Introduction

Geography is made up of two Latin words geo and graphy. Techniques in Geography Geo means “Earth” and graphy means “to describe”. Thus the general meaning of geography is the branch of science Important techniques used for the geographic enquiry are which explains about the Earth. the following: Greek scholar Haecetus has been regarded as “father of 1. Cartography: It is the science and art of drawing maps geography”. Another Greek scholar Eratosthenes first coined and charts. the term geography. He wrote the book Geography. Alexander 2. Mathematical Geography: It is closely related to the Von Humboldt and Carl Ritter are known as “founders of making of maps and interpretation and analysis of modern geography”. statistical data. 3. Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System (GIS): Remote Sensing and GIS have emerged as the most important and powerful technique for the study of geographic problems. The Universe l The universe contains billions of stars, planets, asteroids, l The Moon, for example, is a satellite of the Earth. It moves comets, meteors, solid and gaseous particles, which are around the Earth and also around the Sun along with the called celestial bodies. Earth. l Meteors: Small pieces of space debris (usually parts of Celestial Bodies comets or asteroids) that are on a collision course with the l Nebula: It is a diffused mass of interstellar dust or gas or Earth are called meteoroids. When meteoroids enter the both, visible as luminous patches or areas of darkness Earth’s atmosphere they are called meteors or colloquially depending on the way the mass absorbs or reflects a shooting star or falling star. incident radiation. l Comets: Comets are the most exciting of the heavenly l Galaxy: The universe contains over 100 billion galaxies. A bodies. They are made up of loose collections of ice, galaxy is a group of billions of stars. Our own galaxy is dust, and small rocky particles. A well developed comet called the Milky Way, and it contains about 300 billion has a tail which is always turned away from the Sun. The stars (300,000,000,000) and one of these is our Sun. head forms the bright portion of the comet. Halley’s Comet (Markenian-348: Largest known galaxy. It is 13 times larger is one of the important comets. It visits the Earth regularly than Milky Way.) and is visible once in 76 years. It was last seen in 1986. l Constellation: Constellations are clusters of stars which l As comets approach the Sun, they develop enormous appear in a specific form. Centaurus, Gemini, Leo, Hercules tails of luminous material that extend for millions of and Virgo are major constellations. kilometres from the head, away from the Sun. l Stars: Some celestial bodies that have their own heat and l Asteroids: Between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, there light are called stars. The Sun is also a star. is a swarm of small bodies which also revolve round the l The brightest star is Sirius, also called Dog Star, and the Sun. They are called asteroids. closest to the Earth is Proxima Centauri. l Stars are made up of vast clouds of hydrogen and helium Our Solar System gas and dust. Planets and other objects go round the Sun, and these make l Planets: Some celestial bodies do not have their own heat up the solar system, with the Sun at the centre. and light. These are called planets. The word planet means The solar system contains different types of objects ‘wanderer’. including: l Satellites: The word satellite means a smaller companion l a star — the Sun to anything. True to their meaning, these satellites revolve around their planets and also follow them in their revolution l planets, which go around the Sun around the Sun. l satellites, which go around the planets

Geography l 1 l It rotates along its own axis in 24 hours. in a complete revolution, it comes closest to the Earth l It revolves around the Sun in 365 days 5 hours and 42 twice and goes the farthest twice. minutes. l The nearest position of the Moon to the Earth is known as l It is called the Blue Planet. perigee and the farthest position is known as apogee. l It is the only planet where life exists due to favourable When the Earth, the Sun and the Moon are collinear, it is atmosphere. known as syzgie. l Its diameter is 12,733.2 kilometres. Solar Eclipse and Lunar Eclipse l It has only one satellite — the moon. l When the Earth comes between the Sun and the Moon, l It is tilted at 23½ degrees on its axis and thus makes an the Moon is unable to get sunlight, i.e. the Moon is angle of 66½ degrees. partially or fully over-shadowed. This is called the lunar l It takes 23 hours, 56 minutes and 4 seconds to rotate once eclipse. on its axis and 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes and 46 seconds l When the Moon comes between the Sun and the Earth, (i.e. approx 365½ days) to revolve around the Sun. Rotation the Earth doesn’t get sunlight. This is known as the solar creates days and nights. The earth’s revolution around the eclipse. Sun is responsible for various seasons in a year. For the sake of convenience, the awkward one quarter of a day is ignored 4. Mars for three years and then an extra day is added to every fourth l It rotates along its own axis in 24.6 hours (almost equal to year to give us our ‘Leap years’ of 366 days. the time taken by the Earth). Statistical Data of the Earth l Due to presence of oxide, it appears red and is called the Red Planet. The Earth is the fifth largest planet in the solar system. l On Mars, Nix Olympica Mountain is situated, which is l Diameter three times loftier than Mount Everest. Equatorial Diameter 12,756 km l Mars has two satellites Phobos and Deimos. Polar Diameter 12,714 km l It is the only planet after Earth which has sign of water l Circumference and there is possibility of life. Equatorial Circumference 40,077 km l Various space missions so far have been sent to Mars, eg Polar Circumference 40,009 km Vikings, Pathfinder, Mars Odyssey and Curiosity. l Density 5.52 g/cu cm (5.2 times l It has thin atmosphere comprising nitrogen and argon. that of water) l Age 4.6 billion years 5. Jupiter l Highest Land Point (Mt Everest)8848 m l It is the largest planet of the Solar System. Its diameter is l Lowest Land Point (Dead Sea) -397 m 11 times and area 120 times that of the Earth. It is called the l Greatest Ocean Depth 11022 m Lord of Heavens. (Mariana Trench) l It has more gravity as compared to the Earth. l Temperature Highest: 58°C at Al- l It is the fastest rotating planet. Aziziyah, Libya l It rotates along its own axis only in 10 hours. Lowest: –89.6°C at l It revolves around the Sun in 11 years and 10 months. Antarctica l Its surface is not solid and its atmosphere, made of Average: 49°C hydrogen, helium, ammonia and methane, is very dense. l Escape Velocity: 11200 m/s l One special feature of this planet is the ‘Great Red Spot’. The Moon l Jupiter has 63 satellites. l Ganymede, the largest of these, is larger than the planet l Diameter – 3,475 km Mercury. l Gravitational force – 1/6 of the Earth l Average distance from the Sun – 3.85 lakh km 6. Saturn l It revolves around the Earth in 27 days 7.4 hours. l It is the second largest planet of the Solar System. It is l It has low albedo (the amount of sunlight which the planet 141.7 crore km away from the Sun. It revolves around the reflects). It reflects only 7% and the rest is absorbed. The Sun in 29 years and 6 months. speed of rotation and revolution of the Moon is almost l Its main feature is the presence of a circular ring around it the same. Therefore, we always see the same portion of which does not touch the surface of the Saturn. the Moon. l Saturn is made up of lighter gases, in which 63% is l Its light reaches the Earth after reflection in 1.3 seconds. hydrogen. l It has no atmosphere. l It has the largest number of satellites. It has 60 satellites. l It revolves around the Sun in an elliptical orbit. Therefore, l The largest satellite of Saturn is Titan.

Geography l 3 Globe: Latitudes and Longitudes

l Globe is a true model (miniature form) of the Earth. on all latitudes between the Tropic of Cancer and the l To locate any particular place on the globe we need certain Tropic of Capricorn. This area, therefore, receives the points of reference and lines. maximum heat and is called the Torrid Zone. l It can be noticed that a needle is fixed through the globe in l The mid-day Sun never shines overhead on any latitude a tilted manner which is called its axis. Two points on the beyond the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. globe through which the needle passes are two poles – l The angle of the Sun’s rays goes on decreasing towards North Pole and South Pole. the poles. As such, the areas bound by the Tropic of l The Earth moves around its axis, which is an imaginary Cancer and the Arctic Circle in the Northern Hemisphere, line. Another imaginary line running on the globe divides and by the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle in it into two equal parts. This line is known as the equator. the Southern Hemisphere, have moderate temperatures. l The northern half of the Earth is known as the Northern These are, therefore, called Temperate Zones. Hemisphere and the southern half is known as the l Areas lying between the Arctic Circle and the North Pole Southern Hemisphere. Latitude is the angular distance of in the Northern Hemisphere and the Antarctic Circle and a point on the Earth’s surface. the South Pole in the Southern Hemisphere, are very cold. l All parallel circles from the equator up to the poles are The Sun does not rise much above the horizon here. Its called parallels of latitude. Latitudes are measured in rays are always slanting. So, these areas are called Frigid degrees. The equator represents the zero degree latitude. Zones. Longitudes

l In order to locate any place precisely, we must find out how far east or west these places are from a given line of reference running from the North Pole to the South Pole. These lines of reference are called the meridians of longitude. l Meridians are semi-circles and the distance between them decreases steadily polewards until it becomes zero at the poles, where all the meridians meet. l Unlike parallels of latitude, all meridians are of equal length. The meridian which passes through Greenwich, where the British royal observatory is located, is called the Prime Meridian. Its value is 0° longitude and from it we count 180° eastward as well as 180° westward. l The Prime Meridian divides the Earth into two equal halves — the Eastern Hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere. Important Parallels of Latitude l Local time can be reckoned by the shadow cast by the Sun, which is the shortest at noon and the longest at Besides the equator (0°), there are four important parallels of sunrise and sunset. At any place a watch can be adjusted latitude: to read 12 o’clock when the Sun is at the highest point in (i) Tropic of Cancer (23½° N) in the Northern Hemisphere. the sky, i.e. when it is mid-day. The time shown by such a (ii) Tropic of Capricorn (23½° S) in the Southern watch will give the local time for that place. Hemisphere. l When the Prime Meridian of Greenwich has the Sun at the (iii) Arctic Circle at 66½° north of the equator. highest point in the sky, all the places along this meridian (iv) Antarctic Circle at 66½° south of the equator. will have mid-day or noon. l As the Earth rotates from west to east, those places east Heat Zones of the Earth of Greenwich will be ahead of the Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) and those to the west will be behind it. l The mid-day Sun is exactly overhead at least once a year

