Training Dangers in Traditional

Introduction research studies focused on instruc- being modified to feature “low Imagine that you are a world- tors. As expected; the instructors impact” rather than “high impact”. class Taekwondo competitor. You became very fit. However, the good As a result, more people then ever have proven your skills time and results were accompanied by an have been able to train, regardless of time again. In fact, your techniques excessive amount of training inju- age or physical condition. are so quick and crisp that you rarely ries. Those results alerted fitness lose. Furthermore, your opponents experts to the fact that many well- Historical Root can barely score any points against established fitness theories were Although this article is focusing you, nor can they injure you. There potentially counterproductive. upon Taekwondo; the information is is only one problem. Your knees and Research confirmed that applicable to any martial art. Many ankles become swollen, painful and repeated, long-term jumping, of the traditional training methods weak after a day’s competition. bouncing and jogging were clearly have a common root. As mentioned Why? You are the victim of poor the cause of the injuries. More above, Hatha Yoga, an Indian training methods. specifically, attitudes of working religious discipline, was the founda- Fiction? No, there are several through pain were found to be tion for most of the oriental martial top Taekwondo competitors who directly responsible for chronic arts. This is because Hatha Yoga suffer those maladies. In fact, a training injuries. As a result, was used by Buddhist missionaries to recent article in the U.S. Taekwondo physical fitness programs in the U.S. provide discipline training for their Union Newsletter noted that 15 of have made some major renovations. students. Those exercises empha- the 16 team members of the 1985 Additionally, international training sized the control of the body and its World Championship team suffered programs are beginning to confirm functions. Of course, the religious training injuries prior to their meet. U.S. findings, and some of those connotation has disappeared; leaving Additionally, competitors are not the programs are being modified. the rote practice of the technique. only ones to suffer from injuries. Martial arts practitioners may Martial artists must understand that Training injuries are common among have heard about those findings; yet Hatha Yoga was done originally to older practitioners and people in none seem to have recognized a prepare the physical body for poor physical condition. connection between aerobics classes spiritual growth. Physical fitness The oriental martial arts have a and martial arts classes. Most was only part of the reasoning for the tradition that extends back more than oriental martial arts use exercises Hatha Yoga postures. The primary 2000 years. Many of the traditional that hurt joints or bend the body into reason for the postures was to training methods are very ancient. uncomfortable postures. Those enhance the stimulation of the The perceptive, well informed techniques are done to gain flexibil- chakras, or centers of psychic observer may recognize Hatha Yoga ity. Martial arts, like Taekwondo, energy. techniques in the calisthenics. use jumping techniques to gain Hatha Yoga exercises did Furthermore, most participants in a stamina or “springiness”. Some provide a level of fitness because it class often comment that it is painful schools use heavy bags or impact took flexibility and bodily discipline to execute the exercises. This article resistive devices (makiwara) to to perform the routines, but many of will explore traditional training develop bodily weapons. One thing those routine were not safe. Hatha methods, particularly regarding is sure—all of those techniques Yoga was best when it emphasized Taekwondo, and recommend new greatly increase the risk of injury. smooth movement and relaxation, methods of training for today’s It is likely that many martial but it was at its worst when it forced martial artist. artists may say that there cannot be the joints into severe hyperextension. authentic traditional training without Those exercise techniques have Background those exercise techniques, but that is become the basis of martial arts A tremendous amount of not true. Traditional techniques calisthenics, but they are not the information has been collected on the were relative to the time of their most dangerous techniques. subjects of exercise and kinesiology creation. In other words, they were due to increased interest in physical the best techniques known at the Exercise Dangers fitness. The spectacular growth of time. The modernizing of training What kind of exercises are aerobics training programs has methods will not be the demise of dangerous? Using Taekwondo as a intensified the impact of that kind of traditional martial arts. For ex- baseline; the following exercises are training on a large segment of ample, aerobics have not disap- the most risky: First, repetitive American society. Most of the peared; even though techniques are jumping in place, such as Jumping Jacks, especially when done on a by exercises that hyperextend joints. easy to understand the source of the hard floor, can injure joints and the Martial arts training utilizes two problem. The turning , tollyo