SOURCES OF TOLERANCE AND INTOLERANCE IN ISLAM The Case of the People of the Book by Ibrahim Kalin

slam’s encounter with other religions encountered from its earliest inception is as old as Islam itself. The two to the modern period make up a long Isources of Islam, i.e., the Qur’ān and list: the religious traditions of the pre- Hadith, contain extensive discussions, Islamic (jahiliyyah) Arabs, Mazdeans in narrations, and injunctions on the Mesopotamia, Iran, and Transoxania, various religious traditions before Islam Christians (of different communions and especially Judaism and Christianity. like Nestorians in Mesopotamia and The Muslim awareness of the multiplicity Iran, Monophysites in Syria, Egypt and of faith traditions is evident not only in Armenia, Orthodox Melkites in Syria, the Qur’ān but also in the sayings of the Orthodox Latins in North Africa), Jews in prophet Muhammad as well as in the various places, Samaritans in Palestine, later Islamic scholarship. Historically, the Mandaeans in south Mesopotamia, fi rst Muslim community came into being Harranians in north Mesopotamia, within a fairly diverse society where Manichaeans in Mesopotamia and Jews, Christians, pagans, polytheists, Egypt, Buddhists and Hindus in Sind, monotheists, fi re-worshippers (Magians tribal religions in Africa, pre-Islamic or Majus), and others lived together Turkic tribes, Buddhists in Sind and across the Arabian Peninsula. The major the Panjab, and Hindus in the Panjab.1 and minor religions that the Islamic world In short, Islam is no stranger to the

36 challenge of other religions. The fact that those other than Jews and Christians. Islam is the last of the three Abrahamic This, however, was complemented faiths puts it in a special relationship by an economic system that allowed with Judaism and Christianity. On the non-Muslims to move freely across one hand, the Qur’ān defi nes Jews and the social strata of Muslim societies Christians as the People of the Book (ahl in which they lived. Following the al-kitab) and gives them the status of vocation of Prophet Muhammad, protected religious communities (ahl al- Muslims always encouraged free trade dhimmah) under the provision of paying and, therefore, unlike Christianity, did a religious tax called jizya (compare not have to discriminate against Jews the Qur’ān, al-Tawbah 9:29). Within as international merchants or money- this legal framework, the People of lending usurers. Socially, there was the Book are accorded certain rights, nothing in the Islamic tradition similar the most important of which is the to the Hindu caste system that would right of religious belief, i.e., no forced have led to the treatment of Hindus conversion. On the other hand, the in discriminatory manners. Instead, Qur’ān engages the People of the Book Muslims treated Hindus as members of head-on as the primary counterparts of a different socio-religious community a serious dialogue on the unity of God, whose internal affairs were regulated the Abrahamic tradition, some biblical by Hindu, not Islamic, laws. Politically, stories, salvation, the hereafter, and Muslim rulers were more or less the nature of Jesus Christ. The Qur’ān pragmatic and used relatively lenient is explicit and occasionally harsh in its legal provisions to ensure the loyalty criticism of certain Jewish and Christian of their non-Muslim subjects. Forced themes because no serious dialogue conversion or economic discrimination is possible without raising the most was not in the interest of the state or fundamental issues. the Muslim communities. This socio- In relation to the treatment of economic and legal framework, thus, non-Muslims, we thus see a tension played a key role in the rapid spread of between what we might loosely call Islam and facilitated the development the requirements of law and theological of a “culture of coexistence” in Muslim doctrine. Islamic law grants certain rights societies that had considerable non- to non-Muslims including freedom of Muslim populations from the Balkans religion, property, travel, education, and and Anatolia to the subcontinent of government employment. These rights India. extend not only to Jews and Christians Legal protection, however, is not but also to other faith traditions a licence to theological laxity. The such as the Manicheans, Hindus, and Qur’ān sharply criticizes the Meccan Buddhists. Muslims encountered these polytheists and accuses them of failing latter communities as the borders of to understand the true nature of God. the Islamic world expanded beyond Jews and Christians are not spared from the Arabian Peninsula. One of the criticism, some of which are general major legal adjustments in this process and some specifi c. The primary reason was the enlargement of the concept for the Qur’ān’s constant dialogue with of the People of the Book to include them is its unfl inching effort to hold

37 them up to higher moral and religious standards than the Meccan pagans. As the two heirs or claimants to the legacy of Abraham, Jewish and Christian communities are expected to uphold the principles of monotheism and accept the new revelation sent through the prophet Muhammad. The Qur’ān calls upon them to recognize Islam as part of the Abrahamic tradition: 2 “Say: O People of the Book. Come to a word [kalimah] common between us and you: that we shall worship none but God, and that we shall ascribe no partners unto Him, and that none of us shall take others for lords beside God. And if they turn away, then say: Bear witness that we are they who have surrendered (unto Him).” 3 (al-i ‘Imran 3: 64) The tension between theological certitude and legal protection is further complicated by another tension between the unity of the essential message of religions and the multiplicity of socio-religious communities. The tension is real with theological and political consequences. The problem nature of the divine revelation: he is is how to explain and then reconcile the most important fi gure to unite the discrepancy between the unity of Jews, Christians, and Muslims, despite the divine message and the diversity the fact that Moses, Jesus, and of faith communities to which the Muhammad are also accorded special divine message has been sent. As I places in the Islamic tradition. While shall discuss below, the Qur’ān seeks to Abraham represents the pinnacle of overcome this problem by defi ning the this ecumenism, other prophets are plurality of socio-religious communities seen as bearers of the same message, as part of God’s plan to test different i.e., believing in the unity of God, communities in their struggle for virtue worshipping him alone, and leading a and the common good (al-khayrat). virtuous life. “And before thy time We The universality of divine revelation never sent any apostle without having is a constant theme in the Qur’ān and revealed to him that there is no deity forms the basis of what we might save Me, - [and that,] therefore, you call the Abrahamic ecumenism of shall worship Me [alone]!” (al-Anbiya monotheistic religions. As the father 21:25). of monotheism, Abraham is assigned a The Qur’ān presents this claim to central role to represent the universalist universality as a trait of not only Islam

38 things, which we see in some Qur’ānic verses (compare al-Rahman 55:1–18; Isra 17:44), is of particular signifi cance since it establishes “surrendering to God” (islam) as both a cosmological and human-religious principle. The universality of divine message extends beyond revealed books all the way to the natural world. This universalism, however, is always qualifi ed by a reference to true faith in God and His decision to send messengers to warn those who are mistaken. “Say: “We be- lieve in God, and in that which has been revealed unto us, and that which has been revealed unto upon Abraham and Ishmael and Isaac and Jacob and their descendants, and that which has been vouchsafed by their Sustainer unto Moses and Jesus and all the [other] prophets: we make no distinction between any of them. And unto Him do we surrender ourselves [literally “we’re muslims to Him”].” (al-i ‘Imran 3:84) These specifi c references to the prophets of Abrahamic monotheism but also other Abrahamic faiths and calls shows Islam’s specifi c interest to have upon Jews and Christians specifi cally a constant dialogue with the People of to renew their bond with the father the Book and form a kind of religious of monotheism. The true religion is alliance with them against the Meccan “islam” (with a small “i”) in the sense polytheists. If the prophet Abraham of “surrendering oneself to God” is understood correctly as the father fully and unconditionally. Once this of monotheism, then the theological common denominator is secured, ritual differences between Jews, Christians and differences and even some theological Muslims can be negotiated. The Qur’ān disparities can be overcome. The Qur’ān is, thus, absolutely uncompromising on calls all to islam without making a the fundamental Abrahamic principle, distinction: “Do they seek a faith other i.e., surrendering oneself to the one than in God [din Allāh], although it God alone: “For, if one goes in search is unto Him that whatever is in the of a religion other than surrendering to heavens and on earth surrenders itself God (al-islam), it will never be accepted [aslama], willingly or unwillingly, since from him, and in the life to come he shall unto Him all must return?” (al-i ‘Imran be among the lost” (al-i ‘Imran 3:85). 3:83; compare also al-Ra’d 13:15). The Commenting on the verse, Ibn Kathir reference to the cosmological order of says that “whoever follows a path

