A Micro-regional Approach to the Rock Art Sites in the Anjunad Valley, South Central

N. Nihildas1

1. Archaeological Survey of , Bangalore Circle, Kendriya Sadan, Koramangala, Bangalore – 560034, (Email: [email protected])

Received: 13 August 2014; Accepted: 07 September 2014; Revised: 01 October 2014 Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 2 (2014): 593-624

Abstract: The present study focused on a micro-regional analysis of the rock art sites in the Anjunad Valley, part of Southern and located on the eastern fringes of the . The Anjunad Valley is the only region in Kerala where rock painting is discovered. Previous archaeological documentation in the area had brought to light a number of rock art sites. However, a detailed study of this area was not attempted earlier. The micro-regional approach helped in better understanding of not only the style, theme and technique but also the distribution, location and landscape aspects of rock art sites in the Anjunad Valley.

Keywords: Anjunad Valley, Kerala, Rock Art, Red Ochre, Kaolin, Ethnographic Analogy, Relative Chronology

Introduction India is one of the countries in the world having varieties of rock art sites. Like Africa and Australia, India also possesses a great rock art tradition. To study and understand these divergent cultural imprints, attempts are being conducted by various scholars since the 18th century (Fawcett 1892; 1901; John 1899; Francke 1902; Gordon 1951; Kumar 2001; Chandramouli 2002, Bednarik 2007). The discovery of Bhimbetka in stimulated the rock art studies in India to grow as an independent discipline (Wakankar and Brooks 1976). Thereafter, the scholars started looking into the rock art corpus in a more refined manner with adherent classification, synthesis, analysis, conservation and management of rock art sites (Mathpal 1984; Neumayer 1983; Pandey 1993; Chakrabarthi 1997). These scholars employed a wide range of methodology and concepts for interpretation of rock art. The main methods employed were the classification of motifs on the basis of style, thematic representation and use of analogies, etc. However, over a period of time, researches taken places all over the world have proven that, mere description and the age old theory of cultural succession of hunting-gathering to food producing community by indirect analogies does not hold ground today (Chandramouli 2002). Actually there has been a growing need and argument for cautious and critical approach to rock art study. It is argued that rock art ISSN 2347 – 5463 Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 2: 2014

needs to be studied as part of the larger body of cognitive functional representation of human societies (Selvakumar 2011:365).

Rock Art Settings The rock art under present investigation is situated on the foothills of Anaimalai and Hill tracts, a funnel like valley formed in a varying altitude of 400 to 2500 m AMSL (Fig.1). This area is located in the eastern fringes of Idukki District about 42 km northeast of , one of the famous tourist destinations of south central Kerala. Topographically this region is seen as elongated spurs separated by extensive ravines to merge with the relatively gentler slopes to the table land of Marayoor-Chinnar and extended up to the low land of Udumelpet (Soman 2002: 4). The predominant rock form is Charnockitic gneisses and a variety of gneisses rock. The rock art places in Anjunad Valley may be found in the ragged cliff, hilltops, and hillocks. They are noticeable all over this valley especially along the long strip of river Pambar and its tributaries. The art occurs on the walls and ceilings of rock shelters, open air boulders and pavements of river beds which are located in the vicinity Iron Age-Early Historic monuments.

Regional History The present-day tribal communities in the Anjunad Valley have a clear distinction for the ‘cave’ and ‘shelter’ in their language. The people in the Anjunad call ‘Ala’ for shelters and ‘Guha’ for caves, respectively. And ‘Ezhuthu’ means writing or paintings; thus they call the shelter or rock surface having paintings or engravings as ‘Ezhuthala’ or Ezhuthupara’ (Para means Rock) (Kurian 2011: 74). Likewise, some of the shelters are known as ‘Patti’ means cattle pens. Since earlier times until now, the tribes in the Anjunad Valley are engaged in cattle rearing. In the historical times they never owned cattle; instead cattle were handed over to them just to look after during the winter by agricultural people living on tablelands. The wage or profit was shared in form of products and goods in the barter system. Hence, during the rainy season these shelters were used as pens to accommodate cattle for overnight that may normally extend to weeks. Another interesting aspect of these rock shelters in the Chinnar locality is that some of the shelters are known as ‘Payeevarum Ala’; meaning those shelters were used for releasing the spirit or ghost from the human body (Kurian 2011:75). Sometime people used this shelter as a temporary settlement. Likewise one family in Marayoor Ur Gramam still uses a shelter partially as residence. Now a day these shelters are being used by locals for hunting and resting. The broken pots, grinding and pounding stones and animal bones etc. suggest a clear evidence of occupation. At present, some of these shelters located deep inside the forest are a favorite dwelling of robbers and sandal smugglers.

