes set of property relations, manual habits and technological adherence to a certain set of patterns; that the patterns skills; a style of art and architecture; and rules for social to be effective must exclude other possibilities and are and personal relations. Taken all together, these styles, limited; that, while certain revis-ions of and deviations ways, attitudes and rules, though rent by conflict and in­ from them are possible, these can never transcend the congruity, by paradox and ambiguity, add up to a more or broad framewerk established by these patterns; that with less coherent design for a society's functioning. We can successful development they accordingly become ex­ thus construe a civilization as something that achieves a hausted; and that a culture can go on to new achieve­ precarious unity, that works from a start of more or less ments only if there is a breakdown or abandonment of a haphazardness toward greater coherence, and that moves revolutionary reformation of patterns. The master design from amorphousness toward definition and from fumbling thus forms, develops, matures, decays and either dis­ trials to decisive acts. solves or atrophies into a dead petrifaction ..[ 1] This process of cultural growth from chaotic, groping Every civilization is therefore ruled by a few general beginnings, through growing commitment to particular inescapable laws. Though it is very difficult, if not impos­ forms or patterns and growing control of these forms or sible, to predict the exact duration of any civilization or patterns until they are achieved and their potentialities the sequence of its phases, it is yet possible to see civili­ realized, seems to be basic in the history of civilization. zation unrolling like the consistent plot of a tragedy, Cybernetics Forum 51 inevitable and irreversible. And irreversibility, whether of lieve that this superiority is a kind of natural gift that entropy in physics or of human destiny, carries implica­ exists irrespective of the power of its rivals and compet­ tions of fate and doom. itors. This tendency to Iook at the power of one's nation as a kind of absolute, to take it for granted, and not to What Drives Society? realize that it is the result of comparison, Ieads to those miscalculations regarding the distribution of military and ln the first place every society is driven by the will to political power between nations which usually end power. lmpelled by passion and appetite men seek to im­ in disaster. pose their will upon the world and upon other men and to Another typical error which is frequently made in fulfill their personal needs. lnsecure and anxious, threat­ evaluating the power of a nation lies not so much in ened by meaninglessness and absurdity, men seek to believing in its absolute character but in believing in its overcome these eternal existential aganies by accumu­ permanency. ln this case the nation refuses to see ahead, lating power. Sprung from chaos and pervasive flux, loses its powers of adaptativeness and flexibility and caught in that blind and involuntary war which is regards the power which it possesses at a particular existence, men seek to provide some meaning to their period of history as a permanent characteristic which is distracted lives by striving to appropriate, dominate, not subject to change in itself. ldolizing itself or some increase and grow stronger. Striving is therefore nothing particular form of military organization or technique it is other than striving for power. All human life is involved in unable to respond to new changes and challenges in its the sin of seeking security at the expense of other life. environment. Obsessed with its own superiority and Men always live at the expense of others and history is, "chosenness," attributing all the good qualities to itself as a result, always appropriation, overpowering the and depriving all other nations, especially the enemy, of foreign and the weak and at its very foundation-exploita­ all good qualities, a nationalism which has turned into tion and injustice. The inability of liberalism and Marxism to chauvinism tends to overestimate its own qualities and understand the demoniacal character of power makes it im­ by underestimating the qualities of other nations so possible for these ideologies to camprehend the nature weakens itself as to produce catastrophe. Throughout of the human condition and stamps them asshallowand history nations have fallen because they believed too false guides to the enduring problems of history. Driven strongly in their own superiority and because they com­ by the will to power nations, empires and civilizations are mitted the great error of refusing to Iook at themselves subject to decline, ruin and revolution. And this for a and at their competitors with that critical faculty and de­ number of reasons. tachment which is required for creative statesmanship. A factor of supreme importance which has throughout history brought about or contributed to the decline of civilizations has been the very character of power itself. The Demoniacal Character of Power The struggle to magnify itself is of power's essence. The most fateful consequence of possessing power lies, Being a species of egoism it tends naturally to grow. however, in its demoniacal character. The ruling groups Every center of force and power is propelled by the will to and collectivities which hold power can never know how grow stranger-not self-preservation, but the will to to use power with wisdon and prudence for too long. lt is appropriate, dominate, increase, grow stronger. States in the very nature of power to overextend itself, to expand are not merely interested in self-preservation but are beyond its natural Iimits, to become inordinate and centers of inordinate ambitions, lusts and desires. oppressive. lt greedily and ruthlessly demands objectiva­ Polities are not essentially tame, cool and calculating tion. The will to power is avid to wreak its desire and thus collectivities but are motivated by expansive desires it becomes divided against itself. Striving against itself, and vitalities. lmperialism is hence an inherent com­ seeking its own well-being at the expense of others it ponent of all inter-state relations. Originating in blind constantly sets its teeth in its own flesh. desire and human freedom and vitality imperialism is an Though power istheimpulse to action and growth it is expression of the fact that human desire, freedom and nevertheless ultimately impotent. lt is foiled in its blind vitality have no simple, definable Iimits. Goaded by the agitation and devours its own strength in its all­ imagination, puffed up with self-love states desire to embracing fury. All our large human units, political and expand, to accumulate force, to break Iimits, to universal­ social, are tragically transitory. The law of nature at ize themselves andin these ways to give their existence a bottom would seem to be that power steadfastly ignores significance beyond themselves. Striving unceasingly for the means of conserving itself; that power destroys itself power and glory states not only seek to impose their will once it goes beyond its natural Iimits; that the physical upon each other but find the sheer intoxication of ruling expansion of power is always accompanied by social dis­ overriding every other consideration. integration; that wars and the preparation for wars sap lmpelled by the blind will to power nations are sooner the strength of societies and that man's vital liberties are or later destroyed by their inability to manage or control smothered and defeated by contrary powers. the power they have so feverishly accumulated. Deluded The ruling groups that wield power are thus destroyed by power, nations can rarely correctly evaluate their own either by lethargy or stupidity or by outrageaus behavior. power as against the power of other nations. Nations The are either spoilt by success or they lose their moral have fallen because they have tended to believe in the and mental balance. Their temporary achievements either absolute character of their own power. A nation which has induce them to passively "rest on their oars" or provoke been powerful in one period of history is tempted to be- unbalanced men into attempting the impossible and by 52 Philosophy of History

so doing bring catastrophe upon themselves; or filled and trust, to exercise power but also to act wisely and with folly, among the worst diseases, they have their with self-restraint. judgment corrupted, incur the enmity of their friends or ln the hierarchy of variables that shapes every society arouse the murderaus hostility of their rivals and soon the political variable is the most important. Politics as enough total ruin and the loss of all their power follows. the "master science" has the supreme task of managing the social conflicts and contradictions that are inherent Plato has dramatically explained this whole process: lf in every society. Through political leadership societies you neglect the rule of proportion and fit excessively large can be led either to great achievements or toward chaos sails tosmall ships, or give too much food to a small body, or too high authority to a soul that doesn't measure up to it, the and disaster. The qualities and skills of the political result is always disastrous .. Body and soul become puffed class, which is a sub-elite within the ruling elite, therefore up; disease breaksout in the one, and in the other arrogance determines its relations to the ruled majority. The quickly Ieads to injustice. [2] political class is the political manager for the ruling elite. lt is the governor of the country. Another law of history which no society has been able ln its roJe as manager for the ruling class, as a whole, to circumvent has been that which determines the rise, the political class has the responsibility for advancing growth, decline or fall of ruling elites. All societies are the general welfare. The effective political class has its governed by a ruling elite or class of one kind or another ear open to the demands of the non-elite groups in the and all societies are divided into a ruling minority and a society and attempts to conciliate these groups by giving majority that is ruled. All growth is the work of creative them legal status and security and well·defined and personalities and creative minorities. Fired by ambition, fecognized forums to express their needs and interests. lt and an elan vital, possessing new skills and capacities, is able to adjust and adapt to the many and constant these creative ruling minorities impose themselves upon changes of its society. lt opens its ranks to the most the inert, uncreative mass. Hard working and innovative, active elements in the society and absorbs those with filled with self-confidence, flexible and responsive, they leadership and governing talents. Through this continu­ organize all those Institutions which make it possible for ous process of exchange and renewal it keeps its vitality men to live a life in common, to maintain a genuine and fitness for the task of ruling and maintains, as weil independence, to pursue great projects in common and to as possible, a certain Interaction between the society as compete with other states in the perpetual struggle for a whole and the ruling elite. Practicing a form of dialec­ powerthat takes place between them. An elite at the top tical politics, it strives to attain a degree of cooperation of its form can Iift the society it is governing to new Ieveis between contradictory principles and interests and of historical existence, can transform the mass into its changes the class that is ruled into a collaborator of the followers, and can liberate new energies for creative ruling elite. The political class thus becomes the reflector social departures. of the society. lt holds all the characteristics of that society. lf the ruling class is mediocre it cannot produce The Political Class a great political class. The nature and the capabilities of The quality of every society is thus determined by the the political elite mirror the nature and the capabilities of quality of its leadership, that is, of its elite. To Iead and to the ruling elite as a whole. rule require special attributes. lt means to decide, to However, all these"ideal" qualities are by their very command, to prevail, to advance, to conserve. lt involves nature ephemeral and transitory. They are all subject to the creation of a tradition, to bring on others so that the change and decay. No social or political structure is work of the original Ieader or leadership will be continued permanent and no static Utopia is possible. All ruling with their original pulse and spirit. lf this creation of a elites sooner or later, and in no fixed or sequential order, tradition does not come off, then instead of a coherent begin to lose the superior qualities that raised them to ruling stratum we have a congeries of individuals who are power in the first place. The forces of humanity and helpless when confronted by the unforeseen. lf it does, we reason are ultimately impotent against the forces of have a political class, a highly trained, self-replenishing beastliness, militancy, corruption and evil. Selfishness, minority with sure and slowly ripened traditions, which ambition and the Iust for power will derange and exhaust attracts every talent into the ruling circle and uses it to them. The charismatic forces that liberated their creative the full, and simultaneously keeps itself in harmony with energies will become routinized and the blight of bureau­ the remainder of the nation that it rules. The art of politics cratic conservatism and stupidity will spread. The latent is therefore the art of ruling. cruelty and blindness of all competitive life, the pride of Although every form of rule is shaped by the dialectic absoluteness in the human soul, the radical ignorance of of power and the power of the dialectic, by force, cunning, judgment will all overflow the banks of customs and fraud and contradiction, it must, to be effective, be Institutionsand inundate the society. Irrational passions molded by an overriding concern for the society it is will breakdown the weak ramparts of reason. Blinded by ruling. A creative and effective ruling elitewill know how passion and ideology the rullng elites will lose contact to serve the public interest, how to conciliate the diverse with social realities and no Ionger camprehend or control and antagonistic groups into which every society is the major social forces at work in the society. Become divided into a coherent community, how to rule with both hidebound, bureaucratic and unadaptable, they will restraint and justice and how to teach a whole manner of recruit degenerate elements into their ranks and simply life tothat community. To rule is to command but also to lose the will and ability for governing. The ruling elitewill persuade, to impose one's will but a'tso to arouse respect cease to serve and Iead the society and will substitute its Cybernetics Forum 53 own narrow private privileges and interests for the ldeologies are thus ignorant of the exact nature of their interests of the community. lt will be incapable of renew­ relations with praxis. They are an inverted, mutilated and ing itself. The corruption and immorality which are the distorted reflection of reality. ldeologies do not really quintessence of political action will continually inject understand their own conditions presuppositions, nor the drops of evil into all its intentions and systematically the actual consequences they are producing. They are evil will spread until it will have contaminated the whole ignorant of the implications of their own theories and system beyond recovery. The forces of integration will they camprehend neither the causes of which they are give way to the forces of disintegration, great inequalities effects nor the effects which they are actually causing. of power and wealth will appear, and the majority of lnvolved in practice, serving as instruments in the people will begin to lose confidence and trust in their struggle between classes and nations, they mask the rulers. The elite itself will be fractured and disoriented. true interests and aspirations of the groups involved. All The bonds of legitimacy will begin to fray. Naked force social thought is enveloped in a fog of deception and will replace consensus and attraction. When all these self-deception, is rooted in intellectual pride and is the conditions merge, the composition and structure of the victim of the ignorance of its ignorance. lt is deeply sunk elite changes radically · i.e., there is a social revolution · in flattery, falsehood, fraud, slander, pretentiousness and or, if no counter-elite exists which can come to power, the disguise. ldeology plays hide and seek on the back society enters a process of decay and degeneration. of everything. Revolution and social decay are not abberations that can the role of ideology is particularly dominant in politics. be side-stepped or controlled. Every social and historical The basic manifestations of politics never appear to be formation goes through a process of rise, decay and fall. what they actually are. The struggle for power and position, as the underlying objectives of policy, are ldeology and Historical Decay always explained away and justified in moral, legal or Another important factor which disfigures social exist­ biological terms. The true nature of policy is always dis­ ence and which ultimately contributes to historical decay guised by ideological justifications and rationalizations. Vast collective actions are made palatable to their is ideology. Every society is shaped by a set of beliefs, myths and symbols which guide and give it a sense of participants by words which have no precise meaning purpose. The beliefs and myths by which every society and that are used to persuade, sway and seduce the participants into supporting these actions. The actor on lives are selected by the dominant group and are accept­ able to it. The ideas of the ruling class are the ruling the political stage cannot help but "play an act" and ideas of every age. However, these ideas though rooted in must hide the true nature of his political actions behind reality, never fully express reality. They always carry with the mask of an ideology. Politicians and their servants them a baggage of falsehoods and mystifications. The therefore have an ineradicable proclivity to deceive them­ ruling ideology may contain real concepts, scientific selves and others about what they are doing. The insights, yet it must always be inextricably mixed up with ultimate goals of political action-the Iust for power­ rationalizations, apologetics, lies, deceptive representa­ are always concealed behind false fronts and pretexts. lt tions and self-deception. Every social order shaped by its is the very nature of politics to compel the actor on the own specific ideology can therefore only perceive the political scene to use ideologies in order to disguise the world through the distorted lenses of its own making, can immediate goal of his own action. Blinded by ideology, driven by passion, ambition, avarice and pride the ruling never totally liberate itself from the bondage of its basic assumptions, can only have a fragmentary and partial elitewill sooner or later commit those follies and crimes conception of reality, and is to a greater or lesser extent that will undermine the very basis of its rule. immersed in inauthenticity and contradiction. Everysocial order, all political, social and philosophical Contrary to the superstitions of rationalism human thought, all political action are thus distorted by ideology. reason plays only a small part in human affairs and is The physical sciences are also fettered with preconcep­ subordinate to the blind and unconscious emotions. tions and the rigidities of paradigmatic thought. The Most social thought is characterized by illusion, dissimu­ social world is not ruled by reason, the pragmatic or lation, rationalization and mystification. Even the highest experimental temper or by objective science. Every form of reason always borders on unreason. Human society creates an ideology, a certain perception of the conduct is not governed by reason but by will, passion, world, a system of values and beliefs serving to reinforce phantoms and material interest. Man's intellect is above and rationalize the dominant political, economic and all an instrument in the struggle for existence; the social interest of its society. The ideology it fashions and function of thought is to serve the life process and the the system of interests it serves has some basis in will to power; and all social thought is sociallydetermined empirical reality. lt manifests some forms of pragmatic and tainted by class and personal interests. Rational, behavior. lt can respond to changing conditions and pres­ deliberate, conscious belief does not determine what is sures. Yet it cannot attain that .degree of flexibility, it going to happen to society and men's socially decisive cannot be experimental to the degree where it can actions spring not from logical but from non-logical transcend itself without a revolutionary upheaval. A stif­ roots. Men are influenced in every culture and at every fening process inevitably sets in. ldeology may be supple period of history not by rational purposes but by their and adaptable, but the ring around it is closed. lt may non-logical impulses of taboos, magic, superstition, bend to suit a certain interest but it cannot supersede it. personified abstractions, myths, gods, empty verbalisms lt changes, but at most only imperceptibly and its and vague, ambiguous or meaningless goals. ideological character is never lost. lt walks the same 54 Philosophy of History