spine. Second, exercises that bend classifications of hyperextension chagi, is often used to deliver a joints beyond normal limits or techniques. The first are those speedy, powerful kick to an oppo- exercises that stress joints, such as exercises that bend the joints beyond nent’s body or head. Competitors the earlier noted kicking and normal limits. The second are those use a kicking pad or heavy bag to punching into the air, can cause exercises that hyperextend the joints simulate contact to an opponent’s hyperextension injuries. Third, because of ballistic thrusting of the body. The training often features exercises that require strikes with limbs. Those injuries are usually powerful repetitive kicking to the improperly utilized hand or foot related to excessive kicking or training target with the instep of the weapons against resistive appliances punching techniques that do not foot. This is the primary cause of are a significant cause of injuries. encounter a resistive target. Taekwondo ankle injuries. Finally, forging exercises that are The injury is caused by two intended to toughen students prior to related traumas—the hyperextension sparring, if done improperly, of the ankle joint and the impact of can cause severe the heel bone against the lower leg physiological trauma. bone (see: foot/ankle diagram). Furthermore, poorly Bringing the instep into forceful executed forging contact with a resistive exercises do not even target, a heavy bag, for work as intended! example, applies excessive force to the Ballistic Injuries top of the foot. As the The most danger- foot is only attached to the ous and damaging lower leg by ligaments; the exercise techniques are force pries the foot away those classified as ballistic. from the lower leg. That Those include: jumping and bounc- stretches or damages the ing; or punching and kicking into ligaments surrounding, the air. Most modern exercise and including, the programs have begun to anterior talotibial eliminate these types of ligament. The same exercises from their lever action forces the regimens in favor of non- calcaneus (heel bone) into ballistic exercises done for a the tibia (large lower leg longer duration. Many bone). While infrequent martial arts classes may have incidents of this trauma are students doing ballistic exercises for often sustainable; it is not more than an hour in each class. If Use of Body Weapons desirable. Furthermore, repeated use students participate in several classes As Taekwondo uses various of this technique in training is per week then the risk of injury is parts of the body as weapons; they almost a guarantee of a permanent, greatly increased. are susceptible to injuries. The chronic injury. Today, most fitness authorities injuries at the beginning of this The injury described above is but reject the philosophy of “No pain: no article were the result of misapplied one example of training that uses the gain”. Proper exercise should not kicking techniques. The example wrong type of bodily weapon. There hurt. It should make a person tired cited in this article described a very are similar problems caused by or sore after using new muscles, but capable Taekwondo champion who misuse of forging tools like the it should not hurt. They also suffered from injured ankles. That makiwara. The intention of this advocate an exercise program injury does not come from the article is to alert the reader to emphasizing consistency rather than sparring competition. It is the result potentially dangerous training “going for the burn”. Nevertheless, of the pre-event training used to techniques. It is left for the reader to it is very difficult to transform the develop powerful kicking. The discover other examples of related indoctrination of many years into a injury is very widely shared, yet is it problems. belief that favors new perceptions. subtle. This article will detail the cause of the injury. Forging Training Dangers Hyperextension Injuries Taking the time to analyze the Traditional martial arts have had Another serious danger is posed typical training for sparring; it is a long history of using forging, or toughening, training. Many people training. The major cause of those the most vigorous. Another high are familiar with images of Mas injuries is the lack of modernization quality fitness advocate is Richard Oyama pounding on a oak tree for in the training methods. Simmons. He provides quality many months until it was finally information on diet and exercise, but felled. However, those exercises are Modern Training Regimen he may not be sufficiently vigorous more directed at toughen the attack- The previous segments de- for the intensive martial arts work- ing tools. There is another type of scribed injuries caused by a training out. forging that is done. Those tech- attitude that encourages practitioners niques are directed at the task of to push their body beyond comfort- Fundamental Concepts toughening the body to endure able limits. So, an effective exercise The knowledgeable authorities punishment. strategy requires a new attitude. noted above recommend a training In a martial art such as Tae- Martial arts training in ancient days philosophy that is safe and effective. kwondo, where contact is required, exemplified qualities of rugged self The recommendations may be the ability to endure pain can give determinism and survival. Training incorporated into