Previous Study In 1974 Padmanabhan Tampi undertook a Ph.D. topic by focusing on Marayoor. He discovered three painted rock shelters from the Marayoor region of the Anjunad

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Figure 1: Location Map of Anjunad Valley

Valley. These shelters, known as Ezhuthala are situated near Marayoor Town in Koodakkad area of Marayoor forest, Attala in the same forest division of Pallanad area and Pulachikummati Alai, near Chambakkad tribal settlement of Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary. He also noticed a painted dolmen at Dindikombur on the way to

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Kanthaloor (Tampi 1983:146). It is significant to note that about 14 years prior to Tampi’s discovery, Victor Rosner had noted paintings of knives and hooks inside a massive Dolmen (Rosner 1959: 179). After Tampi’s work, there was a lull for rock art research of the Anjunad Valley until Mathpal (1998: 41-45) undertook systematic documentation. Since 1990-2004 more than five rock shelters were discovered by this eco-tourism member which was lead by Mr. Eswaran Alampetti and Dhanushkodi (The Hindu 2004, June 6). Although these sites occasionally used to appear in news papers, regional magazines and channels, it did not attract any scholars. It was in 2008, Dr. Rajan Gurukkal, Ex-Vice Chancellor of Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, made a visit to this area. (Gurukkal 2011: 273-79). During this time another interested person, who got interested in rock art during his nature studies brought out a list of rock art sites from the Anjunad Valley. He discovered more than 15 sites from the eastern portion of (Kurian 2011: 73-86). In recent years the State Department of Archaeology, conducted a systematic survey to document the rock art and megalithic remains of the region (Pers. Comm., Director, State Department, Kerala, 2010-11). The author also conducted a number of explorations in the region to discover and document the rock art heritage of Anjunad Valley.

Distribution of Sites Rock paintings found in Anjunad Valley can be grouped into paintings (pictographs) and engravings (petroglyphs). About 20 rock paintings and more than 4 engravings are noticed so far (Fig.2). Rock paintings are located in different localities of various altitudes. These paintings are found in the hillock, mountain cliffs, close to streams, solitary rocks and cavities. At one site, Chenganperu (dolmen-3 from the northern side of the site) it has been noticed inside dolmens as well. In fact many of the rock shelters in Anjunad Valley are located as a cluster close to the present Hill Pulayans settlements (Table 1).

Image Analysis A total 20 rock painted sites and 4 petroglyphs were reported so far from the Anjunad valley (Tampi 1976, 1983, 2004; Gurukkal 2011; Kurian and Das 2010; Kurian 2011). Out of 20 sites, 9 sites were red ochre painted and 9 sites yielded kaolin paintings. Remaining two sites were noticed with the both red and white pigments. Besides this one site of kaolin pigment was noticed from a Dolmen as well. Petroglyphs were also reported but confined to 4 sites only (Kurian 2011; Das et al. 2013). To understand the sites further, the motifs were divided as animal figures, human/anthropomorphic figures and designs and symbols.