39 other than what God has ordained, it discussion. I shall claim that, while Islam will not be accepted.”4 Fakhr al-Din al- does not claim a monopoly on belief in Razi quotes Abu Muslim as saying that God and leading a virtuous life, it sets the expression “we surrender ourselves strict conditions for accepting a faith as to Him” (muslimuna lahu) means a legitimate path that one can follow to that “we submit to God’s command reach salvation. The tensions between with consent and turn away from all the oneness and universality of the opposition to Him. divine message on the one hand and The universality of divine This is the quality of the multiplicity of human communities revelation is a constant those who believe on the other will also be discussed. The theme in the Qur’an and in God and they following verse is the anchor point of are the people of our discussion: “Unto every one of you forms the basis of what we 5 might call the Abrahamic peace [ahl al-silm].” We have appointed a [different] law ecumenism of monotheis- Despite the narrow [shir’atan] and way of life [minhajan]. tic religions. interpretation of And if God had so willed, He could some classical and surely have made you all one single contemporary Muslims, this reading community [ummah wahidah]: but [He of the verse supports our rendering of willed it otherwise] in order to test by islam as “surrendering to God.” means of what He has vouchsafed unto This emphasis on the unique you. Vie, then, with one another in nature of the Abrahamic tradition doing good works!” (al-Ma’idah 5:48; underlies Islam’s attitude towards other see also Hud 11:118). I shall discuss religions. It is by virtue of this linkage the extent to which the call for “vying that Judaism and Christianity receive for the common good” can form the more attention in the Islamic sources basis of an Islamic notion of religious than any other religion besides, of tolerance. course, polytheism, which the Qur’ān rejects unconditionally. Islam recognizes Universal Revelation and the reality of other religions but does Abrahamic Ecumenism so with a critical attitude in that all religious communities are called upon The Qur’ān presents revelation (wahy, to (re)affi rm and appropriate the main kitab) as a universal phenomenon. thrust of Abrahamic monotheism. Whether it talks about the creation Any claim to religious belief short of of the universe or the stories of the this is denounced as an aberration, prophets, it refers to revelation as having metaphysical error, schism, and affront both historical continuity and claim to to God. universal truth. Revelation is historically In what follows, I shall analyze the universal for God has revealed his applications of these general principles message to different societies to remind and discuss the grounds and limits of them of faith and salvation and warn tolerance and intolerance towards other against disbelief: “Verily, We have sent religions in the Islamic tradition. The thee with the truth, as a bearer of glad focus will be Judaism and Christianity, tidings and a warner: for there never leaving aside other religions such as was any community [ummah] but a Hinduism and Buddhism for another warner has [lived and] passed away in

40 its midst” (al-Fatir 35:24). The same (al-Ra’d 13: 38–39). The Qur’ān, thus, principle is stated in another verse: considers the history of revelation as one “And for every community there is a and connects the prophets from Adam messenger [rasul]; and only after their and Noah to Jesus and Muhammad in messenger has appeared [and delivered a single chain of prophetic tradition. his message] is judgment passed on The continuity of divine revelation links them, in all equity” (Yunus 10:47). In different socio-religious communities both verses, the word ummah is used through the bondage of a common to refer to different communities to tradition. The following verse, while which messengers have been sent.6 making a strong case against religious While ummah has come to denote communalism and ethnic nationalism, specifi cally the Muslim community in which was rampant in the pre-Islamic the later Islamic scholarship, it is used in Arabia, points to what really unites the Qur’ān and the Hadith to describe different communities: “O humans! any faith community whether Jewish, Behold, We have created you all out of Christian, or Muslim. The word ummah a male and a female, and have made is also used for humanity in general you into nations and tribes so that you (compare al-Baqarah 2:213). might come to know one another. While all revelation comes from Verily, the noblest of you in the sight God, revelation in the specifi c sense of God is the one who is most deeply such as a revealed book originates from conscious of Him. Behold, God is all what the Qur’ān calls the “mother knowing, all-aware.” al-Hujurat 49:13 of the book” (umm al-kitab). Like all Commenting on the above verses, other revelations, the Qur’ān originates Fakhr al-Din al-Razi points out that from this “mother book,” which is the human beings are born in total “protected tablet” (lawh mahfuz) in the equality. They acquire the qualities divine presence7: “Consider this divine that distinguish them from others as book, clear in itself and clearly showing inferior or superior only “after they the truth: behold, We have caused it come into this world; and the noblest to be a discourse in the Arabic tongue, among these qualities are the fear of so that you might encompass it with God [al-taqwa] and closeness [al-qurb] your reason. And, verily, [originating to Him.”9 All “nations and tribes” are as it does] in the source, with Us, of all called upon to posses these qualities and revelation, it is indeed sublime, full of honour the primordial covenant they wisdom” (al-Zukhruf 43:2–4). The word have made with God to worship him umm, literally “mother,” means origin alone and “turn their face [i.e., whole and source.8 The word kitab, book, in being] to God.” This “turning towards this context refers not to any particular God” is also the essence of the natural revealed book but to revelation as disposition or state according to which such. This comprehensive meaning God has created human beings: “And applies to all revelation: “Every age has so, set thy face steadfastly towards the its revealed book [kitab]. God annuls [one ever-true] faith [al-din], turning or confi rms whatever He wills [of His away from all that is false [hanifan], in earlier messages]; for with Him is the accordance with the natural disposition source of all revelation [umm al-kitab]” [fi trah] which God has instilled into

41 man. No change shall there be in God’s community today and, thus, go beyond creation [khalq]. This is the established both Judaism and Christianity.10 true religion [al-din al-qayyim] but most In this sense, Abraham does not people know it not.” (al-Rum 30:30) belong to any of the particular faith Two words require our attention traditions: “Abraham was neither a here. The word hanif(an), translated by ‘Jew’ nor a ‘Christian,’ but was one Asad as “turning away from all that is who turned away from all that is false false” and by Pickthall as “upright,” is [hanifan], having surrendered himself used in the Qur’ān twelve times (two unto God [musliman]; and he was not times in the plural) and derived from of those who ascribe partnership to the verb hanafa, which literally means Him [mushrikin]” (al-i ‘Imran 3:67). “inclining towards a right state.” A Commenting on the word hanif, Ibn hanif is a person who turns towards God Kathir describes Abraham as “turning as the only deity. In pre-Islamic Arabia, away from polytheism [al-shirk] to there was a group of people called faith [ali iman].”11 The commentators hanifs, who were neither polytheists Jalal al-Din al-Mahalli and Jalal al- nor Jew or Christian. Their theological Din al-Suyuti interpret it as “turning lineage went back to Abraham, who away from all other religions towards is mentioned seven times in the twelve the one fi rmly established religion” verses that have the word hanif in (al-din al-qayyim; compare Qur’ān, al- them. Abraham is presented as the Tawbah 9:36, al-Rum 30:30, al-Mu’min perfect example of those who are 40:12). It is only when commenting on upright and turn their whole being 3:95 that they use the word al-Islam, towards God: “Verily, Abraham was a meaning the religion of Islam.12 The nation [ummatan] by himself, devoutly famous Andalusian commentator obeying God’s will, turning away from Qurtubi concurs: the word hanif means all that is false [hanifan], and not being “turning away from abhorrent religions of those who ascribe divinity to aught [al-adyan al-makruhah] towards the beside God: [for he was always] grateful true religion of Abraham.”13 In the for the blessings granted by Him who Qur’ānic reading of biblical history, had elected him and guided him onto the adjective hanif places all prophets a straight way” (al-Nahl 16:120–21). including Moses and Jesus in a position Another verse stresses the same link beyond any particular religion including between Abraham and monotheism: Judaism and Christianity. The Religious “Say: God has spoken the truth: follow, Dialogue of Jerusalem, a ninth-century then, the creed [millah] of Abraham, polemic between a Christian monk who turned away from all that is false and Abd al-Rahman, the supposed [hanifan], and was not of those who amir of Jerusalem, quotes the Muslim ascribe divinity to aught beside God” interlocutor as saying that “you have (al-i ‘Imran 3:95). Millat Ibrahim, accredited Christ with idolatry because “Abraham’s community,” represents the Christ was neither Jew nor Christian but transnational community that believes hanif, surrendered to God (Muslim).”14 in the pure and simple unity of God in Another key term that points to tandem with one’s primordial nature. the universal nature of belief in God is Muslims are urged to be Abraham’s the word fi trah, translated as natural

42 disposition or primordial nature. Fitrah is languages develop and come to form the noun form of the verb fatara, which one’s religious identity as Jew, Christian, literally means to fashion something in Magian, or Muslim. a certain manner. It denotes the specifi c In relation to the People of the nature or traits according to which God Book, the Qur’ān makes specific re- has created human beings. In a famous ferences to the Abrahamic tradition hadith of the Prophet narrated by both and asks Muslims as well as Jews and Bukhari and Muslim, the word fi trah is Christians to recognize and appreciate used as the presocial state of humans: the underlying unity between their “Every child is born in this natural religious faiths. “In matters of faith [al- disposition; it is only his parents that din], He has ordained for you that which later turn him into a ‘Jew,’ a ‘Christian,’ He had enjoined upon Noah - and into or a ‘Magian.’” It is important to note which We gave thee [O Muhammad] that the three religious traditions men- revelation as well as that which We had tioned here are also the three religions enjoined upon Abraham, and Moses, that are considered to be the People of and Jesus: Steadfastly uphold the [true] the Book. The Hadith states the same faith, and do not break up your unity principle outlined in the above verses: therein” (al-Shura 42:13). This is usually while belief in one God (and acting interpreted as referring to the doctrine of in accord with it) is universal and the tawhid, unity of God, which is the same revelations are sent to confi rm it, it doctrine revealed to other prophets is through the multiplicity of human before Muhammad.15 According to communities that different theological al-Razi, the warning about breaking