Geography l 5 The core solid state. In the outer core, however, the pressure is lesser and the matter is in a liquid state. l Beyond the mantle, the inner part of the Earth is called its Major Elements in the Earth’s Crust core. Element By Weight (%) l It is made mainly of Nickel and Iron, also called NIFE (Nickel Oxygen 46.10 - Ni + Ferrum - Fe). Silicon 28.20 l The core is also divided into two parts: outer core and 8.23 inner core. Iron 5.63 l The outer core extends from 2900 km to 5150 km. It is in Calcium 4.15 liquid state. Sodium 2.36 l Beyond 5150 km to the centre is called the inner core. It is 2.33 in solid state due to extreme pressure. In this part the Others 3.00 gases are found in solid state. l The density and temperature of the core are 13 g/cm3 and Major Elements on Whole Earth 5500 °C respectively. Element By Weight (%) l The temperature inside the Earth increases with depth. Iron 35 Experiments have confirmed that the temperature increases Oxygen 30 at the rate of 1°C for every 32 metres. Silicon 15 l At this rate of increase, all the matter at the core should Magnesium 13 have been in a molten state, but since the pressure at such Nickel 2.4 great depths is also very high, the melting point is higher Sulphur 1.9 than the prevalent temperature and the inner core is in a Calcium 1.1 Aluminium 1.1 Rocks and Minerals

l Rock is a naturally occurring solid aggregate of minerals On the basis of their mode of formation, rocks are mainly and/or mineraloids. The Earth’s outer solid layer, the categorised into three families. These are: lithosphere, is made of rocks. Rocks may be hard or soft (i) Igneous Rocks — solidified from magma and lava; and of various colours. For example, granite is hard, (ii) Sedimentary Rocks — the result of deposition of soapstone is soft. Gabbro is black and quartzite can be fragments of rocks by exogenous processes; milky white. (iii) Metamorphic Rocks — formed out of existing rocks l The scientific study of rocks is called petrology. undergoing recrystallisation. l Feldspar and quartz are the most common minerals found in rocks. Igneous Rocks Minerals are of different hardness; ten minerals are selected to measure the degree of hardness from 1-10. These are: l These rocks are formed by the cooling and solidification Minerals Hardness of molten magma from the interior of the Earth. Talc 1 l They are the ancestors of all other rocks and make up 85% Gypsum 2 of the Earth’s crust. Calcite 3 l They are relatively hard and do not allow water to percolate. Fluorite 4 Minerals of great economic value are found in these, e.g. Apatite 5 Iron, Nickel, , , , Chromites, Manganese, Feldspar 6 , Diamond and Platinum. Quartz 7 Examples of igneous rocks are basalt, dolerite, granite, Topaz 8 feldspar. Corundum 9 l Batholiths: These are gigantic masses of igneous rocks Diamond 10 that usually lie below the surface of the Earth. They are chiefly composed of granite. Ex: Idaho batholith of USA

Geography l 7 Major Mountain Ranges of the World Kyzyl Kum Range Location Dasht-e-Lut Iran Andes South America Mojave California (USA) -Karakoram-Hindukush South Central Patagonia Argentina Rub-al-Khali Rockies North America 2 Great Dividing Range East Australia Note: Sahara (84,00,000 km ) is the largest desert and Great 2 Western Australian desert (15,50,000 km ) is the next largest. Caucasus Europe, Asia Islands Alaska USA Alps Europe An island is a part of land surrounded by water bodies. On Apennines Europe the basis of their origin, islands are divided into five Ural Asia categories: 1. Tectonic Islands: These kinds of islands originate due to Plateaus submergence of land blocks, emergence of oceanic crust Plateaus are extensive areas characterised by flat and rough above sea level, etc, when a tectonic movement takes place top surface as well as steep side walls which rise above the on the Earth. Many islands in the Atlantic and the Pacific neighbouring ground surface at least 300 metres. The height Ocean have been formed by this process. of plateaus often varies from a few hundred metres to several 2. Depositional Islands: Such islands are formed due to thousand metres. deposition of debris by various natural agencies such as l Plateaus, like mountains, may be young or old. The Deccan rivers, glaciers and oceanic currents. Plateau in India is one of the oldest plateaus. The East 3. Erosional Islands: Soft rocks are eroded easily but relatively African Plateau in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda and the hard rocks remain as islands. For example, Greenland has Western Plateau of Australia are other examples. been formed by glacial erosion. l The Plateau of Pamir in Tibet is the highest plateau in the 4. Volcanic Islands: Lava outflow through oceanic ridge is world with a height of 4,000 to 6,000 metres above the sea sometimes so enormous that it appears above sea level level. and looks like an island. Such islands are called volcanic l Plateaus are very useful because they are rich in mineral islands; e.g Hawaii island and Aleutian island deposits. As a result, many of the mining areas in the 5. Coral Islands: These types of island are formed due to world are located in the plateau areas. The African plateau deposition of skeletons of lime-secreting organisms called is famous for gold and diamond mining. coral polyps; eg Lakshadweep and the Maldives in the l In India, huge reserves of iron, and manganese are and Bermuda islands in the Atlantic ocean. found in the Chhotanagpur plateau. Largest Islands of the World Deserts Island Location Area (sq km) Greenland Arctic Ocean 2,175,000 Major deserts Location New Guinea West Pacific 789,900 Sahara North Africa Ocean Australia Australia (includes Barberton, Borneo Indian Ocean 751,000 Gibson, Great Victoria, Great Sandy, Sturt Stony) (Largest in Indian Ocean) Arabian Arab countries (includes Saudi Madagascar Indian Ocean 587,041 Arabia, Syria, Nefud region, Baffin Island, Canada Arctic Ocean 5,07,451 ) Sumatra, Indonesia Indian Ocean 4,22,200 Gobi Mongolia & China Honshu, Japan Northwest Pacific Kalahari Botswana (Africa) 2,30,092 Taklamakan China Great Britain North Atlantic 2,29,849 Sonora USA & Mexico Victoria Island, Canada Arctic Ocean 2,17,290 Namib Namibia Ellesmere Island, Canada Arctic Ocean 1,96,236 Karakum Thar India and Pakistan Straits Somali Somalia Straits join two different water bodies and separate two Atacama Chile landmasses. These are area of commercial and strategic

Geography l 9 Volcanoes and Earthquakes

Volcanoes Earthquakes

A volcano is an opening, or rupture, in a planet’s surface or l Any sudden movement of a portion of the earth’s crust crust which allows hot, molten rock, ash, and gases to escape due to a natural cause, which produces a shaking or from below to the surface. Volcanic activity involving the trembling, is known as an earthquake. extrusion of rock tends to form mountains or features like l The science of earthquake is known as seismology. mountains over a period of time. The molten rock material l The passage of earthquake waves is recorded by the within the Earth, together with whatever gases it may contain, seismograph. is called magma. After it rises to the surface, it is spoken of as l The place within the Earth where the vibrations originate lava. is called the seismic focus of the earthquake. Volcanoes have been traditionally differentiated into l The point on the earth’s surface which is vertically above active, dormant and extinct. the focus is called the epicentre. l An active volcano is a volcano which erupts periodically. Ex.: Vesuvius in Italy, Strombali in Italy, Mauna Loa in Earthquake Waves Hawaii, Etna in Sicily (Italy), Mt Cameroon in Africa. Earthquakes generate pulses of energy called seismic waves Cotapaxi in Ecuador, Mt Guallatiri in Chile and Ojos del that can pass through the entire Earth. Three major divisions Salado in Argentina. of seismic waves have been recognised: Note: 1. Mt Ojos del Salado: It is the most active volcano of 1. Primary (P) Waves, of short wavelength and high the world . frequency, are longitudinal waves which travel through 2. Mt Stromboli: It is known as the “lighthouse of the all the mediums, including solid, liquid and gaseous. Their Mediterranean”. average velocity is 8 km/sec. l A dormant volcano means a “sleeping” volcano. These 2. Secondary (S) Waves, of short wavelength and high volcanoes have shown no sign of activity for many years frequency, are transverse waves which travel through all but they may become active any time. the solid parts of the Earth but not the through the liquid Ex: Fujiyama in Japan, Krakatoa in Indonesia, and Barren part of the core. Their average velocity is 4 km/sec. Island in the Andamans. 3. Long (L) Waves, of long wavelength and low frequency, l An extinct volcano is dead and unlikely to errupt in near are confined to the skin of the earth’s crust, thereby future. causing most of the earthquake’s structural damage. These Ex.: Mt Kilimanjaro in Kenya , Mt Warning in Australia, waves can travel through all the mediums (solids, liquids Mt Popa in Myanmar, Mt Aconcagua (highest extinct and gases). Their average velocity is 3 km/sec. volcanic mountain) in Argentina, Malagasy island in the l The magnitude of earthquakes is measured on the Richter Indian Ocean, and Mt Pelee in the West Indies. Scale, invented by Charles F. Richter in 1934. l More than 1500 potentially active volcanoes dot the l The Richter magnitudes are based on a logarithmic scale Earth’s landscape, of which approximately 500 are active (base 10). What this means is that for each whole number at any given time. you go up on the Richter Scale, the amplitude of the ground l The Pacific Ring of Fire (circum-Pacific belt) has nearly motion recorded by a seismograph goes up ten times. 60% of the total active volcanoes. This region is also prone l The intensity of the earthquake is also measured on to seismic activities (earthquake). Mercalli Scale invented by Giuseppe Mercalli in 1902. l Volcanic is very fertile. This scale uses the observations of the people who l Yellow Stone National Park (USA) has the world’s largest experienced the earthquake to estimate its intensity. number of natural springs and geysers. It is known for the Tsunami: A tsunami is a series of waves that are created Old Faithful geyser. when a large volume of a body of water, such as an ocean, is l Barren Island, lying east to the Andaman Island, is the rapidly displaced. Tsunami is a Japanese term which is literally only confirmed active volcano in India. translated into “great harbour wave”. Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and other underwater explosions, landslides, asteroid impacts, and other mass movements above or below water, all have the potential to generate a tsunami.

Geography l 11 3. Mesosphere called conduction. Transfer of heat by the management of l Beyond the stratosphere lies the mesosphere. It extends a mass or substance from one place to another is called up to 80 km from the stratosphere. convection. l Further, in this layer also, temperature is decreasing with Heat Budget increase in height and at the height of 80 km it stands up l The balance between the amount of insolation received to -100 oC. from the Sun and the outgoing terrestrial radiation is known l The uppermost part of this layer is known as mesopause. as the Earth’s heat budget. 4. Thermosphere The atmospheric layer beyond mesopause is known as Pressure Belts and Wind System thermosphere. In thermosphere, the temperature increases l The gases that comprise air create pressure through their rapidly with increase in height. motion, size, and number. This pressure is exerted on all Thermosphere is divided into two layers: surfaces in contact with the air. The atmosphere exerts an (i) Ionosphere average force of approximately 1 kg/cm2. l Ionosphere extends from 80 km to 400 km. l At sea level, under the influence of gravity, air is l Temperature rises in this layer rapidly and reaches up to compressed and is, therefore, denser near the Earth’s 1000 oC in its uppermost part. surface. It rapidly thins with increased altitude. l The radio waves transmitted from this layer are reflected l The air pressure is measured with the help of an instrument back to the Earth from this layer. known as barometer, which was developed by Torricelli. A more compact design that works without a metre-long (ii) Exosphere tube of mercury is called an aneroid barometer. l The uppermost layer of the atmosphere extending beyond l The distribution of atmospheric pressure is shown on a the ionosphere above to a height of about 400 km is known map by isobars. as the exosphere. Note: An isobar is an imaginary line drawn through places l This layer is extremely rarefied and gradually merges with having equal atmopsheric pressure selected to sea level. the outer space. l The normal pressure at sea level is taken to be about 76 l This layer contains the atoms of oxygen, hydrogen and centimetres. helium. l The units used by meteorologists for this purpose is called Temperature of the Atmosphere millibars (mb). l One millibar is equal to the force of 1 gram on a centimetre. l Insolation is the incoming solar radiation. It is received in It will be called the weight of column of mercury 75 cm the form of short wave. The earth’s surface receives this height. radiant energy at the rate of two calories per square centimetres per minute (2 cal/cm2/minute). This is known Pressure Belts of the Earth as Solar Constant. (a) The Equatorial Low Pressure Belt: At the Equator Heating and Cooling of the Atmosphere there is a broad discontinuous belt of low pressure. The Earth receives maximum heat in this region with the result that the l Air, like all other substances, may be heated in three ways: air is always hot and therefore becomes lighter. It is, therefore, Radiation, Conduction and Convection. a belt of rising air, calm and variable winds. It is also referred l Radiation is direct heating of a body or an object by to as the Doldrums. Though it is a region of calm, local transmission of heat waves. This is the only mechanism in thunderstorms occur frequently. which heat can travel through the emptiness of space. (b) The Sub-Tropical High Pressure Belts: The two belts This is the most important way of transmission of heat. of sub-tropical highs, sometimes called the Horse Latitude, l Earth receives heat from solar radiation in the form of short lie just outside the Tropics at approximately 30° to 35° north waves and emits energy in the form of long waves, which is and south. They are caused by the piling up of the air due to called terrestrial radiation. the differences in the speed of rotation of the Earth which l The earth’s atmosphere is transparent to insolation but it affects the masses of air moving from the Equator and the is nearly opaque to long-wave terrestrial radiation since poles. The warm air rising up from the Equator blows at high gases such as water vapour and are good level towards the Poles but a part of it, having cooled, absorbers of long wave radiation. descends in this region. The air blowing from the circum- l The atmosphere is therefore heated more by terrestrial polar low pressure belts also descends in this region, thus radiation than the incoming solar radiation. adding to the already high pressure existing in this region. l Transfer of heat through matter by molecular activity is