ground, keeps its same place and plays its same ideo­ flagrant anachronisms is actually going on. But because logical role. Whether the ideology is that of capitalism, of the "iron law of decadence" every society always democracy, liberalism, conservatism, socialism, or any tends to keep most parts of the social structure as they one of the varieties of communism or nationalism or are in spite of their increasing incongruity with the new imperialism,each in its own way deletes certain elements social forces constantly coming into action. All societies of reality from its consciousness and serves as a bar to come to idolize the ephemeral institutions they have its perception of reality. The ideologies developed and established, become their captives and though they are held by the ruling elites thus never completely embrace capable of modifying and reforming some of them in their the social environment in which they operate. They lag periods of creativity they soon enough lose their capaci· behind social reality. They come into conflict with that ties for change and adaptability in their periods of social reality. They are all impelled by overweening pride decadence. [5] ln cantrast with the promethean stature and and all become immersed in the illusions, prejudices and exuberant activity of their forefathers in the age of social mystifications which they themselves had fashioned and growth the ruling elites of the declining society shrink which debilitates and ultimately comes to destroy that into dwarfs or stiften into arthritics. very social system these had been designed to sustain. Every society consequently suffers from an inherent conflict between life's eternal flux and the objective Organization and Conservation validity and genuineness of the institutions through which it passes. This contradiction between life and its No society can exist without forms, organizations or forms expresses itself in many different areas of social institutions through which it expresses and realizes life·. ln the economic system there isapermanent conflict itself. However, these forms-governments, parties, between the forces of production and the property bureaucracies, armies, corporations, Iabor unions, relations which contain and organize them. All systems universities, etc.,-created by the rivers and rhythms of of property relations-slavery, feudalism, capitalism, life assume a character and momentum of their 9:yvn . state capitalism or state socialism-either obstruct the örganizations b-ecöme societies, that is to say, they are development and extension of the new economic forces not simply places of work but settings in which people they have developed or are unable to adjust to the pro­ live, and sometimes even more important for the quality blems they have generated. ln time the rigidity of the of their lives than the homes to which they return after property system either stifles these new forces or being work. They provide objectives, formal and informal rules, unable to adapt them Ieads society to social revolution or values, punishments and rewards, styles of personal catastrophe and decline. behavior, identities, a language of their own, and they The same contradictions exist in the political sphere. seek and manage to maintain these characteristics in Thus the Greek city-state which were initially responsible something like a stable state, even though its members for a magnificent outpouring of energies could never may frequently change. Organizational behavior, built to transcend the rivalries which the system of sovereign city­ function on the model of the production process is based states engendered and finally ended in the anarchy and on regular, orderly, linear, predictable processes. Each degeneration of the Peloponnesian War. Thus, too, Rome, function strives to maintain a constant framework for though it solved the problern of rival and contending city· operation.Organizations want to do predictable jobs states, for a time, through the establishment of a Roman under predictable circumstances. [3] empire, was finally overwhelmed by decline and fall by The society of the organization wants to maintain a pursuing a policy of immoderate greatness and by stable state. Conservatism is thus built into the very corrupting its own ruling institutions. At the end the nature of all organizations. This effort to maintain a Roman empire never had any genuine juridical form, stable state is not only due to inertia and routine but is authentic legality or legitimacy. The empire became a the result of a policy of active conservatism which all shapeless form of government, a form of state without organizations pursue. There is a persistent stress on authentic institutions, and its chief of state went back to system maintenance despite the state of oscillation in being-just anybody. The same debilitating disharmony which organizations always exist. Resistant to change, exists between the anachronistic modern nation state suspicious of innovation after their initial period of which has been one of the most powerJul institu_tions_of creativity, organizations sooner or later succumb to the growth arid power ani:f the international environment of "iron law of decadence," that "tend13ncy of all organiza­ multi-national corporations and global technologies, tions to maintain themselves at the expense of needed · problems and challenges. We build up our power only to change and innovation" [4] They can never maintain that see it the better overturned. Every institutional order, of perpetual flexibility and spontaneity which is required for whatever character, carries within itself its own congeni­ sustaining growth and innovation. tal poison and is the cause of its own extermination. The conservative nature of organizations and institu· tions has a baleful effect on the development of all societies. For life is not static. lt is always in a state of An Historical Turning Point flux and change. The introduction of new dynamic forces, lt ought to be more than obvious by now that we have changes in its internal and external environment, the entered one of those decisive turning points in history infinite richness of life, all in due course confront the which separate whole eras from one another. We live in existing institutional order with the dire chal lenge to re­ the midst of an epoch comparable to those which saw construct the whole existing pattern. ln any actually the passing of the city-state and the collapse of the growing society a constant readjustment of the more Roman empire. The capitalist order has entered a period Cybernetics Forum 55 of prolonged crisis. Wildly unstable prices, erratic cur­ collapsed not because of Russian antagonism or harass­ rencies, scarcities and famines, climbing rates of unem­ ment but as a result of the oil weapon wielded by Emir ployment, the plight of the cities, failures of economic of Kuwait and the Sheikh of Abu Dhabi. Europe's policy all indicate some of the symptoms of the disease. decadence springs from a collapse of will, a kind of The shift in economic wealth from the industrialized "European Buddhism" which Nietzsche long ago fore­ countries to the underdeveloped countries through the saw as a pernicious form of nihilism. The West is now in price increases imposed by the Organization of Petro­ full-scale retreat not only because of increasing Com- · leum Exporting Countries (OPEC) and other raw material munist strength, both within and without, but also producing countries and without any effective response because it has been unable to confront the economic from the so-called Western world constitutes a phenom­ blackmail practiced by its erstwhile allies-the King of enon of portentous significance. lt is unquestionably Saudi-Arabia and the Shah of Iran. The growing self­ clear that mankind's inordinate consumption of energy, confidence and arrogance of the world's slum countries, its Obliteration of animal, plant and insect species and particularly the Arab States, is only surpassed by the the disruption of regional balances of natural processes by confusion, the mediocrity, the division, the antagonisms chemieals and other works of man will, sooner or later, and the self-destructive forces at work in the West. The bring about such profound changes in natural systems whole balance of power is shifting against the West and that it will probably endanger life itself. And when we there is no force in the world that can prevent this from study the present growth trends in world population, continuing to its own ineluctable end. industrialization; pollution, food production and resource depletion and project them into the future, it is obvious that practically all these trends Iead to catastrophe. History as Drama The democratic governments of the West are every­ To understand history we must therefore see it as a where in decline. They Iack the intellectual capacities to mighty drama, as an awe-inspiring tragedy. Driven by the master the complexities which have emerged as a result blind will to live, avid of life, greedy to wreak his desires, of heedless economic growth and chaotic pol itical man is impelled by an irresistible Iust for power and gain, development. Authority Iacks confidence and the people by an inescapable impulse toward the fulfillment of his Iack confidence in authority. The demands on democratic own personal needs. Unbalanced and sick, subject to government for leadership and management have grown pain and malfunction, man has to exert energetic and immensely while the capacities of democratic govern­ continual force to transform this world which does not ment have everywhere disastrously shrivelled. Govern­ coincide with him, which is strange to him, which is not ment incompetence and corruption is everywhere spread­ his, so as to achieve some coherence, significance and ing like a plague. Themen and women who attain power mastery through the power that he so precariously are neither willing nor able to change thoughts and attains. lnsecure, afraid of death, filled with anxiety, values or to play lofty historic roles and are subservient yearning for Iove and not finding it, man seeks to to the unexamined prejudices and preferences of the arrogate a greater power to hirnself to compensate for multitude. lmage-making replaces policy. Everywhere the precariousness and vulnerability of his position in the powerful sectional economic and political interests world. ln the light of all this, all human life appears to us subvert any coherent view of the public interest. Domin­ as what it is permanently; a dramatic confrontation and ated by powerful economic interests, swayed by mass struggle of man with the world and not a mere occasional tastes and standards, torn by exhausting and murderaus maladjustment which is produces at certain moments. factional conflicts our democratic states suffer from a breakdown of community, a loss of all sense of civic History as Dialectic Obligation and cooperation and a universal pursuit of Driven by necessity and yet capable of freedom and creati­ seit interest. Nobody seems to know where they are vity, limited and limitless, weak and strong, blind and far­ going, because strictly speaking, they have no fixed road, seeing, an impotent rebel man is riddled with flaws and no predetermined trajectory before them. The captains contraditions. History is dialectical as weil as dramatic. are on the bridge but they cannot find the rudder and the On the one hand man produces hirnself by his own Iabor, ship of state drifts toward the rocks of breakdown. by praxis, starting from nature and from need in order to The West's position in the world is also in decline. Not achieve the satisfaction of his desires. Everything in only has the power of the United States decreased society is act, the essence of the human is what it relative to that of its competitors and adversaries but its accomplishes. Man as actor creates history, forms whole foreign policy is in disarray. !ts humiliating defeat societies, builds states, produces techniques, ideolo­ in Southeast Asia, its Obsession with military security, its gies, institutions, artistic and cultural works. On the overextended commitments, its failure to understand other hand-or rather, at the same time-he loses that the great threat to the West lies not in any danger of hirnself in his works and objects. He loses his way among military attack but in the political, economic, social and · the products of his own Iabor which turn against him and intellectual weaknesses which beset it, all stamp its Ioad him down with all their routines, limitations and foreign policy with an indelible imprint of triviality and contradictions. At one moment he unleashes a succes­ .irrelevance. The Atlantic Alliance is in the process of dis­ sion of acts and events; this is history. At another mo­ integrating. The national rivalries between its members ment what he has created takes on a life of its own that transcend any common interest that they might have had Iimits and subjugates him. Now his creations bewitch in the past. The myth of European unity and power finally and bl ind him: this is the great influence of ideology. Now 56 ' Philosophy of History the things he has produced with his own hands-more History as Tragedy accurately the abstract things-tend to turn him into a thing itself, just another commodity, to be bought, sold History is then not only dialectical but also tragic. Man's and discarded. freedom, confidence and imagination, though capable of Though living in 9 worl<:l created by his own Iabor and achieving great feats, always ultimately collide against knowledge, this world is no Ionger his but rather stands his natural limitations. Man is capable of wisdom and opposed to hisinner needs-a strange world governed by creativity, but these qualities are equally matched by his inexorable laws, a "thingified world" in which human life tallies and crimes. His own inherent natural flaws only is frustrated. This is a world marked by a lass of co­ serve to bring to ruin his most impressive works. He can herence -and liberty, by the numerous conflicts that be destroyed by a single virtue, if that is overextended abound in human living, especially in the conflict be­ and plunge into insane acts in the cause of a half truth tween man and nature and man and man. This conflict, that appears to him to be noble. His very successes can which has turned nature into a hostile powerthat had to undermine his most glorious enterprises and his most be mastered by man and which set man against man, astounding victories are generally only the progenitors of class against class and nation against nation has led to his inevitable defeat. · an antagonism between idea and reality, between lt is the tragedy of human history that man must be de­ thought and the real, between consciousness and exist­ structive in order to be creative and that his finest mo­ ence. The institutions man founds and the culture he ments only Iead him to hubris and nemesis. Human life is creates develop laws of their own and man has to comply permanently at war with itself. There is no ultimate with them. He is overpowered by the expanding wealth of solution to the conflict between man's constructive­ his economic, political and social surroundings and destructive vitalities i:md the social and natural restraints surrenders to their way. Men in striving to perpetuate and which these seek to overcome. The tragic view of human establish culture perpetuate in the process their own existence must show man in all his strengths and weak­ frustrations. The materials that could serve life come to nesses. lt must acknowledge his freedom and his sub­ rule over its content and goal and the consciousness of jugation, his genius and his finiteness, his heroism and man is made victim to the relationships of material and his corruption, his virtue and his evil. All human history social production. shows the defects and excesses of all values, reveals Everywhere we see Opposition and dissonance in tension, imbalance and contradictions as the essential human affairs. The will to live strives against itself, seeks condition of all civilization and the source of both its rise, its own well-being at the expense of others and so con­ growth and fall. stantly sets its teeth in its own flesh. The Iust for power setsman against man and group against group in unend­ ing contention. The two basic instincts of life and death are in a state of perpetual war with each other; civili­ REFERENCES zation opposes and represses the individual and builds 1. Kroeber, A.L. Gonfiguralions of Cutlure Growlh. Berke­ tormenting discontents into the very culture that he ley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, creates; the man and nature are locked in violent anta­ 761-848, 1969; and An Anthropologist Looks at Hislory, gonism. The demonie and corrupt elements within man Berkeley and Los Angel es: University of Ca I ifornia are in combat with the moral and ethical elements. God Press, 18-27, 1963. and the devil, light and darkness, good and evil, creati­ 2. Plato, The Laws, Penguin Books, 1970, p. 139. vity and tradition struggle for dominance in the world. All 3. Schon, Donald A. Technology and Change, New York: social arrangements contain within themselves contra­ Delta, 57-66, 1967. dictions and negativities which will ultimately destroy 4. Lowi, Theodore J., The Politics of Disorder, New York them. Unresolvable discord, contraditions and conflicts and London: Basic Books, 5, 1971. are inherent in the nature of things. ln the great struggle 5. Toynbee, Arnold J., "The Breakdown of Civilizations" between man's understanding and the riddles of the (in) A Study of History, Abridgement of Volumes I-VI world and his existence each new answer offers only a (by) Somervell, D.C., New York and London: Oxford new question and each new victory only a new dis­ University Press, pp. 244-359, 1947. appointment. There is thus no inevitable progress toward the good evident from year to year .or from epoch but only unresolved conflict, which sees today good and to­ morrow evil prevail.