43 up “your unity” pertains to disunity cannot be appropriated by a particular resulting from worshipping deities other religion or community. His mission is than God.16 The term al-din, translated universal as his legacy: “Behold, the conventionally as “religion,” refers not people who have the best claim to to any particular religion and certainly Abraham are surely those who follow not to “institutional religion” but to the him - as does this Prophet and all who essence of tawhid. The life of Abraham believe [in him] - and God is near unto and his followers is a testimony to the the believers” (al-i ‘Imran 3:68). The robust monotheism of the Abrahamic Qur’ān goes even further and describes faith: “Indeed, you all prophets after Abraham as neither Abraham does not belong have had a good Jew nor Christian: “Do you claim that to any of the particular example in Abraham Abraham and Ishmael and Isaac and faith traditions: “Abraham and those who Jacob and their descendants were was neither a ‘Jew’ nor a followed him, when ‘Jews’ or ‘Christians’?” Say: “Do you ‘Christian,’ but was one they said unto their know more than God does? And who who turned away from all [idolatrous] people: could be more wicked than he who that is false [hanifan], hav- “Verily, we totally suppresses a testimony given to him ing surrendered himself dissociate ourselves by God?17 Yet God is not unmindful unto God [musliman]. from you and of all of what you do” (al-Baqarah 2:140). that you worship According to the Islamic sources, this is instead of God: we deny the truth of a reference to the fact that Judaism and whatever you believe; and between us Christianity came into being long after and you there has arisen enmity and Abraham and other prophets. Their hatred, to last until such a time as you claim to call Abraham Jew or Christian come to believe in the One God!” (al- is, therefore, supported neither by Mumtahina 60:4) scripture nor history.18 Since both Judaism and Christianity The fi gure of Abraham is central trace their origin to Abraham, the not only for the universal proclamation Qur’ān returns to him over and over of divine unity but also for Muslims again and invites Jews and Christians to as the youngest members of the think of Abraham not within the narrow Abrahamic tradition. In the following confi nes of their respective theologies verse, Abraham is presented as the but in light of what he represents in the “forefather” of all those who believe in history of divine revelations. The Qur’ān one God and follow his “path” (millah): makes a special note of the disputes “And strive hard in God’s cause with among Jews and Christians about all the striving that is due to Him: it is Abraham: “O People of the Book! Why He who has elected you [to carry His do you argue about Abraham, seeing message], and has laid no hardship that the Torah and the Gospel were on you in [anything that pertains to] not revealed till [long] after him? Will religion, [and made you follow] the path you not, then, use your reason?” (al-i [millah] of your forefather Abraham. It is ‘Imran 3:65). Abraham, whom “God He who has named you in bygone times has taken as a sincere friend (al-Nisa as well as in this [divine writ] - “those 4:125), is the “forefather” (abikum) (al- who have surrendered themselves Hajj 22:78) of monotheism and, thus, to God” [al-muslimun], so that the

44 Messenger might bear witness to the ‘I believe in whatever revelation God truth before you, and that you might has bestowed from on high; and I am bear witness to it before all mankind. bidden to bring about equity in your Thus, be constant in prayer, and render mutual views. God is our Sustainer the purifying dues, and hold fast unto as well as your Sustainer. To us shall God.” (al-Hajj 22:78) be accounted our deeds, and to you, This verse establishes an un- your deeds. Let there be no contention mistakable link between Abraham between us and you: God will bring us and the Prophet of Islam. The Qur’ān all together - for with Him is all journeys’ narrates the story of Abraham to end.’” (al-Shura 42:15) confi rm the divinely sanctioned autho- While the Qur’ān presents Abraham rity of prophet Muhammad as the last as the unifying father of monotheism messenger. The Prophet’s legitimacy and emphasizes the essential unity is, thus, underlined by linking him to of the Abrahamic tradition, it also Abraham. Yet the verse also indicates recognizes the multiplicity of “nations to the newly established Muslim and tribes.” As we shall see below, this community where they agree and part multiplicity is presented as part of God’s ways with the followers of the earlier plan to test different communities in revelations. On the one hand, Abraham their effort to attain goodness. Yet unites all monotheist believers since he the tension between the unity of the is the most important fi gure on whom divine message and the plurality of Jews, Christians, and Muslims can different communities remains as an agree. Despite the obvious differences issue taken up by the later scholars in theological languages and historical of Islam. Whether the plurality of hu- narratives, his message of divine unity man communities is a natural state is essentially the same in the three to be accepted or a state of disorder traditions. On the other hand, Jews and and confusion to be overcome would Christians are divided over Abraham, occupy the Islamic religious thought each calling him heir own “forefather.” up to own day. Those who see plurality The Qur’ān seeks to overcome this as chaos and detrimental to the unity impasse by declaring Abraham neither of the community would reject all le- Jewish nor Christian but muslim, i.e., nient measures and argue for radical “he who surrenders himself to God.” orthodoxy. The Qur’ān and the Sunnah, This is where the prophet Muham- however, present different possibilities, mad joins Abraham, and the Qur’ān to which we now turn. invites the People of the Book to recognize the continuity between the Plurality of Human Communities: two. The Prophet of Islam is asked A Paradox for Religions? to reassert the essential unity of all revelations but to do so with a sense According to the Qur’ān, each prophet of compassion and respect: “Because has been sent to a particular community of this, then, summon [all mankind], with a particular language while the and pursue the right course, as thou essence of that message is the same.19 hast been bidden [by God]; and do not The Qur’ān accepts the multiplicity of follow their likes and dislikes, but say: human communities as part of God’s

45 creation: “Now had God so willed, He they pertain primarily to the essential could surely have made them all one matters of religion and faith.21 Prophets single community” (al-Shura 42:8). have been sent to address these Multiplicity is presented as contributing differences and invite their communities to the betterment of human societies back to their original faith in one God: whereby different groups, nations, and “All mankind were once one single tribes come to know each other and community (ummah wahidah).22 [Then vie for the common good. “O humans! they began to differ] whereupon God Behold, We have created you all out of a raised up the prophets as heralds male and a female, and have made you of glad tidings and as warners, and into nations and tribes so that you might through them bestowed revelation come to know one another” (al-Hujurat from on high, setting forth the truth, 49:13). Underlying all this diversity is the so that it might decide between people same message embodied in the fi gure with regard to all on which they had of Abraham: believing in one God and come to hold divergent views.” (al- leading a virtuous life. In addressing the Baqarah 2:213) question of plurality, the Qur’ān uses The plurality of socio-religious the word ummah in both the singular communities is accepted as divinely and the plural forms. Ummah signifi es decreed because God has willed to make a socio-religious community bound humanity composed of different “tribes together by a set of common beliefs and and nations”: “And had thy Sustainer principles. Within the pagan context so willed, He could surely have made all of pre-Islamic Arabia, it is contrasted mankind one single community [ummah with such communal bonds as family, wahidah]: but [He willed it otherwise, group, tribe, and nation. All of these and so] they continue to hold divergent associations are based on lineages other views” (Hud 11:118). These and similar than what makes different communities verses display a constructive ambiguity an ummah. According to Ibn Qayyim, an about the delicate relationship between ummah is “a single group [sinif wahid] the plurality of human communities held together by a single goal [maqsad and the differences of opinion about wahid].”20 The Qur’ān says that “all God. It is not clear which comes fi rst mankind were once but one single and what it implies for the history of community [ummah wahidah], and only religions. Are the differences of opinion later did they begin to hold divergent a natural result of the existence of views. And had it not been for a decree different communities or have different that had already gone forth from thy communities come about as a result of Sustainer, all their differences would holding divergent and often confl icting indeed have been settled [from the views about God? It is hard to state outset]” (Yunus 10:19). The essential with any degree of certainty that the unity of humankind has been broken Qur’ān completely endorses or abhors because of the inevitable differences the plurality of “divergent views” held that have arisen among people in the by different communities. long course of history. The Qur’ān does At any rate, unity is not uniformity not explain what these differences and the Qur’ān tries to overcome this are, but it is not diffi cult to see that tension by calling all communities to

46 renew their covenant with God and seek guidance from him. “For, had God so willed, He could surely have made you all one single community; however, He lets go astray him that wills [to go astray], and guides aright him that wills [to be guided]; and you will surely be called to account for all that you ever did” (al-Nahl 16:93). In another context, the “plurality factor” underlies one’s attitude towards other communities. While it is true that God has willed communities to be different, it is also clear that the goal is to regulate plurality in such a way to reach a desirable level of unity. The absence of unity in the sense of religious consensus disunity is highlighted in the verses or social cohesion does not nullify the that talk about diverse laws and paths good deeds of those who believe in given to different communities. There God and seek virtue: “Verily [O you who is no doubt that Islam, like all other believe in Me,] this community of yours religions, would like to see a unity of is one single community, since I am the believers built around its main pillars. Sustainer of you all: worship, then, Me The exclusivist believer sees anything [alone]! But men have torn their unity short of this as an imperfection on the wide asunder, [forgetting that] unto Us part of the community of believers and they all are bound to return. And yet, even an affront to God. This is where whoever does [the least] of righteous theologies of intolerance arise and deeds and is a believer, his endeavour lead to sole claims of ownership over shall not be disowned: for, behold, We religious truth. Oppositional identities shall record it in his favour.” (al-Anbiya based on narrow interpretations of 21: 92–94) core religious teachings threaten to That plurality is not a case for replace the universal message of faith