Geography l 13 l Haboob (Sudan): It is a hot wind which blows during by any transverse relief barrier, A similar wind, Norte, summers. affects the coast of Mexico and central America. l Harmattan: In West Africa, the North-East trade winds l Papagayo: It is a type of dry, strong, cold North-East wind blow offshore from the Sahara Desert and reach the Guinea bringing low temperature and clear weather in winter to coast as a dry wind called the Harmattan. the coast of Mexico. l Karaburn (Tarim Basin-China): It blows from March to l Santa Ana: It is a hot and dry wind blowing from the North May and to hazy weather. It is also responsible for and North-East, descending from the Sierra Nevada across the deposition of loess in the Hwang Ho Valley. the deserts of south California. l Loo or hot wind (North-Western India): It blows from l Dust Devil: It is a short live swirling wind round a small April to June. Its temperature ranges between 45°C and low pressure nucleus which is the result of intense local 50°C, which is hot enough to cause sunstrokes. surface heating and convection. It whips up dust to form l Mistral (Rhone Valley of France): It is a cold wind which a rapidly moving pillar. It is found in Sahara, Kalahari, blows during winters with a speed of over 120 kmph. Grape central and western parts of the US and mid-west. orchards are adversely affected by it. l Karaburan: It is a strong dust-laden North-East wind in l Pampero (Pampas of Argentina): It is a cold and dry wind the Tarim basin of . which blows during the winter season. l Samoon (Iran and Kurdistan): It is a hot wind which blows Moisture in the Atmosphere during summer months. l Moisture in the atmosphere means the water vapour l Simmom (Saudi Arbia): It is a hot wind which blows from March to July. present in the atmosphere. Water may be present in the atmosphere in all the three forms of matter, viz. solid (ice), l Sirocco (Algeria): It blows from the Sahara desert towards Malta and Sicily during the months of April to July. It is liquid (water) and gas (vapour). generally hot and humid. It has other local names: Khamsin l Moisture or water in the atmosphere causes clouds to (Egypt), Chile (Tunisia), Sirocco ((Italy), Leveche (). form, fog to cover the landscape, and humidity to thicken l Berg (Germany): It descends from the Alps Mountains. the air. It also causes rain, snow and hail. It helps in the melting of snow during the winter months. l Chinook (snow and ice eater): It blows in Colorado, Clouds Montana, North Dakota, Oregon, and Wyoming (USA) l A cloud is a visible mass of droplet or frozen crystals and in Alberta, Manitoba, Mackenzie (Canada) between floating in the atmosphere above the surface of the Earth December and March. Warm and dry, it helps in the melting or other planetary bodies. A cloud is also a visible mass of snow and ice. It is also known as ice eater. attracted by gravity. l Fohn (Foehn or Fon): It is the name given to the hot dry l The branch of meteorology in which clouds are studied is wind which blows down the leeward slope of a mountain. nephology or cloud physics. This is best known in the valleys of the northern Alps, for Clouds are classified into the following 10 categories by example, in Switzerland. the World Meteorological Organisation: l Levant or Levanter: It is an easterly or North-East wind 1. Cirrus Clouds: These are high-altitude clouds. They are that rises in the central Mediterranean or around the composed of tiny ice-crystals. Therefore they do not cause Balearic Islands and blows westwards, reaching its greatest rainfall. These clouds are seen first when cyclones arrive. intensity through the Strait of Gibraltar. 2. Cirro-Stratus Clouds: These clouds are generally white l Tramontana: It is a cold dry North or North-East wind in in colour and spread in the sky like thin sheets. These are the western Mediterranean basin. The name is applied transparent clouds and create a halo around the Sun and commonly to any wind blowing down from the mountains the moon. These are also an indicator of the arrival of as in Italy and Spain. cyclone. l Southerly Buster: It is a strong dry wind bringing usually 3. Cirro-Cumulus Clouds: These are white-coloured clouds low temperature. It is a dry bitterly cold wind bringing having patches of small globules which are arranged in especially low temperature in winter to parts of Argentina distinct groups or wave-like form. They generally appear and Uruguay. as ripples similar to ripples in the desert. l Friagem: It is a type of cold strong wind experienced on 4. Alto-Stratus Clouds: These are thin sheets of grey or the Pampas of Brazil and in East Bolivia. blue clouds having fibrous or uniform appearance. They l Northern Wind: It is cold, dry North winter wind bringing yield widespread and continued precipitation. low temperature to Texas and the Gulf Coast of the USA. It 5. Alto-Cumulus Clouds: These clouds are characterised is a form of polar outbreak where a cold air mass moves by white and gray wavy layers or globular forms. High south across the North American continent, unimpeded

Geography l 15 Hail anticlockwise in Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in Southern Hemisphere. l Hail consists of the hard pellets of ice which fall from l Tropical cyclones have diameters of 100 to 500 kilometres. cumulo-nimbus clouds and are often associated with These are known by different names in different regions, thunderstorms. They are of various shapes and sometimes such as: they have been known to weigh nearly 1 kg. A severe hail- (i) Hurricanes: These are tropical storms in West Indies storm can cause great damage to growing crops. and Gulf of Mexico which usually occur in August- Dew September. These may bring thunderstorm and torrential rain. Wind blows at 160 to 180 kmph. Dew is the moisture deposited on the earth’s surface, or on (ii) : These are tropical storms in the China Sea objects near to the earth’s surface such as blades of grass along the coast of China and Japan. These are similar and small bushes. It occurs at night under calm, clear to Hurricanes of USA, which may bring thunderstorm conditions when radiation from the ground has cooled the and torrential rain. The winds blow at a speed of 160 to lower layers of the atmosphere below the Dew Point and the 180 kmph. water vapour has condensed into drops. Calm weather and a (iii)Cyclones: These are tropical low pressure systems clear sky provide the best conditions for production of dew. occuring on the Indian coast in Bay of and . These whirl with a wind speed of 280 to Cyclones and Anti-Cyclones 300 kmph. These also bring thunderstorm and rain. (iv)Willy-Willy: These are tropical storm which originate Cyclones in the coast of North-West Australia. (v) Tornadoes: These are also called Twisters in the USA. Cyclones and anti-cyclones are known as variable winds. A These are very intense and occur in Mississippi- cyclone is a dynamically or thermally caused low pressure Missouri basin in the USA. These are accompanied area of converging and ascending air flow, while an anti- by dark funnel-shaped clouds. Winds are very violent cyclone is a dynamically or thermally caused area of high with speed of 350 to 500 kmph. These are most intense atmospheric pressure with descending and diverging air flow. cyclones. Cyclones originate as a wave along a front separating two masses of air differing in temperature, density and direction. Anti-cyclones They bring rain because in a cyclone the warm moist air is made to rise over a mass of cold heavier air. An anti-cyclone is an area of high atmospheric pressure A cyclone is always on the move and follows in the which goes on diminishing outward from the centre. The direction of the regular wind system in the particular area. winds are usually light and blow clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere (anti-clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere). l Cyclones are low pressure zones surrounded by high pressure zones. Air moves inward from high to low pressure The anti-cyclones do not move in any definite direction. zone and, under the influence of Coriolis force, whirrs The weather associated with anticyclones is mainly fine and dry in summer.

Oceanography

The oceanic part of the Earth is divided into four oceans: excess during summers and daytime and repaying back 1. The Pacific Ocean 2. The Atlantic Ocean during nights and winters. 3. The Indian Ocean 4. The Arctic Ocean l Because of their surface area, the seas receive almost 71 The various seas, bays, gulfs and other inlets are parts of per cent of all incoming Sun energy. these four large oceans. l The seas are much warmer in equatorial latitudes than in polar latitudes. Oceans and Seas l Bromine and Sulphur, which are otherwise rare on land, can be abundantly sourced from oceans. l The oceans comprise more than 70% of the earth’s l Polymetallic nodules of copper, magnesium and cobalt are surface. also found on the sea floor. l They act as savings bank for solar energy, storing the l There are over 90 different possible ways to obtain energy

Geography l 17 Maldives and Coco islands, while others like the Mauritius l Sri Lanka and Malagasy are continental islands. and the Reunions are volcanic. l The principal rivers draining into it are the Zambezi, the Indus, the Ganga and the Irrawaddy.

Deepest Sea Trenches SI. Name Ocean Deepest Point Depth (in m) 1. Mariana Trench West Pacific Challenger Deep 11,034 2. Tonga-Kermadec Trench South Pacific Vityaz 11 (Tonga) 10,850 3. Kuril-Kachatka Trench West Pacific — 10,542 4. Philippine Trench North Pacific Galathea Deep 10,539 5. Puerto Rico Trench West Atlantic Milwaukee Deep 8,648

Salinity & Temperature l The oceans in the Northern Hemisphere record relatively higher average temperature than in the Southern Hemisphere. Salinity l The maximum temperature of the oceans is always at their l The major characteristic feature of oceans and seas is surface because they directly receive the heat from the their salinity. Sun and the heat is transmitted to the lower sections of l The imaginary line joining the places of same salinity is the oceans through the process of convection. called isohaline. l The instrument with which salinity of the sea water is Coral Reefs measured is called salinometer. l Coral reefs are formed due to accumulation and l The salinity of the inland seas and lakes is very high solidification of skeletons of lime-secreting organism because of the regular supply of salt by the rivers falling known as coral polyps. into them. Their water becomes progressively more saline l Coral reefs are formed in the tropical seas (25°N to 25°S) due to evaporation. up to a depth of 200-300 ft along some islands or coasts l Salinity determines compressibility, thermal expansion, on the submarine platforms, where the Sun’s rays reach. temperature, absorption of isolation, evaporation and l The ideal temperature for their growth is 20°-25°C. humidity. l High salinity and fresh water both are harmful for their Most Saline Water Bodies growth. Great Salt Lake (USA) Types of Coral reefs Dead Sea (West Asia) 1. Fringing Reef: Coral reefs developed along the coasts Lake Van (Turkey) are called fringing reefs. Examples: (India), Composition of Sea Water Southern Florida (USA), etc. Of the total salt contents found in seawater, the most abundant 2. Barrier Reef: The coral reefs of the coastal platforms are salt is Sodium Chloride (NaCl) – about (78%). called barrier reefs. There is extensive but shallow lagoon Salt Percentage between the coastal land and the reef. Great Barrier Reef, Sodium Chloride (NaCl) 77.8 located parallel to the east coast of Australia, is the largest

Magnesium Chloride (MgCl2) 10.9 of all the barrier reefs of the world. It stretches to a length

Magnesium Sulphate (MgSO4) 4.7 of 1200 miles.

