MASARYKOVA UNIVERZITA PEDAGOGICKÁ FAKULTA Katedra Anglického Jazyka a Literatury

MASARYKOVA UNIVERZITA PEDAGOGICKÁ FAKULTA Katedra anglického jazyka a literatury

AXIOLOGICAL DYNAMICS IN SAMUEL BECKETT'S PLAYS

Diplomová práce Brno 2015

Autor práce: Vedoucí práce: Bc. Monika Chmelařová Mgr. Jaroslav Izavčuk

Anotace

Předmětem diplomové práce Axiologické proměny v dramatickém díle Samuela Becketta je analýza Beckettových her s tematicky vyměřenou interpretací za účelem stanovení prvků v axiologické rovině. Stěžejním cílem práce je vymezení klíčových hodnot v autorově dramatické tvorbě, obsáhnutí charakteru a stimulů axiologické dynamiky. Práce je založena na kritickém zhodnocení autobiografie a vývoje hodnotové orientace Samuela Becketta na poli osobním i autorském, a to při posouzení vývoje hodnot již od počátku autorova života a tvorby. Beckettovy hry jsou výsledkem již vlastní specifické poetiky; práce si dává za cíl sledovat, co přispělo k jejímu utvoření, jaké hodnoty jsou v jeho dramatu zastoupeny a jakým způsobem se jeho dramatická tvorba axiologicky vyvíjí. Výstupem práce je kritický pohled na co nejkomplexnější autorovo dramatické dílo z pohledu hodnot a stanovení příčin těchto proměn, a to v tematicko-komparativním a diachronním (tj. chronologickém) pojetí.

Abstract

The subject of the diploma thesis Axiological Dynamics in Samuel Beckett's Plays is a thematically determined interpretation with the intention to determine features within the axiological level. The crucial part of the thesis is the determination of significant values in author's dramatic works, characterization of nature and stimuli of axiological dynamics. The thesis is based on critical evaluation of autobiography and development of value orientation of Samuel Beckett in private and authorial fields, i. e. with consideration of the development of values from the beginning of author's life and work. Beckett's plays are the result of his own specific poetics; the thesis determines its goal to appoint the features which contributed to its formation, which values are represented in his dramatic work and in which manner his drama develops in terms of axiology. The outcome of the thesis is a critical view at author's complex dramatic work from the point of values and the determination of causes contributing to this change, i. e. in thematically-comparative and diachronic (chronological) concept.

Keywords

Axiology, Value, Experience, Disillusionment, Epistemology, Agnosticism, Marginal situation, Materialism, Suffering, Nostalgia, Dynamics, Compensation, Apocryphal being, Dependency, Apathy, Limitation, Relationship, Hierarchy, Human needs (A. Maslow), Emotions

Klíčová slova axiologie, hodnota, zkušenost, deziluze, gnozeologie, agnosticismus, marginální situace, materialismus, utrpení, nostalgie, dynamika, kompenzace, neautentické bytí, závislost, apatie, omezenost, vztah, hierarchie, lidské potřeby (A. Maslow), emoce

Declaration:

I declare I was working on the thesis Axiological Dynamics in Samuel Beckett's Plays independently, under the supervision of Mgr. Jaroslav Izavčuk, using only the sources listed in the bibliography section, in accordance with Disciplinary Regulations for Students of Masaryk University Faculty of Education and act no. 121/200 concerning the copyright, the rights related to copyright and change of laws (copyright laws), as amended.

In Brno, 30th March, 2015 ______Signature of the author

Acknowledgement

I would like to to express my great gratitude to the supervisor of my diploma thesis, Mgr. Jaroslav Izavčuk, for his guidance, help, professional advice, willing attitude and valuable comments he provided all the time of the development of my diploma thesis.

Content

Content ...... 6 1. Introduction ...... 7 2. Axiological concept of Samuel Beckett's life ...... 10 3. Axiological View: Love and Relationship ...... 14 4. Axiological View: Friendship ...... 16 4. 1. Friendship with James Joyce ...... 18 4. 2. Jamese Joyce's Influence on Beckett's Work ...... 22 5. Features Forming Beckett's Own Poetics and Values ...... 22 5. 1. Experience from Second World War ...... 23 5. 2. Vanity of Material Things ...... 24 5. 3. Unanimism: An Individual Way of Collective Suffering ...... 25 6. Axiological Development of Beckett's Work: Chronological Concept ...... 28 7. Interpretation and Axiological View at Beckett's Plays ...... 37 8. Bekcett's Plays: Axiological Development and Comparison ...... 61 9. Humanistic Concept of Values in Beckett's Plays ...... 72 9. 1. Need for 'Centrum Securitatis' ...... 76 9.2. Need for Physical Contact and Power of Gesture ...... 77 10. 'Philosophy' of Beckett's Work ...... 78 10. 1. A Direct Correlation of Human Cognition and Human Apathy ...... 80 10. 2. Clash of Reason and Emotions ...... 81 10. 3. Habit, stereotype and repetitiveness ...... 83 10. 4. Throwness into the World: Condemned To Be Born ...... 84 10. 5. Religion and Reality ...... 86 11. Driving force in the field of axiology ...... 88 12. Conclusion: Development of Values in Beckett's Dramatical Creation ...... 91 13. List of Sources ...... 98 13. 1. Bibliography ...... 98 13. 2. Electronic Sources - Beckett on Film ...... 100 13. 3. Other Electronic Sources ...... 102

1. Introduction

As a subject of a subsequent analysis, the personality of Samuel Beckett and character of his dramatical work with thematically determined interpretation will be introduced with the focus on the dynamics at the axiological level, i. e. in the context of his work but also his inner state of mind which will be achieved by a critical look at Beckett's autobiography and the former context. In spite of the fact that this kind of concept denies the author's preference pronounced in the work symptomatically named Damned to Fame by James Knowlson where it is claimed that Beckett "always hoped that it would be his work rather than his life that was placed under the microscope." (Knowlson xix), Beckett's works, and especially those within to the context of the Theatre of The Absurd, will not allow the reader or the audience not to rise questions related to the search for the basis and clarification of his works - in other words, there is a great need to understand. Similar chase for the reasonable explanation could possibly be also Beckett's own state of mind when he was put through difficult life events, e. g. the loss of his immediate family, crisis of own creation, war or poverty. Not only the subsequent disillusionment from aforementioned unhappy events has finally forced Beckett to ask whether any reason for the human suffering does even exist.

One of the crucial intentions is to describe the result of this need for rational view or reasonable understanding for seemingly unexplainable absurdity which has harmful or devastating effects on a human life. Moreover, this clash of two different or, more precisely, contradictory, concepts can be considered a driving force of dynamics, primarily at psychical level and subsequently, based on the experiences and inner perception, as well as at epistemological level, since cognition is reached as well, i. e. through physical and mental suffering. The dynamics as such will be concepted in two ways: at first, chronologically within the diachronic concept and secondly, the analysis will be based on comparison and development of values under specific axiological themes. An attempt will be made to appoint which values are relatively stable and which are changable. A partial objective is to assess the changes within the hierarchy of values and appoint the driving force causing the axiological dynamics. Primarily, the personality of the author will be taken into consideration when the work will be evaluated in terms of axiology, as well as the analysis will be based on the most authentic and reliable testimonies from persons who had known Beckett well, had

personal experience with him or were able to assess his work critically with regard to Beckett's mindset and personal features.

Within Beckett's autobiography, it is possible to notice a number of events which have influenced not only author's opinions, attitudes and personality but also his work, in which these features are necessarily reflected, i. e. in accordance to the opinion it is not possible the author's subjectivity would not be reflected in his work. Therefore, in a certain level, the work can be concepted as a kind of testimony about Beckett's attitudes and states of mind. Based on this, the work will be concepted as a kind of author's confession previewed at the external level of axiology (i. e. values described and pronounced explicitly) and values pronounced implicitly, i. e. those which can be reached by interpretation).

In spite of Beckett's claim pronounced in Knowlson's Damned to Fame, that Beckett "regarded his life as separate from his work ..." (Knowlson xix) the question could be raised whether this total separation is even possible. As stated further, James Knowlson claims: "when he spoke of a separation between his life and his work, I could not agree that such a separation was as absolute as he claimed" (Knowlson xix). Moreover, within the book Happy Days translated by F. Vrba containing Beckett's play of the same name as well as several comments from people who had personal experience with Beckett, Tomáš Vyskočil describes his experience under the title Waiting for Beckett. He remembers having asked him: "Where is it possible to learn more about your life?" to which Beckett responded: "In my writings. Everything I could say I put into my books." (Vrba 32)

As was previously mentioned, one of the crucial aims of the analysis will be an attempt to describe how this sensitive and strongly rational author, who Beckett was undoubtedly, reacted to the inner conflict of reason and absurdity, as well as unhappy life events, which this highly perceptive author had to cope with. How these circumstances have affected his state of mind and hierarchy of values will be another crucial part of the analysis. Moreover, an attempt will be made to appoint the stimuli of changes or a shift at the axiological level. Even though some of the values could seem rather stable and unchanging, there is certain volatility expected, i. e. in the connection to the situational context. Another crucial theme related to an axiological analysis will be the possibility of compensation as existential and materialistic phenomenon. The

value will be concepted as ethical and philosophical feature, which can be either stable or modified - in dependence on the whole axiological experience and its position within the hierarchy (which implies the idea of creation of certain preferences).

Based on the axiological concept, the subject of critical analysis will not be Beckett as a kind of phenomenon, but Beckett as an ordinary person, primarily his inner world and attributes of his personality, personal experience or feelings in former political, cultural and personal context which would serve as a starting position for axiological analysis of his life and work. In the conclusion of the thesis, the axiological analysis of Beckett's works will be summarized, i. e. from the thematically-comparative point of view with an appointment of crucial values, both, those of subjecitve nature and those which resulted from objective (external) influences, will be determined, as well as their representation in Beckett's dramatical work.

In terms of diachronic concept, its crucial idea lies in concepting Beckett's work in chronological order with the purpose of creation of certain development or changes in the field of values displayed in Beckett's work. A focus will be made not only on which values are displayed and how they are changing, but also a question will be raised what has caused this dynamics and why specific values are present in the work, i. e. an attempt will be made to justify their presence, taking into consideration the features which could possibly have influenced the author.

At first part of the thesis, the personality of Samuel Beckett will be introduced in order to appoint the values he professed. Author's biography and experience will be analysed with the aim to define the values which have developed in accordance to the author's personality and thus the foundation of axiological orientation will be created, on which Beckett's first values will be based. The subsequent dynamics and eventual changes at axiological level will be mediated especially by the personal experience, gowth of knowledge and cognition, perception and reactions of the author. The analysis will be based on author's own testimonies or a critical view at his work, i. e. through its interpretation. Beckett is said to have found his own style of writing only after Second World War. All his dramatical work may thus be found as having its origin in Beckett's specific style of writing. Therefore, the crucial focus is made on his dramatical work.

2. Axiological concept of Samuel Beckett's life

The subsequent analysis of Beckett's life will be based primarily on the work Damned to Fame by James Knowlson, who received Beckett's approval for writing his autobiography and moreover, Beckett is said to actively participate in its elaboration. The work is based on the testimonies of Beckett's closest friends, colleagues, family members and people who had direct personal experience with him, as well as the information from official and personal documentation are involved in the book, which is highly appreciated also by scholars, who often directly refer to Knowlson's findings and terms he uses in the work, e. g. the term non-knower or non-can-er (Knowlson 353).

Based on Beckett's autobiography, it is apparent that Beckett's values have their roots in his early life already. The features of his personality were relatively stable, yet still under the influence of own experience, family and friends. In terms of the influence from the side of family, "Beckett became quite fond of his uncle Howard, who played a distinctive role in developing some of the more intellecctual of his own interests when he was in his teens." (Knowlson 9) Bekcett's uncle Howard caused the expansion of Beckett's cultural and intellectual interest. As announced above, Beckett was strongly rational author, although there were a number of clashes with emotions later.

One of the features to be noticed in Beckett's childhood already is a great struggle for independence and individuality: "Sam struggled hard not to be dominated. A streak of stubbornness was added to a strong love of independence. The more his mother tried to make him do things, the more he fought to have his own way." (Knowlson 22) In terms of Beckett's relationship with his parents, he seems to get better with his father, rather than with his strick mother: "Sam seems to have some anxiety with her. All his life. A naughty boy. Of course, he was a bit of a rebel. I remember in the War, the First World War, we only had margarine to eat. And he absolutely refused to eat it." - This also reveals a lot about the situatin of the family during the First World War. May Roe, Beckett's mother, had great expectations from him, yet they were not fully met. "As he grew older, the conflicts became even more tempestuous" (Knowlson 22) but by time she was giving up to influence him. May herself describes her attitude and behaviour as "savage loving" (Knowlson 22).

However, it is said that "In spite of all these inhibitions and prohibitions, Beckett's childhood was mainly a happy one." (Knowlson 20). On the other hand, one of Beckett's famous utterances is "I had a little talent for happiness." which may be apparent in his work Krapp's last tape, when Krapp, a strongly authobiographical character, is happy to be old and welcomes the closiness of death.

The opinions of Beckett and his mother did not meet also in the field of religious faith. "May Beckett was an assiduous attender at the church and ensured that, from an early age, her two sons accomanied her regularly." (Knowlson 24) From Beckett's childhood already, the critical approach to religion is noticeable. At first it was justified by his struggle for emancipation, lately by his philosophical and critical approach enhanced by own experience and desilusion. Nevertheless, Beckett's approach to God and faith is still a subject of discussions. "Beckett was never happy at having to go to church ... " (Knowlson 24) On the other hand, Beckett's father preferred going to nature. He visited church, where their family friend was working, yet it was noted that "Bill Beckett was not deeply religious" or, as Beckett himself reveals about his father "not a churchman". Beckett's brother Frank went with his mother to Tullow Church, while Samuel and his father were going to church alone." (Knowlson 24) Based on Beckett's attitude, it is apparent that he strongly opposed to dogma and blind obedience, since religious faith was one of many features, from which he was keeping certain critical or possibly 'rational' detachment. A reason to this may be the one, he himself was strongly open-minded, which is the value he admired also about other people.

"Sam used to ride to schol on a bicycle so tiny that other children laughed at him as he pedalled furiously past. His pride was hurt by their laughter and, many decades later, he could still remember what it felt like to be an object of mockery" (Knowlson 25). It is apparent how sensitive Beckett's personality was, especially with regard to the fact that even after a long time, he was still able to recall the events which had harmful effects on his self-esteem. Beckett was highly sensitive and perceptive person; a proof may be found within From an Abandoned Work: "The sky was about to fall in twilight. […] So back with the head bowed, waiting for snail, slug or warm, and with great love in heart for everything which is motionless and which lies in the earth by roots …" (Vrba, Šťastné dny 17) this lyrical testimony and apparent sensitivity presents a starting position for almost philosophical reflection.

Beckett's love for solitude, individuality and kind of detachment is described in the testimony "He was a thoughtful child. He was very fond of being alone, at his happiest when he could curl up alone with, at first, a picture book or, later, a proper book to read. (Knowlson 26). By keeping certain distance form the society, he was given a chance to delve into the thoughts and meditate over 'philosophical' issues, or at least reflect on the events he experienced with certain detachment, which he kept for the rest of his life.

Beckett's good friend Alfred Péron claimed that "Beckett still went into a period of growing introspection, depression and withdrawal. This probably resulted from a combination of factors: a natural tendency from childhood to sit back, observe and listen, nothing the oddities of what others said and the idiosyncrasies of follies of their behaviour together with a keen awareness of his own intelligence and sensitivity." (Knowlson 66). All this is said to "contribute to Beckett's success as a writer" (Knowlson 66) The utterances stated above may contribute to previewing Beckett as strongly sensitive, intellectual individualist. Later, he isolated himself in the cottage in Ussy-sur-Marne, where he spent whole days in silence "With no paper before him, no intention to write, he took pelasure in following the course of the sun across the sky: " 'There is always something to listen to' he says. So Beckett didn't experience silence as silence: it was attention."1 Althought Beckett was an intensely private man, he did not find it difficult to talk about his work or reveal what stands behind it. He always seems to be involved in discussions about art and literature, yet he protected and highly valued his private matters.

One of the unhappy events which deeply influenced Beckett was a loss of his father, after which he had to undergo a treatment in Tavistock Hospital. Beckett's father, William Beckett, was described by Samuel's brother Frank as "terrific character, a charmer, a real charmer ... Tremendously energetic, large in figure, heavily built." (Knowlson 10) He is also said to have "highly developed sense of humour, a ready wit, and a bonhomie that more sensitive souls found somewhat overbearing; this was accompanied by a fiery temper that could flare up quickly fom time to time." Beckett himself claimed about his father he was "absolutely non-intellectual," and left school at the age of fifteen.

1 This Space. "Beckett's silence" 16 Feb. 2011. Web. 26 Mar. 2015. 12

The relationship of Beckett and his father was described by a family member Sheila as follows: "They were absolutely tuned in". As for the reflection in his work, "One of the most moving images in Beckett's late prose is that of an old man and a boy walking hand in hand across the foothills." Before May Roe (S. Beckett's mother), William Beckett fell in love with Eva Murphy, a daughter of wealthy Catholic William Murphy. Being Protestant, her parents disapproved on their relationship, her father "would never talk to her again, if she married Will Beckett. It ruined both their lives. Bill never got over it, never and neither did mother. (Knowlson 13). This intolerance in religious faith even brought William to Adelaide Hospital with depression, where he meets May Roe from respectable Protestant family. At this point, the religous faith may be seem as feature causing the unhappiness and break of a relationship. This also could have contributed to William's refusive and critical approach to religion which he had in common with Beckett. As mentioned already, William's attitude was more transcendentalistic, i. e. in terms of concepting God.

The relationship of William Beckett and May Roe is described as follows: "The impression given by Bill and May as a couple was of a marriage that was never seriously under strain but was based on habit as much as on affection, with each of them, increasingly, pursuing his or her own interests." (Knowlson 13). In his works, Beckett often operates with the theme of habit as a feature destroying the relationship, since it contributes to its stereotypical nature, yet it also keeps the characters together. Certain influence which Beckett carried from his family may thus be suggested an influential feature in his writing.

Beckett's father died in 1933 - the year, which become critical for Beckett, since he also lost his love, his cousin Peggy Sinclair, who died of tuberculosis. Beckett's mother, after loss of her husband fell into affective heartache. Beckett started to suffer from depression, insomnia and palpitation. These symptoms did not occur in Beckett's case for the first time. "Insomnia was only one of a disturbing set of physical symptoms that began to afflict Beckett at this time. In April 1926, while he was still living at Foxrock, he first experienced what he later came to describe as "the old internal combustion heart". (Knowlson 64). Beckett eventually spent two years in Tavistock Centre in London. Another significant point is that Beckett experienced the death of all the members of his immediate family - at first his father, then mother and finally his brother Frank.

3. Axiological View: Love and Relationship

As stated above, Beckett fell in love with his cousin Peggy. In one of his utterances, Beckett claimed he "had a little talent for happines" this may seem accurate, especially in the field of his relationships. During his studies, he fell in love in Ethna MacCarthy, charming and popular colleague and intellectual - yet, the woman who was generally very popular and by Beckett was admired rather from distance. Based on the testimony of Deirdre Sinclar, Beckett had his first relatioship with her sister Peggy Sinclair, Beckett's cousin: "I think he fell in love with Peggy in Dalkey. [...] I was 9 and probably quite unaware that there was a love affair goin on." (Knowlson 79) This was an example of unhappy love in Beckett's life and experience related to this relationship with his cousin is also described in Krapp's Last Tape: "What remains of all that misery? A girl in a shabby green coat, on a railway-station platform? No?" (Bekett 17) since, the most often, Peggy used to wear green clothes. In the same work, he also returns to Ethna MacCarthy (although under the name of Bianca). In Knowlson's Damned to Fame, Peggy Sinclair is described as "Beckett's cousin, whith whom he had his first real love-affair." (Knowlson 328). Members of Beckett's family themselves deny the affair of Beckett and Peggy. In 1931, Beckett had to face a painful breakup with Peggy. After this event, it was very hard for him to find stability again.

Peggy herself described Beckett in following way: "shy, gentle, good-looking, blue-eyed Irishman with whom she seemed at times to get on so well and who was happy to spend large parts of his days in her company. At other times, she found him infuriatingly withdrawn, sullen and elusive. She was only seventeen when they first met and Beckett must have seemed extraordinarily complex for someone as open and straightforward as Peggy." (Knowlson 81) The relationship with Peggy seemed to have a great influence on Beckett. After their breakup, Beckett was directly asked about this relationship by Gerald Stewart, his roomate from Trinity College: "I asked Sam how the affair was going and he replied by saying that he had become a misogynist!" (Knowlson 82). The austerity and extreme idea of this testimony may lead us to the idea that while Beckett claimed to hate women, he at the same time had to cope with this event internally. It seems it is justified to come up with the idea that, Beckett decided to build up certain shield when claiming to hate women (the idea of being a "misogynist"). This kind of shield made up from exaggeration, irony and black humour is also the way he

faced the disillusionment. Moreover, this shield which could be possibly understood as a 'superficial smirk with deep internal desilusion' is not noticeable only in the field of relationships, but also in Beckett's philosophy, especially in the way he faces the desilusion, absurdity, loss and suffering.

In 1937 and 1938, Beckett was in relationship with Peggy Guggenheim, an American and a high social class member. In this year in Paris, Beckett was attacked and stabbed in belly by a pimp since he refused a prostitute. His life was saved by Suzanne Deschevaux-Dumensil, whom he met in hospital. They have known each other from a tennis club already. "In time, when Suzanne appeared in his life, Beckett had an affair at least with one more woman. It was American, rich heiress Peggy Guggenheim [...] she underestimated Suzanne and her influence on Beckett. To the address of her rival, Peggy stated "While I was making scenes, she was making curtains." (Mihalovici, Poseldní páska 54). Peggy was not a beautiful woman, but Beckett was always attracted to strong, independent women with independent thinking and original opinions, which were the features relevant for Suzanne. Peggy was very rich and she offered Beckett experiecnes which he hasn't known so far: e. g. she used to borrow expensive sport cars and let Beckett drive. On the other hand she put too much pressure on him and she too stuggled for his privacy, which he was not willing to give up." (Mihalovici, Poslední páska 55). From the quotation stated above, it is apparent that privacy was one of the crucial values in Beckett's life. Also the clash between quite childish and more reasonable behaviour may be noticed, since he admired Suzanne for her independent thinking and loyalty yet still enjoying the carelessness of life with Peggy Guggenheim.

Paralelly to the relationship with Suzanne, Beckett had a relationship with Barbara Bray, who was a widow working in BBC as a script editor. "She was small and attractive, but, above all, keenly intelligent and well-read." (Knowlson 458, 459) This relationship lasted till Beckett's death. Beckett's work could be a testimony about his relationship, i. e. in work Not I, Krapp's last tape or Dream of Fair to Middling Women; possibly also Play.