47 traditions. Yet to look for perfect unity According to Ibn Kathir, God has in a world of multiplicity is to mistake certainly sent different paths and the world for something more than “traditions” [sunan] for people to follow what it is. The following verse sees no but all of them have been abrogated contradiction between the oneness of after the coming of Islam.25 While this God and the plurality of ways and paths is invariably the position of the most leading upto Him: “Unto every one of of the classical Islamic scholars and can you have We appointed a [different] law be seen as a clear case of theological [shir’atan] and way of life [minhajan]. exclusivism, it does not appear to have And if God had so willed, He could invalidated the policies of tolerance and surely have made you all one single accommodation towards other religions community: but [He willed it otherwise] and particularly the People of the Book. in order to test you by means of what This is borne out by the fact that He has vouchsafed unto you. Vie, then, the treatment of the plurality of human with one another in doing good works! communities in the Qur’ān is not merely Unto God you all must return; and then general or abstract. The Qur’ān is deeply He will make you truly understand all conscious of the presence of Jews and that on which you were wont to differ.” Christians in Mecca and Medina and (al-Maidah 5:48) sees them closer to Muslims than other It is important to note that the word communities. It is this historical and shir’a(tan) is derived from the same root theological proximity that creates a as the word shar’iah. Even though the sense of theological rivalry as to who is word shari’ah has come to mean Islamic best entitled to the legacy of Abraham. law, it essentially indicates the totality A large number of verses talk about of the moral, spiritual, social, and legal specifi c Jewish and Christian objections teachings of Islam (or any religion for against the new revelation and the that matter). Even if we understand the prophet Muhammad. Even though shari’ah as law specifi c to a religion, the they focus on specifi c arguments, they above verse adds the word minhaj(an), provide general guidelines about Islam’s implying that the combination of the attitude towards the People of the two gives us a a belief system, a code of Book. And they display both inclusivist ethics and a way of life. In this context, and exclusivist tones. They contain each socio-religious community has ele-ments of inclusivism because Islam been given a “clear path in religion to relates itself to Judaism and Christianity follow.”23 According to Qurtubi, “God through the fi gure of Abraham, the has made the Torah for its people, the story of Noah, the story of creation, and Gospel for its people and the Qur’ān the stories of Solomon, Joseph, Moses, for its people. This is in regards to laws Mary, Jesus, and other prophets who are [shara’i] and rituals [‘ibadat]. As for the common to the Bible and the Qur’ān. principle of divine unity (tawhid), there The moral and eschatological teachings is no disagreement among them.”24 of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam He then quotes Mujahid as saying that can also be included in this category “the law [shari’ah] and the way of life of teachings. The focal point of such [minhaj] are the religion of Muhmmad; verses is the recognition of the truth everything else has been abrogated.” of the new religion and its prophet by

48 acknowledging their common lineage with a specifi c name, Islam, and invites that goes back to Abraham. Instead of its followers to be Muslims. No religion rejecting in toto the earlier revelations can be entirely inclusivist because this and the religious communities that would destroy the spiritual integrity of subscribe to them, the Qur’ān invites any tradition. In this sense, Islam could them to agree and eventually unite not have called itself simply the religion on the fundamental principles of the of Abraham; it had to distinguish itself Abrahamic tradition. from the other contenders in a way Besides specifi c theological argu- that would give its ments that contain elements of in- followers a non- The plurality of socio-reli- clusivism, it should also be mentioned ambiguous sense gious communities is ac- that Islam did not have to quarrel with of allegiance and cepted as divinely decreed the People of the Book in the way integrity. This has because God has willed Christianity did with Judaism. Since not prevented to make humanity com- Islam was neither the fulfi lment of a the Qur’ān from posed of diff erent “tribes Judaic or Christian prophecy nor was approaching the and nations”. the prophet Muhammad the messiah, People of the Bo- Muslims did not have to contest Jews ok with differing degrees of critical or Christians on issues specifi c to the engagement while calling upon them theological traditions of these two to understand the essential meaning of communities. Furthermore, there was religious faith. no ground for a blood libel between A good example of this is the Islam on the one hand and Judaism treatment of non-Islamic rituals in the and Christianity on the other. Even Qur’ān. Putting aside the polytheistic though Islam quarrelled with these two rituals of the pagan Arabs, which religions on many theological issues, Islam rejects unequivocally, the Qur’ān it started out with recognizing and discusses a number of ancient ritual accepting their existence. Since Islam practices and asks what purpose they was ethnically diverse and culturally are meant to serve. In its anthropological plural from the very beginning, it did analyses of rituals, the Qur’ān draws not have any reason to oppose or attention to their fundamental meaning defame Jews on account of their ethnic and invites non-Muslims to look for identity. In short, Islam did not need what is essential in the Muslim rituals. to establish itself at the expense of its I will pick up two examples to Judaic or Christian predecessors. This illustrate this point. The fi rst example is explains to a large extent why there was from the Meccan polytheists. To show no demonization of Jews or Christians that true piety is not to perform blindly by Muslims despite the rich literature of certain rituals but to seek proximity intense polemics, bitter arguments, and to God, the Qur’ān refers to the counterarguments. Meccan custom of “entering houses Yet, despite the legal and socio- from the rear.” The Meccans used to political factors that have facilitated the dig up holes and stay in them during policies of tolerance towards the People the time of pilgrimage. As part of the of the Book, the Qur’ān also contains customary ritual, they also used to elements of exclusivism, for it calls itself enter their houses from the backdoors.

49 consist in your entering houses from the rear [as it were] but truly pious is he who is conscious of God. Hence enter houses through their doors, and remain conscious of God, so that you might attain to a happy state” (al-Baqarah 2:189). The verse disapproves of the act of “entering houses from the rear” yet gives no specifi c reason for it. But it also uses a metaphorical language, for the expression “enter(ing) houses through their doors” has the meaning of doing something properly. Al-birr, thus, points to the spiritual meaning of ritual acts and invites the Meccan polytheists as well as the People of the Book to go beyond the narrow perspectives of their respective traditions. The second example is related to facing the Ka’ba as the direction of prayers. In the early years of the revelation, the prophet Muhammad had instructed Muslims to pray towards Jerusalem while facing the Ka’ba at the same time.26 While this had certainly gained the favour of the Jews of Mecca and Medina especially against the Christians, it has also led them to When the Meccans asked the prophet boast of the fact that Muslims were Muhammad about the signifi cance facing their qiblah. This seems to have of the “new moons” and the time of caused some concern for the Prophet pilgrimage, he was told to give the leading him to pray to God for a new following answer: “They will ask thee direction of prayer for Muslims: “We about the new moons. Say: ‘They have seen thee [O Prophet] often turn indicate the periods for [various doings thy face towards heaven [for guidance]: of] mankind, including the pilgrimage’” and now We shall indeed make thee (al-Baqarah 2:189). While this answer turn in prayer in a direction which will addresses the specifi c question about fulfi l thy desire. Turn, then, thy face the “new moons” (ahillah), it shifts the towards the Inviolable House of Worship focus from a specifi c ritual to the general [masjid al-haram]; and wherever you all question of what constitutes piety and may be, turn your faces towards it [in God-consciousness (al-taqwa), which is prayer]” (al-Baqarah 2:144). the essence of all rituals. The remainder This change was probably expected of the verse refers both to a specifi c because, according to the Qur’ān (al- ritual during pilgrimage and to the i ‘Imran 3:96), the Ka’ba is the fi rst larger meaning of an act deemed to be sanctuary devoted to the worship of pious: “However, piety [al-birr] does not