Calcium Sulphate (CaSO4) 3.6 3. Coral Ring or Atoll: A ring of narrow-growing corals of

Potassium Sulphate (K2SO4) 2.5 horseshoe shape is called atoll. It is generally found around Others 0.5 an island or in elliptical form on a submarine platform. There is a lagoon in the middle of the coral ring. Examples: Temperature Fiji Atoll, Funafuti Atoll, etc. l The temperature decreases according to the increasing depth of the ocean. Currents of Oceans l On an average, the temperature of surface water of the l Ocean currents can broadly be divided into two classes: 0 oceans is 26.7 C and the temperature gradually decreases warm currents and cold currents. from the Equator towards the Poles. l Generally, the currents flowing from the equator to the

Geography l 19 1. Biome (v) Mid-Latitude Deciduous It is further divided into two broad groups and six sub-groups. l These forests are found in the colder coastal parts of the continents. These forests cover the parts of north-eastern A. Evergreen Forests USA, southern Chile etc. (i) Tropical Evergreen Rainforests l Major trees of these forests are oak, birch, walnut, maple, ash, chestnut etc. l Due to heavy rainfall and abundant heat throughout the year, very dense, high and most diverse forests are found (vi) Tropical Deciduous or Forests in the equatorial and tropical coastal regions . l These forests cover the monsoon regions of Asia, Brazil, l The trees of these forests include mahogany, rosewood, Central America and Northern Australia. The regions and mangroves in the deltaic regions. Twelve per cent of covered with these forests have a distinct dry season the earth’s surface is covered with these forests. after which the rainfall occurs. l These are the most biologically diversified forests on the l Major trees of this biome are sal, teak, bamboo etc. Earth. l Major regions of these forests are Amazon basin, Congo 2. Savanna Biome basin, Guinea coast of Africa, Java and Sumatra. l Wet-dry tropical is found in this biome. This is a l In Brazil, these forests are called Selvas. parkland region dominated by grasslands. (ii) Mid-Latitude Evergreen Forests l Africa, India, Brazil and eastern Australia are the major regions where this biome is found. l These are the rainforests on the eastern coasts of the continents in the temperate regions. Note: Savanna is known as the natural zoo of the world. l Broad-leaf trees like oak, laurel, magnolia and eucalyptus 3. Grassland Biome are the major trees of these forests. l Major areas covered with these forests are southern China, This biome is further divided into two categories: Japan, southeast USA, southern Brazil etc. (i) Semi-Arid Continental Grasslands l These grasslands are called Veld in South Africa, Pampas (iii) Mediterranean Forests in Brazil and Steppe in North America, Europe and Russia. l These forests are found on the western margin of the (ii) Mid-Latitude Wet Grasslands continents in the temperate regions, where rainfall generally l These are the regions of high and dense grass in wet occurs in winter season. temperate climate. l Major tree species of these forests are cork, oak, olive, l These are called Prairies in North America, Pampas in chestnut, pine etc. South America, Downs in Australia, Canterbury in New (iv) Coniferous Forests Zealand and Pustaz in Hungary. l They are also known as Taiga. 4. Desert Biome l These are the soft-wood tree forests found around the North Pole in the mountainous parts of Europe, Asia and l This biome is normally devoid of vegetation. Only short North America. shrubs, cacti, acacia and date trees are found here. l Major trees of these forests are fur, hamlock, spruce, deodar, pine etc. The growth of these trees is restricted 5. Tundra Biome only to the summer season. l The only vegetation in this region is lichen, algae, moss B. Deciduous Forests and small herbs. l The people inhabiting this biome are called Eskimos.

Geography l 21 World’s Resources

Mineral Resources Major mining centres l Mexico: Chihuahua, Hildaho 1. Iron ore l Canada: Ontario, British Columbia, Quebec l USA: Utah, Montana, Arizona, Colorado Main ores are magnetite, haemetite, limonite, siderite and Major producer countries pyrite. Mexico, Peru, USA, Australia Major mining centres l Ukraine: Magnetogorsk mountain and Kujnets 7. Tin l Brazil: Minas Gerais region (Itabira hills) Major mining centres l China: Manchuria, Shantung and Xhansi l Malaysia: Salangore, Penang island, Jelubu valley l USA: Lake Superior region (Mesabi range) and Alabama l Indonesia: Banka, Malacca strait State l China: , Hunnan Major producer countries Major producer countries China, Brazil, Australia, Russia, India China, Indonesia, Peru 2. Manganese 8. Lead Major mining centres Main ore: Galena l Georgia: Chiatura in Black Sea region Major mining centres l Brazil: Amapa region l Australia: Broken Hill, Mt Isa (Queensland) l Gabon: Maod mine l Canada: Sadburry l S Africa: Postmasburg region, Kimberley Major producer countries Major producer countries Australia, China, USA China, South Africa, Gabon 9. Zinc 3. Copper Main ore: Calemine Major mining centres Major mining centres l Chile: Mt Chuquicamata l Australia: Broken Hill and Mt Isa l USA: Arizona state, Butte region of Montana state l Canada: British Columbia l Canada: Sudbury district of Ontario Major producer countries Major producer countries China, Australia, Canada Chile, USA, Indonesia, Australia 10. Diamond 4. Aluminium Major mining centres Main ore: Bauxite l South Africa: Kimberley (Johannesburg), Cape Town Major mining centres l Zaire: Katanga plateau l Australia: Cape York peninsula, Waipa region l India: Panna and Golconda mines l USA: Saline county region of Arakansas state Major producer countries Major producer countries (bauxite) Congo Republic, Botswana, South Africa Australia, China, Brazil, India 5. Gold Power Resources Major mining centres 1. Coal l South Africa: Johannesburg, Boksburg and Orange Free State, Kimberley Types: Anthracite, Bituminous, Lignite, Peat, etc Major mining centres l USA: Salt Lake region and Alaska l USA: Appalachian coal region l Australia: Mount Morgan, Kalgoorlie and Coolgardie Major producer countries l China: Shansi, Shensi, Szechwan Basin China, South Africa, Austria, USA l Australia: New South Wales, Queensland and Victoria Major producer countries 6. China, USA, India Main Ore: Argentite

Geography l 23 Argentina Buenos Aires Ship-building Chile Santiago Wine and liquor Venezuela Maracaibo Oil refining Casablanca Chemical industry Egypt Cairo and Alexandria textile Japan Nagoya (Detroit of Japan) Aircraft, Automobile and machinery Osaka (Manchester of Japan) Ships, Iron & Steel, Textile Kobe and Kyoto Ship-building, Iron & Steel, Textile Nagasaki Iron & Steel, Ship-building, Machinery Tokyo Engineering, Textile China Shanghai Textile, machinery Beijing Textile, machinery Anshan-Mukden (Pittsburgh of China) Iron & Steel Australia Vienna Glass Water Transport

Important Sea Routes waterway. Volga river drains into the . Moscow region has been connected to this waterway 1. The Northern Atlantic Sea Route: It links North- through Volga-Moscow canal. Navigation is possible eastern USA and Northwestern Europe. It is the busiest up to Black sea through Volga-Don canal. sea route in the world and is called the Big Trunk Route. 2. Suez Canal: It is the largest canal of the world, 2. The Mediterranean–Indian Ocean Sea Route: This sea connecting and Mediterranean Sea, where route passes through the heart of the Old World. Port navigation is possible. French engineer Ferdinard de Said, Aden, Mumbai, Colombo and Singapore are some Lasseps played an important role in constructing this of the important ports on this route. This trade route canal. Completed in 1869, it separates the lower part of connects the highly industrialised Western European the Nile basin and the . The region with West Africa, South Africa, South- northernmost port on this canal is Port Said and the and the commercial agriculture and livestock economies southernmost port is Port Suez. In the middle, Port Faud, of Australia and New Zealand. Port Taufique and Ismailia are the important ports. This 3. The Cape of Good Hope Sea Route: This sea route is canal is 162 km long. In 1956, this canal was another important one across the Atlantic Ocean which nationalised by the Egyptian government. connects West European and West African countries 3. Panama Canal: This canal has been constructed by with Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay in South America. cutting across the Panama isthmus, connecting the 4. The North Pacific Sea Route: This sea route links the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea. On the Pacific ports on the west coast of North America with those of coast is located the Panama port and on the Caribbean Asia. These are Vancouver, Seattle, Portland, San coast is located the Colon port. The 72-km-long canal Francisco and Los Angeles on the American side and shortens the distance between New York and San Yokohama, Kobe, Shanghai, , Manila and Francisco by 13,000 km by sea. Singapore on the Asian side. 4. Kiel Canal: This canal in Germany connects the North 5. The South Pacific Sea Route: This sea route connects Sea with the Baltic Sea. Western Europe and North America with Australia, New 5. Stalin or White Sea-Baltic Canal: This canal joins Zealand and the scattered Pacific islands via the Baltic Sea with the Arctic Ocean. Panama Canal. Honolulu is an important port on this 6. Rhine-Maine-Danube Canal: This canal connects North route. Sea with Black Sea. 7. Soo Canals: The two canals join the L. Superior and L. Shipping Canals Huron. 8. Erie Canal: This canal connects L. Erie and L. Huron. 1. Volga Canal System: This is an important navigable 9. Wellend Canal: This canal reduces the distance canal system of the world, with 11,200 km navigable between L. Erie and L. Ontario.

Geography l 25 South America l Antwerp (Belgium) is the world’s biggest diamond trading centre. South America is the fourth largest continent. It is triangular l Finland is known as the land of thousand lakes. in shape and somewhat smaller and less favoured for l Dogger Bank in UK is a famous fishing ground. settlement than North America. The most striking feature of the relief is the mountain chain, the Andes, which runs through Australia the whole length of the continent. l Chief Rivers: Murray (2,500 km) is the longest river. Its l Chief Mountain Ranges: Andes (highest peak, Aconcagua), Brazilian Highlands, Guiana Highlands. chief tributaries are Darling and Murrumbidgee. l Mineral Resources: Gold, silver, coal, iron ore, lead, zinc, l Chief Rivers: Amazon, Parana, San Francisco, Orinoco, Rio Negro, Paraguay, Uruguay, La Plata. bauxite, copper, and . l MacDonnell and Musgrave ranges lie in Central Australia. l Chief Desert: Atacama in the south. l The Tasmania Sea separates Australia from New Zealand. l Chief Lakes: Maracaibo, Titicaca, Mirim. l Australia is the largest producer of bauxite in the l Mineral Resources: , iron ore, silver, gold, copper, tin, lead, zinc. world. l Equatorial rain forests of the Amazon are the storehouses of hard wood such as mahogany. However, the lightest Antarctica wood in the world balsa also comes from these forests. l It was discovered in 1820. l The rubber tree is native to South America (Amazon basin). l Roald Amundsen was the first man to reach Antarctica. l Carnauba palm trees (Brazil), Cinchona bark (used for l It is called the continent for science because it provides medicine quinine) and Chicle (used for chewing gum) are a unique opportunity to scientists to learn more about the products of the equatorial rain forests of South America. the world. l South America, Mexico, Central America and West Indies l Bharati is an Indian station for research at Antarctica. are collectively known as Latin America. l It is the only continent which is completely frozen. It is, Europe threfore, known as the White Continent. Highest Peaks of Continents l Chief Mountain Ranges: Caucasus, Alps, Pyrenees, Sierra Continent Peak Height Country Nevada. (in mts.) l Chief Rivers: Volga, Danube, Dnieper, Don, Pechora, Asia Mt. Everest 8,848 Nepal Dniester, Rhine. S. America Mt. Aconcagua 6,960 Argentina l Chief Lakes: Ladoga, Onega, Vaner. N. America Mt. McKinley 6,194 Alaska l Mineral Resources: Coal, Iron Ore, Mercury, Bauxite. Africa Mt. Kilimanjaro 5,895 Tanzania l Scotland, Wales and England are together known as Great Europe Mt Elbrus 5,663 Russia Britain. Antarctica Mt Vinson 5,140 Antarctica l Great Britain and Northern Ireland are jointly called as Australia Mt Kosciuszko 2,230 Australia United Kingdom. Longest Rivers of the World Sl. Name Source Outflow Length (in km) 1. Nile Lake Victoria, Africa Mediterranean Sea 6,690 2. Amazon Glacier-fed lakes, Peru Atlantic Ocean 6,296 3. Mississippi-Missouri Red Rock, Montana (USA) Gulf of Mexico 6,240 4. Yangtze Kiang Tibetan Plateau, China China Sea 5,797 5. Ob Altai Mountains, Russia Gulf of Ob 5,567 6. Yellow River (Huang He) Eastern part of Kunina Mts., Gulf of Chihli 4,667 West China 7. Yenisel Tannu-Ola Mts., Western Arctic Ocean 4,506 Tuva, Russia 8. Parana Confluence of Paranaiba and Rio de la Plata 4,498 Grande rivers, Brazil 9. Irtish Altai Mountains, Russia Ob River 4,438 10. Congo Confluence of Lualaba and Atlantic Ocean 4,371 Luapula rivers, Zaire