Animal Figures Animal figures have been noticed from almost all the sites. They comprise of Sambar, Humped bull, Cattle, Nilgai, Elephant, Horse, Lizard, Monkey, Nilgai Thar, Mongoos, etc. Among these Sambar and Bull/Cattle are predominantly seen. Kaolin paintings depict more animals when compared to red ochre and kaolin. While free standing

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Figure 2: Distribution of Rock art sites in the Anjunad Valley outline motifs are mostly observed in red ochre, in kaolin, they are either in moving posture or free standing along with a men or group of animals (Fig.3). Out of 70 animal motifs recorded, 25 are belonging to red ochre and 45 are of kaolin (Figs.4a and 4b).

Human/Anthropomorphic Figures The Anjunad Valley paintings yielded a number of human/anthropomorphic figures in different style and shape. Out of 98 motifs recorded in white pigment 60 human and 38 anthropomorphic figures were noticed (Figs.5a and 5b). In case of red ochre, out of 13 figures, 7 human and 6 anthropomorphic figures were found. The red ochre motifs occur either singularly or associated with animal motifs. Three bichrome giant human motifs are included in the red ochre category. They are of magnificent size, however, due to the long exposure to the Sun and other human and natural activities are severely damaged these figures. Schematic depictions of T-shaped and stick-like anthropomorphic figures in red colour are unique to the Anjunad Valley in compare to other rock art sites in India (Fig.6).

In white pigments most of the human/anthropomorphic motifs are either men holding weapon or people engaged in some other activities (Fig.6.8-11). The largest

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Figure 3: Animals motifs in red ochre and white pigments, Anjunad Valley

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12

10 Attala Puravalayakudi 8 Alampettiodai Vedanala 6 Chenganperu

4 Athiodai Malaserpetti 2 Chambakkad Ezhuthala 0 Jallimala-1 Alapetti

Figure 4a: Distribution of Animals motifs in White Colour, Anjunad Valley

8

7

6 sambar 5 pig 4 cattle/bull 3 tortiose 2 fish 1 faded

0 dog Nilgai

Figure 4b: Distribution of Animals motifs in Red Colour, Anjunad Valley concentrations of the human motifs were noticed from Attala and Vedanala. At Attala three anthropomorphic figures were noticed with outstretched legs and a protrusion in between legs, and another anthropomorphic figure with drum (Fig.6.7&14). The human motifs found inside the dolmen at Chenganperu bear a close stylistic resemblance with the giant human motif at Ezhuthala.

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3.5

3

2.5

2

1.5 human

1 anthropomorphic figure

0.5

0

Figure 5a: Distribution of Human/Anthropomorphic Figures in Red Colour

25

20

15

10 Human 5 Anthropomorphic Figures

0

Figure 5b: Distribution of Human/Anthropomorphic Figures in White Colour

Symbols and Designs Symbols and designs are the most extensively recorded motifs from the Anjunad Valley. They consist of several abstract motifs, star symbols, geometric designs, tridents, honey comb, hand prints and net designs. The symbols in red and white colour are different in their nature of execution. In red ochre numerous abstract motifs, hand prints and honey combs are predominantly seen (Fig.7). These motifs have been repeatedly painted in most of the shelters in the Anjunad Valley (Fig.7.2 &3). In white kaolin, a net/thatched hut design is interesting (Fig.7.9). This motif has been noticed from the three major shelters in the Anjunad Valley. Total 183 motifs were recorded. In

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this 103 belong to red pigment and the 80 kaolin (Figs. 8a and 8b). It is observed that the red ochre motifs are more in abstracts form thus it indicate some sort of religious resemblance rather than mere subject matter.

Figure 6: Human/anthropomorphic figures, Anjunad Valley

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Figure 7: Symbols and designs in the Anjunad Valley

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30 Ezhuthala 25 Manala-1 20 Manala-2 15 Jallimalai-1 10 Jallimalai-2 5 Mandayottimala 0 … Vaimala-1

dots Vaimala-2 lines abstract ray type ray plantian fish type fish - nail dots nail Nelthinasettu stretcher stretcher x platform? Hand prints Hand a geometric geometric a Honey Honey Comb Vannanthura Urn or or basket Urn H type type H symbol thick archthicktype tree like tree symbol

animal head animallike Chinnavendru Square shapedSquare flat snake type snaketype symbol capsule type type capsule object