a martial arts that extra edge to a competitor. was focused on mental tenacity and program without difficulty. Addi- Also, practitioners of martial arts discipline. The goal was self defense tionally, those techniques will that feature a self defense component and survival in a hostile environ- change the look and feel of the are obvious beneficiaries of such ment. Modern martial arts training traditional workout. So, the in- training. Unfortunately, there are is practiced for physical fitness, formed instructor may find it very few instructors who have sport, recreation and stress reduction, difficult, at first, to teach exercises studied the techniques that have been as well as for self defense. Instruc- gently, but it must be done. Quite developed over several centuries. tors must begin to implement a new often, students feel that their exer- Many instructors, who feel the need training philosophy that will satisfy cises must be punishing to be of to include forging exercises, use modern needs. value. The enlightened instructor techniques copied from books or The four areas of training must re-educate. Soon, however, the martial arts movies. Those are poor discussed above are still necessary instructor will be rewarded by a class reference sources. Many books have for the development of a successful full of students who are stronger, not been researched to the necessary martial arts program. However, healthier and injury free. depth, and movies are for entertain- there are training refinements That training program must be ment purposes only. Even if the available for each area. The most based upon three fundamental instructor has received legitimate critical techniques are: low-impact, concepts. First, there must be instruction on body forging tech- non-ballistic, non-hyperextension exercises that provide an aerobic, or niques; those techniques may be exercises; safe and effective power oxygen consuming, cardiovascular outdated or invalid. and strength training; proper fitness. Second, there must be some The human body can be condi- development of body weapons form of progressive resistance tioned to endure pain and injury. training and body forging tech- training. This may include weight Furthermore, proper toughening can niques. training for adults or water resis- even prevent injury. On the other tance training. Finally, there must hand, there is the great risk of Modern Exercise Methods be some form of stretching for hidden injuries. Instructors and Before describing new tech- flexibility. These three areas must be practitioners must be very careful to niques; the reader should be aware covered by any fitness program. avoid dangerous techniques. In fact, that there has been some excellent Those concepts need to be merged if agonizing pain is experienced research conducted in the subjects of into traditional martial arts training. during the training session; it is exercise and kinesiology. There are probably a good indication that the a great many sources of quality Warm Up training is of questionable value. health and fitness information The first thing that must be The foregoing discussion available today: A good overview of taken out of the training class is covered four common training current research may be found in the excessive jumping or jogging. Those injuries experienced in Taekwondo Encyclopedia Britannica Medical techniques do not improve an and other martial arts. The article and Health Annual or the University athlete’s ability to be light on the discussed injuries caused by hyper- of California at Berkeley Wellness feet, nor do they build stamina ballistic movement, hyperextension Letter. There are some excellent safely. Instead, when used for of joints, incorrectly applied bodily “how to” exercise books written by warming up; they jar the body. weapons and body toughening. The Denise Austin. She also has video Rather, an exercise routine should examples provided were intended to tapes and a TV program on ESPN. start out slowly. Participants should illustrate only a small portion of the Her training program seems to be begin by shaking out their limbs and potential for injury in martial arts one of the safest, and yet, it is one of getting the joints moving. The exercise routine should then warms the muscles and lubricates the Instructors must pay attention to move into more vigorous exercising joints. As a result, the body is more fundamental exercises; as they are a of the limbs. That should be fol- safely prepared for intense physical potential source of hyperextension lowed by similar exercises of bigger activity. injuries. muscle groups. A typical sequence Taekwondo is learned through of exercises might be: Swinging the Calisthenics fundamentals and poom-se. There- arms front to back, both horizontally Once the body has been warmed fore, it is essential for the instructor and vertically. That might be up; vigorous exercising may begin. to develop a program that protects followed by light kicking simula- There are a number of directions that students from the kinds of injuries tions—front, left and right side and may be taken during this phase of the that are related to those types of rear . The neck can be exer- exercise regimen. For example, training. There are, at least, three cised by bending the forward and strength and endurance exercises, methods of training that can be back, then