Beckett kept friendship with Lucia Joyce, a daughter of one of Beckett's most influential friend, Jamese Joyce. In the interview with John Cadler, Canadian and Scottish publisher and Beckett's friend he says: "I am thinking about how much Joyce's daughter was in love with him. Joyce approved this and he was thinking that his friend Beckett

will be a good acompanoin to her. Yet Beckett did not show appropriate interest in Lucia and the result was the alienation of him and Joyce. You see, Lucia went eventually mad." (Vrba, Šťastné dny 24)

As Peggy Guggenheim did in her Out of This Centruy, some women are said to mention Beckett in their memoirs. With a reference to John Cadler's claim about Beckett, "He, due to my judgement, has never had the need to bind himself by relationship. The only exception was Suzanne, but that was not a real marriage, it was rather frienship, when the most of their time was spent separately." (Vrba, Šťastné dny 26). Suzanne rather took the role of his mother: "Cetainly she grumbled, as his mother used to grumble, about his excessive drinking, for she did not drink herself. But there were crucial differences: above all, she had enormous respect for Beckett's talents and total belief in his genius. When things were going very badly, she never lost this faith. […] she was remarkably tolerant, putting up with his late nights, his bouts of irritability and his moods of black despair when his writing would not advance. She also understood and shared his need for silence." (Knowlson 296)

As was added by Cadler in terms of Beckett's relationships: "He simply had to be completely alone, which he also said in one of his essays on Prosut: "For an artist, who is not dealing only with a surface of things, is not only reasonable but completely necessary to shun from friends." (Vrba, Šťastné dny 26) Based on this testimony, it is clear that solitude and loneliness were the values which which Beckett reconciled, accepted them and transformed them into a natural part of his personality

4. Axiological View: Friendship

As previously mentioned, Beckett's nature may be considered moody one and he often tended to be withdrawn. He is said to be "diffident, silent and solitary" (Knowlson 90), it seems that he was interested in and impressed by people who were different at many points. His friendship with Tom MacGreevy who is said to be "confident, talkative and gregarious" (Knowlson 90) may serve as an example of two different personalities. "it was MacGreevy's personal qualities of liveliness, wit and ready sympathy that attracted Beckett most of all and won his confidence and affection. He had the ability to draw Beckett out of his cocoon of shyness and silence with his effervescent, challenging, yet reassuring talk." (Knowlson 89) When in search for the

feature which was bringing them together, art may be considered s crucial mutual interest: "Quite often they disagreed storngly as well about literature and painting. But theirs was a genuine dialogue in which for a long time Beckett was passionately involved." (Knowlson 90)

It is also claimed that "At school and Trinity College, he had been really friendly with a very few individuals. This suited his shy, retiring, nature and allowed him to choose carefully those with whom he wanted to spend his time. As a young man he was intolerant of those who irritated him and suffered fools badly. When bored or annoyed, he would lapse into deep uncomfortable silences that people interpreted (often corectly) as rudeness and lack of civility." (Knowlson 95) Especially at the time of his studies, Beckett's personality may be considered a moody one. Mainly topics related to art made Beckett discuss something vividly or even argue with his friends.

Being thoughtful, perceptive and sensitive, Beckett often used to think retrospectively about his relationships; he re-considered his behavior and would not let things "wear off" in case he had the feeling he did something unjustified. "He got angry with me and a doctor who lived in the same house for joking about him... On returning to Ireland he wrote me two letters which I have, apologising for his rude behaviour to me and the doctor." (Knowlson 73). Based on this testimony pronounced by Mario Esposito reveals about "Beckett's extreme "touchiness" as a young man and about how he drew (selectively) on such incidents in his personal life for his early writing." (Knowlson 73). It is apparent that Beckett placed a great importance on the relationships which were definitely not random or superficial only.

One of the typical character features was shyness as mentioned in relation to his strugle to find a release in years he spent in Paris (1928 - 1930): "Beckett started to drink in Paris, at first fairly modestly, then towards the end of his two-year stay much more heavily. [...] For someone as retiring and inhibited as he was, the feeling of relaxation and release that alcohol offered helped him to cope with the nervousness that he felt when meeting someone whom he did know well or stiffened his resolve n more formal occasions." (Knowlson 92). He had the same problem when he was facing difficult life situations such as doubts about himself, poverty or depression.

4. 1. Friendship with James Joyce

As was previously mentioned, rather than superficial relations, Beckett seemed to keep certain distance from people. Taking into consideration the nature of the people which impressed Beckett enough to create connection with, it is possible to deduce certain values. Though sometimes quite different in character, Beckett always found connection to a person who shared his love for knowledge and art mainly. The example of such a friendship was his friend Tom MacGreevy whom Beckett described as "a living Encyclopedia and he was impressed by his unusually wide-ranging interests […] their common passion for painting and love of music, and theatre that drew them close to each other." (Knowlson 90). Tom MacGreevy is described as "confident, talkative and gregarious" while Beckett is said to be "diffident, silent and solitary." (Knowlson 90). Regarding the nature of both persons, MacGreevy's characteristics were "liveliness, wit and ready sympathy that attracted Beckett most of all and won his confidence and affection" (Knowlson 90). MacGreevy was comming from Catholic family and Beckett from firmly Protestant background. Appart from literature and painting, they led long disputes about religion, as well.

Beckett's family and also his friends, who he was selecting reasonably, critically and cautiously played significant roles in terms of forming his character. "But one friendship in Paris far outshone all the others. Beckett was first introduced to James Joyce by Tom MacGreevy. [...] James Joyce was not unknown to Beckett before they were introduced. Beckett wanted to meet him since he is said to admire Joyce's work Dubliners, Portrait of the artist as a Young Man, Ulysses and some of his poems (Knowlson 97). In terms of the values which Joyce and Beckett shared, they both studied French and Italian. They also "adored words, their sounds, rhythms, shapes, etymologies and histories, and Joyce had a formidable vocabulary derived from many languages and a keen interest in conterporary sland in several languages that Beckett admired and tried to emluate." (Knowlson 98).

When in search for the projection of their relationship into Beckett's work, Beckett was strongly influenced by the style of Joyce's work. Yet concepting it as an inspiration at the level of motives and themes, this friendship may be projected into Waiting for Godot, i. e. in case of Pozzo and Lucky, who, especially in the second act,

had to rely on each other in terms of dependency and hierarchy - blind Pozzo has to rely on Lucky, who is mute. This may be apparent from the situation of Joyce: "Beckett's work with Joyce mainly consisted of reading aloud from books that the 'Penman', as his friends called him, thought might be helpful to him. But, very occasionally, Joyce dictated to him. For, by this time, Joyce's eyesight was failing badly and he was trying to save himself as much eye strain as he possibly could." Moreover, it is also claimed that a great amount of time they spent together was spent in complete silence.

Althoug in Waiting for Godot the issues such as respect or friendship are irrelevant and they are replaced by humiliation and dependency resulting from a hierarchy between master and his servant, this idea of dependency may be noticed in Beckett's life as well. Being available whenever Joyce needed anything, Beckett "soon agreed to hlep Joyce by doing some research for him for his 'Work in Progress', which became Finnegans Wake. He used to stroll along to Joyce's apartment" (Knowlson 98). This 'hierarchy' and dependency were motivated by Beckett's admiration of Joyce and thus the relationship was purely voluntary and based on respect. On the oter hand in Waiting for Godot this relationship is escalated and amplified by elements of suffering, reversible degradation and alienation. However, the question may be raised till which extent it is justified to presume that the relation with Joyce who was due to his weakening eyesight dependend on Beckett's help and whether this situation is reflected also in Waiting for Godot, even though in its modified form.

Although Beckett admired Joyce, he was still kind of intellectual himself. Often he did not establish relation with a person who did not seem intellectually and culturally conscious. At acrimonious concept, Beckett may be found even intelectually arrogant. In terms of a great importance that Beckett placed on gesture, it is possible to notice certain admiration also in terms of imitation: "Joyce's biographer, Richard Ellann, described the scene in the following way: 'Joyce sat in his habitual posture, legs crossed, toe of the upper leg under the instep of the lower; Beckett, also tall and slender, fell into the same gesture.' " (Knowlson 99) Beckett as "young man admired Joyce so much that he was happy to help." (Knowlson 100). When analysing the personality of James Joyce, it is possible to refer to his wife's utterance: "Joyce was a demanding taskmaster who, according to his wife, would soon have had God running errands for him, if he had come down to earth." (Knowlson 97).

As it can be derived from Beckett's claim, his friendship with James Joyce was still formal one by its nature: "There wasn't a lot of conversation between us. I was a young man, very devoted to him, and he liked me ... I was very flattered when he dropped the 'Mister'. Everybody was 'Mister'. There were no Christian names, no first names. The nearest you would get to a friendly name was to drop the 'Mister'. I was never Sam. I was always 'Beckett' at the best." (Knowlson 101). Moreover, the atmosphere of their relationship does not seem to be released when taking into consideration that "Beckett did not joke with Joyce as Paul Léon or Stuart Gilbert did. He was probably too much in awe of the master." (Knowlson 101).

As suggested above, Beckett was to organize things for Joyce. "Sometimes the call was to ask him to bring him a particular book or look up a reference for him, or, occasionally, to escort him to a party, for Joyce's failing vision made him fearful of going out alone." (Knowlson 102). Beckett is said to be impressed by the combination and two contradictory features of Joyce's personality: "combination of vulnerability and apparet self-confidence appelaed to a young man who was himself intellectually arrogant yet still unsure of himself." (Knowlson 102). The respect between Beckett and Joyce was mutual: "Joyce rated Beckett very highly. [...] Joyce had great conficence in Beckett's keen intelligence." (Knowlson 102).

Beckett, as a member of the company around Jamese Joyce, was familiar with Joyce's personal issues and one of the worries of Joyce was the about his daughter Lucia: "Beckett first met Lucia Joyce at her father's flat early in November 1928." (Knowlson 103). She is described as "beautiful, vibrant girl with tall slender graceful", i. e. in spite of her suffering from mental illness." (Knowlson 103). She also suffered from strabismus. On the other hand, according to Joyce's niece, Bozena Berta Delimata she had "dark, curly hsoulder-lenght hair and blue eyes with a slight cast but ... attractive in spite of it." (Knowlson 103). Lucia is said to be "focussing her amorous attention on Beckett." (Knowlson 104). Perhaps, from the fear of putting the frienship with her father into danger, Beckett refused to have more intimate reltionship with Lucia: "He continued to take her out to restaurants and theatres but it was more in an attempt to bind himself to Joyce than out of any great desire to be with Lucia, who was already beginnig to show wild and disturbing fluctuations of mood. It is unlikely, however, that he would have allowed his relationship with her to become a sexual one, although he admitted to find her 'very good-looking'. He had far too much to lose with

Joyce and was in any case emotianally involved at the time with Peggy Sinclair." (Knowlson 104, 105).

Based on this claim, it is possible to detect certain hierarchy of values. Beckett apparently valued his friendship with Joyce much higher than the idea of having a relationship with his daughter. In addition to this, it could be disputable till which extent the accusations of Beckett are justifed, when he was accused of making a use of Joyce's daughter to get closer to Joyce. A response may be found in Beckett's poem I would like my love to die, in which Lucia Joyce, indirectly, appears. In the poem, Beckett's remorse and feeling of guilt is apparent:

"I would like my love to die and the rain to be falling on the graveyard and on me walking the streets mourning the first and last to love me."2

However, the consequences of this event were devastating for Beckett. He was accused of "leading the girl on in order to ingratiate himself with Joyce. Nora rounded upon Joyce and told him that his daughter's affections had been trifled with. Joyce (who, absorbed in his book, may not have noticed before) accepted his role as the outraged father. He delivered the message. Beckett's visits were to cease; he was persona non grata at Square Robiac." (Knowlson 105) The firendship with Joyce was not fully repaired untill Joyce realized the serisousnes of his daughter's mental illness which caused the impossibillity of a true love affair.

Reflecting on his friendshp with Joyce, Beckett states: "When I first met Joyce, I didn't intedned to be a writer. That only came later when I found out that I was no good at all at teaching. […] I had a great admiration for him. That's what it was epic, heroic, what he achieved. But I realized that I couldn't go down that same road." (Knowlson 105). Beckett "felt, from early on in their relationship, that it was essential for him to separate himself and establish a distance between himself as a writer and Joyce" (Knowlson 106). By this separation it was Beckett's minimalistic approach, which he applied especially in his plays.

2 Samuel Beckett: "I would like my love to die". 17 Mar. 2014. Web. 26 Mar. 2015.

4. 2. Jamese Joyce's Influence on Beckett's Work

The relationship between Joyce and Beckett could also be conceptualized negatively, i. e. suggesting Beckett was kind of servant or slave to Joyce, since, due to Joyce's failing vision, Beckett was reading to him aloud for long hours. Therefore, the polemics could be led whether Beckett concepts his Waiting for Godot and Endgame (in which the characters of master and his servant are displayed) as an alegorical confession related to his friendship with James Joyce.

However, Joyce's influence on Beckett was immense one. Beckett has been influenced by him till middle 1930s. But since this time, quite different approach begun to be noticeable and it is said that "it took him until after the Second World War to discover his own 'road'. (Knowlson 106). To find out his specific style of writing and own poetics, Beckett must have had developed certain topics, motives, attitudes and also values which were standing behind his work.

This influence of Joyce on Beckett is apparent till the time of Second World War. As Beckett said, "I realized that Joyce had gone as far as one could in the direction of knowing more, [being] in control of one’s material. He was always adding to it; you only have to look at his proofs to see that. I realized that my own way was in impoverishment, in lack of knowledge and in taking away, in subtracting rather than in adding." (Knowlson 303) At this point, Beckett claims that "James Joyce was a synthesizer, trying to bring in as much as he could. I am an analyzer trying to leave out as much as I can." Based on this approach, it may be noticed that Beckett's minimalism has its roots in need to negate Joyce's approach. Again, it is also the concept of Beckett's work which brings us to his need for individualism and independence, i. e. in relation to the fear from remaining Joyce's shadow, considered as his co-worker at the best. The minimalistic concept suggested above became the basement for Beckett's most significant plays, especially those belonging to the field of the Theatre of The Absurd.

5. Features Forming Beckett's Own Poetics and Values

As suggested above, Beckett's own poetics was being formed after Second World War, so it is possible to presume that not only the negation of Joyce's approach

was significant feature in terms of froming Beckett's own literary style, but also an experience from Second World War may be considered significant feature, especially at the level of Beckett's protagonists, spatial setting, motives and themes.

Appart from the influence from family and friends, there is a number of features in Beckett's life, which played significant role and have contributed to his development as a person and as an author. As mentioned above, Beckett found his own, specific, original style of writing, lying in rawness of perception in post-war period, which was the time he was working with Irish Red Cross. "It was there that he witnessed real devastation and misery: buildings - each one someone's home - reduced to rubble; possessions blown to pieces; a ward full of patients ill with tuberculosis, bringing back painful memories of Peggy." (350 Knowlson). Seeing the people deprived of possession, it was a time to think about own values, which neglected the importance of possession and suggested the idea of dependency often overlapping with the need to have someone and not to be left to face own suffering alone. And finally, it is also the absurdity and disillusionment making people search for the reason of their suffering.

5. 1. Experience from Second World War

As has already been announced, the Second World War played a crucial role in forming Beckett's attitude, style and 'philosophy'. When the war broke out, Beckett was staying in Ireland. As he said, he prefered "France at war to Ireland at peace"3. In January 1941 James Joyce died and Beckett decided to join the Parisian resistance group. At this time, he was with his wife to be, Suzanne Deschevaux-Dumensil, who was also a part of resistance movement and supported Beckett in his writing career. To escape from Nazi persecution, they hide in village Roussillon, where they lived as farmers and almost in complete poverty. As stated above, one of the most influential features was Beckett's involvement in Irish Red Cross. The devastated landscape had a great influence on his work and it was permanently imprinted also in his mind. After war, in 1948, he already had finished many of his prose works (e. g. Murphy or Molloy). The same year he started to write his novel Malone dies which meant nights of writing, when Beckett was left without friends, at the edge of poverty. To find relief, he started

3 Israel Shenker, "Moody Man of Letters", The New York Times, 5 May 1956, quoted in Cronin, 310

to write the play Waiting for Godot. In 1954 his brother Frank died, which was an incentive to write play Endgame. It is possible to see that Beckett's writing in the field of drama started after Second World War and another unhappy events e. g. loss of his complete family, experience with poverty, evidence of suffering and destruction he witnessed after Second World War, especially during his work with Irish Red Cross, the struggle for independence which he expressed by joining French Ressistance Movement aimed against Nazi occupation, as well as at his purely personal filed, when Beckett was finding his own style and attitude.

5. 2. Vanity of Material Things

Although Beckett came from a higher social class as mentioned within his autobiography, several times in his life he found himself to live in poverty. During the First World War as mentioned above or after his studies when he was dependent on his mother, who finally refused to support financially his bohemian life. Beckett also faced the poverty in Rousillon. The struggle for independence on his mother's support in opposite to Beckett's need to be supported by her brings the clash of the independence and materialism. These experiences have influenced his work at the level of characters: "He became acutely aware at this time in his life of the poverty, pain and suffering that were visible almost everywhere around him in the big city. […] Now, no longer returning home to Foxrock at the end of the day, he began to wander around the streets, observing how wretched the lives of so many of his fellow men could be: beggars, tramps, ex-soldiers wounded or gassed in the First World War, the blind paralytic ..." (Knowlson 66, 67)

Obviously, the characters mentioned above are the protagonists to be found in Beckett's plays, especially those written in the field of The Theatre of the Absurd. Moreover, in Beckett's plays the materialism or social status does not bring the compensation when a man has to face absurd fate and suffering (for example masters Hamm or Pozzo who suffer regardless their social status). In the play Happy Days, where the protagonist Winnie has only a bag with few things, which she values very high, the antimaterialistic approach is also suggested; although she seems to be dependent on those things, they are ordinary yet they render kind of significance.

5. 3. Unanimism: An Individual Way of Collective Suffering

The struggle for independence suggested above proved Beckett to be a very strong individualist, yet his conceptualization as an outsider or a person struggling for deliberate separation from the society would be incorrect. To express and describe the realation of individuality and society in terms of Beckett's approach and thinking, a school of thought, which originated at the beginning of 20th century, may serve as means for understanding. "During his final undergraduate year, inspired by Rudmose- Brown's enthusiasm, he had become very keen on the early poetry of Pierre-Jean Jouve and Jules Romains and interested in the literary movement called "Unanimisme" that centred on Romains and his friends. Mainly two novels by Jouve are significant: Le Monde désert and Polina which are said to have influenced Beckett at a high level.

As for Le Monde desert, the work displays the relationship of artist: a painter Jacques Todi, who is a homosexual. He has a model - a son of a pastor from Geneva who eventually commits a suicide. One of the crucial ideas is the clash of what is apparent and what is 'hidden' in terms of the inner life of the protagonists. As for the feature of homosexuality, the protagonists of Bekcetts' works are also in some cases interpreted as homosexuals (as was suggested in the relationship of Vladimir and Estragon in Waiting for Godot). The utterances and scenes which could possibly be inferring this kind of understanding, are mainly the frequent usage of requests in which the characters ask each other for quite intimte gesture ("Kiss me" in Endgame, "Let's hug each other" in Waiting for Godot, or the question in Endgame: "You don't love me? - You loved me once.", taking place within a dialogue of male protagonists). In another perspective on these requests, the interpretation of seeing the gesture rather as socializing act lowering the suffrage may be suggested. In relation to the work Le Monde désert, an interesting paradox is the display of the son of a pastor, who commits a suicide - at this point the religious and existential features can be seen to clash mutually. Pastor, a symbol of religion, and his son committing suicide - purely existential act. The contrast of motives of prayer and suicide is quite frequently present in Beckett's plays as well.

The aforementioned movement Unanimisme allegedly "starts from the writers' intense feeling that they belong to some kind of collective existence: the life of a city, a barracks, a church service, a crowded theatre auditorium or a café, for example."

(Knowlson 75) This concept could seemingly 'endanger' Beckett's idea of individuality; thus the question may be raised what has attracted Beckett about collective concept: "It might appear surprising at first that Beckett, who was to become so much of an individualist, should have taken a special interest in the early Unaniminimist poems." (Knowlson 76). When searching for an explanation, it is possible to refer to the concept and definition of Unanimism which is said to be based on the words unas meaning one and animus meaning spirit, the free translation of the term would be one soul, one spirit. Therefore, in spite of the seemingly superficial concept of previewing the society as crowd, it is possible to claim that unanimism works mainly at mental level.

In times of war this movement operates with the idea of loss of trust in a man. It "reminds us which features should form the basement of human nature and in which regards this human nature is embezzled in times of war - i. e. solidarity, tolerance, understanding for others etc."4 Based on the ideas of Unanimism, the collective spirit may be interpreted as the whole humankind, especially with the refference to M. Heidegger's ideas of the apocryphal being and throwness of a man into the world. In Beckett's philosophy, this is one of crucial parts. An incorporation into the crowd may be binding, unsolicited and one is left to be a subject to this "throwness", yet on the other hand it gives one the sense of belonging, as well as it implies the idea that the members of the group have to face the same problem - with individual differences in its concept, perception and experience, yet without difference in terms of basic concept of human being and human nature, since they all have to face being thrown into the world.

The idea should be underlined that collective does not have to be viewed as necessarily related to the superficial point of view, implying negative features such as loss of identity, limitation of personal freedom or uncritical point of view etc. Collective may be concepted as a feature related to the aforementioned apocryphal being; unnanimism then connects this being at the basic existential level and especially, due to the focus on interior life of a man, it is possible to consider (keeping the antimaterialistic approach in mind, where there is not any possiblity for compensation by social status or possession) certain equality of people at very basic level of their existence. The individuals are connected by the inauthentic being - the feature they have in common. At the same time, it is possible to talk about huge individuality with a

4 „Unanimismus.“ Wikipedie: Otevřená encyklopedie. 27. 01. 2014, 18:27 UTC. 9. 02. 2015, 10:20 . 26

refference to different, subjective ways to cope with this inauthentic being and problematics of being thrown into the world (an illustration of this concept within Beckett's work may be seen especially in Act Without Words II displaying two different personalities, when one is well-organized, reasonable and the other one is more hot- tempered, confused).

Beckett himself had the experience with isolation, to which he was forced by the circumstances, yet at the same time it was apparently permanent part of his personality: "the solitude of a man who sits unhappily at his table feeling the sadness of his isolation from others is not so far removed from that of Beckett's own "man in a room" in the late plays or prose works (e. g. character of Krapp). But Beckett's solitaire has not merely reconciled himself to his solitude. He has actively sought it out, having found no consolation in the outside world. The mood was close enough to Beckett's own feelings as he sat in his room at Trinity for it to appeal to him." (Knowlson 76) In order not to preview Beckett as to be deliberately isolated it is claimed that "In spite of his shyness and love for solitude, Beckett always seemed able to make friends" (Knowlson 78). The theme of frienship is a significant feature not only in terms of his life, but it is very much, although in a modified form, reflected and presented in his work.

One of the persons, who had a great influence on Beckett, was his professor Rudmose-Brown who influenced Beckett's love for poetry. It was him who supported Beckett in the beginnings of his literary creation and Beckett was "encouraged to start writing creatively" (Knowlson 50). His professor has also influenced Beckett's attitude to collectivism or ideology: "Rudmose-Brown's memoirs show him to have been a staunch believer in individual freedom: "that is why I am neither Fascist nor Communist, Imperialist nor Socialist," he wrote. " He totally opposed to any kind of narrow patriotism or nationalism." (Knowlson 50). The danger of pidgeholding is suggested also later, in Beckett's first work, i. e. essay on Joyce called Dante … Bruno. Vico … Joyce.

In conslusion, in terms of the issue of individuality and collective concept of the society, Beckett himself is a strong individualist, yet he is still aware of existence of a certain system in the society, in which the individuals are initially interconnected. This system could be understood under Heidegger's term of apocryphal being, in which the people are forced to face their own existence - in Beckett's concept the elements such as

absurd fate, limitation of a man and his knowledge or cognition are present as well. Generally, in concept of people's mindset, being open-minded, having the trust in own opinions and being able to think independently were the values which Beckett highly appreciated. Appart from Heidegger's apocryphal being, it is also the issue of dependency on someone which fits into the context of repetitiveness of human existence and mutual dependence on humankind - existential as well as emotional.

6. Axiological Development of Beckett's Work: Chronological Concept

In this chapter, Beckett's work and its beginnings will be a subject of analysis with the focus on determination of values. The aim of the analysis is to appoint the crucial values and their changes, i. e. in chronological (diachronic) concept. The applied method will be hermeneutical analysis (i. e. interpretation) and thematically determined selection with the aim to appoint the features at axiological level and their dynamics (change, reduction, expansion, modification etc.). The development will be considered from Beckett's first major works till the beginning of his dramatical work. Subsequently, the focus will be made on his drama only.