Figure 8a: Distribution of Symbols and Designs in Red Colour

9 8 7 6 Attala 5 Ezhuthala 4 3 Alampettiodai 2 Jallimala 1 0 Vedanala Malaserpetti Star Athiodai Circles Trident Graffitti

Riceplant Chambakkad Arrow Arrow head Birds & & Birds tree unidentified Honey Honey comb Line (Stroke) Line Cross symbol Cross Circular motif Circular Alpanadesign Mounddesign Rockplantian Abstractmotif Chennavendru Fadedsymbols Plantwith friut Val type type Valtrident Letters Letters or words Geometric Geometric design Snake likeSnake symbol Trident Trident with Damru Net or or Net Thatched hut Double Double headed arrow

Figure 8b: Distribution of Symbols and Designs in White Colour

Engravings Petroglyph on rocky platform, stone and boulders are reported from a couple of sites in the Anjunad Valley. In comparison with pictographs, petroglyphs are less in number. They are mainly of geometric designs and non-figurative (Fig.9). Archaeologically speaking, these engravings are noticed within or vicinity of Megalithic sites. However, this sort of line drawings could be still observed among the Anjunad Ur Grama people until last decade. These modern tribal symbols are mostly noticed associated with village temples. They used to make engravings and bruising as part of amusement and rituals.

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Figure 9: Engraving found at Alampetti dolmen site

Methods and Pigment There are a number of methods or combinations of methods to illustrate the theme in rock art. The rock paintings and petroglyphs are the principle method used. In the case of paintings, mainly red ochre and kaolin are used, whereas petroglyphs might be made by picking or bruising the surface. Supposedly except Jallimala-1 there is no such preparation noticed in the Anjunad Valley.

Red Ochre Paintings In the rock painting corpus of the Anjunad Valley, thematic analysis and superimpositions of the figures invariably suggests an earlier date to the red ochre colour paintings. Thin outline, thick outline, flat wash and schematic are different styles noticed in the red ochre. In addition to this, some figures like giant human are life size depiction that is filled in with parallel rows of zigzag and lines. The body portion is painted as different compartments as well (Fig.10). But these features are noticed only in life size figures. Along with red ochre, burnt sienna, dark red and crimson colours were also observable. Line drawings and strokes are also noticeable. The motifs like Sambar and giant human figures are finely depicted. The abstract motifs like a snake inner side filled with vertical and horizontal strokes at Nelthinasettu, anthropomorphic figure at Mandayottimala are elegant. To find out the source of the red ochre, a small survey of resource was conducted. Actually the

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Figure 10: Giant human motifs at Ezhuthala, Anjunad Valley

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Anjunad Valley contains a number of iron ore sources since the valley has a Charnokitic-gniess outcrop of the Archaean formation. Iron ore is included in the Charnockite group of rocks (Soman 2002: 257). The iron ore body is weathered up to a depth of 40 m, resulting in the alteration to varying degrees of hematite (Soman 2002: 259). These geological features must have facilitated the unknown painters of the Anjunad Valley to procure hematite nodule. However, without a scientific analysis of the pigment it would difficult to ascertain the components of the pigment.

White/Kaolin Pigments In the case of kaolin, it is easily available clay in all the districts of Kerala. It is usually white or nearly white and composed essentially of clay minerals of the kaolin group, principally kaolinite. (Soman 2002: 219). Flat wash, schematic and geometric forms are the major styles used in kaolin paintings. The outline or figures filled in with lines are absent. Most of the figures are schematically represented. Though white is the principle colour used, nature of the surface and exposure of the shelter to sunlight have caused a minor variation in the colour components. White paintings are usually noticed with thick layers or strokes. Recently a study of rock art in the Kurnool caves shows that white pigment does not get preserved as well as red ochre. Thus by observing the relative degree of preservation and brightness, it can suggest some antiquity (Bovin et al. 2011: 242). This may be barely applicable in the case of the Anjunad Valley, because the figures like rock plantain, rice plant at Attala and human figures at Alapetti are executed with brightness and thick paints; thus it look more recent (Figs.11and 12).