side to side, and lastly, poom-se, water training or sparring beneficial. One, progressive resis- rotated clockwise and counter training may all be done. Even tance training using weights is clockwise. Side stretching can be though the direction of training may helpful in strengthening muscles, done, but it should be done slowly, be varied; an example of one possible connective tissue and joints. Two, without forcing the body into any direction will be detailed for illustra- water training can be used as a uncomfortable posture. The thighs tive purposes. combination of progressive resis- and buttocks can be exercised by Typical exercises are pushups, tance and aerobic training. Three, a assuming the joochoom (crouching) sit-ups leg-risers or basic Taekwondo heavy bag may be used to develop stance, then raising and lowering the fundamentals. Care must be taken powerful kicks and punches, and, at body. Finally, body twisting and when using those exercises as some the same time, minimize potential turning may be used to warm the are potentially sources of injury. For hyperextension injuries. trunk area. example, stomach strengthening The purpose of the warm up is to exercises should be done without Power/Strength Training get the body ready to exercise. It is putting a strain on the back. Those Martial arts like Taekwondo not supposed to be intense. The exercises must be balanced with have always featured powerful warm up prepares the cardiovascular exercises that strengthen the back. techniques. Usually, training system for a level of activity that is Austin’s book, 1-Minute Exercises, consisted of weight training, the in excess of normal. Additionally, does an excellent job of explaining heavy bag and the use of the the increased cardiovascular activity the full stomach-back regimen. makiwara. Most martial artists have

1A 2.

1B 3.

According to major fitness authorities stomach strengthening exercises should include exercises to strengthen the back equally. Recommended stomach-back calesthenic routines from Denise Austin's 1-Minute Exercises book: (1A&B) Pelvic Rock, (2) Lower Back Stretch and (3) Mid-Abdomen Sit-up. access to, or direct knowledge of, methods of weight training. Those types of training are excellent and well documented by other sources. However, other methods are less well known. Water training, heavy bag training and resistive device train- ing, will be the focus of further analysis.

Water Training Stressed joints have been a difficult problem to solve when practicing Taekwondo techniques. If the practitioner became injured during the training, he or she might either be encouraged to quit or ease up on the training effort. Practitio- ners motivated enough to continue quickly. A typical frequency for this Forging techniques require the same training often develop long-term type of supplemental training is once consideration as any other training chronic injuries. Water training a month. The duration that seems system. There are warm up exercises prevents and even cures chronic most productive is one hour. and calisthenics to be performed injuries. The basic concept of water before any strong effort is attempted. training is that of anaerobic variable Body Weapon Training Two, trainees must use the resistance. Resistive device training uses required weapon/tool correctly. Water training is done just like special forging tools to strengthen Many of the ancient masters cor- any other workout. It begins with a parts of the human body that are rectly analyzed the proper anatomi- brief warm up that is very similar to used as weapons. One popular type cal alignment of hands and feet when the normal warm up. The next stage of training technique that is used is used as weapons. Those concepts is strengthening calisthenics. That the heavy bag. Bags are often used have been ignored in recent years stage allows the participants to use in Taekwondo gyms (dojang), yet because of the limitations imposed the resistance of the water in a few are used correctly. Another on competition techniques. controlled fashion to apply any techniques is the forging post. Three, trainees must never train amount of resistance to the muscles Called makiwara by Japanese, or with reckless abandon. It is possible or the joints. The final stage of the dallyon joo by Koreans; its use for to hit a training device with enough training involves intense aerobic training has a long tradition in the force to break bones, yet be so exercise and the use of maximum oriental martial arts. Both tech- mentally focused that pain is never muscular effort. The result of the niques have potential injury risks. felt. That type of attitude might be training is an increase in stamina, Nevertheless, those who wish to required for a life and death circum- strengthened joints and an improved pursue the training may do so in stance, but it is counter-productive in ability to apply peak output very safety. the training environment. The subject of forging training Four, trainees should build up has been effectively covered by such slowly to higher resistances. The authors as Hidetake Nishiyama, Mas normal training regimen takes years Oyama, Choi Hong Hi and Kim Bok to prepare the body to be used a Man. However, while those authors weapon. Practitioners should be did describe the training necessary; warned to take the training slowly. they did not really analyze