Geography l 27 Indian Geography

Introduction Across the Indian Ocean also there are two island neighbours of India — Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Sri l According to geographical extension, India is the seventh Lanka is separated from India by the . largest country of the world after Russia, Canada, China, l The 9° Channel separates Minicoy island from other smaller USA, Brazil and Australia, with an area of about 3.28 million islands of Lakshadweep, and between Maldives and sq km, which is almost 2.4 per cent of the geographical Minicoy is the 8° Channel. The 10° Channel separates area of the world. the Andaman from the Nicobar. The channel between the l Politically, it makes boundary with China, Pakistan, Indira Point and Indonesia is the Great Channel. Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar and .

India: Geographical Extremes Feature Description 1. Area 3.28 million km2, which is 2.4% of the World’s area 2. Length (N-S) 3214 km 3. Width (E-W) 2933 km 4. Length of Land Frontier 15200 km 5. Length of Coast Line 7516.6 km 6. Latitudinal Extent (main land) 8° 4´ N to 37° 6´ N 7. Longitudinal Extent 68° 7´ E to 97° 25´ E 8. Southernmost Point of Indian Main Land 8° 4´ N, known as Kanya Kumari or Cape Comorin 9. Southernmost Point of India 6½° N, known as Indira Point or Pygmalion point in Great Nicobar 10. Highest Peak Mt K2 known as Godwin Austin or Qagir (8611 m) 11. Highest Dam Bhakra (226 m) on river in Punjab 12. Highest Waterfall Doodh Sagar on river Mandovi, Goa (600 m). The earlier known highest waterfall was Jog (Gershoppa) on R. Sarawati (). 13. Longest River Ganga (2510 km) 14. Longest Dam Hirakud on river in 15. Longest Coast Line Gujarat coast followed by Andhra coast 16. Longest Canal Indira Gandhi Canal, also called Canal 17. Longest Beach Marina beach in Chennai 18. Coldest Place Drass in J&K (–45°C) 19. Hottest Place Briyawali in Bikaner district of Rajasthan (56° C) 20. Wettest Place Mawsynram in Meghalaya (1220 cm/year) 21. Largest Plateau 22. Largest Riverine Island Majuli Island on in Assam 23. Indian Standard Meridian 82½° E longitude: it passes through Naini near Allahabad 24. Tropic of Cancer 23½° N latitude: it passes through eight states (Gujarat, Rajasthan, MP, , , WB, Tripura & Mizoram)

Geography l 29 wide, lies between the Pir Panjal and the Zaskar ranges. Kashmir in the Karakoram range. It is the highest peak of India. 3. Inner Himalayas or Greater Himalayas (c) Mt Kunchenjanga (8598 m): It is the third highest l Its Vedic names are Himadri and Bahirgiri. It is the peak of the world and the second highest of ndia highest mountain range of the world. Its average height is located in Sikkim. 6100 m. Trans Himalayas Important peaks in the Inner Himalayas: l This region lies to the north of the Greater Himalayas. (a) Mt Everest (8848 m): It is know as Sagarmatha in l It includes the glacier Siachen in Nubra Valley, which is Nepal and Chomolangma in China. It is the highest the biggest glacier in the world. peak of the world located in Nepal. Note: The highest peak of Ladakh ranges, Mt Rakashposhi, (b) Mt K2 (Godwin Austin – 8611 m): It is the second lies in the Trans Himalayas. highest peak of the world located in Pak-Occupied

Important Passes in the Inner Himalayas Area Location Connectivity 1. Karakoram pass J&K India to China 2. Burzil pass J&K Kashmir Valley to Central Asia 3. Zojila pass J&K Srinagar to Leh 4. Bara Lacha-la pass Himachal Pradesh Mandi to Leh 5. Shipki-la pass Himachal Pradesh Shimla to Garetok (Tibet) 6. Mana pass Entry to Mansarovar Lake through Kailash Ghati 7. Niti pass Uttarakhand Entry to Mansarovar Lake through Kailash Ghati 8. Lipulekh pass Uttarakhand Entry to Mansarovar Lake through Kailash Ghati 9. Nathu La pass Sikkim Entry to Chumbi Valley 10. Jelep La pass Sikkim Kalingpong () to Lhasa (Tibet) 11. Bomdila pass Arunachal Pradesh ———— 12. Yang-Yap pass Arunachal Pradesh Entry of Brahmaputra river 13. Pangsad pass Arunachal Pradesh Dibrugarh to Myanmar 14. Pir Panjal pass Banihal Rohtang Note: Karakoram pass connects India to China.

The Peninsular Plateau Nilgiri Hills is Dodabetta situated near Ootacamund. l : These are located along the easter coast l It covers an area of about 16 lakh sq km. in , and Odisha. Important ranges and Plateau l Mahadeo hills: These are located in MP. l Aravali range: The Aravali range lies in the North-West. l : These are the southernmost hill ranges It is one of the oldest mountain ranges of the world. of India. l Vindhya Range: The Sone, flowing towards east, and the Narmada, flowing towards west, are two important rivers Important Hills of India of the range. It separates South India from North India. Hill Range Peak Location l Satpura Range: It lies between Narmada and Tapti. The Aravali Gurushikhar Rajasthan highest point of Satpura range is Dhupgarh in Panchmarhi. Western Ghats Anaimudi l Chhotanagpur plateau ends in Rajmahal Hills. It includes (Annamalai hills) the Jharkhand plateau and the eastern fringe of Eastern Ghats Deodimunda Odisha Chhattisgarh. Parasnath in the east rises to 1,366 m. Rajmahal hills Parasnath West Bengal l Western Ghats (Sahyadris): These are located on the Note: The highest peak of South India is Annaimudi (2,695 m) west coast in , Goa, Karnataka, Kerala and on Annamalai Hills. Tamil Nadu. It reaches Kanyakumari and joins the Eastern Ghats at Nilgiri Hills. The Deccan Plateau l The Nilgiri hills of India are block mountains which are This is the largest unit of the Peninsular Plateau of India. This also known as ‘blue mountain’. The highest peak of the triangular plateau is bounded by the Satpura and the Vindhya

Geography l 31 Rivers and Their Tributaries River Source Total length (km) Tributaries Indus Tibet near Mansarovar 2880; 709 km in India Zanskar, Astar, Dras, Shyok, Skardu, Swat, Kurram, Shigar, Gilgit, Kabul, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej

Jhelum From a mountain spur 400 in India Kishanganga at Verinage Chenab Chandra Bhaga stream of HP (near Lahaul) 1180 in India Ravi Kulu Hills of HP 725 Beas HP (Rohtang Pass) 460 Sutlej Mansarovar (Rakash Lake) 1050 in India Beas joins at Harike

 Sutlej river forms the boundary between India and Pakistan near Ferozpur.  Beas joins Sutlej at Harike (Punjab). Indira Gandhi Canal takes off from the Harike barrage, which is the longest canal of India. It runs up to Jaisalmer district of Rajasthan.

Ganga and Its Tributaries River Sources Total length (km) Tributaries Ganga Alaknanda (Gangotri) 2526 , Ram-Ganga, Gandak, Koshi, , Gandak, Gomti, Bhagirathi, Son, Triveni. Yamuna Yamunotri 1380 Chambal, Betwa, Sarda. Ram Ganga Near Nainital 596 Khos, Anil-Koshi. Ghaghara Near Mansarovar Lake 1080 Rapti, Sharda, joins Ganga near Chapra (Bihar) Gandak Central Him. 730 In Nepal called “Narayani”, Near Tibet (in India) joins Ganga at Monghyr. Son Amarkantak Plateau 784 It joins Ganga upstream of Danapur in Patna district of Bihar. Kosi From Tibet/Nepal 730 (in India) Kosi, Arun, Tamur Damodar Chotanagpur Plateau 541 Joins Hoogly below Kolkata near Tori Konar, Jomunia Chambal South-West of Mhow Hills 1050 Banas Gomti East of Pilibhit 940 Sai, Barma, Saryu, joins Ganga near Ghazipur (UP) Sharda or Kaliganga Kumaon Himalaya 602 Sarayu; it joins Ghaghra which meets Ganga near Chapra (Bihar)

 Bhagirathi is joined by Alaknanda (originates from Badrinath) at Devprayag. Alaknanda and Bhagirathi flow in the name of Ganga below Devprayag.  Ganga is the longest river of India. In Bangladesh it is known by the name of Padma.  States covered by Ganga — UP, Bihar, Uttarakhand, W. Bengal  Total length of the Ganga river is 2525 km, of which 1,140 km is in UP, which is the largest length.  Yamuna joins Ganga at Allahabad.  Kosi is known as the ‘Sorrow of Bihar’.  Numerous deep ravines have been formed in the Chambal valley.