Superimpositions In the Anjunad Valley, superimposition was observed at five different sites. The first site was Attala, where a succession of kaolin pigments was noticed. At Attala, overlapping has been noticed at five different locations. Here, animals, human and symbols of younger motifs are superimposing fully or partially the older ones. In one cluster of Attala more than three layers of pigments were noticed (Fig.13). Another important shelter is Ezhuthala (Pathipara). Here, bull, Cattle and Goat are superimposed by three giant human figures.

The first giant motifs which are more in white colour seemed to be superimposed completely by a faded Goat. Other two human motifs are also overlapping the Bull (Fig.14). At Jallimala-1, painting of stick-like men seated on animal facing each other is superimposed on a red ochre surface (Fig.15). It is assumed that the red painting might have been rubbed off intentionally or faded. Thus the red ochre in the Anjunad Valley is ascribed to an earlier date. Similarly another evidence of a partially overlapping painting in barely visible white pigment was noticed from Chinnavendru. All these point out that, though the superimpositions are a few in the rock art of the Anjunad Valley, existing evidence suggest that the red ochre painting has a longer tradition than the white pigments. It also indicates a cultural overlap or transition among the people practicing paintings in the region.

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Figure 11: Rock Plantain and rice plant at Attala

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Figure 12: Human figure at Alampetti

Figure 13: Superimposition noticed in white pigment at Attala

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Figure 14: Giant human figures overlapping the animal motifs at Ezhuthupara

Ethnographic Analogy The present communities of Mala Pulayans (Hill Pulayans) and Muthuwans do not show any direct affinity with the paintings. Interestingly many of the rock arts are located in the close vicinity of the Mala Pulayans settlements. Though they do not show any direct affinity, almost all the rock shelters in this region are occupied by them in different ways. For instance, one of the main occupations of Mala Pulayans is the cattle rearing. As per legend, this tribal group was not actively involved in agriculture. The cattle of other people were kept under their custody during the drought and rainy season. Rock shelters were one of the places where cattle were kept overnight. In summer they constructed a pen locally known as patti. Hence, several places can be noticed with the term that ends with patti e.g. Alampetti, Palapetti, Alapetti, etc. This patti is generally circular in form, and consists of a low wall of loose stones surrounding a hollow area within. Thorns and tree branches were also used for the construction. Such types of constructions for same purpose have been reported earlier from the Nilgiri’s (Ross King 1870:18). Legends and myths also denote that some of the shelters were used for ritual purposes as mentioned elsewhere. The number of abstract motifs and hand prints noticed in the rock art might indicate this

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Figure 15: White kaolin pigment overlapping red ochre, Jallimala-1 ritual practice. Other interesting depictions of pig trapped in a loop at Manala-1, man standing with a prey with animal is very much similar to the subsistence strategies of Kurumbas. Besides, the piscatorial pursuits of this people supposedly noticed as the depiction of fish, net symbol and other aquatic depiction like Tortoise (Fig.16). On top of it, these tribes are excellent in honey collecting from the cliffs and it is a major source of their subsistence today. In case of Kurumbas that live in the Nilgiris, Breeks has made some interesting observations regarding their mode of life. They subsist with jungle products like honey, resin, gallnuts and barter these products with the people in the . Alike, the Kurumba people in the Anjunad Valley are clever in catching game in nets. They are excellent in chase, and are expert in waylaying and capturing animals either by nooses, nets or crude construction of stone gins. They quite often hunt Sambar, Spotted Deer, Squirrels, Wild Cats, Rats, Snakes, etc. (Breeks 1983:53 reprint). He also stated that the Kurumbas live in a thatch hut of wattle and the wall is white-washed and painted with numerous animals and men in different action with charcoal and red earth.