50 God to which Abraham (and his sons) differences: “... every community faces turned (al-Baqarah 2:125–29).27 The a direction of its own, of which He is the incident appears to have caused a rift focal point.28 Vie, therefore, with one between Muslims and certain members another in doing good works. Wherever of the Jewish and Christian communities you may be, God will gather you all unto in Medina. The Qur’ān accuses them Himself: for, verily, God has the power of not being sincere in their hardened to will anything” (al-Baqarah 2:148). positions: “And, verily, those who have The expression “every community faces been given the book aforetime know a direction of its own” gives a similar well that this [commandment] comes meaning stated in al-Maidah 5:48, in truth from their Sustainer, and God quoted above. Just as Muslims accept is not unaware of what they do” (al- the qiblah of Jews and Christians, they Baqarah 2:144). The People of the Book also should recognize the Muslim qiblah are expected to welcome such a change as valid for turning towards God during because they know the meaning of ritual prayers. The Qur’ān chastises praying towards a certain direction: those who ridicule the Prophet of Islam “They unto whom We have given for turning towards Ka’ba after praying the book aforetime know it as they towards Jerusalem: “The weak-minded know their own children: but, behold, [or the foolish, sufaha] among people some of them knowingly suppress the will say ‘What has turned them away truth” (al-Baqarah 2:146). The prophet from the direction of prayer which they Muhammad is asked to endure any have hitherto observed?’ Say: ‘God’s criticism or ridicule that may come from is the east and the west; He guides the Arabian Jews and Christians. He whom He wills onto a straight way’” is also advised to distinguish his qibla (al-Baqarah 2:142–43). from theirs and accept it as a fact: “... In these and other verses, the Qur’ān even if thou were to place all evidence warns against the danger of causing before those who have been given friction on the basis of differences in the book, they would not follow thy ritual acts. While this is an attempt to direction of prayer [qiblah], and neither safeguard the newly established Muslim mayest thou follow their direction of community against the accusations of prayer [qiblah], nor even do they follow the Jews and Christians of Medina, it one another’s direction. And if thou is also a call for transcending religious shouldst follow their errant views after and sectarian differences. The following all the knowledge that has come unto verse makes a strong point about this: thee, thou wouldst surely be among the “True piety [al-birr] does not consist evildoers.” (al-Baqarah 2:145) in turning your faces towards the east The Qur’ān addresses the qibla or the west. But truly pious is he who incident to give assurances to the believes in God, and the Last Day; and Muslim community in Medina on the angels, and revelation, and the the one hand and draw attention to prophets; and spends his substance - the futility of taking rituals to be an however much he himself may cherish it absolute indicator of piety on the other. - upon his near of kin, and the orphans, Against religious sectarianism, God asks and the needy, and the wayfarer, and all believers to put aside their petty the beggars, and for the freeing of

51 human beings from bondage; and is an ethics of co-existence: “ ... help one constant in prayer, and renders the another in furthering virtue [al birr] purifying dues; and [truly pious are] they and God consciousness, and do not who keep their promises whenever they help one another in furthering evil and promise, and are patient in misfortune enmity” (al-Mai’dah 5:2). and hardship and in time of peril: it is they that have proved themselves true, Religious Tolerance and and it is they, they who are conscious of the People of the Book God.” (al-Baqarah 2:177) The word al-birr, translated as There are no other two religions on virtue and righteousness, signifi es a which the Qur’ān spends as much time virtuous act conducted with the fear as on Judaism and Christianity. Given and consciousness of God. The person Islam’s claim to be the last revelation who has the birr is the person who is and completion of the Abrahamic in constant vigilance and mindfulness tradition, this should come as no of God.29 The Qur’ān defi nes true piety surprise. A large number of verses speak as having full consciousness of God, about various Jewish and Christian believing in his books and prophets, themes. These Qur’ānic conversations and doing such virtuous acts as praying, concentrate, among others, on three almsgiving, and helping the poor and issues. The fi rst is the disputes among the needy.30 Virtue requires constant Jews and Christians about issues such vigilance, and the believers are not as Abraham, revelation, salvation, and excepted: “[But as for you, O believers] the hereafter. Some verses describe never shall you attain to true piety [al- these disputes as futile, selfi sh, and birr] unless you spend out of what you ignorant (al-Baqarah 2:111), referring, cherish yourselves; and whatever you at the same time, to the stiff opposition spend, verily God has full knowledge of Jewish and Christian leaders to the thereof” (al-i ‘Imran 3:92). The People prophet Muhammad. The second is of the Book are also reminded: “Do you the political alliances which the Jews enjoin other people to be pious while and some Christians of Medina had you forget your own self; and yet you formed with the Meccan polytheists recite the Book [al-kitab]” (Al-Baqarah against the newly established Muslim 2:44). community. The most severe statements In addressing specific rituals, in the Qur’ān and the Hadith collections the Qur’ān does not belittle their against the Jews pertain to this historical signifi cance but points to what is fact. The only incident in the history essential in them. As later Muslim of Islam where a particular group of scholars and especially the Sufi s would Jews has been ordered to be killed elaborate, this generic rule holds true is related to the violation of a treaty for all ritual practices. The Qur’ān insists of political alliance between certain that true piety and goodness (al-birr) Jewish tribes and Muslims in Medina. are the ultimate goal of religious acts The third issue is the recognition of the and that all communities should seek validity of the new revelation and the to attain it. Furthermore, vieying for prophet Muhammad, which remains a piety and goodness is a solid basis for diffi cult issue for Christians up to our

52 own day. The Qur’ān brings up the The following verse, for instance, is disputes between Jews and Christians extremely harsh on the People of the to indicate to them that while claiming Book: “Overshadowed by ignominy are to be heirs to the legacy of Abraham, they wherever they may be, save [when they are engaged in destructive quarrels they bind themselves again] in a bond and petty fi ghts. With such bitter with God and a bond with men; for disunity and bickering, they cannot be they have earned the burden of God’s proper models of what Abraham stood condemnation, and for. The Qur’ān seems to imply that are overshadowed “True piety [al-birr] does the intractable opposition of Jews and by humiliation: all not consist in turning your Christians of Madina to the prophet this [has befallen faces towards the east or Muhammad is similar to their internal them] because they the west. But truly pious disputes and thus cannot serve as a basis persisted in denying is he who believes in God, for a serious dialogue: “Furthermore, the truth of God’s and the Last Day; and the the Jews assert, “The Christians have messages and in angels, and revelation, and no valid ground for their beliefs,” while slaying the prophets the prophets.” the Christians assert, “The Jews have no against all right: valid ground for their beliefs” and both all this, because they rebelled [against quote the Book! Even thus, like unto God], and persisted in transgressing the what they say, have [always] spoken bounds of what is right.” (al-i ‘Imran those who were devoid of knowledge; 3:112) but it is God who will judge between This is followed by another verse them on Resurrection Day with regard which refl ects the careful discernment to all on which they were wont to of the Qur’ān regarding the People of differ.” (al-Baqarah 2:113) the Book: “[But] they are not all alike: Following this line of argumentation, among the People of the Book are the Qur’ān addresses Jews and upright people [ummah], who recite Christians directly because they are God’s messages throughout the night, different and more special from the and prostrate themselves [before Him]. polytheists, Magians, or Zoroastrians. They believe in God and the Last Day, In some cases, they are described as and enjoin the doing of what is right behaving worse than the disbelievers and forbid the doing of what is wrong, of Mecca. It is usually these verses that and vie with one another in doing Muslim exclusivists take up as a basis good works: and these are among the for classifying the People of the Book righteous. And whatever good they do, together with the Meccan polytheists. they shall never be denied the reward The Qur’ān, however, does not fail to thereof: for, God has full knowledge of make a distinction between those who those who are conscious of Him.” (al-i have completely turned against God ‘Imran 3: 113–15) and those whose hearts are fi lled with While the classical commentators reverence for God among Jews and usually read this verse as referring to Christians. There is also a distinction Jews and Christians who converted to between those who have betrayed the Islam, there is no compelling reason Prophet and his community and those that we should accept it as abrogated who have honoured their promises. (mansukh). In fact, it would not make

53 sense to call them the People of the As a number of early Muslim historians Book if they had already converted have noted, Muslims were hoping for to Islam. Such subtle distinctions are the eventual success of the Byzantine not hard to fi nd in the Qur’ān. Yet in Empire over the Persians because the al-Maidah 5: 82:84, we fi nd a clear former were Christian.32 Furthermore, favouring of Christians over Jews: the Christians of Medina had remained “Thou wilt surely fi nd that, of all people, loyal to the Medinan Treaty against the the most hostile to those who believe Meccans, thus gaining the favour and [in this divine writ] are the Jews as well affi nity of Muslims. Commenting on the as those who are bent on ascribing verse above, Ibn Qayyim quotes al-Zujjaj divinity to aught beside God; and thou as saying that Christians are paised for wilt surely fi nd that, of all people, they they have been “less inclined towards who say “Behold, the Meccans than the Jews.”33 Even though the Qur’an’s we are Christians” The harsh assessment of the Jews is, harsh treatment of Jewish come closest to thus, a response to the political alliance tribes in Medina has not feeling affection for of the Jews of Medina with the Meccan been lost to the Prophet those who believe polytheists and in violation of the and his followers, it has [in this divine writ]: Medinan Treaty to which we referred not led to an anti-Semitic this is so because above. According to the treaty, the literature in the Islamic there are priests Jewish tribes in Medina and Muslims tradition. and monks among had agreed to defend each other against them, and because these are not given aggressors, i.e., the Meccans. It is clear to arrogance. For, when they come to that the prophet Muhammad was understand what has been bestowed concerned to secure a strong political from on high upon this Apostle, thou alliance with the Jews and Christians canst see their eyes overfl ow with tears, of Medina against the Meccans. While because they recognize something the Christians remained mostly loyal to of its truth; 31 [and] they say: “O our the agreement and did not fi ght or plot Sustainer! We do believe; make us one, against Muslims, the Meccans were able then, with all who bear witness to the to get some prominent Jewish leaders truth. And how could we fail to believe on their side in their military campaigns in God and in whatever truth has come against Muslims.34 Those who violated unto us, when we so fervently desire the treaty and thus betrayed the that our Sustainer count us among the Muslim community included not only righteous?” (al-Ma’idah 5:82–84) Jews but also those whom the Qur’ān The “closeness” to which the verse calls the “hypocrites” (al-munafi qun). refers is a reference to both the social and The Qur’ān uses an extremely harsh political proximity which the Christian language against them because communities of the period felt towards they claim to be part of the Muslim Muslims. The famous expedition of a community while forming alliances with group of companions of the Prophet to the Meccan polytheists. The Qur’ān is the Christian king of Abyssinia and the so stern on this point that the prophet warm welcome they had received can Muhammad is banned from praying for also be seen as a factor in this clearly their soul. favourable description of Christians. Even though the Qur’ān’s harsh