Beckett's first work Dante ... Bruno. Vico ... Joyce is a critical essay which was published in 1929. By its nature it is a defence of Joyce's work. In Czech translation, the study was published in 1992 under the title of Joyce - Proust: Eseje, where also Beckett's essay on Macrel Proust form 1931 was added. At the beginning of the text already, Beckett points out at the danger of pidgeholding as well as the idea of differentiation of philosophical abstraction and empirical proof. A critical point is made towards "temporalizing that which is extratemporal." (Beckett 7). At this point, it is possible to notice that this approach is applied also in Beckett's plays - the spatial and temporal setting is torn out of context, flow of time is absent in favour of its more general, universal concept.

Another feature which could also have influence at Beckett's work is a critical look at the concept by Giambattista Vico: "His exposition of the ineluctable circular progression of Society was completely new, although the germ of it was contained in

Giordano Bruno’s treatment of identified contraries." (Beckett 9). The expression "ineluctable circular progression" may bring us again to the idea of apocryphal being. Vico was strongly influenced by Descartes, yet he refused his idea that cognition is is the clear criterion of a truth. The truth, in Vico's concept, is what has been done by a human. He also pronounces the idea, that Descartes' rational idea may be significant, yet in complex reality and society it is intricately applicable.

Beckett, as strongly rational author, displays the clash of reason and absurdity, as well as the struggle to understand or overcome an absurdity with a use of reason. However, from the point of epistemology, the Beckett's approach within the Theatre of The Absurd is opposite to Vico's one, when Vico claims that in the human life and society, the main features are probability and circumstances - the truth is not what we know since it is obvious, but the truth is what we can do (verum et factum convertunur). It is possible to presume, that Beckett's plays operate with quite different approach - based on the fact, that the protagonists are unable of action and based on this, they realize what they can (or better they can't) do. There is also a kind of dynamics of human power for changes, for example in Act Whithout Words I, the protagonist finds his border between what he can do and the absurdity which he can not overcome by his active endeavour.

Another principle which had a high influence on Beckett's thinking is included within theses by Vico, who, due to Beckett, is said to share some points with Bruno:

There is not difference, says Bruno, between the smallest possible chord and the smallest possible arc, no difference between the infinite circle and the straight line. The maxima and minima of particular contraries are one and indifferent. Minimal heat equals minimal cold. Consequently transmutations are circular. The principle (minimum) of one contrary takes its movement from the principle (maximum) of another. Therefore not only do the minima coincide with the minima, the maxima with the maxima, but the minima with the maxima in the succession of transmutations. Maximal speed is a state of rest. The maximum of corruption and the minimum of generation are identical. (Beckett, Eseje 10)

It is possible to notice, that Beckett applies the same philosophy, e. g. within the utterance of Pozzo in Waiting for Godot: "He stopped crying. (To Estragon.) You have

replaced him as it were. (Lyrically.) The teras of the world are a constant quantity. For each one who begins to weep, somewhere else another stops. The same is true of the laugh. (He laughs.)" (Beckett 40). This approach would imply the idea of the maximum- minimum combination, which is superindividual (i. e. involves two people at least). The combination of two contrastive extremes (minimum-minimum and maximum- maximum) may imply the idea of certain individual ability or capacity suggesting the idea that human suffering for example can not be higher than human happiness, though they may be experienced subjectively, the objective limit of its amount remains constant. This approach is applied in Beckett's play Not I, where the female protagonist claims she does not feel she would be suffering fom punishment, yet she can not feel any pleasure either. An idea is thus suggested that combination of minimum and maximum must involve two people (as presented in Waiting for Godot above), while two minima are relevant for one person only (as presented in Not I, the inability to feel one extreme implies the idea of total apathy of an individual). This concept also brings the issue of mutual dependency of whole humankind. Moreover, emotions are significant value since they imply a positive value of humanity.

The aforementioned concept contributes to the idea of mechanical, predetermined system of society and human existence. In Dante ... Bruno. Vico ... Joyce. Beckett also refers himself to Vico's idea that "Individuality is the concretion of universality, and every individual action is at the same time superindividual." (Beckett, Eseje 11). The term superindividual may be defined as 'anthropologically generally valid'. Beckett's study also reveals Beckett's approach to religion: "Humanity is its work in itself. God acts on her, but by means of her. Humanity is divine, but no man is divine. This social and historical classification is clearly adapted by Mr. Joyce as a structural convenience - or inconvenience." (Beckett, Eseje 12). Suggesting a reference to Joyce and being under his influence, Beckett's concept of religion is being formed. With a reference to Vico, Beckett operates with the idea of life phases, i. e. Birth, Maturity, Corruption and Generation with a remark that birth is not certain, especially with the "consciousness that there is a great deal of the unborn infant in the lifeless octogenarian, and a great deal of both in the man at the apogee of his life's curve." (Beckett, Eseje 13). At level of language, in his essay, Beckett calls Joyce "biologist in words" (Beckett, Eseje 27), i. e. in the sense of Joyce's struggle to bring withering English back to the

sources. Yet in later period, quite opposite approach (i. e. minimalistic one) is valid for Beckett's literary creation.

In another essay within the work Beckett: Eseje, Beckett is dealing with Marcel Proust and his work, which reveals a lot about approach Beckett uses in his later works. "Proust's characters are victims of this all-controlling condition and circumstance - Time; they are victims similarly like lower organisms which know two dimension ony: they are victims and prisoners. There is no escape from hour and days. Neither from tomorrow, nor from yesterday. There is no escape from yesterday, since yesterday has already affected us or it was affected by us." (Beckett, Eseje 36). In accordance to the system of mechanical existence suggested above, it is claimed that "Yesterday is not a milestone indicating miles which we already have behind us, but it is a milestone of days at the beaten track of years." (Beckett, Eseje 36). It is possible to argue whether this repetitiveness is individual (i. e. it suggests individual spins in a circle) or superindividual (i. e. the existence of each individual takes place after the existence of another one). However, both the concepts related to the motive of a beaten track are used in Beckett's plays.

In Beckett's essay on Proust, a significant idea is pronounced, i. e. "What does it mean to "achieve the goal"? It means, when subject identifies himself with the object of his passion. Yet the subject himself dies on his journey - perhaps many times." (Beckett, Eseje 37). Proust agrees with Joyce at the point of the idea of mechanical system of society and human existence, as expressed by Beckett: "An individual is a place of continuous spillover: from the vessel containing the fluid of future, which is inert, dull and monochromatic it flows into the vessel containing fluid of the past, revived and brightly colored by phenomena of the past hours." (Beckett, Eseje 38). The validity of this approach is in Beckett's case conditioned by the presence (or retention) of memories, i. e. the topic closely related to individual experience. In Waiting for Godot, this approach is not valid, due to lack of memories of the characters. As Beckett claims in relation to Proust's work, "The Memory and Habit are attributes of the cancer of Time. [...] Laws of memory are subjects to more general laws of habit. Habit is a compromise [...] the life is a sequence of habits since an individual is the sequence of individuals." (Beckett, Eseje 41). Moreover, Beckett claims that "Habit is a great deadener." which may be understood in terms of viewing it as a feature limiting perception, cognition and emotions.

The testimony stated above is another proof that features of Prosut's work could serve as inspiration for Beckett's plays, especially with a contribute to the display of memory and habit, which are in Beckett's work closely related and have significant importance in contribution to his crucial 'philosophy' overlapping with the issue of values and cognition: "pernicious devotion to habit thus paralyses attention" (Beckett, Eseje 42) Beckett also creates the idea of contract binding the man with his habit, which is, due to Proust, our second nature. Beckett's play Waiting for Godot, in which this loss of memories and resulting habit and repetitiveness were displayed, could sereve as a typical example of application of this procedure. Proust's approach coindices with Beckett's one when it is claimed: "We are alone. We can not recognize or be recognized." (Beckett, Eseje 77), which is the idea suggesting certain agnosticism, yet the issue of human cognition varies in Beckett's plays, often in dependence on memory, gain of detachment or refusal to be part of habit and absurdity.

The influence of Proust at Beckett is reflected in his work much later than his critical study Dante ... Bruno. Vico ... Joyce. was written. Beckett's own style (or anti- style) is much more reflected in his late works, from the beginning of 50s, i. e. Molloy, Malone dies and Unnamable which do not share the decorated metaphorical language, numerous similes, attributes which were used for the creation of his essays on Proust and Joyce.

To set the border of individual thinking of these writers, Beckett had a great respect for Dante and Descartes, yet he did not share Joyce's passion for Vico, although he agrees with him that the body is said to be "not simultaneous with the spirit" (Beckett 100), which is one of the most crucial points for understanding Beckett's plays. This may lead us to the idea of separate existence of body and spirit and thus the issue of reincarnation. In early stage of Beckett's work, he reads works by Arthur Schopenhauer, Arnold Geulincx (his work Ethics) and Immanuel Kant. Kant and Schopenhauer agree on the conception of the world as a notion or idea (primarily Suggested by Kant): all things are given to us as phenomena. Schopenhauer questions the idea that the source of metaphysic (a philosophical discipline dealing with being, existence and the highest monad - God, as mentioned by Beckett in essay Dante ... Bruno. Vico ... Joyce) can not be based on empirical approach, and suggests that the cognition may be based also on own or mediated experience. In Beckett's plays the role of experience varies, depending on presence and absence of the memory and stereotype which disable application of

experience. Shopenhauer suggests the individuality of human cognition in his work Welt als Wille und Vorstellung I. The presence of axiological features is noticeable in philosophy of Henri Begrson, anti-rationalist, opposing tradition and Enlightment, who emphasizes the importance of spirituality and points out at the life principle of love. Geulincx, about whom Beckett gave several lectures, has influenced Proust or Joyce already and he is directly quoted in Beckett's work Molloy (1950): "Where you are worth nothing, there you should not want nothing". Bergson suggests the concept of causality of happening in the world, in which the events may be segmented into causes and consequences. In Beckett's plays of Absurd, this concept is completely denied and causality of the plot is replaced by motive of an absurd coincidence with existential nature. On the other hand, in Endgame there is quite different approach to be noticed, i. e. in accordance to Begrson:

"Hamm: I'll give you nothing more to eat. Clov: Then we'll die. Hamm: I'll give you just enough to keep you from dying. You'll be hungry all the time. Clov: Then we won't die." (Beckett 21)

Not only almost apathical pragmatism, by which the causality is approached, may be noticed, but also the mutual dependence of both characters is suggested, based on the use of pronoun we in the result.

In Beckett's play Whoroscope from 1930, which was awarded by a small literary prize, the frequent use of alliteration is apparent. By this work, which was written within one night only, Beckett enters poetry. It is possible to notice Beckett's struggle for language, i. e. being still under Joyce's influence. Yet at the level of themes, his existential foundation is already being formed: "How rich she smells, this abortion of a fledgling"5 In a form of a monologue, the protagonist, René Descartes, deals with the existential issues, theology and time-flow while waiting for omelette of rotten eggs. Based on the quotation above, it is apparent that Beckett uses certain motive in extremely existential context (at this work, moreover, in the combination with pleasant sensory perception) which may be noticed also in his Act Without Words II, as

5 454 W 23rd St New York, NY 10011 - 2157. "Samuel Beckett's first book, Whoroscope, 1930". 18 Feb. 2011. Web. 26. Mar. 2015.

developed further. In the field of epistemology, there is a significant quote in Whoroscope, i. e. "Fallor, ergo sum!" (Beckett, Whoroscope) i. e. "I am wrong, therefore I am", possibly suggesting the idea that a human being is in its essence fallible and imperfect - another crucial idea in Beckett's plays and significant one especially in the field of epistemology.

In 1932 Beckett finishes his work More Pricks Than Kicks dealing with routine and religious disputes in Ireland. In 1933 his father died and Beckett lives in in Italy and Germany. In Dublin Magazine from in 1934, Beckett's poem was published:

"Spend the years of learning squandering Courage for the years of wandering Through a world politely turning From the loutishness of learning" (Beckett, Collected Poems 1930 - 1978)

The title of the poem, Gnome, comes from Ancient Greek, meaning knowledge. In the poem, Beckett apparently highlights the importance of learning and values the curiosity and individual experience. He also works with a contrast 'politely' and 'loutishness'.

Since 1935, Beckett suffered from severe moral, mental and financial crisis, as well as psychosomatic illnesses. In order to let of steam, Beckett starts writing prose Murphy, displaying young intellectual, who is trying to get rid of commitments (similarly to Eleutheria, in which the protagonist Henri Krapp is trying to achieve independence). The protagonist eventually manages so, but only through a suicide.

In 1944, Beckett is returning from Rousillone where he was hiding with Suzanne from Nazi persecution. This is the hard time in Beckett's life. He returnes to his empty flat, questiones the values of literary creation and he doubths his own abilities. Again, he is resorting to alcohol. Yet in 1946, there is a significant turning point in the field of his literar creation: "One stormy night, when he was wandering along Ireland, a mystical experience of revelation and enlightment met him, in relation to inner assurance, that the source of his creative energy is in the field of freed sentiment, not in the field of intellect. He started to write in first person, i. e. in French" (Vrba, Šťastné dny 7). Up to this moment, Beckett was often displaying young intellectuals trying to achieve independence. This may be considered autobiographical feature, since Beckett

was struggling for his own individual specific style as well. They plays, starting with Waiting for Godot, are proofs of his success.

Exhausted by work, in 1947 Beckett starts to write the play Eleutheria, displaying the rebellion of a young man against the pressure of society. The work is not finished. In Apil 1947 Murphy was puglished and Beckett started writing Molloy (finished in 1948), in which he presented his crucial theme - a human at the end of his strenght, who is slowly succumbing to death. In the same year, Beckett, at the end of poverty, hard-working and left without friends, starts writing Malone dies. Falling into depression, he finds a way of 'therapy' and he starst writing Waiting for Godot. "I devoted myself to writing plays to get out of severe depression, into which I was drawn by writing novels. My life was very severe, almost horrifying. I presumed that theatre could help me to distract my attention from that burden. (Vrba, Šťastné dny 35)

In 1950, Beckett writes his Stories and text for nothing in which three characters are refused by society and they are trying to fit somewhere else. In first story of this work, The Expelled, Beckett's idea related to problem of being born is present. In 1953 Beckett's Innominable is published and in 1954 he is writing his Endgame, finished in 1956. The same year he publishes his first one-act radio play All That Fall, for BBC. "In the last week of Augusst 1956 he wrote to Barney Rosset that he was 'in a whirl of depression at the moment' and a week later that he was 'still deep in drain' […] he cancelled all his appointments in Paris for a week simply because he felt wholly incapable of facing people. Instead, satisfied at having created so much vitality and wit out of the pain and the silence, he completed the script of All that Falls and sent it on to the BBC." (Knowlson 430, 431). In relation to this, it is said that "Beckett's heroes do not die at war, do not murder an do not kill others, but slowly, gradually, long - perhaps too long, they are decaying, declining, getting older and dying. (Vrba, Šťastné dny 54). In the play All That Falls, a character of girl who suffers from incureable disease. The doctor actually does not see nothing extraordinary about her, apart from the fact she is dying. Thus the death may be considered as something purely natural, not dramatic.

Still in 1956, Beckett finishes his works Act Without Words I and Act Without Words II. In 1958, Krapp's Last Tape with numerous autobiographical features is published. Beckett's second radio play with five characters, Embers (1959) is a

confrontation and overlapping of reality and hallucination. The protagonist Henri, an old man, facing disillusionment from his life, is suffering from mental illness. He leads monologues and has hallucinations in which he is talking with his immediate family - father, wife Ada, who are dead or with daughter Adina. His father is deep in the land of death and can not respond to him. At this point, an autobiographical note is apparent: Beckett at first loses his father. Eventually, Henri's only partner for talk is the sea, which is hated by Henri, since it is the reason of his father's and wife's death, yet he is still attracted by it. For this play, Beckett was awarded a prestige radio prize.

In late 50s, Beckett writes his play Rough for Theatre I. displaying two male characters, both physically disabled and Rough for Theatre II indicating the significant motive of Beckett's work of being a subject to higher power i. e. at the level of axiology, being manipulated or lack of freedom. After this play, Beckett starts writing play Happy Days (1960). Another radio play, Words and Music from 1962, suggests Becett's concept of reason and emotions. The words are said to contain intellectual essence of human perception and action. Their centre is in head - the function of words is to create dry definitions and work with them. Music, on the other hand, represents the emotional essence of human interior life or spontaneity. The character Croak has both the essences, which are still fighting each other. When words are hopeless, the music helps.

The Play from 1963 followed, operating with the theme of an affair. In 1965 Beckett publishes his play for three female protagonists Come and Go (Va et Vient, 1966). Eh Joe is Beckett's TV play for a man and female voice, completed in May 1965. In 1969 his minimalistic approach escalates in twenty-five seconds long play Breath. In 1972, it was a premiere of Beckett's play Not I. Between 1974 and in 1975, Beckett is writing his one-act play That Time. The same year he wrote Footfalls and play Ghost Trio (for man protagonist and female voice). His play from 1976 … but the cloud … for a man and his voice from record. In 1977 he finishes one-act play Rockababy for female protagonist and her voice. One-act play Ohio Impromptu (1981) follows, arranged for two men. Beckett's play Catastrophe, first performed in 1982, is dedicated to Václav Havel. His last play What Where from 1983 is a dramatical tableau for men characters and voices.

7. Interpretation and Axiological View at Beckett's Plays

Within the subsequent chapter, an attempt will be made to expand on the interpretation of Beckett's crucial dramatical works, which were chronologically mentioned in previous chapter. The interpretation of the plays will be considered a starting point for the determination of values and their possible modifications. Some of Beckett's plays at first met with the lack of understanding and acceptance from the side of audience. With a reference to the Work in Progress which originated with the help of Beckett under Jamese Joyce's supervision, Beckett, in his Dante ... Bruno. Vico ... Joyce claims: "And if you don't understand it, Ladies and Gentlemen, it is because you are too decadent to receive it. You are not satisfied unless form is so strictly divorced from content that you can comprehend the one almost without bothering to read the other." (Beckett, Eseje 19). Beckett in the field of his plays may be minimal at form, yet significant in terms of hidden message, the meaning. Both the features mutually overlap.

Among the crucial features in the field of the Theatre of the Absurd, the minimalistic approach in terms of communication or its total elimination may be noticed. In essay about Proust, Beckett claims: "Even if the rare moment comes when the world and gesture coincidently become true expression of our personality, the meaning will never reach the other person, since it terminates in a waterfall of his personality." (Beckett, Eseje 19) Therefore, it is not the word, but the gesture which may express much more.

Beckett's very first attempt for drama was one-act play Human Wishes, which remains fragment only. At axiological level, another play Eleutheria may be said to display human evil, i. e. in character of Dr. André Piouk. The play, originally written in 1947 in French, brings the character of Victor Krap, whose name (though in slightly modified version - Krapp) appears in Beckett's strongly autobiographical work Krapp's last tape. In a flow of complex relationships, the protagonist Victor Krap, a member of a high-social class is struggling for independence, and separation from his family, yet still being supported by his mother. (An autobiographical feature may be noticed, since Beckett, after his studies, was also struggling for independence, yet still dependent on financial support of his mother, who finally refused to do so anymore). At the level of

values, it is mainly the issue of individuality and independence. Dr. André Piouk who would like to destroy humanity may be considered as evil; he himself is disfigured. If we avoid the superficial concept of explaining this feature as an external reflection of inner character, it is possible to suggest certain complex causing the evil in his personality. In other words, behind the evil character there is a complex to be found. Moreover, there is a character of Chinese torturer, who is said to treat the protagonist. At axiological level it is the corporal punishment again, which is understood as evil. Protagonist's struggle for independence is then precluded by material ties and needs.

After the works mentioned above, Beckett's two masterpieces followed, i. e. Waiting for Godot and Endgame. Endgame (1957) was a reaction to the death of Beckett's brother Frank, who died in May, 1954 of lung cancer. It was the play Endgame which made Beckett to pronounce, for the very first time, that "he is willing to admit the drama has the same importance as novels, if not greater one." (Vrba, Šťastné dny 39). This work followed Beckett's probably most famous play Waiting for Godot (1949) which operates with the themes e. g. dependency, physical and mental destruction, suffering, epistemology, absurdity etc. This play meant end to Beckett's anonymity. In the field of motives, both the plays bare features which are comparable. The play Waiting for Godot displays the human beings who are unaware and limited in their knowledge or cognition. In accordance to postmodern characteristics, the author himself is not a master of his own work, as Beckett said, "If I knew who is Godot, I would have it written there." (Beckett 102)

Putting emphasis on the theme of friendship in these two Beckett's works, the aforementioned mutual dependency is noticeable within the relationship of master and his servant. This dependency is strengthened by a motive of master's blindness, which is a feature to be noticed from the very beginning of the Endgame. In comparison to Waiting for Godot, where it is possible to notice certain degradation, since the master becomes blind in the second act of the play. Therefore, in Waiting for Godot, the higher degree of dynamics of destruction is noticeable, while in Endgame the physical limitation is relatively 'stable' since it is displayed from the beginning already and the play is more focused on mental suffering related to it. With a focus on the development of friendship in Waiting for Godot, the degradation is noticeable in wider temporal context: "Pozzo: (sobbing) He used to be so kind . . . so helpful . . . and entertaining . . . my good angel . . . and now . . . he's killing me." (Beckett 31). The aforementioned

retrospective description suggests degeneration of friendship. Again, in Endgame, the degradation progresses beyond the limits of tolerability, when the master in several utterances directly asks his servant to kill him in terms of granting him the merciful death to prevent him from further suffering. In Waiting for Godot, this request is concepted differently and it does not represent the direct form of a request - it is possible to consider it a suggestion, within the utterance of Estragon, when two protagonists are forced to face the endless waiting for a mysterious person Godot: "Estragon: Let's hung ourselves immediately!" (Beckett 22).

Based on the analysis stated above, it is possible to assess the chronological development of friendship of both the plays. The characters did not change at the general level (still we are dealing with the relationship between master and servant), yet certain degradation may be noticed: In Waiting for Godot, the positive relationship is pronounced retrospectively, subsequent degeneration is displayed when master and his servant stay together only based on habit; within the second act, Pozzo goes blind and the dependency is even strengthened, yet it is changing from mental dependency to existential one. The motive of a blind master persists and it is displayed in the Endgame, i. e. from the very beginning. What is new, is the feature of direct request for merciful dead:

"Hamm: Come back! (Clov returns to his place beside the chair.) Where are you? Clov: Here. Hamm: Why don't you kill me?" (Beckett 18).

The reason of this suffering may be also found in the dialogue between Hamm and Clov: "Hamm: You're leaving me all the same. Clov: I'm trying. Hamm: You don't love me. Clov: No. Hamm: You loved me once. Clov: Once! Hamm: I've made you suffer too much." (Beckett 30)

When in search for the features leading Beckett to the display of a blind master and his servant or slave, it is possible to refer to the fact that this motive is concepted as

symptomatic. Supposing that the characters of master and slave may have its origin in real-life characters, it is possible to base the interpretation on the subsequent motives: the feature of blindness of a master, idea of hierarchy between a master and a servant, and motive of pipe, which is master's property and it appears in Waiting for Godot as well as in Endgame. Thus, it can be suggested that behind these characters of Pozzo and Lucky in Waiting for Godot or in Endgame within the characters of Hamm and Clov, stands Beckett and James Joyce. It is claimed that James Joyce has undergone several eye surgeries (between 1917 and 1930) and then he lost his sight completely.

In work by Craig Brown Hello Goodbye Hello: A Circle of 101 Remarkable Meetings, in one of the chapters the meeting of James Joyce and Marcel Proust is described: "Joyce then starts smoking, and opens the window, causing upset to Proust, an asthmatic who hates fresh air. In the brief journey, Proust talks incessantly, but addresses none of his remarks to Joyce." who "wears huge concave spectatles with flick reflections of light onto the walls as he moves his head. Threateded by glaucoma, Joyce is to undergo eleven operations on his eyes in his lifetime, and sometimes wears an eyepatch, which causes his eyes to have, according to one friend, 'the same paleness seen in plants ong hidden from the sun.' (Brown 98), at this point, another paralel to Hamm may be noticed, since at the beginning of the play he pronounces:

"Hamm: Did you never have the curiosity, while I was sleeping, to take off my glasses and look at my eyes? Clov: Pulling back the lids? (Pause.) No. Hamm: One of these days I'll show them to you. (Pause.) It seems they've gone all white." (Beckett 11)

At this point, the testimony would make a sense only when the condition is fulfilled that the character Hamm was told about how his eyes look like. Otherwise, Beckett would appear as unreliable writer, since a blind person can not know which color his eyes are. Here it would be justified to presume that Beckett works deliberately based on a certain 'draft' (a real person) and this testimony is then inserted into the speech of a blind master, who, without being informed by others, would not be able to have the information he reveals in his utterance. Therefore, it is possible to polemize that Beckett did not critically empathise with the character of Hamm, but he deliberately mystifies the reader, i. e. under this draft, which could be represented by James Joyce.