Geography l 33 Major Waterfalls of India Waterfall Place River Jog/Garsoppa/Mahatma Gandhi Karnataka river Yena Yena river Shivsamudram Karnataka Cauveri river Hundru Jharkhand Suvarnrekha river Gokak Karnataka Gokak Chulia Rajasthan Punasa Rajasthan Chambal river Pyakara Tamil Nadu Pyakara river Kapildhara Narmada Dhuandhar (It is known as “the smoke that thunders”) Jabalpur

Climate of India l The momentary state of the atmospheric conditions over (iii) Norwesters: There are dreaded evening thunderstorms an area at any point of time is known as the weather of in Bengal and Assam. Their notorious nature can be that area while climate refers to the average of the weather understood from the local nomeclature of ‘Kalbaisakhi’, conditions over a longer period of time. a calamity of the month of Baisakh. These showers are l India Meteorological Department (IMD) has recognised useful or tea, jute and rice cultivation. In Assam, these the following four distinct seasons: storms are known as “Bardoili Chheerha”. (i) Cold weather season (Winter): December to Feb (iv) Loo: Hot, dry and oppressing winds blowing in the (ii) Hot weather seaon (Summer): March to May Northern plains from Punjab to Bihar with higher intensity (iii)South-West Monsoon Season (Rainy): June to between Delhi and Patna. September (iv)Season of Retreating Monsoon (Autumn or Cool South-West Monsoon (Rainy) Season season): October to November The south-west monsoon approaches the landmass in Cold Weather Season two branches: (i) The Arabian Sea branch l During this seaon, the north-east trade winds prevail over (ii) The branch the country. They blow from land to sea. l During summer, South-West monsoon winds [The Arabian l Although the total amount of winter rainfall locally known Sea Branch] strike suddenly on the coast of Kerala, which as ‘Mahawat’ is small, they are of immense importance for is called burst of moonsoon. the cultivation of ‘rabi’ crops. l South-West monsoon advances progressively from the 1st of June and covers entire India by 15th of July. Hot Weather Season l The rainfall brought by the monsoon decreases away from the sea. l With the apparent northward movement of the Sun towards l play a pivotal role in the agarian economy of the Tropic of Cancer in March, temperature starts rising in India because over 3/4 of total rain in the country is North-India. received during South-West monsoon season. l Some famous local storms of hot weather season Note: The Arabian Sea branch is more powerful than the Bay (i) Mango Shower: Towards the end of summer, there are of Bengal branch. pre-monsoon showers which are a common phenomena l This season has the maximum number of rainy days as a in Kerala and coastal areas of Karnataka. Locally, they are result of which it is called the ‘wet season’. known as mango showers since they help in the early l The Bay of Bengal branch, after crossing the deltaic region, ripening of mangoes. enters the Khasi Valley (Meghalaya) and strikes Cherapunji (ii) Blossom Shower: With this shower, flowers and Mawsynram in a perpendicular direction. blossom in Kerala and nearby areas. Mawsynram, located on the crust of , receives

Geography l 35 Alluvial the eastern and southern part of the Deccan Plateau. l Along the piedmont zone of the Western Ghat, a long l Alluvial soils are deposotional soils transported and stretch of area is occupied by red loamy soil. Yellow and deposited by rivers and streams. It is spread over 15 lac red soils are also found in parts of Odisha and km2 area of the country, which constitutes about 40 per Chhattisgarh and in the southern parts of the middle Ganga cent of total land area of the country. plain. l This is the most widely spread and important soil. In fact, l Red and yellow soils are normally fertile. They are generally the entire Northern Plains are made of alluvial soil. poor in nitrogen, phosphorus and , and rich in l These have been deposited by three important Himalayan potash. river systems - the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. l These soils develop a reddish colour due to diffusion of l These soils also extend in Rajasthan and Gujarat through iron in crystalline and metamorphic rocks. They look yellow a narrow corridor. when they occur in a hydrated form. l The alluvial soil consists of various proportions of sand, silt and . As we move inland towards the river valleys, Laterite Soils soil particles appear somewhat bigger in size. l Laterite soils develop in areas with high temperature and l Apart from the size of their grains or components, soils are also described on the basis of their age. According to high rainfall. their age, alluvial soils can be classified as old alluvial l These soils are widely cut as bricks for use in house (Bangar) and new alluvial (Khadar). construction. Actually laterite has been derived from the Latin word later, which means brick. l The Bangar soil has higher concentration of kanker nodules than the Khadar. It has more fine particles and is l These soils have mainly developed in the higher areas of more fertile than the Bangar. the Peninsular Plateau and are suitable for tree crops like cashewnut. l Mostly these soils contain adequate proportion of potash, phosphoric acid and lime, which are ideal for the growth l Laterite soils are suitable for cultivation with adequate of sugarcane, paddy, and other cereal and pulse doses of manure and . crops. Due to their high fertility, regions of alluvial soils l The laterite soils are commonly found in Karnataka, Kerala, are intensively cultivated and densely populated. Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh and the hilly areas of Odisha and Assam. l Alluvial soils as a whole are very fertile. Black Soils Forest and Mountainous Soils l These soils are found in the hilly and mountainous areas l Black soil is formed by the weathering and erosion of volcanic lavas. It is known as ‘Regur’. It is of black colour where sufficient rain forests are available. 2 and best suited for cultivation of cotton. Therefore, it is l These soils are spread over an area of about 2.85 lakh km . also known as ‘Black Cotton Soil’. Variations are found in these soils due to various climatic 2 and ecological conditions in which they are found. l It spreads over about 5.46 lakhs km area. It covers most of the Deccan Plateau, which includes Maharastra, l These are deficient in potash, phosphoric acid and lime. Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and some parts Arid Soils of Tamil Nadu. l Its black colour is due to the presence of magnetite, iron, l Arid soils range from red to brown in colour. They are compounds of aluminium, aluminium silicate, etc. generally sandy in texture and saline in nature. l During the dry season, these soils develop wide cracks. l Due to dry climate and high temperature, evaporation is Thus, there occurs a kind of ‘self-ploughing’. faster and the soil lacks humus and moisture. l The black soil has high moisture-retaining capacity for a l After proper irrigation these soils become cultivable as very long time, which helps the crops, especially the rain- has been the case of western Rajasthan. fed ones, to sustain even during the dry season. l Cotton, coarse grains, sunflower, oil seeds, vegetables Saline and Basic Soils and citrus fruits are grown in it. It is rich in aluminium, l Saline soils are also known as Usara soils. These soils are calcium and magnesium, iron, lime and potash but poor in found in about 1.7lakh km2 area of arid and semi-arid part. nitrogen, phosphorus and carbon compounds. Saline soils contain a larger proportion of sodium, potassium and magnesium, and thus, they are infertile, Red and Yellow Soils and do not support any vegetative growth. l Red soil spreads over an area of about 5.18 lakh km2. It l They have more salts, largely because of dry climate and develops on crystalline igneous rocks of low rainfall in poor drainage. They occur in arid and semi-arid regions,

Geography l 37 Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Western Ghats, especially in Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Pradesh. In these forests, plants remain leafless for most part Karnataka. The temperate forests are called Sholas in the of the year and give an expression of scrub vegetation. Nilgiris, Anaimalai and hills. Some of the other trees of Important species found are babool, ber, wild date palm, khair, this forest of economic significance include, magnolia, laurel, neem, khejri, palas, etc. cinchona and wattle. Such forests are also found in the Satpura and the Maikal ranges. Montane Forests In mountainous areas, the decrease in temperature with Littoral and Swamp Forests increasing altitude leads to a corresponding change in natural India has a rich variety of wetland habitats. About 70 per cent vegetation. Mountain forests can be classified into two types: of this comprises areas under paddy cultivation. The total the northern mountain forests and the southern mountain area of wet land is 3.9 million hectares. The country's wetlands forests. The Himalayan ranges show a succession of have been grouped into eight categories, viz. (i) the reservoirs vegetation from the tropical to the tundra, which change with of the Deccan Plateau in the south together with the lagoons the altitude. Deciduous forests are found in the foothills of and other wetlands of the southern west coast; (ii) the vast the Himalayas. It is succeeded by the wet temperate type of saline expanses of Rajasthan, Gujarat and the ; forests between an altitude of 1,000-2,000 m. In the higher hill (iii) freshwater lakes and reservoirs from Gujarat eastwards ranges of northeastern India, hilly areas of West Bengal and through Rajasthan (Keoladeo National Park) and Madhya Uttaranchal, evergreen broad-leaf trees such as oak and Pradesh; (iv) the delta wetlands and lagoons of India's east chestnut are predominant. Between 1,500-1,750 m, pine forests coast (Chilka Lake); (v) the freshwater marshes of the are also well-developed in this zone, with pine as a very useful Gangetic Plain; (vi) the floodplains of the Brahmaputra; the commercial tree. Deodar, a highly valued endemic species, marshes and swamps in the hills of northeast India and the grows mainly in the western part of the Himalayan range. Himalayan foothills; (vii) the lakes and rivers of the mountain Deodar is a durable wood mainly used in construction activity. region of Kashmir and Ladakh; and (viii) the mangrove forest Similarly, the chinar and the walnut, which sustain the famous and other wetlands of the island arcs of the Andaman and Kashmir handicrafts, belong to this zone. Nicobar Islands. At many places in this zone, temperate grasslands are Mangroves grow along the coasts in the salt marshes, also found. But in the higher reaches, there is a transition to tidal creeks, mud flats and estuaries. They consist of a number Alpine forests and pastures. Silver fir, juniper, pine, birch, of salt-tolerant species of plants. Crisscrossed by creeks of rhododendron, etc. occur between 3,000-4,000 m. However, stagnant water and tidal flows, these forests give shelter to a these pastures are used extensively for transhumance by wide variety of birds. In India, the mangrove forests spread tribes like the Gujjars, the Bakarwals, the Bhotiyas and the over 6,740 sq km, which is 7 per cent of the world's mangrove Gaddis. The southern slopes of the Himalayas carry a thicker forests. They are highly developed in the Andaman and vegetation cover because of relatively higher precipitation Nicobar Islands and the Sunderbans of West Bengal. Other than the drier north-facing slopes. At higher altitudes, mosses areas of significance are the Mahanadi, the Godavari and the and lichens form part of the tundra vegetation. The southern Krishna deltas. These forests too, are being encroached upon, mountain forests include the forests found in three distinct and hence, need conservation. areas of Peninsular India, viz the Western Ghats, the Vindhyas Note: West Bengal has nearly half of the country’s Mangroves. and the Nilgiris. As they are closer to the tropics, and only Under the promotional measures, the govt has identified 1,500 m above the sea level, vegetation is temperate in the 28 mangrove areas for intensive conservation & higher regions, and subtropical on the lower regions of the management. Biosphere Reserves in India

The programme of Biosphere Reserve was initiated under the The first biosphere reserve of the world was established in 'Man & Biosphere' (MAB) programme by UNESCO in 1971. 1979. Since then, the network of biosphere reserves has The purpose of the formation of the biosphere reserve is to increased to 564 in 109 countries across the world (MAB, conserve in situ all forms of life, along with its support system, 2010). Presently, there are 17 existing biosphere reserves in in its totality, so that it could serve as a referral system for India. monitoring and evaluating changes in natural ecosystems.

Geography l 39 Agriculture of India

l Agriculture is the mainstay of the Indian economy. l India is the largest producer of mango, banana, turmeric, l Agriculture & allied sectors contribute nearly 14.4% of spices, cashew nut and ginger. GDP of India. While about 58.2% of the population is l India is the third largest producer of coconut. dependent on agriculture for their livelhiood. l India is the largest producer of pulse. l Total area coverage under foodgrains in 2010-11 has been l Kerala is known as ‘spice state of India’. reported at 125.73 million hect areas. l MP being the leading producing state of India contributes l The area coverage under wheat during 2010-11 was to around 75% of the total Indian production and is also estimated at 29.25 million hectares. While rice is estimated called the Soyabean bowl of India. at 42.56 million hectare. l India is the second largest consumer and second largest producer of in the world, second only to China. Food Crops of India Crop Temperature Rainfall Major Producer States Rice Early growing stage 150-300 cm W. Bengal, Punjab, UP 16°C-20°C (heavy) Ripening stage 18°C-32°C Wheat Growing stage 50 cm-100 cm , Punjab, Haryana 10°C-15° C Ripening stage 25°C-28°C Maize 21°C-27°C; 50 cm-100 cm Madhya Pradesh cannot stand frost Sunshine promotes growth. Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka at any stage Cool, dry conditions necessary at ripening stage Jowar, High Temperature Known as dry crops; Maharashtra, Karnataka, M.P. Pulses 20°C-30°C 50-75 cm Rajasthan, Maharashtra Note: India is the largest producer, consumer and importer of pulses. It produces 25% of pulses in the World.