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Figure 16: A traditional way of fishing at Chambakkad

Another interesting observation made among the Kadars that live in the adjacent region, is about hunting Sambar for various reasons. They use Sambar droppings for polishing the house floor. Even in the festivals hunting a Sambar is considered as auspicious (Kurian 2011:85). An interesting depiction of a rock plantain at Attala and the real one could be noticed right in front of the shelter. Likewise perhaps another object linked with the burial practice and the rock art was the bamboo stretcher. More or less a similar motif is noticed in the rock art corpus of the Vaimala-2. Possibly it connects the ritualistic aspect of the rock art tradition among the Kurumbas. On the other hand the intermixing of tribal communities and forced change occurring in their cultural entity due to present religious and political scenario caused their destruction of original cultural traits. There are several stories prevailing among both Muthuwans and Mala Pulayans regarding a huge unrest that existed in the Madurai and Kongu regions. Mala Pulayans to some extent believe that they were forced to migrate to this region due to this dispute. In the Anjunad Valley a place known as Padavetti is famous for this reason. The Mala Pulayans believe that a huge fight occurred at this place. In local language Pada means army or cavaliers and Vetti is fighting, thus it came to be known as Padavetti. They also believe in a huge free standing stone known as Kattathadumkallu (Stone dances in wind) that helped them during this dispute by killing the enemies. They also believe that, the number of franchapanies (a tree with white flowers, locally known as Chambakam) in the valley blossom with white flower falling down were misunderstood as soldiers by the mercenaries that attacked from the

616 Nihildas 2014: 593-624 plains. In fact, most of the shelter with many fighting scenes in different schemes might be a reflection of similar belief system of the event that took place. During exploration couple of recent paintings of modern vehicles like car and bus done with ash by the children from the Mala Pulayans tribe could also be observed on the surface of a rock shelter near to dolmen site.

Rock Art and Megaliths In the Anjunad Valley, certain features might be connected with the rock art and Megaliths. Irrespective of altitude and position, the rock shelter paintings are located either within or in the immediate vicinity of the burial grounds, ranging maximum 100 m to 2 km radius. Both the red ochre and white kaolin pigments are invariably found associated to the burial grounds. Pictographs are solely seen associated to the dolmen sites. However, no homogeneity in colour of painting is seen associated with the typology or architecture of the dolmens. For instance, at Muruganpara we see red ochre paintings along with architecturally refined style dolmens, whereas in Alampetti we find red ochre and white paintings in the proximity of low type and chambered dolmens.

At Alampetti and Vazhathura, sporadic engravings were found within the dolmen sites. However, on the bank of Athiodai at Chinnar two unidentifiable engravings were reported (Kurian 2011). Nevertheless, its actual contexts are yet to be ascertained. Apparently the engraved cross hatch design at Alampetti can be observed in the paintings as well (Vaimala-2). At Jallimala, a rock shelter located close to the Alampetti dolmen site has yielded superimposition of white painting on red ochre. A schematic red symbol is superimposed by white painted animal raiders approaching face to face. Perhaps this depiction would be a clear indication of the cultural succession of two different period or group of people in the same cultural epoch. Also overlapping red painting by the white would suggest an earlier date to the red ochre. Paintings of a number of hand imprints in nearby dolmen sites at Vannanthurai and Alampetti might be a symbolism or religious practice during the Iron Age-Early Historic time. Except two or three shelters, no floor deposits in Anjunad Valley rock shelters were noticed. Lack of floor deposit, less number of motifs, appearance of similar motifs repeatedly in different shelters might point to ritualistic significance of the shelters probably in the Iron-Age Early Historic period.

An interesting motif found having ethnographic parallel within the region is a stretcher-like figure from Vaimala-2. Apparently similar type of object is widely used among the Mala Pulayans to carry dead body to graveyard during the funeral procession. It indicates a probable ritualistic or symbolic relationship practiced among the Mala Pulayans (Fig.17). Another interesting fact is that most of the megalithic sites are situated in vicinity of the Mala Pulayans settlements.