54 treatment of Jewish tribes in Medina important of which concern the nature has not been lost to the Prophet and of Jesus Christ and the Christian claim his followers, it has not led to an anti- that he was the son of God. This is not Semitic literature in the Islamic tradition. the place to go into a discussion of the Since the Jewish communities, unlike place of Jesus in Islam. It suffi ces to Christianity, did not pose a political say, however, that the Qur’ān and the threat that had, at least by association, prophetic tradition reject (compare al- the backing of the Byzantine Empire, Nisa 4:171–73 and al-Ma’idah 5:72– they were hardly part of political 77) the divinity of Jesus as formulated confl icts in later centuries. For both by the later Christian doctrine. Besides political and theological reasons, the theology, one specifi c practice for which great majority of Muslim polemical the Qur’ān criticizes the Christians is works in the medieval period have “monasticism” (rahbaniyyah). Christians been directed against Christianity more are praised for their fear and veneration than Judaism.35 The socio-political of God but criticized for going to the and economic structure of Muslim extreme of inventing a monastic life not societies has been conducive to a enjoined by God: “And thereupon We largely successful integration of Jewish caused [other of] Our apostles to follow communities. As I mentioned above, the in their footsteps; and [in the course of Jewish merchants were never ostracized time] We caused them to be followed for their profession or prevented from by Jesus, the son of Mary, upon whom practicing it because the economic We bestowed the Gospel; and in the system of Muslim societies allowed hearts of those who [truly] followed him greater fl exibility for international trade We engendered compassion and mercy. and fi nance. Furthermore, the Jews in But as for monasticism [rahbaniyyah]; the Near East where Muslims came to We did not enjoin it upon them: they rule were the indigenous communities invented it themselves out of a desire of the area, not immigrants as they were for God’s goodly in Western Christendom. This has given acceptance. But The underlying principle them a right of property and communal then, they did not behind the attitudes of ac- freedom that we do not see in Europe. [always] observe it commodation is that the In fact, this can be compared only to as it ought to have overall interests of human the position of Hindus after India came been observed: and beings are served better in under Muslim rule. Finally, the ethnic so We granted their peace than in confl ict. composition of Muslim societies was recompense unto so diverse that the Jewish communities such of them as had [truly] attained to did not have to stand out as different or faith, whereas many of them became “strange.”36 iniquitous.” (al-Hadid 57:27) Even though the Qur’ān approaches The classical commentators interpret Christians more favourably than Jews, this verse as pointing to the harsh it does not shy away from criticizing conditions of early Christians to protect them for introducing a number of themselves against the persecutions “inventions” or “corruption” (tahrif) of the Roman rulers. Monasticism into their religion. As mentioned before, (and celibacy, we should add) could there are many such criticisms the most be seen as a temporary solution in

55 times of extreme measures but cannot several other communities as part of the be a general rule for attaining piety non-Islamic religious traditions under because religions are meant to save not protection. The mention of “Sabians” just the elect but everyone. It is also in the following shows that the concept important to note that the mainstream of the People of the Book was set to Islamic tradition does not posit any be fl exible and ever-expanding from intermediaries between God and the the very beginning: “Verily, those who ordinary believer. There is no need for have attained to faith, as well as those a monastic institution to train spiritual who follow the Jewish faith, and the leaders to provide religious guidance for Christians, and the Sabians37; all who the average person. The commentators, believe in God and the Last Day and thus, take this opportunity to stress that do righteous deeds shall have their Islam has come to establish a balance reward with their Sustainer; and no (wasatah) between worldly indulgence fear need they have, and neither shall and extreme asceticism. This point is they grieve” (al-Baqarah 2:62).38 It is reiterated in the following verse: “And important to note that the status of ordain Thou for us what is good in this “no fear” mentioned in the above world as well as in the life to come: verse legally refers to the protection of behold, unto Thee have we turned in the People of the Book as part of ahl repentance!” [God] answered: “With al-dhimmah. While the dhimmi status My chastisement do I affl ict whom I will was initially given to Jews, Christians, - but My grace overspreads everything: Sabians, and Zoroastrians, its scope and so I shall confer it on those who are was later extended to include all non- conscious of Me and spend in charity, Muslims living under Islam especially and who believe in Our messages those in the subcontinent of India.39 This who shall follow the [last] Apostle, the is exactly what happened in India unlettered Prophet whom they shall when Muhammad b. al-Qasim, the fi nd described in the Torah that is with fi rst Muslim commander to set foot them, and [later on] in the Gospel: [the on Indian soil in the eighth century, Prophet] who will enjoin upon them compared Hindus to Jews, Christians the doing of what is right and forbid and Zoroastrians and declared them them the doing of what is wrong, and as part of the ahl al-dhimmah.40 This make lawful to them the good things decision, which was later sanctioned of life and forbid them the bad things, by the Hanafi jurists, was a momentous and lift from them their burdens and event in the development of the Muslim the shackles that were upon them attitude towards the religions of India. [aforetime]. Those, therefore, who That the People of the Book were shall believe in him, and honour him, accorded a special status is not only and succour him, and follow the light attested by the various Qur’ānic verses that has been bestowed from on high but also recorded in a number of treatises through him-it is they that shall attain signed by the prophet Muhammad after to a happy state.” (al-A’raf 7:156–57) his migration to Medina in 622. The While Jews and Christians are “Medinan Treatise” (sahifat al-madina), usually thought to be the People of also called the “Medinan Constitution,” the Book, the Qur’ān also mentions recognizes the Jews of Banu ‘Awf,

56 Banu al-Najar, Banu Tha’laba, Banu his parish or monastery no priest shall Harith, and other Jewish tribes as be forced to abandon his priestly life. distinct communities: “The Jews of No hardships or humiliation shall be Banu ‘Awf are a community [ummah] imposed on them nor shall their land be together with Muslims; they have their occupied by [our] army. Those who seek own religion, properties and lives, and justice, shall have it: there will be no Muslims their own except those who oppressors nor oppressed.”42 ‘Umar ibn commit injustice and wrongdoing; and al-Khattab, the second caliph of Islam, they only harm themselves.”41 Another has given a similar safeguard (aman) to treatise signed with the People of the the people of Jerusalem when he took Book of Najran reads as follows: “They the city in 623: “In the name of God, the [People of the Book] shall have the Merciful and Compassionate! This is the protection of Allāh and the promise safeguard granted to the inhabitants of of Muhammad, the Apostle of Allāh, ‘Alia [Jerusalem] by the servant of God, that they shall be secured their lives, ‘Umar, commander of the faithful. They property, lands, creed, those absent are given protection of their persons, and those present, their families, their their churches, their crosses - whether churches, and all that they possess. No these are in good state or not - and bishop or monk shall be displaced from their cult in general. No constraints