In Waiting for Godot, the friendship between Vladimir and Estagon is contaminated with features of emotional and existential dependency. In terms of the relationship of Pozzo and Lucky, the friendship is mentioned only in retrospective form, since the relationship has decayed. In Endgame, the master Hamm states that "the bigger a man is the fuller he is." (Pause. Gloomily.) And the emptier." (Beckett 8). In terms of understanding the expression 'fuller', it is possible to suggest the growth of experiences contributing to knowledge and cognition in the field of epistemology. At the same time, the term 'emptier' may imply the idea of growing apathy and suggest the issue of alienation in relation to the issue of friendship, as developed further. The friendship as such may be then considered as decaying due to alienation in the world, when the suffering contributes to the realization of being alone in the world and at this point, it follows the idea of Heidegger's apocryphal being, when the people are not real soul mates but they are previewed rather as fellow-sufferers only.

When in search for the features which stand behind Beckett's work, the idea pronounced in Endgame may be considered a paralel to Beckett's own feelings, i. e. the notion of having a fellow-sufferer. At the time Beckett started writig his Endgame, his father and then also his mother had already passed away. Now he loses also his brother Frank, basically the last member of his immediate family. Moreover, it was mainly Beckett who was staying with his dying mother, since his brother Frank, as a businessman, had many duties which did not allow him to spend more time with his mother, whose health was deteriorating dramatically. Behind this autoboigraphical feature, the feeling of responsibility and burden at the same time may be seen, as reflected also in his work, i. e. in the depiction of the interconnection of the characters, when one person is taking care of the other, till his death and then he basically replaces him and he is the one who is dependent on the help of someone else. In play Endgame, it is possible to polemise with the idea of Beckett's worries or even fear inserted into the utterance of Hamm "because there won't be anyone left to have pity on you. (Pause.)" (Beckett 31)

The play Waiting for Godot originated after Second World War, and Beckett was writing it in order to "let off steam". From this personal background already, certain confession of the author could be expected, since at the beginning of the writing Beckett had the need to release the anxiety or tension. From the hermeneutical point of view, Godot may be concepted as kind of change who Beckett himself was waiting for, since

he would be understood as something uncertain, unspecific, which basically can not be named even by the author, since he himself does not know what exactly Godot is (as well as the protagonists of this work), yet this person (or impersoned feature) is said to influence his life significantly. Another interpretation is previewing him as embodied death. In terms of values, the theme of friendship may be found, yet contamined one, i. e. by dependency. Cognition is disabled by the loss of memory. In both plays, there is a great need to have kind of fellow-sufferer.

The play Act Without Words I was written in 1956, originally in French and, as well as Beckett's following play Act Without Words II, translated into English by Beckett himself. The play takes place in a desert and only one male protagonist is displayed. The protagonist is said to be "flung backwards"6 onto the stage. This idea of being thrown into world may be seen as a parallel to Heidegger's concept of apocryphal being. The absence of any possible exit is apparent. In terms of the spatial setting, the number of wings is limited. There is a palm tree with "a single bough some three yards from the ground,"7 which makes the palm to look like gallows. Paradoxically, the palm is called "The Tree of Life" (its symbolic nature as a parallel to the tree in Eden is disputable). There also can be an idea pronounced about the desolation of the landscape when everything has been wasted. There are objects coming continuously; their arrival is always announced by a whistle. At this point, the protagonist does not notice the objects which are being sent on the stage - he notices them and actively uses them only after the sound notification. It seems that man's shadow and looks at his hands are proves of his existence. In terms of the character analysis, the protagonist is an example of a reasonable person, since he is trying to survive, with a use of his reason; he works with the tools or creates them and he is learning. At first he learns how to use the tools at their basic usage, but subsequently his idea is apparent to make a use of them with a purpose to commit a suicide. But at this moment, they are confiscated. - Scissors were used for cutting nails, than intended to be used for cutting his neck. The blocks and rope were also intended to be used for building up a gallows on which the protagonist would hang up himself. At the end, he gives up on trying to escape from this place through committing a suicide. Eventually, he sits on the sand and refuses to play this game any longer, i. e. in spite of the fact there is a battle with water moving closely around him -

6 Beckett, Samuel, Collected Shorter Plays of Samuel Beckett (London: Faber and Faber, 1984), p 43 7 Beckett, Samuel, Collected Shorter Plays of Samuel Beckett (London: Faber and Faber, 1984), p 43

he refuses to reach for it. The palm tree opens again, everything is set to re-play the whole scene, yet the protagonist does not move.

In terms of interpretation, the behaviouristic approach may be noticeable, especially with a regard to the scenes, in which the protagonist learns how to use the tools given. He is learning by the method of trial and error, also the approach of reward may be found as relevant when he is being given a bottle of water. The behaviourist concept may evoke the experiments applied to animals; therefore, the theme of dehumanization may be suggested. A certain mental development of the character is noticeable. For a great part of the play, he is dependent on tools coming from outside and he seems to be under the control of some either higher power or a subject to an experiment. Moreover, he is vulnerable and willing to play this game for its major part. But at the end, he gives up on trying any further, unlike in Waiting for Godot, when Vladimir forgot the idea of vanity of his deeds by the utterance which followed his epistemological awakening: "What have I said?" (Beckett 138), in Act Without Words I, the protagonist is displayed as having kept the experience and having decided according to it (although the play ends at the point where it could continue by a number of his further tires, especially with a reference to the involvement of motives of repetitiveness and habit in Beckett's plays of Absurd).

With a focus on the play, as it is displayed without any disputes about possible future happening, we may refer ourselves to the question how the absurdity may be overcome. In relation to the Myth of Sysiphos, it was the idea of accepting one's absurd destiny and thus gaining some detachment from it - yet still playing this absurd game over and over again, only with the change at the level of mental approach or change of inner perception of this destiny. The play Act Without Words I offers another concept to face the absurdity and repeated vanity of human deeds, i. e. refusal to be a part of this play anymore. It would be possible to claim that it is not the struggle for survivor, what the protagonist is trying to achieve, but it is his giving up the struggle for a quick death (reached by gallows or scissors). At the end of the play, the protagonist's choice is announced, when he has voluntarily chosen the death by growing old, starvation, lack of water etc. (presuming he realizes these consequences). Within this concept, it would be not his resignation, but rather his conscious rebellion against the absurdity and this higher power which is playing the manipulative game or performin an experiment. At this point, a relation to the idea pronounced in Beckett's quote may be found: "I regret

nothing. All I regret is having been born, dying is such a long, tiresome business I always found." Based on the behaviour of the protagonist, it is possible to deuce that the aim of his deeds is not to survive but a struggle for the quickest death. With a comparison to Waiting for Godot, in Act Without Words I, there is also an external power manipulating with a man and causing his suffering. While in Waiting for Godot, the existence of Godot (as a higher power) may be disputable, in Act Without Words I this power is far more apparent, since the direct contact with a protagonist is kept, yet it is mediated by an abstract feature of the sound only. The audience or reader, however, do not know what exactly this higher power should be.

In relation to the display of a man as being thrown into the place, the reference may be seen with Heidegger and his concept of Geworfenheit ("Throwness"), which is related to his idea of apocryphal being. The mechanical system suggested above (operating with the idea that humankind is a set of boxes and existence of an individual is just a 'material' to fill in these boxes, the interconnectivity and repetitiveness is present, as well as habit and dependency) is proved by the fact that the protagonist is nameless, therefore anyone could be found at his place. Based on this concept, the idea may be suggested that the existence of an individual is thus made insignificant, unoriginal.

A feature which is to be noticed in the play several times is protagonist's looking at his hands, possibly with the intention to explore (and assure himself about) his own existence. Therefore, it is not only the life, the setting, the burden of limitation of human knowledge and cognition which is attributed to the protagonist, but it seems that also the body is attributed to a soul. In other words, a human being is not only 'trapped' in the world (place and people who surround him) but also he is trapped in his body. This concept would explain why Beckett considers physical suffering less significant than mental one (often with the use of motive of suicide). Protagonist's looking at his hands may also be understood variously - he can look at his hands either to reassure himself about his existence, or he does not check his existence, yet he may be trying to find out, whether it is still him or he is someone else (implying the idea he died already and was re-born). This kind of interpretation may bring us to one of the crucial ideas of Eastern culture, i. e. reincarnation.

For Beckett's narrators, the talk about a kind of rebirth and reincarnation is relevant. For example in Unnamable, the idea is pronounced about "having 'died, all my

own' and then 'come back to earth again ..." (Beckett, Unnamable 89). The death and subsequent reincarnation would thus be a means of achieving the shift form own to another existence, possibly in a hope that the suffering related to it will be lesser than the one experienced currently. At this regard, the connection of Existentialism with Buddhism or Hinduism may be noticed, in which Existentialism means the final end - yet the end of one 'variety of an existence' and the idea from Buddhism and Hinduism (i. e. reincarnation) shifts the abstract part of existence (the spirit) into another 'box' related to human existence within the system of a world - at this point we are coming back to the Existential concept, in which the repetitiveness and stereotype is present in this system of individuality of the existence, at the same time, mutual dependency of people.

At the level of symbols present in Act Without Words I, the rope may be considered strongly existential symbol, which the protagonist gains by cutting it off by scissors while still hanging on it. After that he falls down on the ground with the part of the rope. At this point, the rope may have symbolic nature and may be related to an umbilical cord, since by cutting if off, he is thrown into the place (or world in general). This concept of rope is significant at two levels: it represents the idea that a man gives birth to himself and he is thrown into world (leading us to conceptualization of human existence as strongly individualized phenomenon). Assuming the validity of the symbolical meaning suggested above, a great paradox with strongly existential undertone may be noticed, when the protagonist has the intention to build up a gallows and hung himself on the rope. This may seem a brutal scene showing a way to deal with apocryphal being and the issue of being thrown into the world without one's own volition, thus the scene can be considered the highest possible existential concept of this being. Figuratively, there is a struggle for one's strangulation on the symbol of the umbilical cord, moreover this should be performed on the "Tree of Live" - again, with a reference to Sartre's concept of suicide as the only creative act a man can do when being a subject to absurdity.

The absence of verbal expression or description of protagonist's inner state's of mind cause the variety of possible interpretations, especially at the end of the play, where are two ways to concept the protagonist's refusal to act (i. e. his active rebellion versus his collapse because of the vanity of his deeds and being given up). Although the interpretation may diverge in different directions, there are certain values present in the

play: first value to be mentioned is apparent from the setting of the play, when only one protagonist is displayed, i. e. in difficult life conditions (on almost empty desert). Therefore the individuality may be appointed one of the crucial values in the play. From chronological point of view, it is the cognition and learning, so both the fields, epistemology and behaviourism, are fields represented in the play. A value which is closely related to the processes of learning and cognition is individual experience, basically functioning as a prerequisite for them. At the end of the play, it is possible to suggest the value related to the extreme border of aforementioned individuality, i. e. defiance of an individual, with the condition that the approach of the protagonist was intended rebellion, rather than being given up.

Supposing the validity of this concept, the description of a character may be reached by a quote by St. Thomas Aquinas who is asking God to give him: "courage to change things I can change. Give me peace to put up with things I can not change and give me reason to help me distinguish them from each other." In relation to the concept pronounced in the quote, it can be suggested that the protagonist, at the end of the play, has acomplished his development at epistemological level. With regard to the hierarchy of needs, it can be noticed that his self-realization was based on the non-fulfilment of other, more fundamental needs. A highly appreciated value would thus be human cognition and knowledge which is a price for being limited at all other needs. Based on the analysis and appointing the positive values, it is possible to deduce the values which are considered negative ones, i. e. inferiority, lack of freedom and scepticism about the expectations of help.

Beckett's mime play Act Without Words II, originally written in French and translated into English by Beckett himself, was written in 1950s. In this play, Beckett applied his minimalistic approach and although the reactions from the audience did not meet with understanding or appreciation, the work undoubtedly contains great interpretative potential with number of existential features. In terms of the stage and 'plot' description, two sacks and a pile of clothes are lying at the back of the stage. There is a man in each sack (Sack A and Sack B). On the left side, there is a pile of clothes. From the right side, there is always a stick coming (in the play called "goad") which pokes the sack on the right side to awake the man inside. The man A is thus awaken and starts his daily routine.

In case of person hidden in sack A, his behaviour is disorganized. He eats pills, prays, dresses etc. His activities do not have apparent order or purpose. He carries a sack B with a man closer on the left side, he himself moves on the left side too, returning back into his sack, leaving the sack B with another man on the right side, i. e. being vulnerable to the stick. The action is repeated, the man in sack B is awaken by a stick, which is now supported by wheel. He ignores the clothes which were folded and now they are scattered, he minds his own business. The behaviour of this man is far more organized, he takes care about himself, regularly checks his watches and before moving the sack, he consults a map and compass. He moves the sack A, gets undressed, folds his clothes and goes back to his sack. Again, a stick comes (now supported by two wheels) and wakes up a man in sack A again. He starts his daily routine, but now this is interrupted by being cut off by a blackout. At this point the play ends.

When in search of interpretation, the stick ("goad") may be understood as a symbol and explained as a death - in an abstract way it is the imminence of death. On the other hand, the "goad" could be previewed as time-flow and death would thus not be represented, but based on the platform setting, it would be placed on the left side of the stage, since the characters are closing to this side. Undoubtedly, the goad is a means of kind of higher power which makes things happen. This stimulus was coming from outside, externally, yet it can be argued whether this is a symbol of external force making things happen and forcing a man to action or it is protagonists' internal force which is just, for the purpose of audience, displayed externally or made apparent. The stick may be considered a symbol of human's will, which in the flow of time needs to be supported (symbol of wheels) to force a man to action.

Based on the analysis above, it is justified to presume that the awareness of closing to death and time-flow are the stimuli which make things happen. The cut of the light at the end of the play corresponds with the display of a light as a symbol, which can be compared to utterance of Pozzo from Waiting for Godot: "They give birth astride of a grave, the light gleams an instant, then it's night once more." (Beckett 81)

One of the most significant interpretations is the concept, which brings us to the idea pronounced in Endgame: the system of existence, society and partly also the concept of Unanimism, in which the people are living together, influencing each other, yet their existence is purely individual. Two sacks displayed in the play are example of the

aforementioned 'boxes' of existence, which need to be filled in and thus the people would fit into the system of society or existence, with the features of repetitiveness and stereotype, which in Act Without Words II were perfectly presented and were also one of crucial themes.

Two different personalities of protagonists may also lead us to the idea of Unnanimism, as mentioned, the collective suffering and apocryphal being is considered a connecting link of people, yet when facing their existence, each individual has his own way to cope with this fate. While the man from sack A is messy in his behaviour, person B apparently relies far more on his reason. A parallel to Vladimir and Estragon may be suggested, since Estragon was more emotional and vulnerable, while Vladimir was trying hard to appoint certain system or find a reason of their deeds.

In the field of values, the approach suggested may be quite sceptical, since all the values are denied and there are no values pronounced directly, possibly with the exception of religious faith, since the prayer is present in case of person A. Therefore, the play may be simply author's appeal to the realization of approaching death and critical look at our own hierarchy of values, which is left to the individuality of each person. This concept would be probable in accordance to the importance that Beckett placed on individuality and independent thinking. Another feature to be noticed is the extreme, non-critical focus on oneself when ignoring the existence of someone else, or perhaps lack of cognition related to the existence of another person. The change in axiology may be seen, since the play Act Without Words I and II preceded Beckett's Endgame, in which we may see the growing responsibility for someone else, bringing up the idea of 'fellow- sufferers' when facing our existence, absurdity and closing to death.

It may be suggested that that time-flow and related closing to death makes the protagonists more and more focused on their own existence. Although the time between the origin of the play Act Without Words II and Endgame is one year only, at this point a significant change may be noticed. Also the man can be concepted as burden for someone else, since the system makes the protagonist responsible for each other. Unlike in Endgame or Waiting for Godot, the protagonists in Act Without Words II do not come into verbal contact at all. At this point, in relation to Beckett's intention to create a literature of non-word, he uses the power of gesture with a number of wigs to deliver a message with existential and possibly also axiological undertone. The lack of verbal

contact is making it difficult in terms of understanding the internal state of mind of the protagonists and for the purpose of the interpretation it is difficult to appoint the intention of the protagonists when carrying each other in their sacks. A question may be raised whether it is selfish and deliberate exposure of the other person to the initiation; it could be also mutual and fair closing to the death of both protagonists or the death is considered as something liberating the protagonists from the stereotype and they are mutually reaching it. Another issue would be the question till which extent, and wheather at all, the protagonists realize that they are carrying someone else in the sack. It is apparent that they take the existence of this burden (sack with the person) for granted, without exploring it or approaching it critically. In accordance to the idea of apocryphal being and repetitive system of human existence, another interpretation may be suggested that the goad is symbol of life (controlled by higher power) and protagonists waking up is basically his birth, after which he encloses himself into the place where he came from, offering a place in the world to someone else, who is about to take place instead of him. This would explain the ingnorance between the protagonists, since basically they do not co-exist at the same time - they repeatedly replace each other in their existence. The cut off light would then not represent the death, but express the fact that nothing else needs to be displayed, since the system would repeat over and over again.

The protagonist of one-act play originally written in English, Krapp's last tape, is "a wearish old man", sharing numerous autobiographical features with the author. Krapp is a decrepit man living alone in almost empty flat. He is intellectual who used to have ambitions of a writer, which are gone now. He owns no possession, but an old tape recorder and a set of recorded tapes to which he is attached to. Being sixty-nine, he is confronting his life. He is described as wearing "boots, size ten at least, very narrow and pointed" (Beckett 126) - this habit of wearing shoes which are too narrow for him is Beckett's own one, by which he was trying to dress similarly to Joyce. The protagonist Krapp is listening to his own testimonies recorded on the tapes: "I suppose I mean those things worth having when all dust has -- when all my dust has settled. I close my eyes and try and imagine them." (Beckett 138)

The things which are 'worth having' are basically ordinary, yet significant for the character, since they are related to important life events (as developed further, nostalgia is a crucial theme). Closing into nostalgia may be apparent also in play Come and Go,

where the three protagonists hold their hands the way they used to as children, since the current situation seems to be bad, as suggested by the perception of the secret. Moreover, it is not only Krapp's nostalgia, but this theme is suggested also in Krapp's narration: "Old Miss Mcglome always sings at this hour. But not tonight. Songs of her girlhood, she says." (Beckett 152). He is also starting to balance over his life: "Did I sing as a boy? No. (Pause.) Did I ever sing? No. (Beckett 153) He reflects on significant moments of his life: "Plans for a less ... (hesitates) ... engrossing sexual life. Last illness of his father. Flagging pursuit of happiness. [...] Sneers at what he calls his youth and thanks to God that it's over. (Beckett 173). Based on the utterance, the protagonist seems to be happy to be old, closing to death, alone and in love with his solitude. At this part he remnisciences Peggy Sinclair, his cousin and love: "What remains of all that misery? A girl in a shabby green coat, on a railway-station platform? No?" (Beckett 161)

Kapp's song may also proof the closing death: Now the day is over, Night is drawn in nich-igh, Shadows --" (Beckett 182). He mainly reflects on his love: "upper lake, with the punt, bathed off the bank, then pushed out into the stream and drifted. She lay streched out on the floorboards with her hands under her head and her eyes closed. Sun blazing down, bit of a breeze, water nice and lively. […] (Pause.) I lay down across her with my face in her breasts and my hand on her. We lay there without moving. But under us all moved" (Beckett 158). In his twenties, he reflects on his problem with drinking and he reconciles that he did not manage to find a true love. Krapp's final utterance is related to the reconciliation:"Perhaps my best years are gone. When there was a chance of happiness. But I wouldn't want them back. Not with the fire in me now. No, I wouldn't want them back." (Beckett 184)

In the field of values, there are love, nostaglia and final reconcilitation playing the crucial role. The protagonist reflects on waiting in front of nursery house when he was to be informed about his mother's death. He is throwing a ball to the dog. When he is told his mother had died, he gives the ball to the dog and leaves. Then he regrets not keeping it as a memory. This story underlines the nostalgia and focus on valuable detail in terms of materialism. Basically, the protagonist reminds details which remain in his memory forever. Krapp's "Fire in me" as a young boy stands in a contrast to "burning to be gone" when he is an old man. He talks about his failed love affairs, drinking, failure in literature etc.

Rough for Theatre I, one-act play written in late 1950s, originally in French displays two protagonists: a blind beggar-fiddler and a man on wheelchair who has one leg only. The fiddler is sitting at the corner of devastated street trying to get some money. From retrospective narration it is revealed that the fiddler used to have a woman Dora, who "took him by the hand" but punished him for "the days he hadn't earned enough."8 Through the same type of narration, a wheelchair man reveals he also used to have someone who was taking care of him and a son Billy, whose name is used by the wheelchair man to call the fiddler. They decide to compensate their inabilities by helping each other. A blind man is often asking for the description of surroundings, by which the wheelchair man gets annoyed. At final tableau, the wheelchair man gets angry and attacks the blind man with a pole, yet the fiddler rips it out of his hand and stretches out to attack back. At this moment, the action stops and the end is open - the same kind of ending is used in Endgame, in which Clov is ready to leave his master Hamm, yet he is gazing at him and does not move. Open end may be suggested also in case of Act Without Words I, where the man seems to give up trying to overcome the absurd play of externally working power playing a game about survivor or suicide.

At axiological level, it is possible to notice negative values, i. e. materialism or hypocrisy, which are relevant within the retrospective narration about Dora. The protagonists stay together and mutually compensate their disabilities. Thus the support of someone else may be noticed. Similarly to Hamm and Clov, the blind man, asks wheel-chair man to describe the surroundings to him, a wheel-chair man gets annoyed by it. Eventually, they find out that they mean a burden for each other, and the play ends by corporal punishment, which is absurd, since it displays two people suffering physically and mentally already, yet attacking each other. The corporal punishment on a blind person may be found as evil - moreover, it is committed on the blind man three times, at first from its retrospective narration it was his wife, then the wheelchair man, who attacks him to stop the wheelchair which he was pushing too fast and finally when a wheelchair man attacks him, which is reciprocated by a blind man. Although in case of the second mentioned attack the wheelchair apologizes ("Forgive me." - as a parallel to Endgame when Hamm is asking Clov for forgiveness in relation to the suffering he caused him). The message could possibly be one that by their nature, each of the

8 Beckett, S., Collected Shorter Plays of Samuel Beckett (London: Faber and FAber, 1984), p 72

protagonists has to suffer alone. The play may also operate with human dignity - three times beated blind man strikes to give the attack back.

Beckett's play from late 1950s Rough for Theatre II, brigns three male characters: Betrand, Morvan and Croker. Betrand and Morvan come into Croker's flat. Croker is standing at the window and he is about to commit suicide. (His name is sympthomatic - to croak - to die). The two men came to help him to decide about his life - whether or not commit a suicide. Again, the two protagonists may remind us Estragon and Vladimir, since Morvan is messy one while Bertrand is well-organized and reasonable (at this point they may represent human reason and emotions) as may be noticed in Act Without Words II as well. The narrow border of life and death is symbolized by the cage with two birds - one alive and one dead. A final decision is made to let the man jump. When Bertrand goes to the window to see Croker, he notices something surprising which makes him to take his handkerchief and put it on Croker's face. Perhaps Croker was crying. The ending is open.