--~ ------Toward a Unitory Concept of Mind and Mentallllness

George T. L. Land in conversation with Christina Kenneally

A Personal Viewpoint•

Law of Organization C: You talk about general laws that apply to all behaviors, from atomic to human. According to your C: I understand that your basic theoretical work in transformation theory [4] human Iove or anxiety can be un­ human behavior, mental illness and therapy is based on derstood through the same principles that are applied to your research in cybernetics and general systems. How biology or even cosmology. Can you start by defining is cybernetics linked with psychology? these General Laws?

G: Cybernetics and its allied disciplines of general G: I think it would be useful at this point to consider systems research and organization and information the basic, foundation law on which all other laws are theory, are all broadly based interdisciplinary approach­ built. We can proceed from that point and get into es. They are grounded in the idea of holism-the concept specific sub-principles as we progress. We build on the of observing complete systems of behavior and the fact that we can observe through all of Nature, from the attempt to discover their common and most basic laws smallest sub-atomic particle to the galaxies of the and principles. This applies to all systems, atomic, bio­ universe, two basic forces at work. The process of logical, psychological, social and the like. Systems ordering-of things coming into organized relationship, research is the opposite of traditional scientific methods, and the process of disordering-of breaking thingsdown in that rather than attempting to separate phenomena into unrelated formations. Between these two extremes into specialized parts, it works with a synthesis of the there exists a continuum, where different ratios or balan­ parts together. ln the case of psychology, by looking at ces of order and disorder prevail. For example, in the the whole person as a cybernetic system, one gets an en­ physical processes of the body this occurs through tirely different and broader perspective than has been anabolosis and katabolosis, the building up and breaking customary. Also, understanding of the seemingly down of bodily constituents. Like and death if you will. ln paradoxical behaviors of people is considerably the development of any human physical body, either the deepened by directly comparing human behavior with the breaking down or building up process will dominate and behavior of biological and physical systems. The idea between these forces there is always some kind of here is to use discoveries in one system to ask new balance, or perhaps better stated, imbalance. Another questions and get new answers about another system. example of this process might be a human invention, The startling result is, that when a study is made, you such as agame. ln any game there is a balance between find that while the human mind is extrinsically different the rules (the order) and the alternative possibilities of from other phenomena, it is intrinsically the same and play (the disorder). These two inexorable forces in the obeys the same laws. Thus, in the last few years, this Universe, in their unending struggle with each other, kind of research has revealed entirely new insights into produce all the phenomena we observe, including the in­ motivation, personality, the nature of mental pleasure terplay of forces in the mind. The philosopher, Zoroaster, and pain and the origins of mental disorders. illustrated this when he pitted virtue against wickedness, • Since this is a running dialogue between George Land and Christina Kenneally, George Land's comments will be designated by the Ietter G and Christina Kenneally's by the Ietter C. 58 Toward a Unitory Concept