57 will be exercised against them in the student of Abu Hanifa, the founder of matter of religion and no harm will be the Hanafi school of law, advises the done to any of them. The inhabitants Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid (d. 803) of ‘Alia will have to pay the jizya in the to “treat with leniency those under the same way as the inhabitants of other protection of our Prophet Muhammad, towns. It rests with them to expel the and not allow that more than what is Byzantines and robbers from their city. due to be taken from them or more that Those among them the latter who wish they are able to pay, and that nothing to remain there will be permitted on should be confi scated from their pro- condition that they pay the same jizya perties without legal justifi cation.”46 as the inhabitants of ‘Alia.”43 To substantiate his case, Abu Yusuf The poll tax called jizya was imposed narrates a tradition in which the Prophet on ahl al-dhimmah as compensation says that “he who robs a dhimmi or for their protection as well as for their imposes on him more than he can bear exemption from compulsory military will have me as his opponent.” Another service. Contrary to a common belief, well-known case is the Prophet’s or- the primary goal of jizya was not the dering of the execution of a Muslim “humiliation” of the People of the Book. who had killed a dhimmi. In response to While most contemporary translations of the incident, the Prophet has said that the Qur’ān render the words wa hum al- “it is most appropriate that I live up fully saghirun (al-Tawbah 9: 29) as “so that to my (promise of) protection.”47 they will be humiliated,” Ibn Qayyim While these examples show al-Jawziyyah, who has written the most the complexities of Islamic history, extensive work on the the underlying principle behind the While we can fi nd diver- People of the Book, attitudes of accommodation is that gent policies of tolerance reads it as securing the overall interests of human beings and intolerance in the Is- the allegiance of the are served better in peace than in lamic religious tradition People of the Book confl ict.48 In dealing with the People and social history, the con- to laws pertaining of the Book, the prophet Muhammad temporary Muslim world to them (ahkam al- is instructed to take a special care: has to confront the chal- millah). According to “Hence, judge between the followers lenge of religious plural- Ibn Qayyim, wa hum of earlier revelation in accordance ism in a way that would al-saghirun means with what God has bestowed from avoid the extremes of in- making all subjects on high” (al-Mai’dah 5:49). Yet he is tolerant exclusivism on of the state obey also warned against the temptation of the one hand and a root- the law and, in the compromising his mission in order to less pluralism at the ex- case of the People gain their favour: “And do not follow pense of all orthodoxy on of the Book, pay the their errant views; and beware of them, the other. jizya.44 Despite Ibn lest they tempt thee away from aught Qayyim’s relatively that God has bestowed from on high lenient position, his teacher, the upon thee. And if they turn away [from famous Hanbali scholar Ibn Taymiyya, His commandments], then know that it takes a hard position against non- is but God’s will [thus] to affl ict them for Muslims and calls for their conversion some of their sins: for, behold, a great or submission.45 Yet, Abu Yusuf, the many people are iniquitous indeed” (al-

58 Ma’idah 5:49). None of these measures conquest of Mecca.49 According would have made sense had they not to Qurtubi, Sulayman ibn Musa has been complemented by a clear rule defended this argument because “the about the problem of conversion. It is Prophet of Islam has forced the pagan one thing to say that people are free to Arabs into Islam, fought them and choose their religion, but it is another refused to accept from them anything thing to set in place a legal and social but professing the Islamic faith.”50 The system where the principle of religious second view is that the verse has not freedom is applied with relative ease and been abrogated because it has been success. This is what al-Baqarah 2: 256 sent specifi cally for the People of the establishes with its proclamation that Book. This interpretation is supported by “there is no compulsion in religion.” the famous incident, for which Baqarah The verse and the way it states the 256 has been revealed, when Bani principle are crucial for understanding Salim b. ‘Afw, one of the companions the policies of conversion that have of the Prophet from Medina, had forced developed in early and later Islamic his Christian sons to accept Islam.51 history. Both the overall attitude of According to Ibn Kathir, the verse is the Qur’ān and the Prophet toward a command “not to force anyone to non-Muslims and the legal injunctions enter the religion of Islam because it is regarding the People of the Book clear and evident.”52 Another incident stipulate against forced conversion. cited by Qurtubi involves Umar ibn al- Furthermore, the Arabic command Khattab, the second caliph of Islam, form la ikraha can be read not only who asks an old Christian woman to as “there is no compulsion” but also embrace Islam. The old lady responds by as “there should be no compulsion.” saying that “I am an old lady and death The subtle difference between the is nearing me.” Upon this answer, Umar two is that, while the former implies reads the verse Baqarah 256 and leaves that the proofs and foundations of her.53 Islam are clear and therefore the non- Fakh al-Din al-Razi opposes com- believer should accept its truth without pulsion of any kind on intellectual diffi culty, the latter states that no grounds. According to him, not just the non- Muslim can be forced to convert People of the Book but no one should even if the proofs are clear to him or be forced to believe because “God has her. Like Christianity, Islam encourages not built faith upon compulsion and its followers to spread the word and pressure but on acceptance and free argue with peoples of other faiths “in choice.” Even though al-Razi considers the best possible way” so that they this “free will defence” to be the understand and, it is hoped, embrace position of the Mutazilites, to whom he the message of Islam. This leads us to is always opposed, he rejects al-Qifal’s yet another tension in Islam between argument that, since all of the proofs of claims to universality and policies the true religion have been made clear of protection and accommodation. to the disbeliever, he may be forced Furthermore, some later jurists have to accept it. For al-Razi, compulsion in claimed that Baqarah 256 has been matters of faith annuls the principle of abrogated by other verses after the free will (taklif) and goes against God’s

59 plan to try people.54 Relations with Non-Muslims The last point I will take up here concerns the verse al-Ma’idah 5:51, The Islamic code of ethics for the which has led many Western students treatment of non-Muslims follows of Islam to claim that the Qur’ān the overall principles discussed so far. advises Muslims against developing As far as the Islamic attitude towards friendly relationship with Jews and Judaism and Christianity is concerned, Christians. The verse reads as follows: there is a delicate balance between “O you who have attained to faith! Do treating them with respect and refusing not take the Jews and the Christians to compromise the essential features for your awliya’: they are but awliya’ of the Abrahamic tradition. Among of one another. Whoever among you the non-Muslim communities, the only takes them as his wali is one of them.” exception is the Meccan polytheists, The word awliya’ is the plural of wali, which Islam rejects in toto. The “sword which is rendered in most of the English verses” of the Qur’ān that aim at translations of the Qur’ān as “friend.” the Meccans are misinterpreted as a According to this interpretation, the declaration of war on all non-Muslims. verse reads as “do not take Jews and The fact is that the Qur’ān calls upon Christians as friends.” Even though the Muslims to take up arms against the word wali means friend in the ordinary Meccans and explains the reasons in sense of the term, in this context, it nonambiguous terms: has the meaning of protector, legal And fi ght in God’s cause against guardian, and ally. This rendering is those who wage war against you, but confi rmed by al-Tabari’s explanation do not commit aggression - for, verily, that the verse 5:51 was revealed during God does not love aggressors. And one of the battles (the battle of Badr in slay them wherever you may come 624 or Uhud in 625) that the Muslims upon them, and drive them away from in Medina had fought against the wherever they drove you away - for Meccans. Under the circumstances of oppression [fi tnah]57 is even worse than a military campaign, the verse advises killing. And fi ght not against them near the new Muslim community not to the Inviolable House of Worship unless form political alliances with non- they fi ght against you there fi rst; but Muslims if they violate the terms of a if they fi ght against you, slay them: treaty they had signed with them.55 such shall be the recompense of those It is important to note that Muslims, who deny the truth. But if they desist Jews, or Christians to whom the verse - behold, God is much-forgiving, a refers represent not only religious but dispenser of grace. Hence, fi ght against also socio-political communities. The them until there is no more oppression meaning of “ally” or “legal guardian” and all worship is devoted to God alone; for wali/awliya’ makes sense especially but if they desist, then all hostility shall in view of Ibn Qayyim’s explanation that cease, save against those who [wilfully] “whoever forms an alliance with them do wrong. (al-Baqarah 2:190–93) through a treaty [‘ahd] is with them in According to Ibn Hisham, there violating the agreement.”56 are primarily two reasons for Islam’s

60 extremely hostile attitude towards arms against the Meccan polytheists: the Meccan pagans. The fi rst is the suppression of faith and expulsion from impossibility of reconciling paganism homeland.61 Both actions were taken and polytheism with the central Islamic against the early Muslim community doctrine of divine unity (tawhid). in Mecca and later in Madina. Muslims Numerous Qur’ānic verses and prophetic are ordered not to take the Meccans as traditions describe the ignorance and allies or protectors (awliya’) and show arrogance of Meccan polytheists in them any “kindness”: O you who vivid detail. Their lack of respect for have attained to faith! Do not take God and human dignity and such social My enemies - who are your enemies evils as slavery, infanticide (compare al- as well - for your allies, showing them Mumtahinah 60:12; al-Takwir 81:8–9), affection even though they are bent and tribal racism are results of their on denying whatever truth has come fundamental theological error: taking unto you, [and even though] they have partners unto God (shirk). The second driven the Apostle and yourselves away, reason, which Ibn Hisham emphasizes [only] because you believe in God, your more than the fi rst, is their total denial Sustainer! If [it be true that] you have of the messenger of God and the gone forth [from your homes] to strive political plots they created to destroy [jihad] in My cause, and out of a longing the new Muslim community. Early for My goodly acceptance, [do not Islamic history is fi lled with incidents of take them for your friends,] inclining the inhuman treatment of Muhammad towards them in secret affection: for and his followers. That the Meccans I am fully aware of all that you may tried to kill the Prophet of Islam has conceal as well as of all that you do only added to the sense of outrage and openly. And any of you who does this hostility towards them.58 Abu Hanifah has already strayed from the right path. and others have pointed out that the al-Mumtahinah 60:1 only community that will not receive The verses bring up the example of mercy on the day of judgment are the Abraham who had a similar experience Meccan polytheists to whom the last with his community. Abraham is Prophet has been sent. According to the mentioned to have prayed for his majority of the classical commentators, father: “I shall indeed pray for [God’s] the famous “slay them ...” verse refers forgiveness for thee, although I have it exclusively to pagan Arabs who fought not in my power to obtain anything from against the Prophet and his followers.59 God in thy behalf” (al-Mumtahinah While military combat is not completely 60:4). This reminder was presumably ruled out but kept as a last resort, war, meant to give moral support to the when it becomes inevitable, has to be fi rst Muslims who were persecuted conducted under certain restrictions.60 and expelled from their homeland. In That the verses of war are fact, the verses draw attention to the specifi cally for those who have declared weakness of some among them for war against Muslims is also confi rmed their desire to approach the Meccans to by the verses al-Mumtahinah 60:8–9. protect their children and relatives who It is important to note that the chapter were still in Mecca. Yet the Qur’ān also cites two main reasons for taking up warns that the enmity in which they