The tableau in which Bertrand is drying Croker's tears may be compared to Lucky, who was weeping and Estragon was comforting him. The crucial value is lack of power to decide about own's life and being under control of higher power, since the two officers seem to have greater power and not to be ordinary people. Moreover, Bertrand is carrying watches only while Morvan is carrying the folder with facts about Croker's life. Thus an idea may be pronounced whether human deeds or the time which is given to him decide about the length of his life. The suicide is commited by apparently unhappy person since in the folder Morvan is carrying there is a note for "Hapiness: completely nothing".

Happy Days, two-act play first performed in 1961 displays two protagonists Winnie and Willie. In the first act Winnie is buried up to her waist. Her husband Willie is hiden, also Winnie can not see him properly. Again, it is the sound which wakes Winnie up. She possesses a bag in which she has the thngs she values very high. She starts the day with a prayer. Winnie is still talking, and she is happy to hear her husband responses once in a while at least. In second act, she is buried up to her neck, she is woken by the bell everytime she wants to fall asleep. Her husband crowls out from the mound and comes close to her. At the end she sings a love song. Nostalgia and feeling the presence of her husband, helps Winnie go on. Also the prayer is present - another

allusion to God, which are numerous in Beckett's plays. This is only Beckett's play in which a real happy ending may be noticed.

Beckett's one-act Play, written between 1962 and 1963, may be said to operate with a light as a symbol of life since at the beginning of the play the spotlight picks up the three protagonists from their urns. The protagonists are: a man (M), his wife (W1) and his mistress (W2). The main theme is an affair of the man. In their speech, characters give their testimonies about their own perception of the affair. Eventually, from these utterances (pronounced really fast at the stage) it is revealed that the man intended to escape from his marriage by finding a mistress, yet finally he gets tired of both of them and is happy to get rid of them: "M: Peace, yes, I suppose, a kind of peace, and all that pain as if … never been." (Beckett 27). The focus on oneself only may be noticed, the utterances are not connected, do not react on each other's speech, parallels in the speech are coincidental, only one face is always illuminated and the person is leading an independent monologue:

"W 2: Give me up, as a bad job. Go away and start poking and pecking at someone else. On the other hand -- [Spot from W2 to W1.] W 1: Get off me! Get off me! [Spot form W1 to M] M: It will come. Must come. There is no future in this." (Beckett 34)

Based on these utterances, certain egocentrism or even narcissism is apparent, especially in the utterance of the mistress: "W 2: Are you listening to me? Is anyone looking at me? Is anyone bothering about me at all?" (Beckett, Happy Days 29) which could be compared to Pozzo's testimony: "Pozzo: Good. Is everybody ready? Is everybody looking at me? (He looks at lucky, jerks the rope. Lucky raises his head.) Will you look at me, pig! (Lucky looks at him.) Good." (Beckett, Waiting for Godot 121)

At this play, the negative values are related to the need to own someone, yet eventually, there is sad conclusion that one can not be with the person anymore and separation from everyone brings the final relief (possible parallel with Rough for Theatre 1). The wife asks for "Silence and darkness were all I craved. Well, I get a certain amount of both. They being one." (Beckett 33), based on this testimony, with the regard of spatial setting of the characters, it is possible to argue that the characters are speaking from beyond the grave. Moreover, the wife is talking about closeness of

hellish light implying the idea of sin. At this point their testimonies could be concepted as kind of last confession. As well as in Act Without Words II the play is interrupted by the cut off the light, again, with a reference of symbolically expressed death.

Beckett's play Come and Go is a short play form 1965 originally written in English. The three female protagonists, Flo, Vi and Ru are sitting on a bench, surrounded by darkness. They are reminding the days of childhood when they attended Miss Wade's. One of the protagonists always moves away into the dark background. In her absence the two remaining characters lead a dialogue about the absent person:

"Flo: What do you think of Vi? Ru: I see little change. [FLO moves to centre seat, whispers in Ru's ear. Appalled.] Oh! [They look at each other. FLO puts her finger to her lips,] Does she not realize? Flo: God grant not. " (Beckett 196) In two more modifications, the similar dialogue is repeated.

At the level of themes, the presence of nostalgia can be found, when Ru ask other for "holding hands … that way. Flo: Dreaming of … love." (Beckett 198). The conversation is based on the repetition, otherwise there are long pauses of silence. In terms of Beckett's work with the light, it is said that the light is "soft, from above only a concentrated on playing area. Rest of stage as dark as possible" (Beckett 194) it is possible to presume that the protagonists, although they are said to be of "indeterminable"9 age, based on the soft light, they may be closing to death, moreover, this concept would be in accordance to the interpretation suggesting that the 'secret' which was continuously revealed about each of the person (who was in immediate absence) was related to fatal illness of an absent person. In terms of ending, it is said: "May we not speak of the old days? [Silence.] Shall we hold hands in the old way?" (Beckett 199) after which they cross their hands. This gesture may be the expression of hiding in nostalgia in order to run away from the current situation (which is apparently unhappy one for all the protagonists; if this 'secret' should be related to human suffering, this gesture may be suggesting their connection in terms of facing it).

The play Breath could be considered as a top of Beckett's minimalistic approach. With its premiere in 1969, the play lasts about 25 seconds. The play consists of a birth-

9 Beckett, S., Collected Shorter Plays of Samuel Beckett (London: Faber and Faber, 1984), p 193 54

cry with a subsequent sound of inhaling and exhaling. Again, the work with light is to be noticed, since its intensity is increasing and decreasing; this is followed by cry. By Beckett, the place is said to contain rubbish. Due to minimalistic approach and the lack of 'plot' the interpretation may be based on the connection to the symbolic of light, i. e. in reference to the concept that when one person is born the other dies (Pozzo's testimony "They give a birth astride of a grave") which would explain fluctuations in amount of light. Another issue may be raised why Beckett connects the birth with the setting of trash or garbage. A connection to Beckett's display of protagonists from the social scum may be seen, which would underline Heidegger's idea of apocryphal being.

A short dramatic scrappy monologue Not I, written in 1972 takes place in a pitch-black space, where the focus is made on mouth of a female protagonist. In a complex segmental monologue, there are some crucial ideas pronounced: "into the world … before its time" revealing the premature birth of the female protagonist with "unknown parents". Her life is lived with "no love, speechless infant … in any subsequent stage .. typical affair". In terms of the age of the protagonist, she is "coming up to seventy" and she "finds herself in dark". At this point there may be a parallel seen at the level of themes "typical affair" from Not I in connection to Play, where it is a crucial theme. (Beckett, 28, 29)

Beckett himself is known to have a parallel partnership with Barbara Bray when he was a husband of Suzanne Dumensil, as well as he is known to have more affairs at the same time. Beckett's work could thus be considered his confession (i. e. the Play), and Not I could be his notion of having a daughter, being afraid of she does not get enough love. That would also explain why only mouth is displayed, - at first, there is only a need to say something, secondly it can be because of the anonymity (Beckett's lack of knowledge) of this woman. Could it be Beckett's consciousness which is given into the testimonies of a Man in the Play? This question could be possibly answered by the title of the play, Not I possibly meaning the author wants to a) point out at his 'innocence' in terms of having a daughter b) expressing his feeling related to the notion he would have a daughter, who would be made to suffer like the protagonist of the monologue. With a reference to God, she suffers "punishment for sins", as for emotions, it is revealed that as she feels no pain she does not feel any pleasure either. She claims to hear "dull roar in the scull". In a parallel to Beckett's work Assumption, where it is claimed "he could

have shouted and he could not" (Beckett 48), in Not I, it is said "couldn't make the sound .. not any sound .. no sound of any kind …" (Beckett 27)

As mentioned above, there could be also connection to apocryphal being and mechanic existence when it is claimed "sudden flash" or "feeling coming back … starting at the top … whole machine … " In terms of religious faith, she seeks a punishment for her sins, she claims that "God is love … tender mercies". On the other hand, towards the end it is claimed "prayer unanswered .. or unheard … ". (Beckett 30). The monologue is a confession about the life without love and sense of belonging. Moreover it displays the punishment from God, for no apparent reason. The play also deals with the issue of re-birth. There is also a point made about her emotions when feeling no pain and no pleasure - at this point it is possible to refer to Beckett's essay on Joyce, Dante … Bruno. Vico … Joyce, where the idea about the minimal and maximal amount of extremes is suggested.

The short play That Time displays only the face of an old man, who remains silent. An audience may hear three voices. These are his memories, reminding him his childhood, middle age and old age. At the end, after listening to this story, the face smiles. These memories may be also related to dreaming, since in its earlier versions, the head of a protagonist is said to be placed on the pillow. In terms of values, the nostalgia may be noticed again.

In play Footfalls the beginning is announced by a bell, as well as the work with light. There is a female protagonist, May. The bell is getting softer by the time as well as the light gets weaker (suggesting closing to death). May's mother (in the play only her voice is present) is said to be ninety years old though she claims she is forty. The play has four parts. There is a prayer relevant for the mother, thus the allusion to God may be apparent again. The crucial idea is that the connection between May and her mother has never been interrupted. In second act, the mother is talking about May, claiming that this is the house in which she began. Beckett expands on the choice of the verb: "She just began. It began. There is a difference. She was never born" At this point he refers himself to Jung (he took part in his lectures about Being never properly born, in Tavistock where he was on treatment): "A life, which didn't begin as a life, but which

was just there, as a thing"10 In the play Rockaby, the utterance "Time she stopped" appears in terms of pointing out to death. Again, the use of a verb stop is preferred to die. In spite of the fact that the interpretation varies - sometimes the May is identified with the voice or they both are concepted as dead, the crucial point at axiological level is the strong dependence or need for reflection and reminiscence.

The closines of birth and death is expressed also in Beckett's play A Piece of Monologue, which had its premiere in 1979, especially in the very first utterance "Birth was the death of him. Again." (Beckett 27) Moreover, an allusion to the reincarnation is made within the expression again. In er-form, the speaker tells the story about himself. Two significant aspects of his life are described, i. e. being given from mum to nanny as a child "With the first totters. From mammy to nanny and back. All the way. Bandied back and forth" and a number of funerals he witnessed. "From funeral to funeral. Funeral of … he all but said of loved ones. Thirty thousand nights." (Beckett 28).

He remembers his mother and father, their marriage. He also used to have a pictures on wall of his loved ones, which is empty now. At this point, the comparison to Endgame may be found, since it was Beckett's brother's death which made Beckett to write this play, operating with the idea that there is no one left to take care of him, in times he lost his family. Again, an existential testimony may be seen: "Light gone. Gone. Again and again. Again and again gone. Till dark slowly parts again. Grey light. Rain pelting. Umbrellas round a grave. Seen from above. Streaming black canopies. Black ditch beneath. Rain bubbling in the black mud. Empty for the moment." (Beckett 31) This quote may be compared to Pozzos utterance "They give birth astride of grave." In this play, there are also existential motives: "Streaming canopies. Bubbling black mud. Coffin on its way. Loved one …" (Beckett 33) The funerals are taking place in pouring rain, he talks about funeral of his mother perhaps. The protagonist tears and scatters the photographs - thus quite different approach than in Come and Go or Krapp's Last Tape is noticeable, he does not close himself in the past within kind of nostalgia, but he actively interrupts the ties to his past. At the end the presence of death is said to be

10 Asmus, W. D., Practical aspects of theatre, radio and television, Rehearsal notes for the German premiere of Beckett's That Time and Footfalls at the Schiller-Theater Werkstatt, Berlin (1. 9. 76) Journal of Beckett Studies, No 2, Summer 1977

constant: "Never two matters. Never but the one matter. The dead and gone. The dying and the going. From the world go." (Beckett 37)

The protagonist of Becketts play Rockaby from 1980 is a woman in her premature age, who is sitting in rocking chair, remaining silent for most of the time yet hearing her own voice from the record. The voice remembers the death of her mother. The voice is talking about the "time she stopped going to and fro" (Beckett 11). Also "gone back in the end" is mentioned, possibly suggesting the existence of afterlife, as suggested in Not I (also narrated in 3rd person). The narration of the voice seems to have a nature of a lullaby. In French the original title is Berceuse, meaning lullaby or rocking chair. Especially when we consider the first utterance of protagonist "more" when she ask about being narrated the story she apparently knows since she enters it at the part "time she stopped" and pronounces this utterance with the voice. "all eyes, all sides, high and low" could suggest sleep or death - but undoubtedly, peace. Moreover it is mentioned she dies "for another like herself" - an allusion is apparent to Footfalls where the protagonist is also looking for someone like her. "for another living soul" and "whom else" - suggesting someone will take her place - asking "whom else" - it could be concepted who will be born after her death. The scene is concepted as the rocking chair was rocking by itself. Thus the presence of 'ghost' may be apparent. This ghost may be identified with the narrator. Few times at the play, the protagonist falls asleep and immediately wakes up asking for "more" of the narration and rocking starts again. It is revealed that she is sitting at the chair wher her mother used to sit "all the years, all in black, best black, sat and rocked, rocked till her end came" (Beckett 14)

One night she is said to die in the rocker. The "time she went right down was her own - other living soul" suggesting the relationship between the mother and daughter who is now at her mother's place. The testimony "fuck life, stop her eyes, rock her off" is a direct request to abandon the life and world. The protagonist may be identified with the voice and it can be suggested it is only her inner voice made to be heard for public, yet she communicates with it saying "more". Thus it can be claimed it is her mother taking care of her daughter, even posthumously. A concept claiming existence of two persons: a protagonist and a ghost, is supported by the fact that the chair is rocking by itself and its motion is dependend on - or connected with - the narration (seemingly an 'autobiographical lullaby') as long as narration proceeds, the chair is rocking. The

rocking chair may be considered as a cradle in which the child should fall asleep, in this context die - the mother is consoling her daughter before her death.

At level of axiology, there is the need for centrum securitatis to be noticed as well as the need to have someone who would acompanion us in our death, which would be softened in this case by the lullaby, in which the voice is soothing, claiming it was a "long day" and also she is going to give the place on this world to someone else. At the end, the protagonist seemingly falls asleep, yet according to the story, this tableau reveals her death: "with fallen head she was rocked off". In addition to need to have someone it is also desire to retire from the world.

The first utterance in Beckett's following play, Ohio Impromptu, written in English in 1980, is "Little is left to tell." In the play containing two protagonists who are said to have long white hair, numerous authobiographical features may be noticed, e. g. in terms of spatial setting, when the place Isle of Swans is mentioned at the beginning of the play. It also has a nature of reflection: "Nothing he had ever done alone could ever be undone. By him alone." (Beckett 42) The part in which he claims "In this extremity his old terror of night laid hold on him again. After so long a lapse that as if never been." is very similar to the part in Play when the male protagonist claims: "Peace, yes, I suppose, a kind of peace, and all that pain as if … never been." suggesting that the difficult parts of human life seem to be less severe with temporal detachment. A similarity to Rockaby may be seen since the narration is 'enforced' by knocking on the table by one of the protagonists. In Rockaby, it was asking "more" by the protagonist. Another parallel may be seen with Lucky, i. e. in terms of description of the character, since the main protagonists in Ohio Impromptu are said to have: "bowed head propped on right hand. Face hidden. Left hand on table. Long black coat. Long white hair." (Beckett 37) at the same point, Lucky is described as follows: "Pozzo: Hat! (Lucky puts down the basket and takes off his hat. His long white hair falls about his face.)" The long white hair may serve as an assumption of a long life and aging. Also Ohio Impromptu seems to be narrated as a fairy-tale with numerous authobiographical features, especially when the protagonist remembered "the dear face and heard the unspoken words" (Beckett 44). Both, Rockaby and Ohio Impromptu may be considered as soothing narration, in which the protagonists are closing themselves into nostalgia and they reflect on their lives.

Beckett's next work Catastrophe, written in 1982 in French originally, displays four characters: director, assistant, the protagonist, and Luke, who works with light, standing offstage. Beckett's minimalistic approach is apparent form the utterances: "D: Why the hat? A: To help hide the face" (Beckett 39). The hands of the protagonist are said to be "Crippled. Fibrous degeneration." (Beckett 36) The protagonist is standing motionless and in silence: "A: Sure he won't utter? D: Not a squeak. (He consults his chronometer.) Just time. I'll go and see house." (Beckett 42).

The protagonist is being explored as an exhibit as vulnerable and motionless. Thus, a political interpretation suggests the concept of a man being under the rule of higher power, i. e. totalism. The last gesture, a sight and raise of protanogist's head was commented by Beckett: "There's no ambiguity there at all. He's saying, you bastards, you haven't finished me yet." (Knowlson 680) Beckett's comment on his play directly implies the value of human dignity. Another interpretation, possibly considered personal one, may suggest Beckett's fear from revealing too much on the stage, in relation to his own life and privacy, at which point the protagonist would be considered autobiographical character, who is explored by the audience or public in general.

Beckett's last play What Where was written in French in 1983 under the title of Quoi oú and translated into English by Beckett himself. The play seems to be divided into seasons, starting with spring. There are three characters: Bom, Bim and Bem in person and only Bam's voice is present. When Bam is not satisfied with the scene, the short scene is re-played, till he says "Good". Based on this, certain hierarchy may be seen, the most suffering man, though not physically preset, is the interrogated person. Characters Bom and Bem are subordinated to Bim, who apparently plays a role of organizer or boss of interrogation, yet he himself is under the control of the voice of Bam. Again, political context may be suggested, since the crucial theme is iterrogation. The interrogated peson is said to be given the works about which he wept. He is also said to scream and begg for mercy. In spite of this he is said to refuse to "say it" (Beckett 13). At this point, the issue of human dignity may be noticed again, in accordance to Hemingway's idea that "A man can be destroyed, but not defeated." Displaymen of evil is apparent - in Catastrophe as well as in What Where, i. e. the higher power interrogating, interrupting someones individuality, privacy, in addition to humiliation and being vulnerable, manipulated or dominated.

8. Bekcett's Plays: Axiological Development and Comparison

Based on the previous chapter, in with Beckett's plays were a subject of hermeneutical and axiological analysis, the focus of subsequent chapter is to describe the development of values in Beckett's plays. The analysis is based on chronological (i. e. diachronic) concept, assessing Beckett's dramatical work in terms of its development in time.

In play Eleutheria, the crucial value was independence and individuality, possibly based on autobiographical feature when Beckett struggled for his own style in the field of literature and independence on his mother, who was financially supporting him. Materialism is thus seen as a problem. The evil in the world is embodied within Dr. Piouk - suggesting extinction of humankind. Waiting for Godot is the play that presents Beckett in his specific original style of creation. The materialism, considered a problem so far, does not play role here, the protagonists are beggars, Pozzo - apparently a rich man - is made suffer by becoming blind and dependent - from this fate he is not saved by social status or possession, since there is no possible compensation of human suffering and absurd fate.

Unlike in Eleutheria, the form in Waiting for Godot is reduced, words are repeated, wings on stage are few, yet the meaning is maximal. The evil features lie in being deprived of freedom to decide about oneself (in Eleutheria there was struggle for independence, while in Waiting for Godot the protagonists expect 'Godot' to do so instead). Being dependent on someone, with whom the people stay only based on habit, they are made to suffer. Other negative values are unoriginality of existence in terms of being only a part of a system, repetitiveness and limitation of a man, his freedom and cognition. The friendship changes into dependence and the other person becomes rather a burden. Corporal punishment performed on a person who is suffering already is also considered as evil - at the same point, dignity and its loss (e. g. Lucky, who is treated like and compared to a dog) is considered as significant value. The suicide was suggested, though not in more severe context - only as an activity for pass-time. Pozzo embodies negative - even evil - values: human narcism, egocentrism, lack of understanding, domination. Being manipulated by higher power is a contradictory feature to independence and individual thinking. The suffering may be seen in positive perspective, i. e. bringing the insight (in case of Vladimir), on the other hand the insight

is forgotten immediately after it is pronounced. There are numerous features of alienation, the relationships are based on habit and people represent a fellow-sufferer or a burden to each other. Emotions are the feature which is softening the dehumanization, yet also emotions and their amount are predetermined by certain system.

In Act Without Words I, the suicide becomes much more severe issue. Based on the suffering by being manipulated by the external power, which is playing a game or performing an experiment on the protagonist. In accordance to Sartre, the suicide is considered the only creative act in one's life. At this play especially, the rebellion which suggests the refusal of playing the absurd game anymore may be considered another way to face the absurdity. The value of human dignity and individuality may be suggested. In Waiting for Godot, the power causing suffering was hidden, Godot himself was said to be unable to act " Vladimir: "What does he do, Mr. Godot? (Silence.) Do you hear me? Boy: He does nothing Sir." (Beckett 113) In terms of religion, the question may be raised whether Pozzo's getting blind was an act of higher power (i. e. possibly God) which was supposed to convince the protagonists Estragon and Vladimir that the God is still present and he sent a punishment on Pozzo for treating a his servant like a dog. Pozzo, already blind, appeared in second act so that the protagonists could see that there is justice in the world and there is a power which can reward or punish one's behavior. Beckett himself gains some detachment from his work, in terms of explaining who Godot is actually. This fact may have its roots in Beckett's open-mindness when the meaning can vary in relation to individual experience and understanding.

Unlike in Waiting for Godot, the higher power in Act Without Words I is activly playing a game, which is similar to behaviouristic experiment made on animal with the intention of its learning. This idea is implying the loss of dignity and dehumanization. Eventually, the dignity seems to be gained by the final refusal to play the game anymore. Another way to overcome the absurdity apart from suicide or gaining detachment is suggested. In comparison to Waiting for Godot there is a shift - when the external power begins to be active, the protagonist refuses to take any action, moreover the human cognition is at its top when he is able to recognize the things he can change and give up on those he can not change.

In Act Without Words II the cognition seems to be very limited, lack of utterances or description of inner state of mind disables the interpretation at the level of cognition and knowledge of two protagonists, who may even not be aware of the existence of each other. The light which is cut in the end suggests the vanity of reason - one of the protagonists was acting reasonably, while the behavior of the other one was chaotic. Yet they both end up in darkness - possibly die at the same time. This may be demonstration of the individual dealing with human existence, as suggested by unanimistic concept. In case of one of the protagonists, a prayer is present. In comparison to Waiting for Godot, previewing other person as a burden is realized at mental level (Vladimir and Estragon, Lucky and Pozzo), in Act Without Words II it is expressed physically.

Another play Endgame develops the idea of the need for having someone although he represents this kind of a burden. The gain of insight seems to be permanent, due to long-lasting suffering. Moreover, the paradox may be noticed when a blind master Hamm shares his philosophy about mutual dependency of humankind - when he is blind, he gains an insight; Pozzo's utterance about being born astride of grave is pronounced also in time of his blindness. The relationship of Hamm and Clov is also based on habit and dependency; moreover there is external utterance about making Clov suffer which is followed by a plea for forgiveness. The prayer is present again, yet God's existence is directly doubted by Hamm, in reaction to which Clov claims that the God doesn’t exist yet, suggesting the idea he temporarily moved away or implying the idea of deism. Also the idea of mechanical system of human existence may be noticed, when it is suggested by Hamm, that Clov will have anyone left to take care and have pity on him. In a motive of slave, again the human dignity is suppressed: "Clov: I crawled at your feet. You told me to go to hell." (Beckett 25)

Beckett's first radioplay All That Fall represent allusion to Job by its title already. The crucial point is, that the death is considered as something natural, not dramatic. (As well as in Waiting for Godot or Endgame, in which there is pragmatical approach to death.)

In autobiographical play Krapp's Last Tape meant the beginning of nostalgia in which the protagonist closes. For the first time, an old man is displayed, reflecting on his life, Beckett's own values are reflected: solitude, silence, remembering,

reconciliation with the past and balancing over own's life. For the first time in his plays it is operated also with the issue of love, when Krapp makes allusions to Beckett's relationships with Peggy Sinclair and other relationships with women - though they appear in the play under a different name of the character.

The play Rough for Theatre I may be found similar to Waiting for Godot, at many points, especially in terms of corporal punishment made on human being who is suffering already (wheel-chair man on fiddler, Pozzo on Lucky). The idea of staying together in order to compensate own disabilities, fails at the end, when they, again, start to represent a burden for each other. The situation escalates when the attack on the fiddler is given back. Mainly corporal punishment may be seen as evil, as well as egocentrism of the wheel-chair man, when eventually they both find out they have to suffer alone. A human dignity may be decreasing in case of fiddler, yet it seems to be gained back, when he strikes to attack back and protect himself, which Lucky is unable to do.