Iove against hate, freedom against tyranny to reflect his death and the bio-mass continually increases. laws of universal principles. The question of human direction as a part of this is very important, both practically and philosophically. As a C: But Zoroaster was not the first to come up with philosophical point of view it means that our ability to in­ these thoughts. Thousands of years before Christ, te.n;:_onneqt and inter-relate is increasing rather than philosophers wrote of these principles. ln Hindu texts, decreasing, Cu-operation gradually dominatmg com­ the concept you stated is shown as Brahma, the creator petition. The physical evidence of evolution supports this or organizer, Shiva, the destroyer, and Vishnu, the preser­ philosophic orientation. ln a very practical way this ver (who stands between Brahma and Shiva and balances natural imbalance of order over disorder affects each one their forces). These ideas are not new. lf they were basic of us continually and profoundly. Nature supplies us with laws of behavior I think we would have known that long very powerful cues as to the direction of our behavior­ ago. What new insights do you have into human nature psychological pleasure and pain. We experience that makes these ancient ideas so much more valuable? pleasure when we make connections with people, things or idf]as and we experience pain when we are denied or G: We have only begun to see the importance of the lose connections. science of organization in the last few decades. For example, by studying how atoms join and form mole­ C: I can't really accept that oversimplification. Don't cules, and, conversely, how molecules can be broken you mean that we feel pleasure when we make a positive down into their atomic parts, the magic of alchemy has connection and pain when we are denied, lose or make become chemistry and its laws of organization have been negative connections. I can make a connection with a formed. The study of thermodynamics has shown us how person and through that suffer an unpleasant experience . the disordering processes work and recent studies in which causes me anger and pain. lt's still a connection, synergy and negentropy show us how the organizing but a negative one. processes work. Lately, we have put the ordering and dis­ ordering under a microscope and gained a much better G: What do you mean by "negative connection"? Give understanding of the processes. By transferringthat new me an example of how you feit pain when making a con­ knowledge back to Observations of mental processes it nection. became possible to establish a new set of basic laws about the mind. C: Occasionally I have met and been forced to spend ln reference to your Observations about Hindu time with someone I didn't like. lt often happens in philosphy, it is vital in our reformulation of ideas about working Situations. You have a connection of some kind the mind to recognize that the "Vishnu" principle on the but it doesn't bring any pleasure. planet Earth is one in which the ordering force is slightly greater than the disorder(ng force. We can observe this by G: You have really answered your own question. To not studying billions of years of evolution on our planet and like someone is to be unable to make common bonds. realizing that the rate of construction of higher Ieveis of What you are really saying by your example is that you organization is greater than those which cause disor­ have been forced to be with someone with whom you ganization. Atoms have become molecules, molecules could not make a connection and this denial of the have coalesced into cells, cells have joined together into natural insistence of making bonds caused you pain. multi-cellular organisms and so on, all the way up to the This is a good example of the vitality of order over disor­ formation of highly complex human societies. Thus, for der force. One does not have to lose a bond to experience any process to be viable here, it must operate "in tune" pain-just being in the position of notbeingable to make with planetary processes. With time it must become more broadening relationships causes pain, anxiety and rather than less organized. As it becomes more organized depression. We call it alienation. it encompasses greater diversity for organization does not mean sameness, it means more complexity and C: This sounds so simple, and seems to solve one of diversity. the mysteries that has baffled psychology for a long time-the origin of mental pleasure and pain and the C: You refer to "this planet Earth". Are you implying that reason or rather the necessity for their existence. lt the necessary balance is different on other planets? seems to me, through your theory, that pain has as Following this, are you assuming that human behavior is positive a place in our psyche as its counterpart, and only "goal oriented" towards more order than disorder? the two together can provide us with the balance we need to survive and grow. I think that we are taught to avoid G: The answer is yes to both questions. From a plane­ psychological pain because it is considered destructive. tary perspective we see in the Universe, regions where By doing this aren't we avoiding a necessary side of disorder is much greater than order-such as super­ growth and therefore not only stunting ourselves but novas and stars, where disorganized energy is emitted, taking steps backwards instead of forwards? and, at the other end of the continuum, regions where or­ dering is far greater than disordering, such as "black G: Yes. A total misunderstanding about the pleasure­ holes", where energy is absorbed and " frozen" into order. pain principle Ieads us down the "pursuit of happiness" Earth lies between these extremes, in a zone which per­ path where we attempt to feel good all the time. By un­ mits higher rates of order than disorder. Life rules over derstanding how disorder and order complement each Cybernetics Forum 59 other, we can begin to realize why pain is necessary for cerned it would seem that these people are better oft. Are full growth. We must often break and de-structure lower you negating today's forms of therapy and psychiatric Ievei bonds in order to achieve new connections and inte­ treatment? gration at a higher Ievei. This is the process of unlearning: the ability to give up as weil as to acquire G: To a great extent, yes. By removing a person's sym­ and hold on. Human growth is a constant balancing act ptoms, through whatever means, restraint, electrical or of re-organization of connections at broader and higher chemical tranquilization, or behaviorist conditioning, we levels-always with a mixture of pleasure and pain. The are preventing the patient's primary means of self­ greater the leap to broader connections, the more the restoration and re-organization. What we are beginning pain-"agony and ecstacy." to understand now isthat every person must go through a continuing series of successive and successful stages of different kinds of organization. lf we thwart any of these Principles of Personality Organization stages, we can either cause an imbalance or make it worse. C: Let me clarify a thought I have about people. The The human mind, like the human body is never in a worst thing that can threaten us is either total order or static balance of order and disorder. ln the body, from the complete disorder. ls it this kind of disastrous imbalance moment of conception, and for many years thereafter, that causes mental illness? I remember when people who the ordering process is much greater than the disor­ were mentally ill were described as " Lmbalanced". We no dering process. Years later, equally so, the disordering Ionger use this term but perhaps it is more accurate than process becomes more active than the ordering process. our moremodern terminology. ln just this way in reverse, at birth the human mind is overbalanced in its sense of disorder. This gradually G: You have hit on the very essence of how we can changes through infancy and childhood as the balancing clarify the workings and misworkings of the mind. With forces of order manifest themselves. lf we were to take the obvious exception of organic brain darnage or the normal behavior of a two year old and imagine an disease, all mental illness can be understood as im­ adult behaving this way, then we could use a number of balances in a person's process of organization. ln the psychological terms to describe the mental "illness" in­ broadest sense these fall into the category of either volved, depending mostly on the pocketbook of the attempting to create order, obsessions and compulsions. patient. Sanity is neither a state of complete organization lt appears now that mental illness in its outward manifes­ nor one of disorganization; it is that mental condition tations is simply a natural attempt on the part of the mind which allows our perception of order and connectedness to balance what is happening inside. As Karl Menninger7 to maintain itself in a world wherein there is much put it,· "Of course one can describe a "manic" or a disorder. "depressed" or a "Schizophrenie" constellation of sym­ ptoms, but what is most important about this con­ C: I don't want to oversimplify, or to deny that the con­ stellation in each case? Not, we think, its curious exter­ cepts you are presenting are exciting and tremendously nal form, but rather what it indicates in regard to the interesting-but it sounds like common sense. Over the process of organization, disorganization and reorgan­ past several decades there has been an astonishing ization of the personality in a state of attempted ad­ amount of discovery and investigation in the fields of justment to environmental reality. ls the imbalance in­ mental illness, therapy and human behavior. Have none creasing or decreasing?" of the great philosophers, psychiatrists and scientists The "manic depressive" is an example of this. The in­ who produced the Iiterature and information we have on ner mental structure has become disorganized and alien­ these subjects, come up with this theory before? ted or disconnected from reality-thus producing sym­ ptoms of severe depression and pain. This quite naturally G: Yes, there have been. But attempting to answerthat causes externalized "manic" symptoms, where the question requires us to consider how the so called affected person maintains a belief that he has extra­ "scientific method" can allow us to accumulate a vast ordinary powers of control over people and things in their amount of information that has missed the point. From environment and can impose his own organization on the its early beginnings, almost as a kind of parlour game, a world. ln this situation, internal disorder produces the great attempt has been made to legitimize psychology by need to manifest external order. This and other sympt­ making it into an "acceptable" science; that is "a collec­ omologies of mental illness indicate that the external tion of hypotheses from which one can understand, con­ symptom is an unconscious, natural attempt on the part trol and predict experimentally verifiable results." This of the mind to rebalance itself. definition was the framework of all science until quite recently. The method is to break things down into small C: lf that is true then it would seem that most of the parts, observe phenomenon, develop a theory and set up treatment given in therapy and in mental institutions is experimental tests to determine if the predicted results inappropriate. I read somewhere that 60 or 70 percent of appear. lf they do the theory is translated into laws. This people who go through some kind of mental illness or was a relatively satisfactory viewpoint until recently crisis never receive any kind of formal therapy or when the seed planted by Heisenberg's concept of medication. They eure themselves, or in your terms, "uncertainty" began to be observed by people studying achieve their balance alone. As far as your theory is con- whole atomic systems. The idea of uncertainty was, and 60 Toward a Unitory Concept

still is, a great crisis in scientific circles, (on the other roots than he had originally believed. He said, "An hand it was a great relief in some philosophic circles). instinct would be a tendency inate, in living organic The Newtonian or classical idea is a deterministic one, matter, impe/ling it towards the re-statement of an earlier everything can be calculated with precision, understood condition," and, "But in the last resort it must have been and predicted. Det~rminism indicated that everything in the evolution of our earth and its relations with the sun the world could be predicted, given enough information, that has left its imprint on the development of organisms." and it seems to work, much to the dismay of those What he saw was that in our relationship to energy believing in free will. sources, our ordering processes operate at a higher Ievei With the advent of atomic physics, it was discovered than our disordering processes-we are gaining more that the future could not be predicted exactly; tor exam­ energy than we lose. ple, it could be seen that an atom which had absorbed a Freud proposed a dualistic concept of the instinctive quanta of energy would emit that energy, but no one life, abandoning libidinous urges as our sole motivation. could predict when or how-one could only draw up "They course through it (life) uninterruptedly, two kinds probabilities. Suddenly, with this idea and the proofs of of processes of opposite direction, one anabolic, uncertainty, the classical scientific world was overturned. assimilatory, the other katabolic, disintegrating. Shall we Einstein was so disturbed by the concept of uncertainty venture to recognize in these two directions of the vital that he was impelled to say, "God does not play dice with processes, the activities of our two instinctive ten­ the Universe!" As far as it is known, Einstein died in the dencies-the life instinct and the death instinct?" Later belief that something was intrinsically wrong with he observed, " ... both instincts would be active in every Heisenberg's idea. The fact is that both Haisenberg and pärticle of living substance, although in Unequal propor­ Einstein were right-and wrong. They were both obser­ tions." Freud postulated an entirely new and different ving the two sides of the universal coin, order and disor­ structure for his psychology. Rather than the der. You can predict how fast an apple will fall, but not unconscious, libidinous id, the conscious ego and the when it will happen. There is room for both determinism externally created superego, he interred a totally new and free will, but in differing ratios to each other, in instinctive framework; Eros, the life instinct, and different phenomena. Thanatos, the death instinct. Today we can see that To get back to this idea as to why this idea was not Freud's dualism is really holism-the two ends of the seen clearly before, the world of psychology, in its efforts total process. His basic intuition, however, was far ahead to become a "science" has continued to follow the false of "acceptable" science. path of classical science, in both experimentation and Perhaps another reason why this important Iead theoretical work. The great lesson of uncertainty in C: systemswas lost to psychology. This is why behaviorism, was overlooked was because of the sensationalism that Freud's sex instinct theories created. After the Victorian first proposed by Hippocrates and then followed by era of sexual repression, people were swept up in the Pavlov, Watson and Skinner has become such a popular enthusiasm for the release from this repression, school. Particular behaviors can indeed be conditioned bypassing this less showy but more relevant concept. and thus can be experimentally verified. Psychology can thus become part of the traditional, scientific deter­ G: I believe that must have had a strong influence on minacy school. Yet this partial explanation of Man is far the oversight, but . Freud's was not the only work lost in from complete. Behaviorism does not explain any of the the revolutions of the twenties. Repressed by cultural higher functions of Man, such as curiosity, creativity, forces was the work of A.A. Bogdanov, [1] who stated in a Iove, will and honor. As with atomic theory, today in different framework essentially the same ideas as Freud psychology we have to make room for new concepts in his Tectology- The Universal Science of Organization. which are at once much more and much less than the old His view of organizational change and the evolution of ideas of what constitutes a scientific theory. That is; we freedom versus control was strongly opposed to the have to Iook for the under/ying principles and patterns of philosphy of Marx. As a result, he was mercilessly phenomenon, the how and why, rather than merely how attacked by Lenin and was then forcibly suppressed much and how fast. along with all of his works, by Stalin. His seminal This problern of what is and what is not science in theories of the relationship of ordering and disordering human studies is one of the influences which caused have only recently re-emerged in the Soviet Union psychology to disregard what is, in.my opinion, the most through the growth of Cybernetics systems and the fruit­ important work done by Sigmund Freud, and the failure fulness of their applications in different areas. Although to follow up on the Ieads which he set forth in his late this and Destalinisation has recently brought work. ln the 1920's, when Freud was in his mid-sixties he Bogdanov's ideas to light once more in the Soviet Union, re-examined, re-appraised and re-thought his original they are still practically unknown in the Western world. work on the structure and functions of the mind. ln the By a strange coincidence, Freud and Bogdanov's works thoughts that came out of that work, particularly in the were written at almost exactly the same time. books [3) Beyond the Pleasure Principle and The Ego and the ld, Freud not only disclaimed much of his earlier C: Could it be that the writings you mention by Freud work, but he offered ideas on the framework of an entirely and Bogdanov are most appropriate to today's pro­ different theory. Freud was perhaps the first blems than they were when they were written. Perhaps Cybernetician or general systems scientist. ln his late their theories were not overlooked but out of place at that books he asserted that psychology had much deeper time.

------Cybernetics Forum 61

G: The question of appropriateness is very relevant. ln successfully and yet the more! -~~essful it becomes, the order to understand one of the central concepts of the more the pattern changes. As 50 oorder, or frontier cells diserdering and ordering process, one also has to under­ become more adjusted to their own particular environ­ stand the different proportians of each that fit in with the ments, internal inconsistency develops. The pattern and development of any organization, whether it be a Society, the boundaries which separated the original cell from its a Science or a mind. I believe that understanding the environment became less rigid; and at the same time, principles of organization is indeed more appropriate and within the organism, because of different positions, necessary to this period in our history, because for the nutrients, etc. there is a need for different cells to take first time we are able to see the different organizational on diverse and specialized functions. There evolves also patterns being applied and we are becoming aware of a necessity for the competition between dividing cells different kinds of crises that call for new understanding. prevalent in stage two, to now become co-operation. ln Of course, in many disciplines other than the human the multicellular organism, not only does each cell serve sciences, the principles have been obvious, it is just that the whole organism of which it is a part, in a specialized wehavenot seen how they relate to us humans. and interdependent way, but the whole organism becomes much more sensitive to and interdependent Organizational Stagesand Semanti es with its environment. ln this third stage, we see what is called, in symbiosis, the relationship of mutualism, C: What are the basic principles of the development of where there is a high Ievei of reciprocity, both within the an organization? organism and in its relationship with the environment and with other organisms. G: We can observe three basic stages in the develop­ From the standpoint of looking at order and disorder, ment of any organization. One way to represent these is we see the intial disorder of the first stage of growth is by using the growth curve (see illustration Figure 1) and to · complemented and satisfied by the imposition of parent­ al order. Once this first step of organization is estab­ A Continuum of Growth lished, the organism has constructed its own internal order (always somewhat different from the parent's be­ 1 2 3 cause öf different environmental exposure), it can l.b ___ _ impose its own order on the environment's disorder by i forming replicas. When this stage is successful, the new ! i multi-cellular organism can specialize internally and accept new kinds of disorder for its own growth in a broader relationship with the environment. .r:.r This pattern of going from an initial state of high dis­ ~ 0 order to a secondary state of high order into a third state (3 of integrating new disorder, is a pattern we can see in a/1 growth, atomic to human. These three stages are basic principles we can add to the foundation of order and dis­ order forces.