Cash Crops of India Crops Area and State Crops Area and State Sugarcane Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tobacco AP, Gujarat, Karnataka, UP Andhra Pradesh Black Pepper Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu Cotton Gujarat, Maharashtra, Punjab Bajra Rajasthan, Gujarat, UP Turmeric Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu Ginger Kerala and Meghalaya Jute West Bengal, Bihar, Odisha and Assam Cardamom Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka Tobacco Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Soyabean M.P. (Soyabean State), Rajasthan, Tamil Maharashtra and Bihar Nadu Tea Assam Hills, W. Bengal (Darjeeling), Groundnut Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh H.P. and U.P. Mustard Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana Coffee Karnataka, T.N. and Kerala Rubber Kerala (75%), Tamil Nadu (20%), Karnataka (3%), Andaman and Nicobar islands (2%)

Geography l 41 Important Irrigation and Power Projects Name of the Project Location State Purpose Nagarjuna Sagar River Krishna AP Irrigation Multipurpose Project Hydroelectricity Pochampad Project River Godavari AP Irrigation Lower Sileru Project River Sileru (Godavari) AP Hydroelectricity Kakarpara Project River Tapti Gujarat Irrigation Kothagudam Project Singareni Coalfields AP Thermal Power Kosi Project River Kosi Bihar Flood control, Irrigation Gandak Project River Gandak UP, Bihar Irrigation, Hydroelectricity Dhuvaran Power Station Kheda District Gujarat Thermal Power Sabarigiri (Pambakakki) Project River Pamba-Kakki Kerala Hydroelectricity Idukki Project Rivers Periyar, Kerala Hydroelectricity Cherutheni, Idukki Chambal Project River Chambal Rajasthan, MP Irrigation, Hydroelectricity Tawa Project River Tawa (Narmada) MP Irrigation Korba Project Near Korba Coalfields Chhattisgarh Thermal Power Koyna Project River Koyna Maharashtra Hydroelectricity Nagpur Power Station Koradi, Near Nagpur City Maharashtra Thermal Power Tungabhadra River Tungabhadra Karnataka, AP Irrigation, Multipurpose Project Hydroelectricity Upper Krishna Project River Krishna Karnataka Irrigation Sharavati Project River Sharavati Karnataka (near Hydroelectricity ) Hirakud River Mahanadi Odisha Irrigation Multipurpose Project Hydroelectricity Mahanadi Delta Project River Mahanadi Odisha Irrigation Talcher Power Station Near Talcher Odisha Thermal power Bhakra-Nangal River Sutlej HP, Punjab, Irrigation, Multipurpose Project Haryana Hydroelectricity Indira Gandhi Canal River Sutlej in Punjab Rajasthan, Haryana, Irrigation Project Punjab Kundah Project River Kundah Tamil Nadu Hydroelectricity Neyveli Power Station Neyveli Tamil Nadu Hydroelectricity Chuisot stream near Uttarakhand Irrigation, Multipurpose Project Kalagarh Hydroelectricity Rihand scheme River Rihand UP Hydroelectricity Obra Power Station Obra UP Thermal Power Damodar Valley Project River Damodar Jharkhand shared Flood control, with West Bengal Hydroelectricity Ukai Project River Tapti Gujarat Irrigation Mahi Project River Mahi Gujarat Irrigation Ghataprabha Project River Ghataprabha AP and Karnataka Irrigation Bhima Project River Bhima Maharashtra Irrigation Sardar Sarovar Project River Narmada Gujarat and MP Irrigation and Hydroelectricity Bana Sagar Project River Sone Chhattisgarh, MP, Irrigation UP and Jharkhand Dulhasti Project River Chenab J & K Hydroelectricity Salal Project River Chenab J & K Hydroelectricity Thein Dam Project River Ravi Punjab Irrigation, Hydroelectricity Malaprabha Project River Malaprabha Karnataka Irrigation Jaykwadi Project River Godavari Maharashtra Irrigation

Geography l 43 from Karnataka, terai region of Uttar Pradesh, Himachal l Presently aluminium industries are located at Muri Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur and Tripura. (Jharkhand), Alwaye (Kerala), Renukoot (UP), Mettur l India is the second biggest producer of tea after China. (Tamil Nadu), Korba (Chhattisgarh), Koyana (Maharastra) l India is the largest producer and consumer of black tea in and Belgaum (Karnataka). the world. Iron and steel industry Paper industry l The first iron and steel unit on modern lines was l The first paper mill in the country was set up at Serampore established in 1830 at Porto Novo in Tamil Nadu. It could (Bengal) in 1832, which failed. In 1870, a fresh venture was not succeed. started at Ballygunge near Calcutta. The planned l The real beginning of modern iron & steel industry was development of paper industry began after independence. made in 1907 only when Tata Iron & Steel Company l The paper industry in India is ranked among 15 top global (TISCO) was set up at Jamshedpur (Sakchi at that time). paper industries. l During the Second Five Year Plan, three public sector units l Andhra Pradesh, with 18% of the country’s output, is the were established at Bhilai (Chhattisgarh), Durgapur (West leading producer of paper in India followed by Bengal) and Rourkela (Odisha). Maharashtra and West Bengal. l Bokaro Steel Plant was established during the Third Five Year Plan with the help of . Major Paper Mills in India l Rourkela and Bhilai steel plants were set up with l The National Newsprint and Paper Mills Ltd is located in collaboration of Germany and USSR respectively and Nepanagar (Madhya Pradesh). Durgapur with the collaboration of Britain. l Hindustan Paper Corp, Vellore. l Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL): Established in l Mysore Paper Mill, Bhadravati. 1973, SAIL is a govt undertaking and is responsible for Note: Ballarpur (Maharashtra) is the largest paper mill of the the managment of steel plants at Bhilai, Durgapur, Rourkela country with annual capacity of 85,000 tones. and Bokaro. l Andhra Pradesh: Rajahmundry and Sirpur. l Three more steel plants were planned during the Fourth l Maharashtra: Mumbai, Pune, Ballarpur and Kamptee. Five Year Plan in order to meet the requirements of steel. l West Bengal: Titagarh, Raniganj, Naihati, Baranagar, These plans are located at Salem (Tamil Nadu), Kolkata. Vishakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh) and Vijaynagar. Raw material for paper industry Major Steel Plants in India Bamboo 70% 1. Rashtriya Ispat Nigam Ltd. Salai Wood 12% 2. Essar Steels Ltd. Sabai Grass 9% Bagasses 4% 3. Jindal Steels Ltd. Waste Paper & Rags 5% 4. KVS Ispat 5. Daitari Steel Plant Rubber industry 6. Dolvi Steel plant l The most important segment of rubber industry is 7. Monnet Ispat & Energy Ltd. constituted by tyres and tubes. 8. POSCO (Pohang Steel Co.) l Kerala has almost monopoly in rubber production, of accounting for more than 90% of the country’s output 9. Bhushan Steel Ltd. and the rest comes from Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. 10. Neyveli Plant l India is the fourth largest producer of natural rubber with Note: POSCO of Korea has entered into a Memorandum of a share of 8.2% in world production 2010. Understanding (MoU) with Odisha Govt. for setting up a steel plant at Paradip with a total investment of Rs 51,000 Aluminium industry crore. The project with a capacity of 12 million tonnes per l The availability of bauxite ore and electricity plays the annum will be completed by 2016. It is billed as the biggest most significant role in localisation of this industry. FDI in Indian history. l In 1937, the first aluminum industry was set up in India at J K Nagar, which was mainly a coal region. Further, in 1938, the second industry was established at Muri, which is a bauxite mining region.

Geography l 45 Indian Railway Zones & Headquarters Roadways Railway Zones Headquarters l Indian road network of 41 lakh km (approx) is the second Central Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus largest in the world and consists of National Highways, Eastern Kolkata State Highways, major/other district roads and village/ Northern New Delhi rural roads. North-Eastern Gorakhpur l National Highways [NHs]: Though the NHs, which are North-East Frontier Maligaon-Guwahati the responsibility of the Central Govt, have about 70,934 Southern Chennai km length and comprise only 1.7% of the total length of South-Central Secunderabad roads, it caries over 40% of the total traffic across the South-Eastern Kolkata length and breadth of the country. Western Mumbai Churchgate l The National Highways Development Project (NHDP) is East Coast Bhubaneswar the largest highway project ever undertaken in the country. East-Central Hajipur The NHDP is being implemented mainly by the National North-Central Allahabad Highways Authority of India (NHAI) in Phases I to VII. North-Western Jaipur l The Golden Quadrilateral consists of 5846 km and South-Western Bengaluru (Hubli) connects four major cities, viz., Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai West-Central Jabalpur and Kolkata. [Under NHDP Phase I; Chennai to Kolkata is South-East Central Bilaspur the largest side, which is 1684 km long.] l Railway: Konkan railway has the administrative l The North-South and East-West [NSEW] corridor status of a zone of the Indian Railways, but is not normally comprise a length of 7,142 km. It connects Srinagar in the considered a zone for operational purpose. north to Kanyakumari in the south, and Silchar in the l The Konkan Railway was the missing link between India’s east to Porbandar in the west [under NHDP Phase-II]. commercial capital, Mumbai, and Mangalore. The 760-km l Grand Trunk (GT) Road, which was contructed by Sher line connects Maharashtra, Goa and Karnataka states. Shah Suri, connected Peshawar to Kolkata. It joined l The first electric train in India was ‘Deccan Queen’. It was Amritsar to Kolkata after the Partition of India. introduced in 1929 between Bombay and Pune. l Maharashtra has the maximum length of surfaced road in l The 10.96-km-long Pir Panjal railway tunnel is India’s India. longest and Asia’s second longest, aimed at reducing the l UP has the maximum length (7818 km) of National travel distance between Qazigund and Banihal to only 11 Highways in India. km and providing a hassle-free travel up to Baramulla. The National Highways/Expressways 70,934 km tunnel is part of the ambitious ‘Udhampur – Srinagar – State Highways/Expressways 1,54,522 km Baramulla’ rail link project of Northern Railways. Other Road Highways/Expressways 38,84,136 km l The world’s highest railway bridge, five times the height l Road transport carries about 80% of total transport. of Qutub Minar and 35 metres taller than the Eiffel Tower, l NH1 and NH2 are collectively called as the Grand Trunk will come up over the on the under- Road. construction rail link to the Kashmir Valley. The bridge will l The Jawahar Tunnel (at Banihal Pass) is situated on NH rise 359 metres over the Chenab, 65 km from Katra, on the 1A. This highway connects Jalandhar with Uri via Jammu 73 km Katra-Dharam section, of the ambitious Udhampur- and Srinagar. Srinagar-Baramulla Rail Link Project. l The smallest National Highway of India is NH 47A. l Most of the tunnels are located in the Western Ghats. l The highest roadway of the world is the Manali-Leh l Indian Railways has the second biggest electrified system Highway. in the world after Russia. Some important national highways l Kolkata Metro Rail: The Metro Railway Kolkata was constructed progressively from 1972 to 1995. It extends National Highway Route from Dum Dum near Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose airport, NH 1 Delhi-Amritsar Kolkata, to Tollygunj over a length of 16.45 km. NH 2 Delhi-Kolkata NH 3 Agra-Mumbai Delhi Metro Rail Corporation Limited NH 4 Thane-Chennai l It is a joint venture of the Government of India and the NH 5 Bahragora-Chennai (with the eastern Delhi Government with equal equity. coast) l Construction started in 1998, and the first section, on the NH 6 Dhule-Kolkata Red line, opened in 2002 [Rithala to Dilshad Garden].