In Rough for Theatre II, the idea of being under control of higher power is developed, moreover embodied within two protagonists, who are deciding about life and death of the protagonist. Again, issues as lack of power to decide about one's own existence and being subject to higher power are present. Another issue is the time which is given to us in comparison to things we achieve during life (symbolically expressed by the folder containing life data which is hold by Morvan and watches which are hold by Bertrand). In the same way as two protagonists from Act Without Words II or Vladimir and Estragon from Waiting for Godot, one of the officers is more reasonable, while the other one is rather emotional, hot-tempered and less-organized.

The play Embers, displaying protagonist Henri, an old man suffering from mental disease, may be an autobiographical character, since Beckett also used to doze at sea in his youth, yet his solitude was voluntary, while Henri is left alone, living in his own world, having no one to listen to him. Again the fear from being left alone (as well as in Endgame, Waiting for Godot or Happy Days) may be noticed. Thus the sea is personified and Henri leads a dialogue with it.

The issue of suicide is not present in Happy Days, although the direct allusion is made based on the motive of revolver. Anti-materialistic approach is disputeable, since Winnie seems to value the few things she has. In this play, the need to have someone is

concepted in positive way, since the feeling that Willie is listening to Winnie makes her go on. Again, the prayer is present, and Winnie is woken up by a sound (as well as in Act Without Words I, or physical stimul in Act Without Words II). Also positive nostalgia may be noticed, although the setting directly points out at closing to death. On the other hand, this play is said to be the only one with happy ending, when the two characters meet at the end, although they were unable to do so so far.

Beckett's Play could serve as Beckett's own confession, with regard to his love affairs. The narration is fragmented and individual utterances do not react on each other, again, and the need to deliver own version of the affair (the crucial theme) may be noticed, certain egocentrism si apparent. Another value present in the play is the need for peace, which lies in getting rid of everyone, returning to the idea of considering someone whom we loved as burden eventually (as well as Pozzo and Lucky: "He used to be so entertaining, my good angel. And now … He's killing me." or Hamm and Clov "You loved me once! - Once!"). This concept could be considered Beckett's own search of solitude, silence and peace.

In Beckett's Come and Go, the theme of nostalgia at the background of unhappy present is noticeable. The limitation of human knowledge seems to be advantage at this play, since when the secret is told (in absence of the person to which it is related) always the idea is pronounced that the person should not know. In this play, as well as in Rough for Theatre II, Beckett works with the motive of secret, which enhances the interpretative potential of his work. Though in minimalistic form, Beckett's play Breath may have great interpretative potential as well. The spatial setting is rubbish or trash - the idea of apocryphal being in which the human being is thrown into world may be noticed, moreover, this setting may suggest the disorder of world as a result of warfare (which is apparent also in the setting of Rough for Theatre I where the protagonists meet each other at the corner of desolated street). The light symbolizes the thin line between life and death. Thought Beckett avoids being labeled as belonging to existential movement, this play may seem as strongly existentialist.

Beckett's minimalistic approach is applied also in Beckett's play Not I, in which only the mouth of a woman is displayed. This play is significant in terms of human emotions, suggesting the equal level which two contratires may reach - the happiness can not be higher than human suffering, and the protagonist who does not feel the

suffering is not able to feel the pleasure either. This play therefore operates with the issue of apathy. Again, an allusion to prayer and God is made. Also the issue of responsibility of the parents who are unknown may be suggested as a theme. A relation may be seen to Play, since the female protagonist in Not I claims it was a typical affair, suggesting what stood behind her birth.

In That Time, Becket also displays an old man (similarly to Krapp's Last Tape or Embers). The smile by which he reacts to the narration about his past suggests his reconciliation and acceptance of his old age. The voice narration is used also in Footfalls, which beginning is announced by a bell. Again in this play the prayer is present. The crucial idea is that a person who is left alone tends to be cared for by a ghost. The dependency which was noticeable in Waiting for Godot, Endgame or Happy Days changes due to loneliness of the protagonist, who either talks to herself or finds a ghost to talk to (as well as Henri in That Time talks to personified sea).

In the Piece of Monologue, the existential symbols may be detected again, i. e. though the displayment of funeral. The lack of love in childhood is suggested by saying going "from mammy to nanny and back. All the way." (Beckett 16) At this point, a connection to Not I could be noticed. The protagonist is an old man, who is left alone. He also talks about the loss of loved one. Nostalgia is irrelevant, the protagonist actively interrupts the ties with the past by destroying the pictures of people he used to love, there is certain apathy to be noticed (again, relation to Not I may be found).

The play Rockaby may share its concept with Footfalls, when the protagonist seems to be cared for by a ghost of her mother, who is singing her a lullaby. She is now very much like her mother, rocking in chair, waiting for death. To soften this fear from dying, it seems her mother, who is dead already is telling her a lullaby about her own life, which is very similar to the life of protagonist. (Again the cyclic system of human existence is suggested, implying the idea about final replacing someone by taking his or her position, in this case apparently without any difference). At this point, a parallel could be seen with Hamm's utterance, in which he claims Clov will not have anyone who would have pity on him, suggesting, he will be alone. At the level of cognition, the sound in Act Without Words I is a condition to make the protagonist realize he was given some other thing to use. This sound is noticeable as initiation to action in many Beckett's plays, in which the protagonists are forced to act either based on the sound

(Happy Days, Act Without Words, Ohio Impromptu), the light (e. g. in Play) or based on physical stimul (by "goad" in Act Without Words II). In case of Rocakby it was a direct request from the protagonist for 'more'. Ohio Impromptu bares numerous allusions to Beckett, e. g. in terms of the spatial setting. The nostalgia is present again, as he returns to the places he visited and he remembers his dear one. As well as in Play, the protagonist is struggling for peace.

In Catastrophe, Beckett comes back to the display of a man who is a subject to manipulation, being controlled or even ruled by others. Yet based on the final tableau, the victory of the man may be noticed, especially based on Beckett's own comment that the protagonist overcame being dominated and they did not subdue yet. Apparently, the play is operating with the value of human dignity, which may be found in man's refusal to subdue or give up. (This value may be found also in Waiting for Godot, Act Without Words I or Rough for Theatre I and II).

In Beckett's last play What Where, the similar person is described (as protagonist from Catastrophe) yet it is not present physically, only through several utterances, in which it is claimed that the person who is interrogated refused to reveal anything. Also the issues of hierarchy and evil are present. It may be noticed that in the end of his dramatical creation, Beckett tends to deal possibly with political issues, but undoubtedly with the issue of human's will and dignity, who is to face by higher power, now embodied within the hierarchy, yet the protagonist always overcomes it by keeping his dignity at the edge of his suffering. The war experience and former political context may have served as inspiration for such a concept.

In conclusion, Beckett's plays, especially plays of Absurd contain the potential to axiological hierarchy, when placing the protagonists into marginal existential situation. From the visual point of view, the existential undertone of Beckett's plays is underlined by the presence of strongly existential motives. The existential undertone is supported by the spatial setting (urns in Play, the grave in Happy Days). In Play, it was the light which 'pulled up' the three protagonists from their urns.

Expressionism, an artistic movement, contains its main idea in its title already; expresio suggesting the need to express oneself. A movement which originated after

First World War in relation to the need to express, scream out the suffering from war. The display of this concept could be seen in E. Munch's picture The Scream, displaying a bridge confronting the normal life in the background and screaming person in the foreground, apparently affected by trauma, whose open mouth displays a desire to express himself, to scream. In Beckett's plays this is not always enabled to the protagonists, in spite of their possible need for expression. Thus the characters often keep this need for expression in themselves. This may be apparent in case of Lucky from Waiting for Godot, who is dumb (deaf), as well as in case of the woman's mouth in Not I, who suffered a lot, yet when ready to screem, she claims she "couldn't make the sound ... not any sound ... no sound of any kind." (Beckett 16). Although other protagonists of Beckett's plays of absurd are able to express themselves, another problematic issue is raised, possibly considered as negative value, i. e. human disdain, ignorance, narcissism, focus on oneself only, which becomes even tyrannical in some cases: Pozzo who is focused on himself and mistreats his servant, the egocentrism is noticeable also in Play where the characters do not listen to each other, ignore the presence of someone else and their crucial aim is to deliver a testimony about the affair from their own point of view only. Although the possiblity of expression may be granted, there is basically no one to listen to it, due to the ignorance and narcissism of people. This lack of understanding and listening would explain the motive of nostalgia, closing oneself into his own inner state of mind and communication with ghost or personified feature (as in Embers, That Time Rockaby, Footfalls, Come and Go or Krapp's Last Tape). Nostalgia is often accompanied by reconciliation, as may be apparent in Krapp's Last Tape, who would not take back the years of his life or in That Time, when the protagonist smiles over his lifestory. In Rockaby it is direct request to abandon the world.

Evil may also be seen in the motive of corporal punishment, which is in Becketts plays often represented. In Rough for Theatre, there are four displays related to corporal punishment: Fiddler's retrospective about being beaten by his wife, being twice attacked by a man on wheelchair and the end his giving the strike back. In Waiting for Godot, there are symbols of rope and whip, which are suggesting the use of corporal punishment applied on Lucky by Pozzo; Estragon is also regularly beated by unknown people. Corporal punishment is suggested also in What Where in relation to interrogated person and it is related to another issue, at axiological level considered as negative one,

i. e. loss of dignity. Hemingway's idea that "A man can be destroyed but not defeated" is applied especially in Beckett's last works (e. g. Catastrophe and What Where). A blind man who is beated several times in Rough for Theatre I may be found as subject to humiliation, as well as Lucky, who is possibly the best example of humiliation and the lost of dignity: he is a slave to his master, in second act unable to speak, addressed as a pig treated like a dog, he is given bones and in numerous allusions he actually plays a role of a mistreated dog. The dignity may be re-gained, as presented in Act Without Words I or Rough for Theatre II, when the man actively attacks back (RFT II) or refuses to take any vain action (AWW I). In What Where or Catastrophe, the issue of human will and dignity is crucial. In spite of the hierarchy and suffering, the protagonists are said to keep their dignity by having strong will and individuality.

Another negative value is the loss of identity, unoriginality of human existence, idea of being easily replaced, validity of universal system of huma nexistence - the issues shielded under the idea of 'apocryphal being' and achieved especially through the display of nameless characters, who are thrown into world. In Not I this idea of throwness into world is related to the utterance "sudden flash ... feeling coming back" (Beckett 11) In Rough for Theatre I, there are also nameless characters displayed in a devastated country. The universality of human individual existence is suggested also in Endgame, where Hamm gives a testimony about the mutual dependence of people when each individual is dependent on someone, who, by the time, becomes dependent on another person. This system of mutual dependency is said to be cyclical. In Waiting for Godot this utterance is given into Pozzo's speech "They give a birth astride of the grave. The light gleams instant, than it's night once again" (Beckett 86). In Not I, the quotation mentioned above is suggesting the return of a person who has died before. In other words, the humanity is replaced by a system.

In terms of dependency, there is often stereotype and habit present and people have their fellow-sufferers, who may become a burden (as Vladimir and Estragon or Pozzo and Lucky in Waiting for Godot, Hamm and Clov in Endgame, two protagonists in sacks in Act Without Words II, fiddler and wheel-chair man in Rough for Theatre II, wife and mistress for a man in Play). The final separation would possibly bring a relief to the protagonists. Yet the protagonists stay together in spite of alienation, apathy, mental degeneration and mainly habit. In case of Waiting for Godot, the physical degradation even strengthened the dependence of Lucky and Pozzo. On the other hand, in the late

part of Beckett's dramatical creation, the people who are left alone, seemed to be cared by certain 'ghosts' - usually these are the members of immediate family. This concept may have its roots in Beckett's loss of immediate family and possible closing into his own interior life and nostalgia: Embers, That Time, Footfalls, Rockaby or Ohio Impromptu.

The loss of personal aim (i. e. the individuality and independence) is demonstrated on the approach of Vladimir and Estragon, who are said to be fully dependent on Godot, who is expected to decide about their future. An emphasise is put on individuality and independence also in Eleutheria, as well as in Act Without Words I, where a decision is made by the protagonist, by which the absurdity may be partly overcome. In Rough for Theatre the individuality is even 'enforced' since a common harmony of protagonists is not possible, while in Rough for Theatre II, the Croaker is completely deprived of his power to decide about his life (and his suicide). In Beckett's last plays Catastrophe and What Where the individuality and independence is underlined by human dignity and strong will. The value of freedom and dependency is logically denied by being manipulated by a higher, absurd power. This approach is formed in Beckett's Waiting for Godot, where the absurd power causing human suffering is hidden and uncertain. In Act Without Words I it becomes to be active, i. e. actively playing game or performing experiment on the protagonist. In Rough for Theatre II, this higher power deciding about one's fate is even embodied within two protagonists, Morvan and Bertrand. In Beckett's late dramatical work, this power seems to be based on certain hierarchy, interrogation and it rather implies the idea of totality (i. e. the concept, in which its form is closest to being embodied - within ordinary people). A way to emerge from the absurdity is either suicide - due to J. P. Sartre, previewing it as the only creative act towards the absurdity (as suggested in Waiting for Godot, Act Without Words I, Endgame, Happy Days (based on a motive) or Rough for Theatre II) or active rebellion (in Act Without Words I) or gaining kind of detachment (as in Waiting for Godot). On the other hand, absurdity can not be overcome by materialism or social status, since the masters Hamm and Pozzo in Beckett's plays suffer equally.

Human suffering and limitation, who are the result of absurdity, may be surprisingly found at the border of cathegorization of positive and negative values. This may be explained based on their function. Although they both imply negative values, the

limitation and suffering eventually contribute to gaining kind of insight at the level of epistemology (cognition of the world). In reference to Maslow's hierarchy of values, the lower needs (values) are denied, limited, the protagonists are suffering mentally and physically, yet thanks to this suffering they immediately reach the highest value within the hierarchy, i. e. self-realization or self-actualization. This may be apparent especially in Waiting for Godot, where Vladimir (even though temporarily) realizes how the system of absurdity functiones (vanity of human's struggle), as well as Pozzo realizes the same system about human existence (giving birth astride of grave, inauthencity of existence, motive of absurd coincidence). This insight is caused by previous loss of sight (Pozzo) and long mental suffering (Vladimir). In case of Pozzo, certain paradox may be found (gaining insight after becoming blind).

The humanity in Beckett's plays may be a value standing in opposition to dehumanization and apathy. The topic of humanity is expressed by the presence of emotions, which may be noticed in Waiting for Godot (Pozzo sobbing over the degeneration of his friendship with Lucky, Lucky crying due to being told about his insignificance), in Endgame, the emotions are not present, growing apathy and alienation may be noticed. In Rough for Theatre II, Bertrand at the end of the play puts a handkerchief on Croaker's face, perhaps for the reason he is crying too. In Not I, apathy is suggested and there is no love and no suffering present. In the play, also the idea of being thrown into world is pronounced, in relation to Jung's idea of being never properly or wholly born. Keeping this concept, Beckett in his Footfalls uses the idea of person who began (rather than was born), as well as in Rockaby where the protagonist claims it is the "time she stopped" (rather than died). Taking into consideration these protagonist belong to the context of Beckett's "ghost plays", in reference to the play Act Without Words I (displaying two sacks with people and suggesting the taking turns in their existence), it is possible to claim that those ones, who do not have its real counterpart for their existence (someone who would take care of them, since they appeared at the end of the cyclic system of human existence - as suggested by Hamm from Endgame: "there won't be no one left to have pity on you") these people seem to be cared for by ghosts from their immediate family, who seemingly come back to reconcile them before their own death. Taking into consideration the advanced age of the protagonists - in Footfalls, Rockaby and That Time.

The value of happiness is explicitly pronounced in Beckett's plays Krapp's Last Tape, where Krapp claims there was a chance in his life for happiness, but now it is over and he is happy for it to be over; then in Rough for Theatre II, where Morvan is carrying a folder with Croaker's personal data, where, under the item happiness is mentioned "completely nothing". In case of play Happy days, the theme is implied within the title already, the happiness is based on value of love, which is reached in spite of limitation and closing to death.

In many Beckett's plays, the prayer is present, as well as numerous allusions to God, even in the form of wonder exclamation (God forbid! For God's sake! etc.). Prayer is mentioned in Waiting for Godot, only at the level of a story about salvation and damnation, in Act Without Words II, it is present in person A, whose behavior is less- organized. In Engame, the prayer is performed, yet the existence of God is questioned by Hamm: "The bastard doesn't exist!". Winnie from Happy Days begins her day with a prayer. In Not I, the God is said to be merciful, yet the prayers of the protagonist are said to be unanswered or unheard. Although his powers are questioned or limited, God may be said as remaining silent towards the happening in world.

Beckett also operates with the idea of reincarnation, as mentioned in Not I, Rockaby or A Piece of Monologue. This feature is motivated by the repetition of human existence, when soul is said to be separable from body, this fits into the context of cyclical human existence in which the sould fills in predetermined boxes of human existence. In Krapp's Last Tape and especially in late period of his dramatical creation, Beckett's plays take place in interior, which serves as a kind of centrum securitatis for the protagonists, who close in interior and also in themselves. The privacy was a valuable feature of Beckett himself, who possibly in his Catastrophe expressed his own fear of being subject of exploration and revealing too much to public. At the same time, he loved silence, loneliness and solitude, which were concepted in postivie way, i. e. as a starting position for growth of introspection and reflection over own life. At level of protagonists, often two protagonists are displayed of different nature - one is more reasonable, well-organized, while the other one is less-organized, hot-tempered and messy (Bertrand and Morvan, Vladimir and Estragon or Man from sack A and sack B).

9. Humanistic Concept of Values in Beckett's Plays

As may be apparent from the analysis of Beckett's plays performed above, his work raises a philosophical polemic about human suffering, our existence and the issue of knowledge and cognition of a man, which are one of significant values. The topic of values in general will be brought into a close connection to the topic of needs, since it is possible to claim that the values logically imply the need for their fulfillment. At this point, the subsequent analysis will be based on the hierarhy of human needs suggested by A. H. Maslow in 1943.

A human being has the need to achieve the values he or she professes. In Maslow's hierarchy, the needs are ranked from the most fundamental as follows:

1. Physiological needs 2. Safety needs 3. Belonging needs 4. Esteem needs 5. Self-actualization.

Within this concept, a reproach may occur that in absurd plays there is no place for humanity and therefore, this sociological concept is irrelevant one. On the other hand, in the concept of values, separation of the characters from material ties and their focus on the struggle to find the basement of human existence through the suffering can offer the chance to see the hierarchy of values as generally valid and logically coherent one. However, in the context of the Theatre of The Absurd, it is possible to detect certain changes within the fulfillment of the needs in this hierarchy as well as the features of their limitation, elimination and weakening.

When the plays belonging to the context of the Theatre of the Absurd are made a subject of analysis, it is possible to claim the lack the fulfilment of all the needs, yet based on (and basically due to) the limitation they immediately reach the highest level of the hierarchy - the self-actualization or self-realization. In Waiting for Godot the protagonists Vladimir and Estragon are deprived of basic needs - they suffer physically (Estragon is being regularly attacked, Pozzo goes blind, Lucky is dumb - physical destruction is separate and crucial topic and subsequently graduates in Endgame, where it is relevant in case of all the characters), issue of safety is quite irrelevant taking into account mutual dependence of characters and uncertainty about their destiny (which is dependent on permanently absent person called Godot). In terms of the analysis of time

and spatial setting, the place is torn out of context and limited at the same time - the belonging need is also not fulfilled, since Estragon and Vladimir are wander around, meeting at the end of the day under the tree to wait for Godot, Estragon is sleeping in a ditch. As far as need for self-esteem is concerned, the mutual dependency of the protagonists announces the hierarchy and logically denies the high esteem of protagonists in addition the way they are treated, especially Lucky who is in a form of several allusions and parables compared to a dog. On the other hand, self-actualization is relevant in case of Vladimir, who comes to understanding about the vanity of human needs and gains some detachment from absurdity (a paralel to the myth of Sisyphos), also Hamm's monologue about the system of a world is pronounced at the background of his suffering: Hamm:

One day you'll be blind like me. You'll be sitting here, a speck in the void, in the dark, forever, like me. (Pause.) One day you'll say to yourself, I'm tired, I'll sit down, and you'll go and sit down. Then you'll say, I'm hungry, I'll get up and get something to eat. But you won't get up. You'll say, I shouldn't have sat down, but since I have I'll sit on a little longer, then I'll get up and get someting to eat. But you won't get up and you won't get anything to eat. (Pause.) You'll look at the wall a while, then you'll say, I'll close my eyes, perhaps have a little sleep, after that I'll feel better, and you'll close them. And when you open them again there'll be no wall any more. (Pause.) Infinite emptiness will be all around you, all the resurrected dead of all the ages wouldn't fill it, and there you'll be like a little bit of grit in the middle of the steppe. (Pause.) Yes, one day you'll know what it is, you'll be like me, except that you won't have anyone with you, because you won't have had pity on anyone and because there won't be anyone left to have pity on you. (Pause.) (Beckett, Waiting for Godot)

This is comparable to the insight which Vladimir gained in Waiting for Godot:

Was I sleeping, while the others suffered? Am I sleeping now? Tomorrow, when I wake, or think I do, what shall I say of today? That with Estragon my friend, at this place, until the fall of night, I waited for Godot? That Pozzo passed, with his carrier, and that he spoke to us?

Probably. But in all that what truth will there be? (Estragon, having struggled with his boots in vain, is dozing off again. Vladimir looks at him.) He'll know nothing. He'll tell me about the blows he received and I'll give him a carrot. (Pause.) Astride of a grave and a difficult birth. Down in the hole, lingeringly, the grave digger puts on the forceps. We have time to grow old. The air is full of our cries. (He listens.) But habit is a great deadener. (He looks again at Estragon.) At me too someone is looking, of me too someone is saying, He is sleeping, he knows nothing, let him sleep on. (Pause.) I can't go on! (Pause.) What have I said? (Beckett, Endgame)

Another character which reaches this insight is relevant for Pozzo, i. e. in the second act, after his becoming blind: "When! When! One day, is that not enough for you, one day he went dumb, one day I went blind, one day we'll go deaf, one day we were born, one day we shall die, the same day, the same second, is that not enough for you? (Calmer.) They give birth astride of a grave, the light gleams an instant, then it's night once more." (Beckett 37)

Based on the quote stated above, human suffering thus becomes the only measuring unit in the flow of time, which is concepted as gradual degradation and closing to death. The absurdity and unpredictability of human suffering intensifies the existential anxiety and vulnerability of a man. Again, a reference is made to the system of society, which is tiring and characterized by a stereotype and repetitiveness. Human existence only fills in the predetermined boxes, which are related to the idea of apocryphal being: "They give birth astride of a grave." The light could be concepted as a symbol for life or cognition in relation to character of Vladimir gained the 'englightment' for a while, i. e. in the field of congition yet immediately after he forgot it. Thus it could be pointed out at the limitation of human knowledge and cognition. The relationships and perception is thus influenced by predetermined scheme of social role. This scheme is related to the idea of repetitiveness, predomination and being condemned to share the same life of this fellow-sufferer, again in connection to Heidegger's idea of apocryphal being, as suggested above within the quote from Endgame. Similar approach may be suggested in Rockaby ("another living soul" is said to take place instead of the protagonist), Breath (with the reference to symbolic of light), Not I (suggesting reincartanion after death "sudden flesh") or A Piece of Monologue ("A birth was a dead of him. Again.").

9. 1. Need for 'Centrum Securitatis'

Based on the aforementioned analyses, world of Beckett's drama may be seen as existential, cruel, absurd and evil. Therefore, the protagonists are often closing in, i. e. mentally, as well as closing spatially. Especially in plays e. g. Endgame, Krapp's Last Tape, Rough for Theatre II, Footfalls, A Piece of Monologue, Rockaby, Ohio Impromptu or Catastrophe, in terms of the spatial setting, the play is situated into interior. In plays Endgame, Krapp's Last Tape and Rockaby this kind of setting may be considered kind of centrum securitatis, in which the protagonist isolate themselves. Paradoxically, they find their security and safety in limitation of their existence and being separated at one place only.