Interestingly discovery of a painted dolmen at Cheganperu perhaps indicate the continuity of this tradition (Fig.18). The small white painted motif looks very similar to

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the giant human motif of Ezhuthala. Similarly Tampi (1983) and Rosner (1959) had also reported painted dolmen at Dindukombur and Nachivayal of the Anjunad Valley. Recent excavations conducted in the rock shelter at Muruganpara gave a fairly good evidence of the Early Historic material from the upper strata (Joglekar et al 2013 in press). In , especially in and Kerala, the Iron Age-Early Historic cultures are invariably inter-connected (Rajan et al. 2008: 1994).

Figure 17: Stretcher used by Mala Pulayans noticed in the nearby painted shelter

Relative Chronology On the basis of style and theme the red ochre paintings in the Anjunad can be divided into two stages. In the first stage the motifs executed in outline are realistic depictions. In the first category of outline, mostly is represented. Other animals noticed in outline are mounting Nilgai, trapped pig, tortoise and fish; all belong to omnivorous, herbivorous, reptile and aquatic groups. These motifs are sometimes painted in isolation or in a group of two to three. They are rarely associated with symbols and designs. The symbols like hand prints might belong to this stage. There is no hunting scene noticed at this stage. The only human activity noticed at this stage is a pig trapped in a loop. There is homogeneity in the motifs in terms of style, colour and theme and an inter-site assimilation is also evident.

In the second stage motifs executed in flat wash such as cattle and humped bull are noticed. The overlapping of three giant human figures on cattle and humped bull

618 Nihildas 2014: 593-624 would be a cultural succession or an activity in the same cultural realm of where the former motifs belonged to. The occurrence of cattle and bulls superimposed by giant human figures at Ezhuthala, a hunting scene at Jallimala-2, banana harvesting at Chinnavendru, urn/basket at Nelthinasettu and a large number of symbols and abstract motifs illustrate a change in the way of life of the people.

Figure18: White painting noticed inside a dolmen at Chenganperu

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To correlate this cultural trait with the archaeological data to establish a chronological sequence is a challenging task. Therefore, a comparative study of the Anjunad Valley rock art with other region is required. On the basis of the style and theme, the first stage of painting can be proposed to be the emergence of a society with more semi- nomadic or hunting- food gathering mode of life. It may be considered that cattle rearing did not become so popular or it was not aboriginal practice of painters. In contrast to this, the motifs in the second stage invariably delineate the emergence of cattle domestication and agriculture along with the continuing practice of small game hunting. A significant change noticed in the second stage was the surfacing of kaolin paintings. The kaolin paintings were rich in subject matter than red ochre ones. Apart from abstract style, hunting, fighting, dancing and other cultural scenes like cart pulling were noticed for the first time in the kaolin paintings. Another important facet was development of anthropomorphic figures. At this stage solely appearing anthropomorphic figures started being depicted with different objects like weapons and drums.

All the rock shelter paintings are noticed in the close vicinity of dolmen sites. They are not only easily approachable but also visual accessible. Their peculiar selections of location, subject matter are very much similar to the many of the rock shelters found in the Western Ghats and Tamil Nadu (Rajan 1996, 2011). Further the subject matter, style, technique and location of these paintings suggested they must not be antedate Iron Age-Early Historic culture. Recent excavation conducted in the Anjunad Valley has also shown the similar feature. There was no conclusive material evidence to ascertain the time of paintings, however, on the basis of style of motifs and cultural materials like potsherds and chert blade the paintings might belong to the Iron Age-Early Historic period.

Discussion and Conclusion Rock art is an important cultural trait which gives a direct link to the socio-economic life of bygone people. Kerala is one of the regions in the country where less number of rock art site have been reported. Hence the area of the present study is the only region where we have the evidence of paintings. According to some scholars rare occurrence of rock art in Kerala is due to prolonged that perhaps washes out the paintings or there is possibility of preference to engravings rather than paintings. The Anjunad Valley falls in the rain shadow region of the Southern Western Ghats. In Anjunad Valley, paintings are noticeable on the cliffs, rock cavities and shelters located at the foothills. They are of white kaolin and red ochre pigment. The red ochre motifs are executed in outlines of natural depictions. The red ochre pigment was mainly used to draw Sambar Deer, honey combs, hand impressions and various symbols and signs. Some of the shelters like Mandayottimala, Nelthinesettu have evidence of anthropomorphic figures in red ochre. Cattle were depicted only at the site of Ezhutala. Along with Cattle, Humped Bull and life size human figures are also noticed. It is observed that in red ochre pigment were found more number of animal depiction and humans were less in number.