a C: When you use the term "growth" I take it you mean Time~ making new connections, or bonds at a higher Ievei. Can Figure 1: Line "a" represents increasing order (organization) you relate these three stages of growth to the mind? over time through the three stages of growth. Line "b" shows the complementary Ievei of decreasing order supplied by the G: ln all of its aspects, from getting !arger to making parent organization. involved, organizational relationships, growth is always a matter of making connections or bonds, at higher Ieveis relate to some simple organization, such as a biological of complexity. Things come into relationship or associa­ organism. ln a cell, for example, the firststage of growth tion with each other which were not previously con­ is a period where unorganized material from the environ­ nected. As far as the mind is concerned, one example is ment is absorbed by the parent cell and gradually how we assimilate knowledge. Take for instance, organized into the enlarging daughter cell. Once a basic learning a game-say tennis. The first "order of pattern has been established, the daughter cell can grow business", if one does not know the game, is to find a on its own and enter stage two-that of making replicas source of order (the parent). This could be a pro., or an of itself. As can be seen on the growth curve, with a instructional manual, or it could come from observing the successful method of 6rganizing environmental game and asking questions. The principle is to get a materials, this period of growth is quite rapid and pattern of the rules, the procedures and methods of successful. However, as more replica cells are generat­ playing. Once you put thesetagether into a pattern, you ed-and as they spread further into the environment­ can get practice; replicating and improving on the initial they begin to change. The influence of the original cell and pattern, making changes depending on the environment, its particular environment get further and further away. other players, different surfaces, singles games or During this second stage, several things happen doubles, etc. There comes a time in this practice where, simultaneously. The basic pattern is being repeated with more practice, playing doesn't continue to improve. .. 62 Toward a Unitory Concept

You have a secure game but it's not going anywhere. At works weil, the adolescent can proceed into stage three, this point it becomes appropriate to move to Ievei three in a period characterized by a deeper interaction with organization, where you begin to experiment, to innovate people and things. At this point we begin to see a large and to Iook for new ideas; different ways to hold the rac­ change in behavior and relationships. ln the first stage quet, new positions of play and movements, etc. we had high-dependency, control or controlled relation· Here we can see ttie question of appropriateness very ships, and in the second stage this shifted from control clearly. lf you are at stage two, still practicing to get the to influencing or being influenced, where dependency hang of the game, it is inappropriate to try out a Iot of shifts or diminishes. ln the third stage, we now see much new ideas. This would only break the pattern you are more mutuality, that is, reciprocal interaction where the trying to build. The idea at stage two is repetition, sharing of control and influence becomes cooperation. "practice makes perfect". lt's commonsensenot to start in healthy growth, we see the idea of Iove change sub· out creating new things when what you are doing is stantially over this developmental cycle. lt is certainly already working weil and improving. The contrary is true appropriate to cail the extreme dependency relationship when you gettostage three. lf you arenot improving,1you of parent and infant, Iove. However, it is equaily appro­ had better start looking for something new-once you priate as the dependency diminishes in stage two. lt is are perfect, innovation becomes appropriate. As you can also appropriate to use the same word in stage three of see there are a very important series of shifts of types of mutual relationship-one word for three different pheno­ relationships in dependency and in attitudes that fit each mena! stagein the organization process. Many of these kinds of words have been very confusing in the study of psychology because, unlike what has C: You just used the term "shifts of dependency". As happened in the natural and physical sciences, we have a mother, an example of interest to me is the shift in not had clear reference points for defining our descrip­ relationship between a mother and her infant child and tions of behavior. The physiologist can turn to biology, the child durlng adolescence. We use the same word, the biologist can Iook to the Ievei of molecular genetics "Iove" to describe their feeling for each other at each of and likewise the geneticist can turn to chemistry and so these very different stages, but the word describes two on down the line. They have the advantage of looking very different relationships. We make these shifts intui­ back and forth from different Ieveis of behavior to obtain tively with children as they grow-what does this mean clear and weil understood definitions. For hundreds of in regard to transformation theory'il years in psychology we have been bogged down in cicu· lar explanations-1trying to define human behavior in terms G: Again, as with cell growt h, crystal growth or learn· of itself. A definition example is " curiosity is motivated ing, what we are seeing is personality organization verifi­ in itself." These tautologies Iead absolutely nowhere and cation and re-organization-the three stage cyclical provide no understanding. This is true of almost ail the pattern-and that pattern i s repeated at higher Ieveis as words we use in psychology. Take for example the word a person proceeds through life. Of course, when I talk "trust". At stage one, I could trust you to tel/ me the right about an individual, just as I would about a cell or crystal, and safe thing to do. At stage two I trust you to influence completing a cyc le and proceeding to a higher Ievei , I am mein the proper direction, and instage three I trust I can raterring to healthy growth. Any system can be arrested share myself, my vulnerabilities and potantials in a at any stage in the cycle and it can also regress to lower mutual relationship with you. These are three entirely stages because of deficiencies in its environment ... and different meanings of the word trust. I am hopeful that in some cases in its own molecular or genetic pattern the breakthrough in understanding these traditionaily (though the former is far more common). nebulous words in other termswill be a great advantage To Iook at your question and consider the basic cycle to us in psychology. as it applies to developing the young person, the three stages basicaliy go like this: 1st stage, from birth to C: I just finished reading Freud's Beyond the Pleasure approximately fourth or fifth year, is a period of pattern Principle, and I marked a passage which I think iilustrat­ formation-in this case a personality and living pattern, ed his understanding of this concept. lt was near the end often called an identity. This is a high-dependency stage of the book when he noted, "The shortcomings of our where the growing infant is almost completely dependent descriptions would probably disappear if, for the psycho­ on the environment, primarily the parent's, to provide the logical terms we could substitute physiological or chemi­ material, information, beliefs, attitudes etc. which will cal ones." You are both indicating that one of the great make up the identity pattern. The second stage is a problems is one of semantics-that our language, period of carrying that pattern out, replicating it and through its inadequacy and inability to define clearly, is testing and modifying it. The child now relates to and confusing our understanding of important new concepts connects with a broader environment. ln this interaction of human behavior. We sef!m to use a !arge vocabulary of a young person discovers how weil they can identify with psychological terms to describe these concepts, but do other people and Situations, and whether his or her be­ we recognize that each word has several different havior works, by generating enough positive feedback. meanings? This period, which at its healthiest stretches from approximately four or five to puberty, is a time for self· G: Recently I looked at several test instruments de­ verification, as psychologists refer to it, the development signed to measure "self-concept" and it was easy to see and re-inforcement of the self-concept. lf the pattern that the three different types of self·concept were inter· Cyberneti.cs Forum 63

mixed and consequently there has been a great deal of does not live up to the blood bond of "mother Iove". The difficulty in using the results of these tests for per­ anxiety, stress and uncertainty takes a terrible toll on an sonality assessment. infant. We are looking at the tap roots of much mental ill­ ness. For a self-image to get a good start, the parent must provide an equal state of order to balance the Organizational Development of Children child's disorder. lf this balance is not achieved and the parent either forces too much discipline and constraint, C: Before we were side-tracked into definitions, we or is too permissive, the results will be very damaging. were talking about healthy growth in child development. With too much constraint, the child will develop an exag­ Could we Iook more deeply into the problems that occur gerated sense of how much order he needs to survive. when the necessary balance for the child is not achieved, What will happen then? or lost, and how this affects mental illness? C: He will become fearful and unadventurous and will G: One way to Iook at this process of organization and not be able to make a healthy transition into less depen­ development of personality is to try to put ourselves in dent behavior. ln the jungle example, if the Indian prac­ the place of the developing child. lmagine for instance tices the same constraints, by keeping the adult depen­ that you arelost in the junglas of Brazil, with no supplies dent instead of teaching him independence, the adult will or local knowledge. You are surrounded by an environ­ either become a slave or recognize that this initial means ment that is totally unlike any you have ever kriown-a of survival is now inhibiting his growth, and fights against total disorder. Suppose also that a group of Indians came this constraint. I see now that in this sense a child is along and that they represent attitudes that range from morevulnerable than the adult. Because of his instinctive curious and friendly, to hostile. Faced with a struggle for response to the bonds of parental Iove, he would accept survival, you would naturally attempt to attach yourself his slavery and be unable to make the vital transitions to one of the friendly Indians and, assuming that your necessary. attachment was accepted, you would be totally G: Here we see a classic Situation, an example of dis­ dependent on this person for your survival. Your new pro­ equilibrium of the developing person. The parent, by over­ tector could then begin to put things in order for you, protecting and "giving the child everything" has set him showing you the safe food, the safe place to sleep and up to live a half-life of exaggerated order-frozen the boundaries or Iimits you could safely explore. What between stage one and stage two he becomes over­ occurs here is an initial period of total dependency, dependent on teachers, bosses, regulations, expecta­ where your "adopted parent" would teach you a pattern tions and the like, to teil him what to do and who of life that helped you to survive. The dynamics of this to be. Beyond that, this unbalance creates an unending relationship is, like all very high dependency associa­ and natural struggle for re-balance, one which can find tions-control. That is, you are willing, if not eager to its outlet in unexpected outbursts of balancing disorder. \ have your guide order you in what to do, when to do it and So, on the one hand we have a person who maintains how to do it. You have no choice. Equally, you must conscious efforts at self-control, has exaggerated per­ attempt to make your needs known in some way and, if ceptions for defense from disorder and is inhibited and your basic needs are not met, you are forced to demand anxious. On the other hand this can result in both soma­ that they be. You are, in effect, owned by the Indian, and tic or physical malfunctions such as sexual problems, he, by accepting the responsibility, is owned by you­ and it can Iead to disorganized withdrawl including until you have acquired enough knowledge to fend for periods of disassociation, fantasies, use of alchohol and yourself. ln this first stage of organizing and building a narcotics, pyromania, and many other worse syndromes, basic pattern of living, the connection we make with all exhibitions of a need to balance the inner tension of other humans and the environment is very different from exaggerated order. The least problern to be expected is those we make later, when we are more independent. an inadequate and infantile personality with a high reliance on relationships that are dependency oriented. C: I don't really agree with this analogy. I do agree that The person needs to be either contro/led or be in control. the infant's situation is total dependency and can in some instances be precarious, in the case of an irrespon­ C: The worst implication of this theory for me is that, sible parent and an unwanted child, but the adult ma­ for a parent to make this mistake, they must have had a rooned in the jungle seems to me a more precarious severe imbalance in their early growth. The parent who Situation. The child does have the added security of the creates exaggerated needs for dependency in their child strong emotional bond with the parent, the adult, and the does so from their own sense of extreme insecurity. To Indian wouldn't have that bond of Iove. At any time the them, stage one dependence is Iove, and loss of depen­ Indian could give up his responsibility and disappear. dency is loss of control, and control is vital to an insecure You are presumably using this example to illustrate the parent. This means that this kind of imbalance is firststage of growth. lt would be harder to complete this "inherited" and can produce problems from one stagein the jungle with a stranger than it would be while generation to the next. Perhaps this is the reason for being cared for by a loving parent. family histories of mental illness.