Certain centrum securitatis is displayed in the Endgame: "HAMM: Outside of here it's death. (Pause.)" (Beckett 26). this can be compared to the utterance pronounced by Vladimir from Waiting for Godot "The air is full of our cries. (He listens.) The place was crawling with them." (Beckett 93) In the aforementioned quotations, not only the place is described, but within a critical interpretative point of view at the author, Beckett may be presumed as an extremely perceptive person whose perception of reality bares existential undertone. An idea is pronounced about a man who is stuck at the flow of time and for a limited time he gains the detachment to listen and perceive its numbness. This concept creates the existential nature of the work since it brings on the scene the man who is highly perceive and quite abandoned in his existence which is here previewed as strongly individualized phenomenon.

Considering the concept of space, similar feature is noticeable also in Waiting for Godot. The characters of Vladimir and Estragon are not able to abandon the place: "Vladimir: Well? Shall we go? / Estragon: Yes, let's go. They do not move." (Beckett 126) The reasonable explanation for this could be the understanding that the characters do not have anywhere to go, since the place is an allegory of life and thus the only way out would be death. This concept would be comparable to the spatial concept of Engdame, as stated above.

Similarly to the plays mentioned, the protagonist in Krapp's Last Tape closes himself in old, empty flat, having no possession but the tape recorder. In an enclosed space of

interior he is even more closing himself into nostalgia. In a similar way, the play Rockaby is also situated within the interior, the protagonist is said to sit in rocking chair by her window waiting for death. In Footfalls the same approach is noticeable, as well as in A Piece of Monologue.

Therefore, it can be seen as a paradox the protagonists of absurd plays find their security in their limitation at one constant space, which is surrounded by death and suffering. An attitude of a human, towards this closed interior, can be considered as a habit. As mentioned in Vladimir's utterance in Waiting for Godot, "habit is a great deadener" it is possible to deduce Beckett's attitude towards the stereotype and habit, which is considered a feature contributing to dehumanization and growth of apathy. The closing into interior may be a symbol of closing into oneself, moreover, at the beginning of Beckett's dramatic creation it was closing of two people (e. g. Hamm and Clov), yet in his late drama it is often the only (usually old) person who is left alone, often communicating with a ghost or closing into nostalgia and reflection over own life.

9.2. Need for Physical Contact and Power of Gesture

As suggested in Waiting for Godot or Endgame, the display of male characters asking physical contact in terms of friendly or intimate gesture may instigate to feeling the presence of the theme of homosexuality in Beckett's works. The motive of gesture and generally the need for physical contact will thus be a subject of following analysis with the aim to identify the features standing behind the need for physical contact, in which the gesture plays a significant role. The gesture may be considered as socializing act expressing emotions and humanity and denying the apathy or issue of alienation.

In Endgame, the request for this intimate gesture is pronounced by Nagg: "Nagg: Kiss me. / Nell: We can't. Nagg: Try. (Their heads strain towards each other, fail to meet fall apart again.). This could be noticed also in another dialogue of these characters: "Nagg: Could you give me a scratch before you go? / Nell: No. (Pause.) Where? / Nagg: In the back. / Nell: No. (Pause.) Rub yourself against the rim." (Beckett 27). As another example the Hamm and Clov dialogue may sereve: "Hamm: You don't love me. Clov: No. Hamm: You loved me once. Clov: Once!" (Beckett 24)

One of the explanations to be found is the need for a contact with another person. It also could be understood as the proof that the person is not left alone to face the suffering and degradation, in which concept the intimate physical gesture may be considered a comforting feature offering a relief from suffering. In a socializing context, the gesture has a great importance. The communication is often limited and the gesture has the same importance as words, possibly even higher. It is also Beckett's talent to express a lot in a minimal form - this approach called minimalism is thus valid also in the field of gestures which are used as an effective means of communication when its verbal kind becomes a subject to destruction, repeatability and words become empty phrases. Beckett's Act Without Words I and II are proofs about the claim, that gesture may be explicit enough. On the other hand it is difficult to appoint the inner state of mind of the protagonist and thus appoint the level of their cognition, reasoning and mindset. In Beckett's work it is not a word but the idea and mainly the geture which is significant: "he stressed the importance of "muscular dialogue generated by gesture". Then, several decades later, directing his own plays, he was to discover how powerful it could remain, even when reduced to a few essential, repeated gestures." (Knowlson 56).

For example in Endgame, it is possible to notice that the play opens and finishes with the same gesture of Hamm, who is putting a handkerchief on his face by which the paralel is reached with the beginning of the play. As was previously mentioned, the frienship is one of the features which are decaying - this is emphasized by the growth of apathy and alienation: "Hamm: Kiss me. (Pause.) Will you not kiss me? / Clov: No. / Hamm: On the forehead. / Clov: I won't kiss you anywhere. (Pause.) / Hamm: (holding out his hand): Give me your hand at least. (Pause.) Will you not give me our hand? / Clov: I won't touch you. (Pause.)" (Beckett 33)

The significance of gesture is considered by Beckett in his very first work, i. e. Dante ... Bruno. Vico ... Joyce, where he claims that "When language consisted of gesture, the spoken and the written were identical." (Beckett 17). Based on this quote, the idea is suggested that it is the gesture what is placed at the top in the hierarchy of reliability in terms of communication.

10. 'Philosophy' of Beckett's Work

As has been suggested within the chapter Bekcett's Plays: Axiological Development and Comparison, Beckett operates with strongly existential themes and motives. On the other hand, his classification as philosopher or existentialist would be incorrect. Beckett claimed he considered himself "not a philosopher", especially, he was not interested in "the theory of cognition. He took his interest in basic human situations - pain and suffering and previewing them as inseparable, yet ordinary part of human life." (Vrba, Šťastné dny 27)

By one of Beckett's friends, is claimed that "In Beckett's work, also a small polemics may be found over what is happening to a soul after human's death. But this is only imaginary reflection, not philosophical one. Even though it may seem so." (Vrba, Šťastné dny 27) Although Beckett's beginnings were related to reading great philosophers e. g. Kant, Schopenhauer or Descartes, he does not want his literary pieces to work at purely philosophical level. Moreover, in spite of Beckett's respect to Sartre, he found Sartre's work "too philosophical". Therefore, although the subsequent analysis will represent philosophical and psychological concepts, the main focus will be made on the intention to understand certain author's approach, though not nessesarily a philosophical one.

This approach would also explain the concept of Beckett's plays within their performance. In relation to Endgame: there should be "completely muffled and fast course, no rising voice or color - unless it is directly demanded. The utterances should be said rather quietly yet intensively like under inner pressure." (Vrba, Šťastné dny 40) Based from Beckett's concept described above, his dramatic works are not 'dramatic' in terms of exaggeration or displaying a tragedy. Beckett's plays are rather testimonies about the ordinariness of death and human suffering, which are common parts of life.

In commented work Happy Days in translation by František Vrba, with commentaries based on the testimonies of people, who knew Beckett well or have their personal experience with him, there is one of these utterances, where it is claimed: "In our land, a little was told about him. Yet there was a galore of evident mistakes and rumors. Misleading formula á la "Beckett's world without God", "Fascination by Death" or "Deification of Nothingness" only reveal that their authors did not read Beckett, and if they did, they did so superficially only. His world is in the lap of silent God, refusing cheap mercifulness, disregarded, yet inexorably present. Without God,

Beckett's man would not have anyone to blaspheme against, anyone to blame for their misery for his cruelty, anyone to blame and doggedly turn one's back on." (Vrba, Šťastné dny 45) This utterance may also reveal Beckett's true concept of God and religious faith.

In terms of the apocryphal being, within the same work, it is claimed that "Above the entrance into Beckett's work, there is an inscription "Birth is our first sin." (Vrba, Šťastné dny 46). This idea would explain why so many allusions to God are present in Beckett's work, especially his plays. This concept also contributes to Jung's idea of being never properly or wholly born, suggesting the imperfection of a man. Even a parallel to biblical Job may be seen, as stated in Old Testament: "Why I did not die in lap already, did not pass away, just after being born from the life of my mother?" (Vrba, Šťastné dny 46). Although not in religious concept, based on analysis of Beckett's plays, it is apparent he may ask the same question. Again a parallel to Le Monde Desert may be seen, especially when taking into consideration the religious concept which clashes with purely existential act of suicide, which is frequent motive and theme of Beckett's plays.

Although Beckett does not want his work to be affected by pidgeholding and it would be wrong to consider it as belonging to Existentialism, he certainly operates with strongly existential motives and themes. Perhaps the most significant one among them is suicide, as mentioned. At this point Beckett's concept is in accordance to idea of J. P. Sartre, who claims that life of a human is absurd and the only way how to fight this absurdity is "to strike back the insult of life absurdity" when the "suicide is the only truly creative act." (Vrba, Šťastné dny 56), i. e. in addition to numerous strongly existential motives which appear in Beckett's plays.

10. 1. A Direct Correlation of Human Cognition and Human Apathy

As mentioned within the analysis of values presented in Beckett's plays, one of the crucial values is human cognition and its limits. The display of growing apathy related to growing cognition is a feature to be noticed very often, especially in postmodern works. Yet, as mentioned in Endgame, "Hamm: the bigger the man is, the fuller he is… And emptier." The growth of knowledge and cognition implies the growth of apathy and alienation.

The works reflecting the First World War experience are more expressionist and their main idea is to confess or reveal the suffering and destruction of mind which the authors had to face also in Second World War, in postmodern era, this experience persists, the need to confess the distress is still actual, yet it is more directed to the finding a general concept of human existence, when the conclusions are following: the human existence is strongly individualized feature, so the protagonists often rely on themselves only and at the end of their lives they tend to close in growing introspection and self-reflection, the growing cognition is directly proportional to the amount of apathy and disillusion, the secular world is previewed as limited, the life is represented by the duty to play certain social role with a destiny attributed to a person without his or her choice, and the whole life then becomes the quest for a real essence of the human being, which is to be found in deliverance and separation from secular needs and desires (here it is possible to find explanation why, in the plays within the Theatre of The Absurd, the human needs are neglected or unfulfilled), moreover, it is the separation from interpersonal relationships, when the features of alienation, degeneration of relationship, dehumanization and being distant to oneself are noticeable.

All the limitation suggested above has the aim to reach a higher principle. At this point, the authors leading a polemic over human existence diverge in opinion whether this detachment from the world and from secular being implies the idea of God's existence or not. In his plays, Beckett also operates with the idea of afterlife and suggests the cyclistic system in human existence. Beckett's works in the field of The Theatre of The Absurd display the life of a person and its closing to death, with the growing suffering, alienation, destruction but also cognition, nostalgia and closing into oneself. Many of Beckett's protagonist 'exchanged' - even involuntarily - the emotions and fulfillment of basic human needs for cognition, as mentioned and developed in chapter Humanistic Concept of Values in Beckett's Plays above.

10. 2. Clash of Reason and Emotions

As Beckett claims, he suffered by bouts of strong emotions that could not be controlled by his will: "But the bouts of fury were worst. They were rising in me like a whirlwind, no, it's not the right word. It was not only rage - it was rising in me but it had nothing to do with that, some days I was feeling anger from morning till the evening

and still with no sign of fury, in other days, when I was almost as calm as a lamb, the rage possessed me four or five times. […] No way, it goes beyond the limits of all the judgement, for the reason, as mine has always been, still sharp, to beware." (Vrba, Šťastné dny 38) Beckett himself was strongly reasonable intellectual who had to face the bouts of emotions stated above, thus the clash of reason and emotions may be noticed again.

This clash is reflected also in Beckett's plays at the level of protagonists, e. g. Estragon in Waiting for Godot, Morvan in Rough for Theathre II or the person from sack A in Act Without Words II who are considered as acting based on emotions, they were less-organized more hot-tempered. They all were acompanioned by more reasonable characters: Vladimir, Bertrand or the person from sack B, who was not in verbal contact yet, by his behavior apparently more organized. The co-occurance of these two different protagonists may have its roots in concept suggested in Dante … Bruno. Vico … Joyce., in which Beckett suggest the idea of co-existence of minima and maxima, applied e. g. in Waiting for Godot in terms of emotions (often expressed by motive of crying). This concept was also applied in Not I, as mentioned. Crying is also a feature lowering the dehumanization - Lucky weeps when he hears the utterance of Pozzo, in which Pozzo despises with Lucky. In Rough for Theatre II the Protagonist who is about to commit a suicide may also be said to cry at the end, although this is not stated explicitly - the audience or the reader are told there was something in his face which surprised Bertrand so much, that he took his handkerchief and put it on protagonist's face. Pozzo also cries about the degeneration of his friendship with Lucky in first act.

The co-ocurance of reason and emotions at the level of themes may be noticed in Beckett's radio play Words and Music, in which the words are considered less significant or even binding, havig the function to produce dry phrases only, while music serves as parallel to human emotions and spontaneity. Beckett's approach, which was typical especially in his late literary creation, is represented also in this play. Words are related to reason and when the reason is helpless, music (emotions) are taking over. Within the character of Croak, both the essences are present, fighting each other all the time - the remark towards the co-occurance and contradiction of reason and emotions appears again. It is apparent that the clash between rational and emotional compotent is one of the stimuli which form the dynamics of values.

In terms of analysis, at first, a struggle for reasonable concept and human's understanding may be seen (Vladimir's speech at the very beginning of Waiting for Godot). In Act Without Words I, an emphasis is put on rational concept, while in Act Without Words II the significace of emotions and reason is put at the same level (the different behaviour of men in sacks A and B is noticeable, yet they eventually die regardless their approach to life), i. e. with regard to their individuality. In Endgame, the rational component was stronger than emotions, which apparently decayed with regard to the growth of apathy and alienation. The reasonable concept of mutual compensation suggested in Rough for Theatre I did not succeed, due to individual perception and different personality of each protagonist (sensitivity of the fiddler and cold pragmatism of the wheel-chair man). The rationality and emotions embodied within the protagonists in Rough for Theatre II is dependent on the last tableau, when protagonist is apparently crying, i. e. emotions are more significant (in addition to allusion to unhappy life and intention to commit a suicide - which is not rational acting, yet rather being given up, unlike in Act Without Words I). In Not I, total apathy is suggested. In Words and Music, the emotions are highlighted as well as in the plays which polemize with the theme of nostalgia, the emotions may be said to prevail (Rockaby, Krapp's Last Tape, A Piece of Monologue or Come and Go). Beckett's own procedure and literary development is apparent from the utterance in Come and Go, where it is suggested "Let's not talk about the past anymore. Let's hold our hands as we used to" - a direct request is pronounced to abandon words (and reason) and close in the emotions, dreaming and nostalgia.

10. 3. Habit, stereotype and repetitiveness

In the previous chapter dealing with the analysis of values present in Beckett's plays, it Was mentioned that habit and stereotype are the features contributing to decay of relationship. As pronounced in Waiting for Godot, "habit is a great deadener". Based on the semantic analysis of the expression deadener, it is possible to claim that habit is a means of killing someone inside of his mind. With a reference to Heidegger's idea of inauthentic or apocryphal being, this may be concept for understanding the mechanization of relationships, since it is related to the idea of attributed faith and social role, therefore the mind of the person is subordinated to the social role and thus a person is just following what he or she is expected to do. Therefore, significant values

of individuality and uniqueness of existence are denied. In the field of epistemology, habit is also feature which can disable human knowledge or cognition.

It is possible to claim these features are considered as evil, since they contribute to dehumanization of a man and cause his suffering. On the other hand, the human suffering is the feature by which the cognition and gaining detachment are reached. A revolt to this repetitiveness may be found in each play in which the idea of suicide occurs, as well as in Act Without Words I, in which another way to face absurdity and being manipulated may be found. These issues are the crucial ideas of the mechanical system of human existence, as developed above.

10. 4. Throwness into the World: Condemned To Be Born

With a variety of modifications, Beckett's plays operate with the idea of mechanical principle, on which the functionating of human existence is based. This concept works with the precondition that the immaterial component (soul) is separable from material one (body). The human existence causes the suffering at both the levels, yet with the difference is that the death (often characterized with allusions, motives or external display of the idea of suicide) is offering the chance (even though one of temporary nature) to emerge from the suffering related to human existence. The protagonists of Beckett's plays are wondering people, who succumb the higher absurd force, incomprehensible by the reason, from which they can emerge only through gaining a kind of detachment (Myth of Sysiphos - the idea related to Waiting for Godot), the refusal to play the absurd game anymore (as in Act Without Words II), or active rebellion and the only ture action - suicide.

This absolute higher power deprives the protagonists of their ability to act independently. Not only in Beckett's plays, but also in his philosophy an unusual concept of life is suggested, i. e. previewing life and being born as a problem, illness or even curse. This idea is related to the term apocryphical being suggested by M. Heidegger and understood as existence which was not voluntarily chosen and human being is therefore previewed as the duty to cope with life, which as such is concepted as an externally attributed "problem". In reference to C. G. Jung, it is also the idea of being never properly born, which is applied in Footfalls and Rockaby.

In Endgame, the idea related to Beckett's life concept is pronounced, as follows: "Use your head, can't you, use your head, you're on earth, there's no cure for that!" (Beckett 29) due to motive of cure, the life can be viewed as illness. At this point, Beckett's thinking about existence is apparent, when previewing life as problem, unwanted matter, which was not voluntarily chosen. In terms of the topic life and being born, the utterance of Pozzo in Waiting for Godot is related to this issue: "They give birth astride of grave." Therefore it is possible to understand the life of people as something which only serves as a filling of empty boxes in predetermined cyclic scheme.

In conclusion, the life is not considered something unique - uniqueness is denied by the idea of this system. This concept is making the characters being easily replaced by anyone else, since the secular things (possession, social status etc.) are perishable, while the life philosophy remains unchanged and it is characterized by the features such as suffering, inability to decide about own existence, the inevitability to face the absurd fate etc. The human being is concepted as being "violently thrown into the world", and the existence it is assigned to a man, as well as the burden related to it. From this point of view, Beckett's concept of life is following: the people do not live the life, but they rather face their lives. This can be expanded by Beckett's claim: "No, I regret nothing, all I regret is having been born, dying is such a long tiresome business I always found."

When in search of the roots for this life concept, it is possible to detect certain influence in autobiographical features which are embed in Beckett's family. Samuel Beckett's uncle Gerald, a brother of Bill Beckett, is within Knowlson's work Damned to fame described as "quiet thoughtful man with wide-ranging interests" he is said to have a great effect on Samuel. Beckett's uncle Gerald "was quite irreligious and used to describe life morbidly as "a disease of matter". (Knowlson 86) This can be found as an important fact when judging possible connection with aforementioned Beckett's quote: "You are on the earth, there's no cure for it". Moreover, Gerald's irreligious attitude may have influenced Beckett as well, in addition to the lectures given by C. G. Jung on the topic of Being never properly born, in Tavistock, where Beckett was treated after his father's death.

10. 5. Religion and Reality

As suggested in chapter Bekcett's Plays: Axiological Development and Comparison, in Beckett's plays, it is possible to notice a number of allusions to God and religious faith. From many points of view, Beckett is said to be strictly non-believer. Yet the question may be raised what makes him to display so numerous allusions to God in his plays. Moreover in Endgame, the characters decide to pray and they prayer is said to remain without response bringing the reaction of Hamm: "The bastard doesn't exist". (Beckett 35) The same may be noticed in Not I, when claiming: "the prayer not answered ... or not heard" (29). The numerous allusions to God, set into the absurd and existential situation may be Beckett's appeal on overall consideration related to the questioning God's power.

Samuel Beckett was a member of religious Protestant family, Beckett's granny is described as "extremely devout Christian" (Knowlson 3). He grew up, being led to religious faith: "Every night, the two boys recited thir prayers" (Knowlson 16) Yet in his work, the presence of God is not directly expressed or proclaimed. Commenting on his play Waiting for Godot, Beckett denies the unity of God and Godot, "If by Godot I meant God, I would say God not Godot.", pointing out at the accuracy of its expression.

At autobiographical level, the very first clash of religion and reality could be noticed when Beckett's father took Samuel into church, where he witnessed the poverty, ill and suffering people. This has become one of the earliest doubts about the religious faith which still persisted in Beckett's mind, since the reality, poverty, suffering and absurdity forced Beckett to question the issue of religion at many points. The first question to be raised was why the God allows the suffering of innocent people in the church: "Beckett "could never understand […] why God allows decent, harmless people to suffer so much" (Knowlson 67)

As a crucial factor to understand his religiousness, the family setting may be seen - Beckett inclined rather to his father who may be called a spiritualist who loved walks in nature. Although raised in strongly Protestant family, Beckett seems to question the religion and his attitude is well-described in terms of his friendship with James Joyce: "They shared too a fervent anticlericalism and a scepticism in all matters to do with religion, although their mutual preoccupation with religious imagery

still ran very deep and their knowledge of the scriptures was almost word-perfect." (Knowlson 98).

A question may be raised what has led Beckett to display the religious images and create the alusions to God when he should not be internally convinced of his existence. Beckett's inner personal beliefs suggest the idea that the power of God is limited, and God, assuming its existence, is passive, unable to act and based on this, the world is driven by absurdity with the elements of repeatability, stereotype and especially with presence of human suffering. This can be visible on the phrase used in Waiting for Godot, where, within Lucky's monologue, (perhaps God) is said to look at us from his "divine apathia, divine aphasia, divine athumbia ...". (Beckett 113) This short utterance may explain Beckett's whole approach to God. His existence is not denied, yet the world is in hands of the god who is unable to act ad reminds silent, possibly suggesting the concept of deism. This concept, possibly considered a 'compromise' may be the result of desilusion from war and human suffering. The world retreated from God and there is absurd, higher power which took control over the world, leaving God helpless bystander. The question may be raised what stood behind this absurdity. Possilbly, the war, totality or Beckett's conviction of existence of system based on which the humanity functionates may be found as answer.

Within the suggestion of "transcendental" approach, in the play Endgame, the closeness of nature and God may be found, possibly based on the influence from Beckett's father. "HAMM: Nature has forgotten us. CLOV: There's no more nature. HAMM: No more nature! You exaggerate. CLOV: In the vicinity. CLOV: But we breathe, we change! We lose our hair, our teeth! Our bloom! Our ideals! CLOV: Then she hasn't forgotten us. HAMM: but you say there is none." (Beckett 34). As a reaction to suffering, the master Hamm and his servant Clov pray, which is a proof of the admission of God's existence. "Hamm: Silence! In silence! Where are your manners? (Pause.) Off we go. (Attitudes of prayer. Silencce. Abandoning his attitud, discouraged.) Well? Clov: (abandoning his attitude): What a hope! And you? Hamm: Sweet damn all! (To Nagg.) And you? NAGG: Wait! (Pause. Abandoning his attitude.) Nothing doing! Hamm: The bastard!! He doesn't exist. Clov: Not yet." (Beckett 35). The crucial part of the utterance is pronounced by Hamm: "He doesn't exist." In terms of nature, the pronoun she was used as a substitute for the noun, yet in the quote mentioned, the prayer is directed to 'him' (he doesn't exist) traditionally related to the idea of display of

God as a masculine. On one hand, the issue of nature and God may merge, on the other hand, it is possible to claim that nature is represented by the flow of time, causing growing old and physical change, while the idea of God's existence is purely mental one and connected with mental suffering when the protagonist are asking for sparing them from further suffering. Within the utterance of Clov: "What a hope!" the crucial function of a prayer may be appointed, i. e. it represents a hope at the edge of suffering.

In terms of the play All That Fall, a direct allusion to bible is apparent, i. e. Psalm 145, 14, in which it is claimed " The Lord supports all that fall and all straightens all who bent-over" (Vrba, Šťastné dny 63) Also the play Happy Days begins with Winnie's prayer, purely humble and pious approach is apparent. Moreover, she claims that the "prayers may not be vain" (Vrba, Šťastné dny 67) Prayer is present in the majority of the plays: Waiting for Godot, Act Without Words II, Endgame, Rough for Theatre I, Happy Days or Not I. Moreover in Not I, the God is merciful and at the same time he punishing.