Geography l 47 5. New Mangalore (Karnataka): It caters to the export of 12. Haldia (Kolkata): Haldia port was developed as a iron ore . subsidiary port in order to relieve growing pressure on 6. Kochi (Kerala): It is known as the ‘Best port in the East’. the Kolkata port. 7. Tuticorin: The extreme south-eastern port Tuticorin is The important minor and medium ports of India are: in Tamil Nadu. This port has a natural harbour and rich State/UT Ports hinterland. Gujarat Okha, Dwaraka, Porbandar, Veraval, 8. Chennai: Chennai is one of the oldest artificial ports of Bharoch, Surat, Piprav the country. It is ranked next to Mumbai in terms of the Maharashtra Ratnagiri volume of trade and cargo. Karnataka Karwar (Navy port) 9. Visakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh): Visakhapatnam is the Tamil Nadu Ennore, Mahabalipuram deepest landlocked and well-protected port. Andhra Pradesh Muchhlipattanam, Kakinada 10. Paradip (Odisha): It specialises in the export of iron ore. Puducherry Yaman (Andhra Prdesh region), 11. Kolkata: Kolkata is an inland riverine port. Being a tidal Karaikal (Tamil Nadu region), Mahe port, it requires constant dredging of Hoogly. (Kerala region)

Population of India l The study of population is called demography. Karl Marx Highest Growth Rates (2011) is the Father of Demographic Studies. States/Union Territories Percentage l First census was held in 1872, but it was not a synchronised census. First synchronised census was 1. Meghalaya...... 27.82% held in 1881. Since then, census is conducted every ten 2. Arunachal Pradesh...... 25.92% years. The last census was conducted in 2011, which 3. Bihar...... 25.07% was the 15th census in this continuous series recorded Union Territories Percentage from 1872 and the seventh census since independence. 1. Dadra & Nagar Haveli...... 55.5% l The Census schedules for the Census 2011 were printed 2. Daman & Diu...... 53.45% in sixteen languages and the manual instructions for filling 3. Puducherry...... 27.72% up the schedules, in eighteen different languages. Lowest Growth Rates (2011) l Census 2011 was the 15th National census of the country. l Dr C. Chandramouli was the sole in-charge of the Census States/Union Territories Percentage 2011. He is the current Registrar General and Census 1. Nagaland 0.47% Commissioner of India. 2. Kerala 4.86% 3. Goa 8.17% Growth Rate Union Territories Percentage 1. Andaman & Nicobar 6.68% l 2001-2011 is the first decade (with the exception of 1911- 2. Lakshadweep 6.23% 1921) which has actually added lesser population l UP constitutes 16.49% population of India and India compared to the previous decade. constitutes 17.5% population of world. l The percentage decadal growth during 2001-2011 has registered the sharpest decline since independence — a The biggest countries in the world decrease of 3.90 percentage points from 21.59 to 17.64 Population % of World Area- per cent. wise Population wise l Uttar Pradesh is the most populous state in the country. 1. China 19.4% Russia Its population is more than the population of Brazil. 2. India 17.5% Canada l Longleng and Kiphire districts of Nagaland registered 3. USA 4.5% China the lowest growth rate of population as -58.39% and 4. Indonesia 3.4% USA -30.54% respectively. 5. Brazil 2.8% Brazil l The growth rate was negative in Census 1921. The year 6. Paskistan 2.7% Australia 1921 is known as the year of demographic divide. 7. Bangladesh 2.4% India l The growth rate was maximum in Census 1971.

Geography l 49 Copper village located in Kadapa of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. Results from a research conducted by Atomic l Madhya Pradesh (Balaghat), Rajasthan (Khetri: oldest Energy Commission of India in 2011 made the analysts copper mine of India), Jharkhand (Singhbhum, Masobani, conclude that this mine might have one of the largest Surda), Karnataka (Chitradurg, Hassan) reserves of uranium in the world. Note: Singhbhum district of Jharkhand has the largest copper l Uranium is also found in Jaduguda mine of Jharkhand. ore resource in Asia. Oil Refining Mica Important oil refineries in India: l Jharkhand (Hazaribagh, Giridih, Kodarma), Bihar (Gaya, 1. Digboi (oldest refinery of India) Bhagalpur), Andhra Pradesh (Guntur, Vizag, Kurnool), 2. Koyali Rajasthan (Bhilwara, Udaipur, Jaipur) 3. Mumbai (two refineries) l India has world’s largest reserves of mica. 4. Barauni Note: The Gaya-Hazaribagh belt, with Koderma forest area, 5. Haldia contributes a large part of the country’s mica production. 6. Mathura 7. Visakhapatnam Petroleum 8. Chennai 9. Kochi l Assam (Digboi: oldest field in India, Naharkatiya, Badarpur, 10. Bongaigaon Masinpur and Pallharia), Gujarat (Ankleshwar : ‘fountain of 11. Trombay prosperity’, Khambat, Kalol), Mumbai, Krishna-Godavari 12. Jamnagar (Reliance, largest refinery of India) basin, Kharmbat basin, Bombay High, Bassein (South of 13. Panipat Bombay High), Rajasthan (Bhagyam, Mangla). 14. Bina Iron Natural Gas

Iron ores are of four types: l Over 3/4th of the production of natural gas comes from 1. Magnetite (Black ore): Iron content is 72%. Mumbai High. Gujarat accounts roughly for 10% of gas 2. Haematite (Red ore): Iron content is 70%. production. 3. Limonite (Brown ore): Iron content is 60%. l Distribution of free gas resources: Natural gas in free form is 4. Siderite (Grey ore): Iron content is 45%. derived from the following regions: l India possesses haematite, a very high-grade iron ore. 1. The largest reserves come from the offshore Mumbai l Jharkhand (Singhbhum, Dhanbad), Odisha (Badampahar High. group of mines in the Mayurbhanj district and in Keonjhar). 2. Cambay basin in Gujarat 3. Tripura Bauxite 4. offshore basin in Tamil Nadu 5. Krishna-Godavari Basin (K-G Basin, Reliance Petroleum) l Bauxite is an ore of Aluminium metal. Note: The gas discovered by Reliance Industries in deep waters l Odisha (Kalahandi, Koraput), Jharkhand (Hazaribagh), of the Krishna-Godavari off-shore basin has brought the Andhra Pradesh (Nellore), Bihar (Gaya), Rajasthan (Ajmer). sector into sharp focus. It is reported to be the largest Gold discovery of natural gas in the world in the year 2002. l Karnataka (Kolar, Hutti, Raichur), Andhra Pradesh (Ramgiri Atomic power plants and Yeppamanna goldfields in Chittoor and Anantapur 1. Tarapur (Maharashtra): Atomic power plant in India based districts respectively). on US design. 2. Rawatbhata (Rajasthan): Based on Canadian design. Silver, Zinc and Lead 3. Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu): The only atomic power plant l Rajasthan (Zawar mines near Udaipur), Andhra Pradesh located in a coal-rich region. (Mysore, Chitradurg), Karnataka (Kolar mines). 4. Narora (Uttar Pradesh): The only atomic power plant used for agricultural purpose. Uranium 5. Kakrapara (Gujarat) 6. Kaiga (Karnataka) l The Tummalapalle mine is a uranium mine in Tumalapalli 7. Kudankulam (Tamil Nadu): Fuel supplied by Russia

Geography l 51 l Project Tiger is the most famous wildlife conservation Old and New names of countries and cities project of India. It was launched on 1 April, 1973 to protect New Name Old Name the diminishing population of Indian tigers. Japan Nippon l Project Elephant was launched in 1992. It was aimed at Ho Chi Minh City Saigon ensuring long-term survival of identified viable population Surinam Dutch Guyana of elephants in their natural habitat. Hawaii Island Sandwich Island Sobriquets of Places (India) Iran Persia Iraq Mesopotamia Sobriquet Place Malawi Nyasaland The City of Golden Temple Amritsar Lesotho Vasutoland The Land of Five Rivers Punjab Ghana Gold Coast The Blue Mountains Nilgiri hills Ethiopia Abyssinia The Sorrow of Bengal R. Damodar Thailand Siam The Gateway of India Mumbai Formosa The Garden City of India Bangalore Calicut The Queen of Arabian Sea Kochi St Petersburg Leningrad The Venice of East Kochi Chennai Madras The Pink City Jaipur Cambodia Campuchia, Khamer The Spice Garden of India Kerala Djibouti French Somaliland The Switzerland of India Kashmir Zambia North Rhodesia The Diamond Harbour Kolkata Zimbabwe South Rhodesia The City of Seven Islands Mumbai Istanbul Constantinople The Twin Cities Hyderabad-Secunderabad Varanasi Benares, Kashi The City of Lakes Srinagar Allahabad Prayagraj (Prayag) The City of Temples and Zaire Republic of Congo Banks (Ghats) Varanasi Madagascar Malagasy The City of Nawabs Myanmar Burma The Backbone of the Economy Java Suvarnadweep and Yavodweep of Northern India Ganga Patna Pataliputra The Sorrow of Bihar Kosi Bangladesh East Pakistan The Scotland of East Meghalaya Malaysia Malaya The Hollywood of India Mumbai Harare Salisbury The Steel City Jamshedpur The Queen of Chhotanagpur Netarhat (Jharkhand) Tribes of India The Queen of Mountains Mussoorie States Tribes The Child of Sea Lakshadweep Andhra Pradesh Chenchus, Gonda, Kolam The Kashmir of South Kerala Arunachal Pradesh Apatanis, Mishmi The Manchester of India Ahmedabad Assam Naga, Mikir, Kuki The Paris of India Jaipur Gujarat Bhil, Banjara, Kali The Pittsburgh of India Jamshedpur Himachal Pradesh Gaddi, Gujjar The Abode of God Allahabad Maharasha Varli, Kol, Banjara The Manchester of North India Kanpur Jammu & Kashmir Gaddi, Gujjar, Bakkarwal The Heart of India Delhi Kerala Bhil, Mopla [Muslims of The Southern Ganga Godavari the Malabar district in The City of Festivals Madurai Kerala], Urali, Kadar The Pearl of Karnataka Mysore Madhya Pradesh Bhura, Baigar, Birhor, The Basket of Fruits Himachal Pradesh Muria, Gonda, Kathari, The Thermopile of Rajasthan Haldighati Kharia, Khond, Bhotia, Bhil, The Paris of East Jaipur Kol The Pride of Rajasthan Chittorgarh Manipur Naga, Kuki, Angami The Gateway of Rajasthan Bharatpur Meghalaya Garo, Khasi, Jaintia, Mihir The Mini-Switzerland of India Khojjiyar (Chamba valley, Mizoram Mizo, Lushai, Kulri Himachal Pradesh)

Geography l 53