G: I agree. But on the other hand Iook at the dis­ G: At this point we should Iook at the other side of the astrous effects on personality formation when the parent balance question. ln this case the parent, rather than 64 Toward a Unitory Concept caring too much, doesn't care enough, and rather than lt is interesting to note that again Freud in Beyond the providing reasonable and safe boundaries, Iets the child Pleasure Principle makes a large issue of this instinctive explore too far. lt could also be the case of the parent motivation. He said: "There remains enough over who cares, but is ovar-permissive. ln either case, the (motives) to justify the assumption of a repetition com­ problern for the child is that rather than having too safe pulsion and this seems to us more primitive, more ele­ and too tightly orgqnized an identity, he doesn't develop mentary, 'more instinctive, than the pleasure principle, one; there is not enough orderliness in his situation to which is displaced by it. But if there is such a repetition provide a pattern of safety. This inner disorderliness compulsion in psychic life, we should naturally like to creates for the growing child the problern of counter­ know with what function it corresponds, under what con­ dependency-not following rules. dition it may appear, and in what relation it spans to the Unlike the too orderly child who does quite weil in the pleasure principle to which we have heretofore ascribed disciplined Situation of a school for example, the dis­ the dominion over the course of the processes of exita­ ordered child is unstable and reckless. He has serious tion in the psychic life." Later in his work, Group Psy­ difficulties in dealing with the disciplined environment. chology and Analysis of the Ego, he repeats this same Rather than obediently accepting order imposed on him theme. "Something is unmistakably at work in the nature by others, he will want to have his own way even though of a compulsion to do the same as the others, to remain he doesn't know exactly what that is. in harmony with the many." ln this overly disordered person's struggle to get an ln the same work, Freud gives up the systems clue to identity, once more we find a great inner tension result­ our correspondence with the processes of biological ing from the need for order and the counter-balancing growth ... "the tendency toward the formation of groups syndromes we find are such behaviors as phobias, self­ is· biologically a continuation of the multi-cellular generated restrictions and abasements, public and character of all the higher organisms." From our cyber­ private rituals, symbolic doing and undoing, compulsions netic viewpoint, we can see now that Freud had made the and obsessional thinking. At its extreme, we get such connection; just as identification and projection occur in behavior as chronic repetitive and aggressive acts and the second stage of growth for the human psyche, this autistic regression. Each one of these attempts to take second stage of growth in biology is this formation of control, to order the environment into definite and replicas. specific patterns and to create ritualistic and symbolic fantasies, can be observed as ways the basic internal dis· C: lt seems then that whereas the first stage of growth order can be counterbalanced externally. Ieads to physical safety, the second stage produces se­ The most severe personality disfunctions result from curity with one's own identity. We have a sense of who experiences during the initial stage of infancy, where we are, and more important, the freedom to be who we basic growth organization begins. are and like it. I can see the negative side of this stage. lf the balance has not been achieved, we either have no C: We've talked a great deal about the importance of sense of who we are, or if we do we are unsure of or un­ the first stage of growth. I understand this to be from happy with our identity. birth to around five years as far as a child is concerned. What are the next stages and how does the transition G: Yes, what happens when a person in the first stage through these affect us in both positive and negative of growth develops either too narrow an identity or one ways? which is too ill-defined is an inability to succeed and build self-security in the broader culture with which they G: lf we return to the example of the jungle survivor, the will interact later in stage two. Look at the situation for second stage represents a partial separation from our example where a child is mentally confined in a narrow or host, just as with the infant it isatime of separation from distorted home pattern and then in school and other Sit­ the parents. At this point a basic and safe living pattern uationsencounters masses of people unlike themselves. has been learned and now the question is to try it out and Rather than self-verification, there is self-loss­ extend beyond the original boundaries. ln the jungle, we establishment of a negative self-concept. This often would begin to explore beyond the safe confines, testing Ieads to self-destructive behavior which, by continually our knowledge in a broader environment, making Con­ proving you are different and do not fit, is the only way nections deeper into unknown territory. The infant does any sort of personhood can be maintained. this in the process of identification, that is testing his own identity to see if it is accepted by and makes con­ nections with other people in other situations. Social Pathology and Perspective Going all the way back to our tennis game example, in the second stage of growth we practice and improve and G: We can see the effect of mismatching clearly in modify to meeting changing circumstances, and, as we social pathologies. The Southern black farm family, for do it, improve our viability, becoming less dependent on example, which within its own historically developed sub­ the parent or host. The question here is, how far into the culture, can engender the necessary verification for environment can we carry our connections. The more we stage two. lf that same family is transposed into an urban can see ourselves in others, the healthier and more ghetto, particularly if it is accompanied by hope and the growth producing is this period. Our pattern gets promise of the opportunity of connecting with a broader repeated, projected and re-established as we venture out. environment, an unconnected exposure to the new and

------Cybernetics Forum 65 different environment can serve as a negative influence. both sides of order and disorder. Terrorism, hi-jackings, Here, we find the dynamic of growth that is so important crime and violence are on one side and the religious and to our understanding of mental illness. That is, when any therapy cults are on the other. These are relatively new organism or person reaches for a higher Ievel of growth phenomena and indicate on the one hand a great need for and is continually thwarted, it will regress ·to an earlier order and dependency and on the other extreme anger stage. and rebellion. Why have these problems escalated during A cell, for example, can continually be defeated in its the past decade? move from stage one to stage two by mechanically not allowing it to divide. When this happens, it simply con­ G: Once more, with a clearer understanding of cycles tinues enlarging until its internal communications and and how they occur and develop at different Ieveis and nutritional transport break down. ln regression it des­ stages of organization, we can better understand these troys itself, and other cells around it. lt seems to say, "lf I problems. lt is a question of historical perspective. ln can't grow with you, 1'11 grow against you." Just so with biology, for instance, such a viewpoint is not a problem. humans. The second stage of growth is a move from con­ The replicative ordering behavior of cells in the fetal and trol to influence, and if we are repeatedly blocked in embroyonic stages of development is appropriate to that attempting to influence our environment, making a period of growth. However, if a cell starts to replicate connection with it, the next step is trying to control it­ often later on in a human organism we see it doesn't fit a step down, not up. Behavior naturally becomes de­ and call it cancer. This example shows that as any or­ structive, aggressive and violent-common behavior in ganization progresses through the cycles, behaviors that the urban ghetto. were appropriate to earlier stages, later become inappropriate. C: l've been reading a great deal lately about the many Consider the case of the parent who would attempt to young people who eagerly follow the restrictions and own and control a child up into their adulthood; we would social deprivations of particular cults-such as the Iook at this today as being a pathological way to behave. "Moonys". They could be reacting against over­ Yet, five hundred years ago (or in some primitive so­ permissive parenting, seeking the boundaries and Iimit­ cieties today) we see parents owning their offspring. ations not present in an earlier stage of growth. Denied Then it was not out of place for the children to be under the means to a healthy transition from one stage of complete domination of parents, working the farm, growth to the next, will we, perhaps much later in life, herding, etc., until the parent died. This is perfectly seek to compensate for this? Does the human psyche appropriate stage one behavior for a stage one society. have that instinct for self-regulation and survival? Today we tend to resist the lower Ieveis of even stage two behavior. At that earlier .cultural Ievei, parents in­ G: That is the kind of process we were talking about fluence the child profoundly to behave the same way they earlier. Given any opportunity, the human mind seeks to do. lt is the hallmark of such societies that children eure itself, to achieve that natural growth balance of follow the trades and professions of their parents, making more connections at higher Ieveis of being ... without question. lt is a very recent idea for children to always in a state of becoming. When we talk about the have "rights" and for parents not to react violently when social pathologies of the cults, whether they be on the their children choose tobe diffe~ent. disorder, anarchistic side, or whether they are on the We have gone thr'ough an enormous value and be­ order, obedience side we find that they attract four differ­ havior revolution and I guess there is truth in the Observa­ ent kinds of personal imbalances. Of these, two are tion that when one is part of a revolution, one is almost attempting to maintain the early imbalance, ordering or oblivious to it. Recently, someone sent me a newspaper disordering, the others are reacting to overbalance. A that was published on the day of my birth. A writer esti­ regimented cultist could be someone trying to hold on to mated that in that year, 1933, six to seven thousand their dependent need for order, or they could be someone homeless children between five and ten years old who who is forming a counter-balancing reaction to their past were parentless, wandering the streets of New York. The Iack of order. The first case would continue building im­ article concluded with the opinion that this would not balance-one which could Iead to a later crisis of dis­ present such a great social problern if those children organization. Probably, this person's parents would not worked in the mills as they had in the "good old days" be disturbed by their child joining such a cult, for it would before the child Iabor laws. be following their own, over-disciplined way of thinking. The second case reacts to disorganization in early life C: You are saying that it was easier to tolerate and and by joining an aescetic, obedience group, would support inbalance of living during more primitive and actually be performing self-therapy-rebalance. The ex­ lower Ievei stages of society. Now, through our emanci­ perience could be very beneficial. Some parents, how­ pation from ignorance, poverty and high Ieveis of control, ever; in this instance, would be quite disturbed for their the evolvement into a third Ievei society has brought with child to belong to such a group. Being of a permissive it today's heightened awareness of extremism. Our ex­ school, they would resent someone taking over their pectations for and from people are so much more. I don't child's life. Exactly the opposite occurs with the two remember anyone ten years ago, screaming about despo­ types of imbalance in disorderly groups or cults. tism in Africa. Our standards are getting so high that the old imbalances are no Ionger appropriate and stand out C: lt seems that society today is swinging way out on in exaggerated perspective.

~ 66 Toward a Unitory Concept

G: A developmental perspective is most necessary third stage where they need to share in a participative when we are in a period of transition between stages, way. such as today. When a Society moves from casual One of the worst things a manager can do is to try to acceptance of stage two life, where it is expected that enforce stage three sharing with someone at an earlier small groups of people will have great influence in or­ stage ot growth. An example of this is a case recently ganizations and government, to the beginnings of stage observed where I interviewed young and relatively inex­ three, where mutual sharing of decisions becomes more perienced coal miners who were working with a manager natural, one can expect a great many problems. The steeped in the idea of theory Y participation. Their sudden emergence of civil rights, women's Iiberation, problern was low productivity and no one could under­ consumer advocates, community organizations, environ­ stand why, in practicing the "highest" stage of the man· mentalists and the like are perfectly logical develop­ agement art, things were not going weil. One miner put it ments to increase mutual interdependency. The problern clearly and concisely. "lf I don't know what I am doing, is the older generations who have experienced the the boss must not either, since he keeps asking me what success of using stage two type thinking for so long, my ideas are." Here was a case where the miner had not cannot easily make the transition into this new way of yet established the critical stage one pattern-knowing thinking. the safe and secure way to work in that environment. The authoritative manager in a Company, for example, How could he share something he didn't have? He may who has built a successful organization, based on people have had stage three behavior in his life outside of the doing the same things the same way in a predictable mine, but in that deep, dark hole he was still unsure of pattern, cannot understand any need for workers partici­ .himself.lndividuals can beatdifferent stages of develop· pating in his decision making. Workers trying to have a ment in different areas of activity, and the manager must say in decision in the past, just slowed things down and be sensitive to this and provide the appropriate disrupted normal repetitive processes. Yet, this same connection. manager knows that every day he is also buffeted by Similarly, the second reason is that different organi· increasing forces-unions, consumers, environmenta­ zations and even departments within organizations are lists, regulatory agencies and so on. He is in a double often at different stages of development. The company, bind, what used to work isn't working weil any more and like the individual, starts at stage one, sets up and con· what he needs to do is the very thing that interfered with trols the method of organization, production, etc., moves past success.The third Ievei of growth simply demands tostage two where it is proved and improved and finally that this manager acknowledge that for his business to envolves tostage three where it becomes appropriate for survive and thrive in today's world, he will have to figure high Ievei innovations through mutual sharing to take out a new way of working together in mutual benefit with place. people and with the other parts of nature.