the Finally, time must be set aside impact upon the user. after forging training to help the Obviously, any time that a body recover from the punishment practitioner hits a resistive appliance that it just received. Related joints with any part of his or her body; the must always be articulated following potential for injury is extremely a training session. Tissues that may high. Therefore, the basic cautions have been traumatized must be are as follows: massaged. If necessary, icing and Figure 1: Safe application of tollyo-chagi One, trainees should never hit heat may be used to treat swelling. (from S. Henry Cho's Korean ) anything without preparation. Most importantly, effected imple- ments need time to rest. instep. There are many techniques Heavy Bag Training available for training on a heavy bag. Many Taekwondo schools have a The reader is invited to investigate heavy bag. They come in several those sources for training techniques. shapes, sizes and weights. The most The purpose of this article is to common size used is between forty suggest that the training should and 100 pounds. On one hand, bags follow the general precautions are supposed to represent the feeling outlined above to insure safety and of hitting the human body. On the success. other hand, they provide resistance for the application of techniques. Forging Post Training The theory is that strong resistance Forging training for body will develop more powerful tech- weapons has been a popular tech- niques. nique in many oriental martial arts. A heavy bag can perform the Tools can be found in Kung-Fu, functions noted above. However, Karate, Taekwondo and Muay-Thai Figure 3: Makiwara training trainees must observe similar schools. The most popular tool is (from Nishiyama's classic text Karate) precautions to those for all forging one probably invented by the training. The need for a warm-up Japanese: the makiwara. As this and the correct utilization of body article is referencing Taekwondo; the Body Forging weapon are most important. The Korean name, dallyon joo, shall be There is another type of forging problem described at the beginning used in place of makiwara. The that is done. This is forging training of the article was caused by the dallyon joo is a tapered post that is done to toughen the body. The improper use of these weapons when anchored at the base and standing to training is similar. Instead of a chest-level height. The post controlling the force applied by the features one or more impact pads. practitioner; the trainer must control Modern dallyon joo have foam the force applied to the practitioner. rubber pads. Dallyon joo pads for The objective of the training is to advanced students are made from prepare the body to react quickly to a bundled rice straw. by training muscles to contract Most practitioners who see a instantaneously. That technique dallyon joo in a dojang immediately allows the body to become extremely start to pound on it. This is the resistance to injury. danger in using the tool. Practitio- Furthermore, psychological ners who use the dallyon joo must conditioning is necessary to prepare realize that hematoma (bruising) is a human beings to endure a very natural result of the training. unnatural event—physical punish- Therefore, the training must allow ment. Most people have an aversion the body to accommodate and lessen to being hit. A trained instructor that injury. Also, rice straw acts just must use a specific methodology to like sandpaper. That helps the accomplish this type of training. Figure 2: Weapon in tollyo-chagi bag work (from Gen. Choi's Taekwondo) trainee to build up callouses. How- The technique is called desensitiza- ever, those who do not follow a tion by psychologists. The process is gradual process will end up with as follows: training on the heavy bag. abrasions like bleeding knuckles as The first step in either body or These statements should not be in the case of forging. limb forging is to use light striking misinterpreted to mean that the The reader should understand to the desired area. Toughening of instep can never be used for bag that Taekwondo students can become limbs is usually done by striking work. The problems are caused by very skillful without resorting to limb against limb, with or without a excessive or repetitive use of the forging training. However, it is partner, in a method called “knock- technique. Regular training with the essential for those who plan to get ing exercises”. Toughening of the ball of the foot in the turning kick involved with breaking (kyokpa) body can be begun by using pads. (tollyo chagi) strengthens the leg techniques. It is very important to The second step is to use the exer- effectively. As a result, the leg understand that using kyokpa for cises more firmly. The third step is becomes better able to withstand a training is very dangerous and must to strike softly with a hard imple- tollyo chagi delivered with the always be discouraged. ment such as a shinai. The final step is to strike firmly with a hard imple- Other Considerations I have recommended concepts ment. Just as the warm down is and techniques that are borrowed The process outlined above is concerned with bringing the body directly from modern theories of both gradual and controlled. Not down to its resting potential; instruc- exercise and kinesiology. Incorpora- every student desires forging