11. Driving force in the field of axiology

As mentioned within the chapter Bekcett's Plays: Axiological Development and Comparison, the values have its roots in a variety of basements and their further development may be noticed. The crucial aim of the following analysis is to appoint the driving forces of axiology, i. e. to find the features (or stimuli) which may be found as fundamental in the field of values and their changes. It may be assumed that the axiological dynamics is caused mainly by expanding knowledge and growing cognition. At this point, the personal experience may be a factor causing the changes in the field of values. This concept is thus related to reason, learning and application of experience. On the other hand, the author himself is also strongly emotional, sensitive and perceptive. Therefore, certain clash of emotions and reason may be expected - in the play Words and Music this clash was the crucial theme. Also Beckett's protagonist often represent this clash of reason and absurdity, as displayed in the chapter Beckett's Plays: Axiological Development and Comparison. Within the development of Beckett's plays, the reason is more significant at the beginnings of his dramatical creation (Vladimir from Waiting for Godot is trying to be reasonable, protagonist in Act Without Words I

uses his reason to learn). Then the values clash mutually without apparent result withint their hierarchy - Morvan and Bertrand from Rough for Theatre II, protagonists from Rough for Theatre I, as well as Men A and B from Act Without Words II). From the play Krapp's Last Tape, Embers or Words and Music, the emotions are gaining greater significance than reason. Especially at the end of Beckett's dramatical creation, closing into emotions and one's inner world is apparent. The emotions and reason are finally unified under the theme of human dignity and strong will, which are displayed in Beckett's last plays - Catastrophe and What Where.

Another feature, which is the crucial one among driving forces of axiological dynamics, is the clash of reason and absurdity. Becket as a man of reason had to face the absurdity of a war, existence of a higher power or mechanical system of human existence. The feature resulting from this clash is a frequent usage of motive of suicide. On the other hand in Waiting for Godot, another way of facing absurdity may be noticed, i. e. in accordance to the Myth of Sysiphos, in terms of gaining certain detachment from absurd fate of a man. The play Act Without Words I, which operates with the theme of learning and use of reason suggests the refusal to play an absurd game, by which the absurdity is overcome.

The religious faith and existence God was the value Beckett was carrying inside from his childhood, yet his faith was brought into clashes with absurd reality and suffering. This clash may be considered as crucial in terms of Beckett's concept of God, as developed in chapter Philosophy of Beckett's Work within the sub-chapter Religion and Reality. Beckett tends to display the God who is unable to act and who become remote to the world. This concept may be noticed in Waiting for Godot or Endgame.

As first stimul of axiological dynamics, learning and cognition may be found. Perhaps, this is the most apparent in play Act Without Words I, where the learing takes place at behaviouristic level, yet being subject of absurd game brings the cognition of man's own powers and recognition of their limits, as mentioned above, in relation to the use of reason. The significance of learning through own experience is expressed in Beckett's poem Gnome. In Waiting for Godot, Vladimir's cognition is at the top when he finds himself at the end of suffering. Thus it may be suggested that the dynamics goes even far, when considering pain and suffering as driving force for cognition and then based on cognition the priorities of protagonist change (as in Act Without Words I, where the

protagonist gives up the idea of suicide he was struggling for). Learning and cognition is conditioned by keeping the memory of own experience. This feature is present also in terms of character Pozzo, who in the first act is strongly egocentric, yet after going blind in second act, he focuses on the general humanking (from this point, the gradation may be noticed of epistemological and philosophical utterances regarding whole humankind, by becomming blind, an insight is gained). Therefore, the suffering and degeneration may be found another feature contributing to the dynamics of values.

At the level of autobiographical features, it may be also the idea of being a witness of destruction, when Beckett faced the situation after Second World War, which brought an axiological shift in his personality as well: "Being involved in working with Irish Red Cross and a member of the Resistance movement, Beckett changed from arrogant, closed young man who he was in 30s. He rather saw his mission and had a desire to help which has changed his depression into helpfulness and being nice to others." (350 Knowlson). At this point, the dynamics may diverge: one concept is displayment of kind of complex, when suffering people carry inside and subsequently they become egocentrical and cruel (e. g. wheel-chair man in Rough for Theatre I, or the character of Dr. Piouk from Eleutheria). Another result of this experience may be positive one, as suggested in Beckett's autobiography. The destruction does not cause alienation, apathy, dehumanization and cruelty, but it rather brings people together and they are considered as fellow-sufferers (in Waiting for Godot, Rough for Theatre I or Endgame). However, this concept is not ideal due to presence of dependency and habit, when eventually the other person is considered a burden. This could be seen in Rough for Theatre I, where idea of bringing two people together, based on their mutual suffering failed, due to people's recklessness, egocentrism and evil expressed by the use of corporal punishment (at this point, the wheel-chair man may be compared to Pozzo, who also actively uses this punishment, Hamm punished Clov used physical punishment when threating Clov he would keep him starving). When the alientation is present in the world, as well as in human relationships, the solution may be found in Beckett's later dramatical creation, where a return of an immediate family member is displayed. The 'ghost' (present only by its voice) would take care of the person, who is left alone.

The precondition to the shift of values is the moment, when a man finds himself in marginal situation. This issue closely overlapps with the issue of Heidegger's throwness,

for example in Act Without Words I or Rough for Theatre II, possibly suggested also in Breath (due to spatial settings). The utterance suggesting being thrown into the world is pronounced in Not I or Footfalls, where the protagonist is said to began (not be born), as well as in Rockaby, where the protagonist utters the sentence that it is the "time she stopped" (not die).

Based on certain closing into oneself, which is apparent in the late period of Beckett's drama, another driving force of axiology can be noticed, i. e. when the protagonist is closing to death and old age. This is a starting position to growth of nostalgia, balancing over life and reflections on it. Moreover, nostalgia is very close to dreaming: in Endgame it was master Hamm, who was also dreaming: "Hamm: If I could sleep I might make love. I'd go into the woods. My eyes would see … the sky, the earth. I'd run, run, they wouldn't catch me. (Pause.) Nature!" (Beckett 36).

In play Happy Days it is also Winnie's closing into nostalgia, remembering the 'happy days'. In Come and Go the closing into nostalgia had apparent purpose in which the three protagonists wanted to escape from unhappy present and remember the old days of their childhood and their friendship. In That Time it is moreover closing into Henri's own world. In Rockaby it is the nostalgia within the narration of (possibly) a ghost of a mother who is now soothing his daughter before her own death. In Ohio Impromptu it is narrarion with numerous authobiographical features in which Beckett's own memories are involved. Nostalgia and reflection over own's life is the crucial theme in Krapp's Last Tape.

In conclusion, the axiological dynamics is caused mainly by clashes. e. g. clash of reason and emotions, reason and absurdity, absurdity chanign peoples' emotions and causing growth of apathy and alienation, absurdity and God. Another feature causing the dynamic of values is experience, which is a means of learning and cognition, yet this learning is conditioned by keeping the memory of this experience.

12. Conclusion: Development of Values in Beckett's Dramatical Creation

Beckett's works undoubtedly offer a great interpretative potential. The reason for it may be found in Beckett's approach which was crucial feature of Beckett's own

poetics formed after Second World War, i. e. minimalistic approach, having its roots in search for own specific style of literary creation and the struggle not to remain in a shadow of Joyce, who was continuously enriching his work. Beckett's limitation of number of protagonists, spatial setting, number of wings and extreme focus reached by placing the protagonist into marginal situation are the features causing the need to understand what is the meaning (hidden message) behind this minimal form.

As pronounced by Jeana-Jacques Mayeux, a literary critic and professor of English literature at the University in Soborna, "Beckett remains untranslatable, i. e. even for himself." (Beckett, Eseje 102) This claim may be challenged; even though Beckett gains certain kind of detachment from his works, e. g. Waiting for Godot, in which he claims he basically does not know who Godot is. Yet when concepting his work critically, with regard to Beckett's own personality, opinions and values, Beckett's reasoning may be detected, due to values he displays in his work, which serve as a key for understanding his life as well, although his private matters were crucial for him and he highly protected his privacy.

As mentioned in the chapter dealing with Jamese Joyce's Influence on Beckett's Work, Beckett, at the beginnings of his literary creation, uses Joyce's rich language, yet a kind of 'existential' foundation at level of his themes and motives is beng formed already, i. e. under influence of Joyce, Proust or philosophers e. g. Schopenhauer, Kant, Descartes, Vico etc. At this phase, formation of own poetics is still at the level of theory and mindset only. It is only after the experience with suffering and loss, in personal matters as well as in terms of the harmfull consequences of Second World War, especially during Beckett's co-operation with Irish Red Cross when Beckett's poetics find its roots in rawness of the reality, previewing the world and human existence as something limited, imperfect, absurd.

As announced within the Introduction, it is Beckett's personality, opinions and values, which are the crucial subjects of the analysis. Strong individuality, being open-minded, determined and independent were Beckett's crucial values, moreover, quite stable ones. Based on the testimony of Beckett's friend, Raymond Federman, Beckett was spending his last days alone in sanatorium, sick and tired. He remembers that when he announced he would like to put his mind into literature, he was given a piece of advice from

Beckett: "Whatever you would write about, never resort to compromise, and if you are going to write for money or fame, do something else." (Vrba, Šťastné dny 24)

The strong sensitivity of Beckett may be noticed within his search for silence. The cottage in Ussy was a temple of silence and he spent a lot of time only by reflecting on past or present happening (as suggested in Krapp's Last Tape). It is said that he hold the "position of solitaire, changing the feeling of loneliness into the fervency, which can eradicate doubts, depression and darkness out of the soul. […] Only by this way it is possible to hear and differenciate everything, especially the nonsensical clamor of life - by the silence in which the universe is absorbed (Vrba, Šťastné dny 36). Unlike at the beginning of Beckett's writing, which was under Joyce's influence, Beckett's way of expression was eventually short and exact, without redundant features. He valued silence, which "only him could fill in by contentment. (Vrba, Šťastné dny 21)

His personality was described by his friend: "In 1974, in Paris, I published a novel called Bitter Eldorado. In the book, there was following dedication: 'To Sam …' When Beckett got one copy from me, he wrote back: "If this dedication is devoted to the one I have in mind, then he is grateful for it by all his heart." Within this sentence, whole Beckett is contained - his generosity, humility, humor." (Vrba, Šťastné dny 23).

In the field of cognition, Beckett did not agree with Joyce, who claimed that the more we know about the world, the better we can understand and control it. The absurdity of war caused Beckett's crisis of reason and possibly this was a stepping stone to preference of emotions, closing in nostalgia and displayment the devastated protagonists who are full of emotions yet unable to express themselves (Not I). Beckett's later humility may be based on Geulinex, who has influenced Beckett's prose: "Ubi nihil vales, ibi nihil veils." (Where you do not mean anything, do not expect anything.). Based on this concept, Beckett claimed that the only way to cope with life is to be small, insignificant and do not believe to have any value. Only then a human will not be unhappy, since the less he expects, the lesser he will be disappointed.

Appart from great literary significance of his plays, Beckett's work may be considered a confession of strongly rational and perceptive author facing the absurdity of the world. Loss of his immediate family, unhappy love affairs, drinking, crisis over his own abilities, poverty, mental suffrage or the destruction he witnessed after Second World War when working with Red Cross were the features causing Beckett's suffering and

search for the basement of human being. On the other hand, basically from the personal crisis and depression, Beckett's masterpieces are 'born': Waiting for Godot and Endgame. In terms of Endgame, it was the loss of the last member of Beckett's immediate family, brother Frank; this served as a stimul for writing this play. Based on this, the idea was created about the need of having someone, who would either play a role of a fellow-sufferer (e. g. Waiting for Godot, Endgame, Rough for Theatre II) or would take care of the person, who is left alone. At his point, Beckett operates with the idea of a ghost coming back to take care about person who is left alone, helping him or her with reconciliation. (Footfalls, Rockaby, That Time).

In the field of values, cognition, humanity (realized by a presence of emotions), hope (represented by a prayer and idea of reincartation), individuality and independence, human dignity and strong will, having someone to be cared for, privacy, closing in nostalgia and dreaming, reconsilaton, reason and learning, happiness and silence may be considered positive features. On the other hand the existence of manipulative higher power, absurdity (implying the motive of suicide), growth of apathy and alienation, egocentrism, throwness, apocryphal being, unoriginality of esistence, hierarchy, totality, corporal punishment, man as a burden (fellow-sufferer), mental and physical degeneration, concept of humanity is replaced by mechanical repetitiveness of inauthentic beings, own complex from destruction causing suffering of other people, limitation and idea suggesting imperfection of a man: being never properly born - these are the features in Beckett's plays which may be found as negative ones.

Beckett's own refusal of egocentrism may be apparent from the interview with John Calder, London publisher: "He was always talking only about things in which we both were interested. He never spoke about himself, neither about something which would be related to his privacy. […] He does not explain. He won't utter only extra word" (Vrba, Šťastné dny 25)

As was mentioned in the chapter Beckett's plays - Axiological development and Comparison, Beckett's world of Absurd is cruel and protagonists (especially in the end of Beckett's dramatical creation) tend to close themselves into nostalgia. At this point, there is also certain centrum securitatis created and placed within the interior, into which the protagonists close as well. (This idea was suggested within the sub-chapter of Humanistic Concept of Values in Beckett's Plays.) In From Abandoned Work, Beckett

writes: "It is because I am old and weak, that in suffering and weakness I mumble my things and that is why I am settling down and old ideas in me are raising, like a wave, up to my voice, those old ideas born with me, grown with me and pushed into the abyss. […] No, let's find the old day again, any old day and eyes which are rising from this earth which was given to us, to see things, which it bares. (Beckett, From Abandoned Work 142).

By Calder, Beckett is said to be "friendly and a humanist" (Vrba 26), who "judges no one, he absolutely refrains from assessing comments. (Vrba 26). Beckett also places a great importance on individuality and freedom or independency. Basically Beckett's character may be at this point found quite opposite to the one displayed within Pozzo in Waiting for Godot, who embodies evil, egocentrism and cruelty.

Especially at the end of his dramatical creation, the issue of human will and dignity is present. In chronological concept, this issue occurs in Waiting for Godot, when Lucky is humiliated and treated like a dog. Loss of dignity may be suggested also in Act Without Words I, where the protagonist seems to be an animal, on which an experiment is being performed. Yet in the end he gains experience, his reason is formed and by active rebellion and refusal he overcomes the absurdity. In the Endgame, the Clov's posture suggests certain subordination as well as his utterance "Clov: I crawled at you feet. You told me to go to hell." (Beckett, Endgame 38). In Rough for Theatre I, the fiddler looses his dignity when being physically punished, yet he may seem to gain it back when he stretched to give the strike back.

Especially in Catastrophe and What Where, the dignity is kept in case of the preson interrogated. "Unwillingness to give up, was, he commented himself, a constant trait in his character. It was a trait that made him work indefatigably both at St-Lo and, later, at his writing and directing. It is also an element in his characters that drives them on, encouraging them never to give up or fully surrender their human dignity. With humour, this is one of the positive forces in Beckett's work that saves it from being wholly pessimistic." (Knowlson 350). Apparently, this dignity was kept as a significant value till the very end of Beckett's dramatical creation.

In terms of being uner the control of higher, absurd power, there is certain development to be noticed in Beckett's plays: At first, within Waiting for Godot, it was something uncertain, passive and absent, while in Act Without Words I and II it was an active

power directly manipulating and controlling the protagonists. Within the play Rough for Theatre II, this higher power was even embodied - or personalized - and represented by two men. In the end of Beckett's dramatical creation, the issue of hierarchy is connected with possibly more political context, especially in Catastrophe (as well as in What Where), where it is related to the issue of human individuality and dignity. The higher power causing harm and suffering is not only embodied, but its representatives are now ordinary people who are causing suffering based on certain hierarchy or totality. Behind this kind of concept, the former political and personal context may be found, especially with regard to the dedication of Catastrophe to V. Havel.

The idea of loss of dignity is realized at two levels, first at mental level, which is based on certain hierarchy between the characters and secondly, at physical level, when the use of corporal punishment is a relevant motive. Based on author's sensitivity and mainly after suffering from war and another, more personal issues, the world of Beckett's plays is considered as absurd, hostile and evil; therefore late period of Beckett's dramatical creation operates with motives of nostalgia, dreaming, reflection and growing introspection, which would offer a chance to close in certain centrum securitatis (in the interior at spatial level and in the nitro at mental level).

After the Second World War, as developed in chapter Experience from Second World War, Beckett's own style of writing was formed; war has destroyed many lives and the people seem to carry a kind of complex inside, based on which they tend to destroy the lives of other people (e. g. Rough for Theatre I, Eleutheria) This may be considered a basement for evil - perhaps it is the political context, which forced Beckett to leave the shell of nostalgia into which he was closing in the period of his later creation (Come and Go, Rockaby, That Time, Footfalls, A Piece of Monologue), and through his work he pronounced his request for humanity, maintaining strong, independent will, individuality and human dignity, which are the values with permanent importance.

In terms of spatial setting of Beckett's plays, it is possible to claim that hostile, limited and messy world implies Heidegger's idea of 'throwness' and 'apocryphal (inauthentic) being'. In Beckett's concept, it is seeing the life as problem or illness. Under the influence of Jung and his idea of 'being never properly born', Beckett also displays the people who basically exist, yet do not live - those who are not born and do not die, yet they begin and they stop (Not I, Rockaby). This limitation is reflected

mainly at level of human knowledge and cognition (more precisely its limitation). Heidegger's thrownes closely overlaps with the idea of mutual dependency of people, behind which Beckett's loss of immediate family may be found. Perhaps the fear from being left alone or need for confession motivated him to display kind of 'return' of a close person from the family, realized in a form of voice, who communicates with the protagonist (the aforementioned 'ghosts'). In addition to this, the idea of being cared for implies the theme of being replaced by the one, who was taking care of the person. The idea of mechanical system of society may be also considered as negative, since it implies the unoriginality of human existence. This is supported by the idea of minima and maxima, which imply the idea the human emotions are under control of a system.

The suffering is undoubtedly concepted as negative feature, yet on the other hand due to suffering and limitation, the protagonists reach the congition and gain certain insight. As was suggested in the chapter Humanistic Concept of Values in Beckett's Plays, the sociological concept by A. Maslow was applied with following conclusion: based on being deprived of more fundamental human needs (safety needs, physical needs etc.) a man reaches directly the highest point within the hierarchy, i. e. self-cognition and self- actualization (cognition).

In addition to this, sensitivity, individuality and solitude were the values which Beckett retained for whole his life, as Cadler stated: "I think he is still the same. He hasn't changed much. He was still living in his own world. Even Nobel Prize caused him discomfort, he was feeling embarrassed, the money he received he did not keep, he handed them out … to various people." (Vrba, Šťastné dny 26) When Hiebel asked Calder, whether all the fame has changed Beckett, he answered: "I think he withdrew even more. He was running away from public and especially from journalists. He claimed they confuse everything together and then they print it out." (Vrba, Šťastné dny 27). Beckett's values may be found as stable, the only shift within his personality is the change from arrogant intellectual in 1930s, into more modest, helping person, i. e. due to the destruction he witnessed after Second World War.

13. List of Sources

13. 1. Bibliography

▪ Beckett, Samuel. The Complete Dramatic Works. London: Faber and Faber, 1990. Print

Feldman, Karim. Beckett/Philosophy. Stuttgart: Verlag, 2015. Print.

▪ Knowlson, James. Damned to Fame: The Life of Samuel Beckett. London: Bloomsbury, 1996. Print.

▪ Beckett, Samuel. Eseje. Tans. Petr Osolsobě. Brno: Petrov, 1992. Print.

▪ Beckett, Samuel. Nepojmenovatelný. Trans. Tomáš Hrách. Praha: Argo, 1998. Print.

▪ Beckett, Samuel. Waiting for Godot. Trans. Patrik Ouředník. Brno: Větrné Mlýny, 2005. Print.

▪ Beckett, Samuel. Endgame. Trans. Kaušitz Josef. Praha: Divadelní a literární agentura, 1994. Print.

▪ Beckett, Samuel. Endgame: a play in one act followed by act without words, a mime for one player. London: Faber and Faber, 1965. Print.

▪ Beckett, Samuel. Krapp's Last Tape and Embers. London: Faber and Faber, 1959. Print.

▪ Beckett, Samuel. Play and two short reces for radio. London: Faber and Faber, 1968. Print.

▪ Beckett, Samuel. Come and Go: Dramaticule. London: Calder and Boyars, 1967. Print.

▪ Beckett, Samuel. Divadlo Archa a British Council uvádějí The Royal Shakespeare Company Beckett shorts: šest krátkých her Samuela Becketta. Trans. Josef Kaušitz. Praha: Divadlo Archa, 1997. Print.

▪ Beckett, Samuel. Katastrofa a jiná dramátka. Trans. Josef Kaušitz. Praha: Dilia, 1992. Print.

▪ Heidegger, Martin. Bytí a čas. Praha: Oikoymenh, 2002. Print.

▪ Vrba, František. Šťastné dny. Praha: Národní divadlo, 1998. Print.

▪ Beckett, Samuel. Collected Poems 1930 - 1978. London: Calder, 1999. Print.

▪ Mihalovici, Marcel. Samuel Beckett - Marcel Mihalovici, Poslední páska = Krapp's last tape = Krapp ou la derniére bande: společný projekt činohry a opery Národního divadla: [česká premiéra 16. října 2003 v Národním divadle]. Praha: Národní divadlo, 2003. Print.

▪ Beckett, Samuel. Molloy. Praha: Argo, 1996. Print.

▪ Beckett, Samuel. Novely a texty pro nic. Trans. Marie Janů, Josef Kaušitz. Praha: Volvox Globator 1, 1995. Print.

▪ Brown, Craig. Hello Goodbye Hello: A Circle of 101 Remarkable Meetings. London: Simon & Schuster, 1995. Print.

▪ Schopenhauer, Arthur. Svět jako vůle a představa. Svazek první. Pelhřimov: Nová tiskárna, 1997. Print.

▪ Schopenhauer, Arthur. Svět jako vůle a představa. Svazek druhý. Pelhřimov: Nová tiskárna, 1998. Print.

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▪ YouTube, LLC. "Footfalls by Samuel Beckett (part 4)". 7 Feb. 2009. Web. 26. Mar. 2015, video available on https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p2i6fn6fGi0&list=PL40AF889C7EE0204C&index =4

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▪ YouTube, LLC. "Samuel Beckett - A piece of monologue [from "Beckett on film]". 18 Jun. 2014, Web. 26. Mar. 2015, video available on https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kWS1LrxCROs

▪ YouTube, LLC. "Samuel Beckett - Rockaby, starring Billie Whitelaw, director: Alan Schneider (1981)". 3 Feb. 2015. Web. 26. Mar. 2015, video available on https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=66iZF6SnnDU

▪ YouTube, LLC. "Ohio Impromptu". 31 Mar. 2013. Web. 26. Mar. 2015, video available on https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w7uZ22A0zIs

▪ YouTube, LLC. "Catastrophe - Samuel Beckett". 16 Dec. 2012. Web. 26. Mar. 2015, video available on https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iAbGOP7YqlM

13. 3. Other Electronic Sources

▪ 454 W 23rd St New York, NY 10011 - 2157. "Samuel Beckett's first book, Whoroscope, 1930". 18 Feb. 2011. Web. 26. Mar. 2015.,text available on http://lazenby.tumblr.com/post/3374062767/samuel-becketts-first-book-whoroscope- 1930

▪ Unanimismus.“ Wikipedie: Otevřená encyklopedie. 27. 01. 2014, 18:27 UTC. 9. 02. 2015, 10:20, a text available on http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Unanimismus&oldid=11149520

▪ Samuel Beckett: "I would like my love to die". 17 Mar. 2014. Web. 26 Mar. 2015. a text available on http://biblioklept.org/2014/03/17/i-would-like-my-love-to-die-samuel- beckett/

▪ This Space. "Beckett's silence" 16 Feb. 2011. Web. 26 Mar. 2015. text available on http://this-space.blogspot.cz/2011/02/becketts-silence.html

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