C: There are two schools of management in business REFERENCES AND READINGS today. We still have the old, traditional stage one and two 1. Bogdanov, A., Tectologis: Vseobschtchaya Organiza­ management of controlling and influencing, but arising tsionnaya Nauka (Tectology: The Universal Science of from the new management training courses and new Organization), Moscow: lzdatelstvo Z. I. Grschebina, business methods, we have the more contemporary parti­ 1922. cipative management process. Are you saying that there 2. Frank!, Viktor E., "Beyond Pluralism and Determinism" should be only one type of management, the participa­ in Unity Through Diversity: A Festschrift for Ludwig tive, third Ievei kind? lsn't there a place and a need for von Bertalanffy, Vol. 2, William Grey and Nicholas both types today and doesn't the system of management Rizzo eds., New York: 1973. depend on the nature of the business and the kind of 3. Freud, Sigmund, Beyond the Pleasure Principle and employee that is working in the particular system? The Ego and the ld, London: Hogarth Press, 1930. 4. Land, George T. Lock, Grow or Die, the Unifying G: ln management language, the authority influence Principle of Transformation, New York: Random House, school is referred to as theory X and participative man­ 1973; Deli Publishing, 1974. agement as theory Y. I would call your question a 5. Maslow, Abraham H., Toward a Psychology of Being, statement of theory "Z". I agree completely with your New York: Van Nostrand, 1968. feeling that a manager has to be capable of using all the 6. --, A Theory of Metamotivation: The Biological different types of relationships. This is so for two rea­ Rooting _of the Value-Life, Boston: Brandeis, 1969. sons. First, and most obvious is the observable fact that 7. Menninger, Karl M.D., The Vital Balance, The Life Pro­ different individuals are at different stages of personal cess in Mental Health and 1/lness, New York: The development. One person will respond very weil to the Viking Press, 1967. authoritative stage one approach-the "carrot and stick" 8. Thom, Rene, Structural Stability and Morphogenesis, of benevolent and exploitative authority. Others, at stage New York: W.A. Benjamin, 1975. two, work best with a sympathetic boss, with whom they 9. Weiss, Paul A., The Science of Life: The Living System can identify and like. Still others will have reached the -a System for Living, Mount Kisco, N.Y., 1973. Long Term Ga ins From Early Intervention Through Technology:

ASeventh Year Report 1968-1975

Doreen Ray Steg Department of Human Behavior& Development Drexel University Marcience S. Mattleman Department of Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Temple University Rosalind Schulman Department of Economics Drexel University Cheryl Fox NIMH, Student Grantee Human Development. Cornell University Anthony D'Annunzio Department of Human Behavior and Development. Drexel University

Rationale early reading. Hillerich recommends screening for While the past few years have seen a decline in the appli· potential difficulties and modalities long before kinder­ cation of federal funds for education in general, this is garten. Venezky focuses his work on defining pre­ less so for the early childhood years. Research on inter­ reading skills to determine their value in early reading vention in the formative years (e.g., Durkin, Deutsch, experiences. Wolpert underlines the importance of Chall) seems to indicate the importance of this period to "vocal encoding and its spoken counterpart" in creating later growth and development. Poor children, in purpese for reading. Fischer has correlated pre-school particular, have a predisposition in reading problems language skills with later reading and speaking. primarily in the years three to seven (Frostig and Horne). With support from others in the field and a commit­ While the Iiterature underlines the need to capitalize ment to early teaching and learning, the Drexel Early on the early years, little is still known about how children Childhood Center began its current efforts in 1967. The learn. Another problern is how, then, to teach. To remediate investigators sought to answer these questions. deficits, to teach to strengths, to utilize dual modalities, 1. What is known about early experiences in reading for etc., are common discussions in the parlance of "pre-elementary" children? education and psychology. 2. How can a voluntary, individually-oriented reading The Iiterature is consistent and definite about the approach encourage positive performance gains for values of language arts and reading in early childhood children regardless of socio-economic background? programs. Shifts toward these academically oriented 3. What are the necessary components in developing areas for "pre-elementary" children are but a decade an early reading program that can be generalized to new, however. Campbell and Guthrie discuss the other populations without specific teacher training? research findings on pre-kindergarten reading and 4. What will be the long range effects on achieve­ language arts. They advocate continual grouping and ment of pupils with early training using the Responsive regrouping of pupils as they master skills involved in Environment? 68 Long Term Ga ins

Method of Study • the lllinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities both The present study was undertaken in an attempt to Visual and Auditory, at entrace to the Center, develop a technologically based early reading and twice annually thereafter until the child Jett the Cen­ language program for children ages 3 to 6 who attended ter and once annually thereafter until the present Drexel University's Early Childhood Center. From the time. inception it was the intent to follow the initial group of The following four tests were available for the child subjects in order to gauge the gains of treatment. annually since kindergarten: Forty children, approximately half tuition and half Get­ • the Wide Range Arithmetic Test Set (Philadelphia's Head Start) comprised the original • the Wide Range Reading Test sample of an initial investigation. The mean age for the • theInformal Word Recognition Test entire group at entry was 3.49 years, and the mean IQ for • theInformal Reading lnventory the tuition group was 116.5 as measured by- the Stanford Binet lntelligence Scale (1960 revision), and for the Get­ Set subjects 71.8. Fitteen Get-Set subjects were available Results for follow-up study (all those who could be traced). Results of the first year's investigations were encourag­ Subjects were enrolled in the program for an average of ing in that both tuition and non-tuition subjects showed 2.54 years. similar learning rates. Recognition of all upper case and Treatment consisted of daily sessions no more than some lower case letters was achieved. At the end of this twenty minutes in length; the primary component of this phase all students could type their own names but not treatment was work on a computer based typewriter other words; they could also recognize their names but (Moore and Anderson), the Responsive Environment. (The not any other configurations (Reported at Annual Inter­ machine may be programmed in a variety of ways to national Reading Association meeting, 1968). correspond with the purpose of investigation.) A combin­ As already indicated, testing was continued during the ation of both automated and non-automated equipment years each went on to attend public schools. For one was used. The determination of the instrument for a subject, this included data through the fourth grade; for given day was based upon the discretion of the teacher; seven subjects, data through third grade; for two however, all of the subjects received approximately 80% subjects through second grade; for three subjects, of the total instructional time on the automated machine. through first grade. The non-automated equipment contained a typewriter, as As years progressed in the Center the relative improve­ weil as audio-visual equipment, such as the "talking ment of the Get-Set children was much greater than that page," and commercial materials. of the tuition group. This was apparent in measured skill Work was arranged to accentuate auditory or acquisition and in the psycholinguistic development of perceptual strengths of subjects and to remediate weak­ these children. The most important finding seems to be nesses secondarily; the ratioforthat balancewas 3:1. The that the time on the machine and the period of enroll­ objectives of the programming were the demonstration of ment of the students (the time they were in the Center skills in (a) recognizing alphabet letters, (b) typing letters School) has a statistically significant positive correlation from dictation, and (c) reading words orally. Teachers with their performance on the following tests: Wide also worked with children on individual experience Range Arithmetic, Wide Range Reading, and Informal stories which were then programmed for the equipment. Reading lnventory. Findings indicate that regardless of For the fitteen available subjects the following data initial IQ scores of these children on the Peabody Picture were collected and analyzed using both correlational Vocabulary Test or scores on the Developmental Test of procedures and regression analysis: Visual Perception (DTVP), and the lllinois Test of Psycho- 1inguistic Abilities (ITPA) (Visual and Auditory) these • the hours and minutes spent on the Responsive children nevertheless performed at or above present Environment equipment grade Ievei on achievement tests in both reading and • the number of months enrolled in the Center arithmetic. The pre-mean I.Q. was 71.8, past-mean I.Q. for • the age in years and months on entering the Center 1974: 98.2, and for 1975: 94.6. and age of the child at the time of testing An attempt was made to compare the distribution of • the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Testat the time the the California Achievement Tests in the Philadelphia child entered the Center, twice annually thereatter school system with the Drexel testing. Nine children were until the child Jett the Center and once annually found who had test scores for 1975 for both Drexel and thereatter until the present time the Philadelphia tests. • the Developmental Test of Visual Perception (Fros­ The high correlation Ieveis are an indication that the tig) at the time the child entered the Center, twice Philadelphia test scores were showing the same annually thereatter until the child Jett the Center, distribution as the Drexel test scores. lf this relationship and once annually thereatter until the present time continues in 1976, the Philadelphia school test scores • the lllinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities at the can be linked with the Drexel scores in an analysis of time the child entered the Center, twice annually differences between the 1976 scores and the 1975 thereatter until the child left the Center and once scores, and between the 1976 scores and the first Drexel annually thereatter until the present time scores test for test. Cybernetics Forum 69

Conclusions REFERENCES First of all, it seems as if there is a critical mmimum Chall, Jeanne. Learning to Read-The Great Debate. New exposure time and attendance time required for readirig, York: McGraw Hili Co., 1967. arithmetic achievements, and reading comprehension. Campbell, Ruby M. and Guthrie, Larry F. "A Continual As noted above all children are at or above grade Ievei in Regrouping Program in Reading Readiness Skills for reading achievement. What should now be investigated Kindergarten." 1975. ERIC Ed 110964. is, if or when, all children, regardless of time in Res­ Deutsch, Morton. "The Disadvantaged Child and the ponsive Environment or attendance at the Center, will Learning Process," Education in Depressed Areas. achieve reading comprehension scores at or above grade Edited by A. Harry Passow. New York: Teachers Ievei as weil. College, Columbia University, 1963, pp. 163-179. To date, studies from the Philadelphia Board of Edu­ Durkin, Dolores. Children Who Read Early. New York: cation indicate that high risk low socio-economic status Teachers College Press, 1966. (SES) children, consistently regress, year by year, beyond Fischer, Karen M. "Prediction of Reading Ability from the first grade, in reading achievement and compre­ Early Language Skills." Sewell: 1975. ERIC Ed 108128. hension. Frostig, Marianne and Horne, David. The Frostig Pro­ All eight high risk low SES children who have had what gram for the Development of Visual Perception . . appears to be the critical minimum of thirty hours and Chicago: Follett Publishing Co., 1964. thirty months attendance are all achieving at grade Ievei Hillerich, Robert L. "Kindergarten Screening Procedures: in reading comprehension as weil. Early ldentification or Labeling?" I.R.A. New York: We are cautiously optimistic about this trend. 1975. ERIC Ed 103825. Secondly, it can be stated that the Get-Set children Moore, Omar K., and Alan R. Anderson. "The Responsive regardless of measured intelligence actually perform on Environments Project," in Early Childhood Education: achievement tests at a Ievei comparable to their peers Current Theory, Research and Practice, eds. Robert and that this has a significant correlation with their early D. Hess and Roberta M. ·ßear. Chicago: Aldine Pub­ childhood education and training. Whether or not this lishing Co., 1967. Ievei will be further maintained remains to be seen Venezky, Richard L. "Prereading Skills: Theoretical through further longitudinal study of these children and Foundations and Practical Applications." Wisconsin of others leaving the Center. However, the Ieveis of University, Madison: 1975. ERIC ed 109 663. significance are so striking in the correlations between Wolpert, Edward M. "Modality and Reading: a Per­ the time on the Responsive Environment and the time spective." Reading Teacher, 23, April, 1971. enrolled in the early childhood program with present achievement that it is not probable that this performance patternwill breakdown in the future to any great extent. Further research is a commitment of the Drexel Early Childhood Center. BOOKREVIEW

To Draw a Line.

Computer Power and Human Reason: From Judgment to Ca Ieuiotion Joseph Weizenbaum San Francisco: W.H. Freeman, 1976 $9.95

John R. Kirk Director, Planetarium SUNY, College at New Paltz, N.Y.

Whether or not one has sat at a terminal or a computer Newtonian mechanics). Weizenbaum feels it is the sort of console he will find much to think about in this book. mistake that could be troublesome or even tragic. So (in a There is wit, almost Iethai irony, and an occasional footnote, p. 5), he early takes a swipe at Astronomer, Carl nodding (Leibnitz in place of Laplace, p. 221). Professor Sagan, for anticipating in one of ELIZA's future descen­ of computer science at Massachusetts Institute of dants an economical substitute for an overburdened Technology, Weizenbaum is probably most widely known psychiatric counselor. But it was St. Sigmund hirnself for ELIZA, a system for processing natural language. who remarked on the salubrious effects of talking with a Names for Eliza Doolittle in Shaw's Pygmalion (she can neighbor over the backyard fence. ln relevant respects a be taught to talk more acceptably, but whether more computer program might weil be superior to a neighbor. intelligently is moot), this system can be made to mirnie a There is a little laughter in the book. Much Iove. Some nondirective psychotherapist interacting with a "patient" fear. And some loathing. Those chiefly loathed are the (this program is known as DOCTOR). ln a key passage, "artificial intelligentsia" (the phrase is not Weizen­ Weizenbaum observes: baum's coinage but he relishes the double entendre), People who knew very weil that they were con­ people like Marvin Minsky and Roger Shank who have versing wi th a machine soon forgot that fact, just also succeeded in making computers "display" (or as theatergoers, in the grip of suspended disbe­ (or don the insidious "disguise" of) intelligence. But lief, soon forget that the action they are witnessing whereas the latter exult in each small step (seldom is not " real. " This illusion. was especially strong failing in rhetorical suggestion that these are giant leaps and most tenaciously clung to among people who for mankind), Weizenbaum pauses to worry. Like in that knew little or nothing about computers. They would often demand to be perm1tted to converse with the Robert Downey movie: you've got t9 draw a line! system in private, and would, after conversing with Those who were once confident that the human mind is it for a time, insist, in spite of my explanations, a Turing machine (e.g., Hilary Putnam) are now that the machine really understood them. increasingly sure that it is not. lndeed, it might be both more and less-in this domain transitivity may not be lt is, I think, to Weizenbaum's credit that he recognizes sacrosanct. lt appears worth while to know far in advance in this ascription of qualities to a computer (or its pro­ what sort of things a human being might do that a digital gram) those normally reserved to human mentation the computer (linked to no matter what exotic input or output possibility of a paradigm error. He does not, however, do accessories) could not. lt might be of even greater impor­ head-on battle with the Turing Criterion concerning such tance to recognize what a computer might do that we matters, explore a possible weakness in the Leibnizian should not even permit it to try. ln this book Weizen­ Principle of the ldentity of lndiscernibles, nor even grant baum attempts to draw such lines as these. I regret that I that Karl Pearson (his first name is misspelled in the cannot clearly descry them. index) in first treating the brain as a central telephone The fault may be mine. When I consider what other exchange established an unbroken tradition of trying to writer on the computer scene might soon emerge with a figure out what the brain does by watehing what some of wiser analysis and sets of contours more deftly drawn, I our machines do (to be sure, what we now regard as am reminded of a famous saying by that earlier Eliza: machi nes can no Ionger be wholly described by "Ain't bloody likely!" About the Authors