tors and students alike must con- tion of those techniques will allow training. However, the very nature of stantly monitor bodily functions. Taekwondo training to be success- martial art training demands some Each should be alert to potential fully utilized by the general populace level of forging training. That dysfunctions such as heat fatigue or regardless of age, gender or capabil- includes students who are studying stroke, circulatory problems or ity. for either self defense or competition breathing difficulties. purposes. Certainly, no instructor or Another area to be considered is student can predict the possibility of the intake of fluids. Time must be set About the Author: encountering a circumstance of aside during a regular class of He began his martial arts imminent danger. Therefore, instruc- replenishing liquids. Most students training in 1962 with Kendo. tors who do not provide some level of can tolerate an hour of vigorous Subsequently, he studied several this type of training, in a knowledge- activity without taking in fluids. traditional martial arts, however he able, safe manner, fail to prepare their However, it would be beneficial to has maintained a heavy emphasis on students for the reality of a poten- take in fluids within a half hour prior Taekwondo since 1972. tially dangerous encounter. to starting class. No class or workout Jack Amsell received a degree in session should run for more than an Human Behavioral Sciences and Warm Down hour without a break for fluids. Business Administration from This article focused on the Lastly, students should be California State University at dangers of improper training and taught to monitor their bodies for Dominguez Hills in 1978. He was some of the methods necessary to unusual pain or discomfort. Natu- awarded 5th Degree Black Belt from rectify such problems. The discus- rally, there are pains and discomfort the Kukkiwon in 1992. He owns and sion would not be complete without associated with new students in poor operates the American Moo-Do mentioning the warm down period. In condition. However, there are many Kwan in Anaheim, California. general terms, the warm down is very cases of minor injuries that were He has been an active referee in similar to the warm up. The warm ignored, and continued workouts the United States National Govern- down segment of the exercise period aggravated the injuries to a point ing Body for Taekwondo since 1973 is very important. were they became permanent. For and is currently certified as a It is used to transition the body’s example, many of Taekwondo’s National Referee by the U.S. Tae- engine into its basal, or resting, state training techniques for kicking can kwondo Union. from the high energy state. As is the produce arthritic joints. A little Instructor Amsell is a strong case with any machine; the mecha- prudence in training will certainly advocate of traditonal training nisms of the body must slowly translate into years of enjoyable philosophies and has served as an transition from one level to another to exercise. officer for national Taekwondo alleviate the effects of stress. Failing organizations since 1973. Currently, to utilize a gradual warm down period Conclusion he is the Executive Director of the can cause traumatic shock to the Taekwondo is a popular method United Taekwondo Fellowship, a body; possibly culminating in cardiac of training in many countries. It is non-profit professional and business arrest. studied for many reasons. Regardless cooperative. The warm down period needs to of the reason for study; it is neces- Instructor Amsell is a strong last only a few minutes. One good sary to modernize many of the 2500 advocate of martial arts ethics and method of determining whether the year-old training methods. Without harmony among the various arts. To body is at its basal rate is to check modernization; many of the training that end, he publishes a newsletter the pulse. The normal rate is 60 to 80 methods are unsafe and possibly less and created a martial arts forum on beats per minute. The breathing rate effective. the Prodigy computer service. should have slowed down to 12 to 20 Even though modernizing of He was mentored by Grandmas- breaths per minute. Of course, these Taekwondo training techniques may ters Chan-Yong Kim and Nam-Ku levels will be achieve much sooner by change the appearance of the classes; Yun. It is his goal to provide their a person who is in good physical the content will remain intact. unique and dedicated insights to condition. Generally, most people will Practitioners can still use the unique developing instructors and students recover in a ten to fifteen minute skills of the oriental martial arts. I interested in pursuing the academic period. suggests that they should be done elightenment afforded through the more safely. martial arts discipline. Recommended Reading

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Austin, Denise, 1-Minute Exercises, Vintage Jow, Roger, D.P.M., “Common training and Books, a division of Random House, New York, competition injuries—awareness and prevention,” 1987. U.S. Taekwondo Journal, Vol. 4, No. 1, Spring 1985, pp 19-21. “Back pain: which sports help, which hurt?,” University of California, Berkeley Wellness Letter, Kim, Bok Man, Practical Taekwondo, Sunlight Vol. 3, Issue 4, January 1987, pg 6. Publishing Co., Hong Kong, 1981.