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In case of white kaolin paintings, they are invariably rich in subject matter. It contains a number of thematic representations of human activities like hunting scenes, war scenes, ritual activities, dancing in a row, etc. The fauna includes Horse, Elephant, Tiger, Monkey; micro fauna like Monitor Lizard, Ant eater, birds, etc. One of the unique paintings noticed at Alampettiodai in white pigment is the execution of a zoomorphic figure with broad animal headgear and elaborated palm. Some other interesting figures noticed are the anthropomorphic forms with and without a shield, bow and arrow, facing each other by sitting on animal, etc. The symbol like a thatched hut/net is repeated in many of the white painted shelters. Another interesting motif is of a cart pulled, probably by a Nilgiri-Thar or a Goat.

Another important feature noticed is the occurrence of unpainted shelters in certain location. These unpainted shelters are located in unique position of the landscape, mostly near to the Iron Age-Early Historic sites and also in the most significant area where colonial migration routes passed from Chinnar to Marayoor. Whether this ancient routes chosen for any trading purpose in the earlier time is unknown. It is also evident that these shelters acted as cattle sheds to accommodate large number of cattle that were raised by the Mala Pulayans. Irrespective of their locations, nature of rock and connection with the other cultural traits, these shelters were left unpainted. It denotes a certain cognitive and functional aspect in the execution of rock art in the Anjunad Valley. It indicates that rock art was not practiced wherever places were available; rather it is clear that a certain facet of landscape was connected with the socio-cultural life of the bygone people and hence paintings were done.

The visual accessibility of Megalithic remains associated with rock art is very conspicuous in the Anjunad Valley. These shelters are open to a wide range of landscape. The locational analysis of rock art sites and Megaliths show that these are located either within or in the immediate vicinity of the burial grounds, ranging within maximum 100 m to 2 km radius. Both the red ochre and white kaolin pigments are invariably found associated with the burial grounds. It is observed that the Megalithic monuments and the rock art sites are located nearby new and older settlement of Mala Pulayans. These sites are not only located very close to each but also visually interconnected.

The Anjunad Valley has also witnessed a number of similarities and relations as far as the rock art tradition in south India is concerned. The subject matter, location and occurrence of other cultural remains with paintings in Tamil Nadu and Anjunad Valley share more or less similar features. The rock shelter sites reported from region are more identical to the paintings of Anjunad Valley (Kumaran and Kumaaran 2009; Rajan and Athiyaman 2011). Alike Anjunad Valley they are also located in the vicinity of Iron Age monuments. The subject matter is hunting scenes, man sitting and standing on animals, dancing scenes and fighting scenes etc. On the basis of available data of typology of the Iron Age monuments, location of painted rock shelter, similarity in thematic representation suggest a cultural expansion of this painting

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practicing community located in the southern Western Ghats of Palani-Anjunad Valley regions. Further the local legend in the Anjunad Valley suggests that people in this Valley had migrated during the unrest in the Madurai Coimbatore region of historical time. Perhaps the war motifs in kaolin are nothing but the later exemplification of this social instability. Thus continuous cultural sequence of the paintings of Anjunad Valley can be proposed probably from the Iron Age to the medieval period. However further problem oriented studies like ethnographic parallels and location analysis along with attempts for absolute date will be required to confirm this hypothesis.

Acknowledgements The author expresses his sincere gratitude to Mr. Abhayan G.S for his encouragement while preparing this paper. The author is also indebted to Dr. S.V. Rajesh for the preparation of (DEM) map. He is grateful to Ms. Sujana Stephen for her valuable suggestions. Finally Thanks are due to all the people of Marayoor for their help and warm support.

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