NORMAN A. COULTER, JR. EDWARD M. DUKE RICHARD H. HOWE Norman A. Coulter, Jr. is Professor and Edward M. Duke is a senior associate of Richard Herbert Howe obtained his Chairman of Biomedical Engineering and the Cybertechnics Institute where he is degree from the University of lllinois in Mathematics Curriculum at the University primarily engaged in consulting and edu­ 1971 . Since that timehe has worked as a of North Carolina. He received his B.S. cation services for quality system science freelance writer, editor, and translator from Virginia Polylechnie Institute in 1941 and technology. He is also active in pro­ here, in Germany, and in Canada. He has and his M.D. from Harvard Medical School moting the adoption of cybernetic been associated with the Biological Com­ in 1950. Dr. Coulter was postdoctoral concepts in the fields of industrial engi­ puter Laboratory, Department of Electri­ fellow in biophysics at Johns Hopkins neering and management. He has written cal Engineering, University of lllinois, from 1950 to 1952. He was Assistant to and lectured on cybernetic applications in Urbana, since 1969. the Associate Professor of Physiology decision making and quality cybernetics. and Biophysics at Ohio State University, He received his Bachelor of Science from 1952-1965. His current interests are the University of Washington and his teleogenic system and neutral networks, Master of Science in Cybernetic Systems and synergetics. from San Jose State University.

HAROLD K. HUGHES Dr. Harold K. Hughes returned to college ROLAND FISCHER teaching in 1974 after a career in business Roland Fischer is a multidisciplinary administration and five years as Vice­ president for Academic Affairs at State psycho-pharmacologist with a Ph.D. from University of New York in Potsdam. He V.G. DROZIN Basel (Switzerland), who introduced the Dr. Drozin is Professor of Physics at Buck­ concept of hallucinogenic drug-induced holds 18 patents, is the author of numer­ nell University in Lewisburg, PA., where in model psychosis in 1946, initiated and ous publications and has served the ASC addition to courses in physics he teaches edited the first International Conference in several capacities since 1967. He has two courses in Cybernetics. He holds a on lnterdisciplinary Perspectives of Time just published a book "Dictionary of Physics diploma from the University of [Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sei. 138, Art. 2, 367-916 Abbreviations in Medicine and The Health Göttingen, Germany and a Ph .D. from (1967)) and was the first to treat conscious­ Sciences" (D,D. Heath Co). Columbia University, New York. Dr. ness as a scientific issue (Science 174, Drozin's present research interest is the 896-904; 1971). application of cybernetics to sociai From his over 250 publications 130 were problems and to automation of the published while a professor of experi­ teaching-learning process, particularly mental psychiatry and pharmacology at the correlation between biopotentials of a Ohio State University (1958-70). Now, he is learner and his degree of concentration. Research Coordinator at the Maryland Dr. Drozin is the editor of this journal. Psychiatrie Research Center in Baltimore, a Lecturer and Clinical Professor with The John Hopkins and Georgetown University Medical School Departments of Psychiatry and a Professorial Lecturer in Pharmacology of the George Washington University. School of Medicine. 72 About the Authors

Mathematics from the University of Wis­ York Academy of Sciences. At present, he consin. Dr. Kile is presently Research continues private practice and teaching, Consultant for Social Modefing for the and is finishing research and writing of a Aid Association for Lutherans. He has new systems book due out late this year. written extensively on the subject of cybernetics applied to social concerns.

STUARTKATZ Stuart Katz received his doctoral degree in psychology from the University of Michigan in 1971 and is now an assistant professor of psychology at the University of Georgia in Athens, Georgia. He is MARTIN H. RINGLE JOHN R. KIRK author or co-author of technical articles Dr. Martin Ringle pursued his doctoral John R. Kirk, Ph .D., UCLA, 1951, studied and book chapters on social psychology, studies at the State University of New astronomy under Robert Ryland Fleet at psycholinguistics, and memory. His York at Binghamton in the combined the Morrison Observatory, logic and current interests center around the rela­ fields of philosophy and artificial intelli· philosophy of science under Abraham tionship of epistemology to psychology gence. He is co-founder, along with Dr. Kaplan and Hans Reichenbach. Now a and the possibility of psychology as a Thomas Simon of the University of member of the Astronomical Society of science. Florida, of the Society for the Study of the Pacific and the Philosophy of Science Minds!Brains!Machines. The SSMBM is Association, he has been Assistant Editor an interdisciplinary communications of ETC.: A Review of General Semantics group affiliated with professional organi· and Associate Editor of The Humanist. zations in philosophy, psychology, As computer programer and research computer science and neuroscience. Dr. analyst for Chiago Area Transportalion Ringle has lectured and written on the Study, he was co-initiator of the carto­ subject of philosophy and artificial intelli· graphatron. Since 1937 he has been active gence and is the chairman of the National in radio and television, has taught at The Symposium for Philosophy and Computer University of Texas, The University of Technology. He is editor of the forth· Chicago, and Michigan State University, coming volumes Philosophical Perspec· and is now Professor of Philosophy and tives in Artificial !ntel!igence and Ethics, Director of the Planetarium at State Uni­ Society and Computerization. ln addition versity of New York College at New Paltz. to his consulting work he holds the posi­ CHRISTINA KENNEALL V tion of Assistant Professor of Philosophy Ms. Kenneally is a graduale of The at th e State University of New York at London School of Journalism. Now a resi­ New Paltz. dent of the United States she is working on bi-lateral brain research but her pri· mary interest is parent/child/school sys­ tems and relationships. She is currently assisting in consulting with industry and institulians on the process of integrating women into higher Ieveis of management. She is a member of the English Faculty for Long lsland University. The molher of live children, she believes that her own I home has provided the best learning Iabaratory to study behavioral development. GEORGE T.L. LAND Emeritus Chairman of the Turtle Bay Institute, a human systems research or­ ganization, George Land is author of numerous books and articles, including MELVIN F. SHAKUN the General Systems and Cybernetics Professor of Operations Research and work Grow or Die, the Unifying Principle Statistics and Coordinator, Social Policy of Transformation, (Random House and and Urban Allairs Program, Graduale Deli, 1974). He has served as Visiting School of Business Administration, New Professor and Distinguished Lecturer at York University; formerly Distinguished over forty Universities in the U.S. and Visiting Professor at the City College of Europe and most recently as consultant the City University of New York and in Behaviorial Science in children's learn· Associate Professor of lndustrial ing at the National Medical Center, Child· Engineering and of Applied and Mathe­ ren 's Hospital and as developmental matical Statistics at Rutgers-The State FREDERICK KILE consultant for the American Telephone University; former Department Editor, Dr. Frederick Kile is a Lutheran Minister and Telegraph Co. George Land was Planning, Game Theory, and Gaming, (American Lutheran Church) and a systems lately appointed Administrative Vice Management Science; Doctor of engineer. He received his Th.D. from the Uni· President and Membership Chairman of Engineering Science and Master of versity of Marburg, Germany; his B.D. from the A.S.C. and is a member of the New Science, Columbia University; Bachelor of the Luther Theological Seminary; and his Mechanical Engineering, City College of M.S. in electrical engineering and B.S. in New York. Questionnaire of the American Society for Cybernetics

One of the central interests of the American Society of current offerings in the field. The results of this for Cybernetics is the development of cybernetic educa­ survey will appear in a later issue of the Forum. tion in the United States. Despite the fact that it has Your cooperation is essential to the success of this been recognized as a legitimate field of study for nearly project. Piease fill out the form, detach it, and send it to: thirty years, cybernetics enjoys an extremely limited Dr. Martin Ringle, c/o Philosophy Department, SUNY, representation in collegiate curricula. As a prelude to a New Paltz, NY, 12561. Piease respond at your earliest national effort aimed at increasing course and program convenience. Thank you. offerings in cybernetics, the ASC is conducting a survey

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The ASC CYBERNETICS FORUM is an internationally distributed quarterly publication of the American Society of Cybernetics. lt is published to promote the understanding and advance­ ment of cybernetics. lt is recognized that cybernetics covers a very broad spectrum, ranging from formalized theory through experimental and technological development to practical applications. Thus the boundaries of acceptable subject matter are intentionally not sharply delineated. Rather it is hoped that the flexible publi-cation policy of the ASC CYBERNETICS FORUM will foster and promote, the continuing evolution of cybernetic thought. The ASC CYBERNETICS FORUM is designed to provide not only cyberneticists, but also intelli­ gent laymen, with an insight into cybernetics and its applicability to a wide variety of scientific, social and economic problems. Gontributions should be lively, graphic and to the point. Tedious listings of tabular material should be avoided. The Editors reserve the right to make stylistic modifications consistent with the requirements of the ASC CYBERNETICS FORUM. No Substantive changes will be made without consultation with authors. They further reserve the right to reject manuscripts they deem unsuitable in nature, style or content. Opinions expressed in articles in the ASC CYBERNETICS FORUM do not necessarily reflect the opinion of the ASC CYBERNETICS FORUM or its editors, or the American Society for Cybernetics or its directors and officers. All material published in the ASC CYBERNETICS FORUM is Copyright by the American Society for Cybernetics who reserve a/1 rights.

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Papers already published or in press elsewhere arenot standard letter-size paper. The first page of the manu­ acceptable. Foreach proposed contribution, one original script should carry both the first and last names of all and two copies (in English only) should be mailed to Dr. authors and their atfiliations, including city, state and zip V.G. Drozin, Physics Dept., Bucknell University, Lewis­ code. (Note address to which galleys are to be sent.) All burg, PA. 17837. Manuscripts should be mailed flat, in a succeeding pages should carry the last name of the first suitable envelope. Graphie materials should be sub­ author in the upper righ-hand corner. mitted with suitable cardboard backing. Style: While the ASC CYBERNET/CS FORUM demands Types of Manuscripts: Three types of contributions are a high standard of excellence in its papers, it is not a considered for publication: full-length articles, briet scholarly or technical journal. Authors should avoid communications of 1,000 words or less, and letters to the mathematical formulae and long lists of references or editor. Letters and briet communications can generally footnotes. Titles shuld be briet and specific, and reveal­ be published sooner than full-length manuscripts. Books, ing of the nature of the article. Acknowledgments and monographs and reports are accepted for critical review. credits for assistance or advice should appear at the end Two copies should be addressed to the Editor. of articles. Subheads should be used to break up-and set off-ideas in text. Processing: Acknowledgment will be made of receipt of all manuscripts. The ASC CYBERNETICS FORUM Graphie Materials: All artwerk submitted must be in employs a reviewing procedure in which all manuscripts finished form suitable for reproduction (black on white) are sent to two referees for comment. When both referees and large enough so that it will be legible after reduction have replied, copies of their comments are sent to of as much as 60 percent. Photographs should be black authors with the Editor's decision as to acceptability. and white glossy no less than 5"X7". Authors receive galley proofs with a five-day allowance for corrections. Standard proofreading marks should be About the Authors: A briet biography (less than one employed. Corrected galleys should be returned to page), along with a small photograph, must be sent with Western Periodicals Co., 13000 Raymer St., North Holly­ all manuscripts. This will be included in the "About the wood, CA. 91605. Authors" section of each issue.

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