Benson, Douglas C., “Sports Medicine,” 1988 “Knee problems: not for runners only,” University Medical and Health Annual, Encyclopedia of California, Berkeley Wellness Letter, Vol. 4, Britannica, Inc., Chicago, Il, pp 385-392. Issue 4, January 1988, pg 6

Choi, Hong Hi, Taekwon-do, International Tae- Larose, James H., M.D. and Kim Dae Sik, MEd, kwondo Federation, Ontario, Canada, 1972. “Knuckle Fracture,” Black Belt, Vol. 7, No. 10, pp 30-32. Cooper, Kenneth H. and Steven N. Blair, “Exercise and Physical Conditioning,” 1988 Medical and “Less pain, more gain,” University of California, Health Annual, Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., Berkeley Wellness Letter, Vol. 5, Issue 2, November Chicago, Il, pp 230-234. 1988, pg 2-3

Crouch, James E., Ph.D., Functional Human Macey, Robert I., Human Physiology-2nd Edition, Anatomy, Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia, PA, 1972. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1975.

“Exercise and arthritis,” University of California, Naughton, Tom D., “Progressive Resistance Berkeley Wellness Letter, Vol. 4, Issue 7, April Exercise,” 1988 Medical and Health Annual, 1988, pg 6. Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., Chicago, Il, pp 437- 440. “Exercise for a healthy back,” University of Califor- nia, Berkeley Wellness Letter, Vol. 4, Issue 6, Nishiyama, Hidetaka & Richard C. Brown, Karate, March 1988, pg 6. Charles E. Tuttle Co., Tokyo, Japan, 1959.

“Exercise survival guide,” University of California, Rippe, James M., M.D., Patty S. Freedson, Ph.D., Berkeley Wellness Letter, Vol. 4, Issue 8, May and Ann Ward, Ph.D., “Exercise: Staying with It,” 1988, pp 4-6. 1989 Medical and Health Annual, Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., Chicago, Il, pp 417-422 “Exercise without injury,” University of California, Berkeley Wellness Letter, Vol. 6, Issue 6, March “Saving your shins,” University of California, 1990, pp 4-5. Berkeley Wellness Letter, Vol. 3, Issue 6, March 1987, pg 6. Feld, Michael S., Ronald E. McNair and Steven R. Wilk, “The Physics of Karate,” Scientific American, “Unstressing your neck,” University of California, Vol. 240, No. 4, pp 150-158 Berkeley Wellness Letter, Vol. 3, Issue 7, April 1987, pg 6. “The fit body,” University of California, Berkeley Wellness Letter, Vol. 5, Issue 5, February 1989, pg “Why muscles become sore,” University of Califor- 4-6 nia, Berkeley Wellness Letter, Vol. 4, Issue 5, February 1988, pg 6. “How flexible are you?,” University of California, Berkeley Wellness Letter, Vol. 4, Issue 3, December 1987, pg 6.