61 fi nd themselves is not unconditional: According to Ibn al-Qayyim, the “[But] it may well be that God will bring verse “permits [rukhsah] to have good about [mutual] affection between you relations with those who have not [O believers] and some of those whom declared war against Muslims and you [now] face as enemies: for, God is allows kindness towards them even all-powerful and God is much-forgiving, though they may not be allies.”62 Al- a dispenser of grace” (al-Mumtahinah Tabari interprets the verse along similar 60:7). These provisions and examples lines: “The most credible view is that are summed up in the following verse, the verse refers to people of all kinds which lays the ground rules for dealing of creeds and religions who should be with non-Muslims in times of war and shown kindness and treated equitably. peace: God referred to all those who do not “As for such [of the unbelievers] as fi ght the Muslims or drive them from do not fi ght against you on account of their homes without exception or [your] faith [al-din], and neither drive you qualifi cation.”63 In granting permission forth from your homelands, God does to Muslims to fi ght against the not forbid you to show them kindness Meccans, the Qur’ān stresses that the and to behave towards them with full kind of fi ght Muslims are allowed to equity: for, verily, God loves those who engage is not only for themselves but act equitably. God only forbids you to for all those who believe in God: turn in friendship towards such as fi ght “Permission [to fi ght] is given to against you because of [your] faith, and those against whom war is being drive you forth from your homelands, or wrongfully waged and, verily, God has aid [others] in driving you forth: and as indeed the power to succour them for those [from among you] who turn - those who have been driven from towards them in friendship; it is they, their homelands against all right for no they who are truly wrongdoers!” (al- other reason than their saying. “Our Mumtahinah 60:8–9) Sustainer is God!” For, if God had not

62 enabled people to defend themselves suppleness to deal with the current against one another, [all] monasteries challenges. We can cite countless and churches and synagogues and cases from the military conquests of mosques - in [all of] which God’s name the Ottomans to the employment of is abundantly extolled - would surely Jewish and Christian professionals in have been destroyed [ere now].” (al- various positions across the Islamic Hajj 22: 39–40) world. We can remind ourselves that Thus, putting aside the Arab pagans Muslim empires have had periods of during the time of the Prophet, the peace and stability as well as confl ict Qur’ān proposes a number of lenient and disorder. There have been many measures for the treatment of the confrontations between Muslim and People of the Book and other non- Christian communities in the Balkans, Muslim communities. One verse states Asia Minor, or North Africa. There is this as follows: “Call thou [all mankind] no doubt that all of these factors have unto thy Sustainer’s path with wisdom had an impact on the development of and goodly exhortation, and argue with the Islamic legal tradition and shaped them in the most kindly manner” (al- the framework of socioreligious Nahl 16:125). The Jews and Christians practices in the Muslim world. The are mentioned specifi cally as partners of historical and contextual reading of a serious and respectful dialogue: Islamic law is, therefore, indispensable “And do not argue with the People for distinguishing between what the of the Book otherwise than in a most contemporary scholar Taha Jabir Alwani kindly manner - unless it be such of calls the “fi qh of confl ict” and the “fi qh them as are bent on evildoing and say: of coexistence.”64 “We believe in that which has been A case in point is the question of bestowed from on high upon us, as well apostasy in Islam. The classical jurists as that which has been bestowed upon have usually ruled that apostasy in you: our God and your God is one and Islam is punishable by death. The the same, and it is unto Him that We Qur’ān does not mention any penalty [all] surrender ourselves.” (al-‘Ankabut for the apostate but warns of divine 29:46) punishment on the Day of Judgment While we can fi nd divergent policies (compare al-Baqarah 2:217; al-Ma’idah of tolerance and intolerance in the 5:54). The ruling for death penalty Islamic religious tradition and social is based on the hadith in which the history, the contemporary Muslim Prophet says to “kill those who change world has to confront the challenge their religion.” At its face value, this is of religious pluralism in a way that an extremely harsh statement and goes would avoid the extremes of intolerant against the principle of free choice exclusivism on the one hand and a in Islam. The hadith, however, makes rootless pluralism at the expense of perfect sense when we understand the all orthodoxy on the other. Reading context in which it has been said. The our foundational texts and history hadith refers to changing one’s political must be guided by a set of principles alliance and betraying the Muslim that would remain true to the spirit community especially during times of of the tradition while having enough war. This includes taking arms against

63 the Muslim state. That is why the Hanafi of exclusivism theologically, ritually, jurists have ruled that women apostates and socially; otherwise, it would be cannot be killed because they are impossible to maintain the integrity of not considered soldiers in the army.65 any religious tradition. Each religious Contemporary Muslim scholars have universe must claim to be complete and applied this approach and concluded absolute in itself; otherwise, it cannot that the classical rulings on the death fulfi l the purpose for which it stands. penalty for apostasy are based on socio- A genuine culture of tolerance and historical circumstances and do not accommodation is possible only when apply today.66 the principles of respect are observed Based on the textual evidence without compromising the integrity and gathered from the Qur’ān and pro- orthodoxy of a religion. This is in no way phetic traditions, we can assert that far from the infi nite mercy that God has other religions, and especially Judaism written upon himself: “And when those and Christianity, play a signifi cant role who believe in Our messages come in Islam. Islam’s self-view as the seal of unto thee, say: ‘Peace be upon you. the Abrahamic tradition links it to the Your Sustainer has willed upon Himself Jewish and Christian faiths in a way that the law of grace and mercy - so that we don’t fi nd in relation to any other if any of you does a bad deed out of religion. Much of the interreligious ignorance, and thereafter repents and dialogue we fi nd in the sacred sources lives righteously, He shall be [found] of Islam is addressed to these religions. much-forgiving, a dispenser of grace.’” Islam acknowledges the plurality of (al-An’am 6:54) human societies and faith traditions but Ibrahim Kalin’s fi eld of concentration insists on reaching a common ground is post-Avicennan Islamic philosophy between them. As we discussed above, with research interests in Ottoman each socio-religious community is intellectual history, interfaith relations, recognized as an ummah, as potentially and comparative philosophy. Dr. legitimate paths to God, but invited to Kalin has published widely on Islamic reassert the unity of God and commit philosophy and the relations between themselves to upholding the principles Islam and the West. His book Islam of a virtuous life. Different communities and the West (published in Turkish) has and thus different religious paths exist won the 2007 Writers Association of because God has willed plurality in the Turkey award for best book. Dr. Kalin world in which we live. This should not is the founding-director of the SETA be a concern for the believer because Foundation for Political, Economic the ultimate goal of multiplicity is a and Social Research based in Ankara, noble one: different communities vying Turkey. He has hosted a discussion for the common good of humanity. program on the Turkish national TV While this is a solid basis for a TRT 1. theology of inclusivism, it does not necessarily lead to moral laxity and social incoherence. Each socio-religious community is bound to have some level

64 NOTES

1 Cf. J. Waardenburg, “World Religions as seen in the Light of well-guarded book (kitab maknun) which none but the pure (of Islam” in Islam Past Infl uence and Present Challenge, eds. A. heart) can touch” (56: 78–79). Fakhr al-Din al-Razi provides an T. Welch and P. Cachia (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, extensive analysis of these points with his usual precision; cf. 1979), 248–49. See also J. Waardenburg, Muslims and Others: Tafsir, 3:137–148. Relations in Context (Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter, 2003). 9 al-Razi, Tafsir, 10:113.

2 All translations of Qur’ānic verses are from Muhammad 10 Cf. Waardenburg, Muslims and Others, 99–101. Asad’s The Message of the Qur’ān. I have occasionally made some revisions in the translations. 11 Ibn Kathir, Tafsir, 285.

3 As Fakhr al-Din al-Razi points out, the verse refers to some 12 Tafsir al-Jalalayn (Beirut: Mu’assasat al-Risalah, 1995), 62. Christians groups that have had veneration for their clergy to 13 Qurtubi, al-Jami’, 2:109. cf. also pp. 139–140 where Qurtubi the point of worshipping them. Cf. al-Tafsir al-Kabir (Beirut: says that “Abraham was called hanif because he turned to the Dar Ihya al-Turath al-Arabi, 2001), 3:252. Qurtubi makes the religion of God, which is Islam.” same point; cf. Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Ansari al-Qurtubi, al-Jami’ li’l-Ahkam al-Qur’ān (Riyadh: Dar al-‘Alam 14 The Religious Dialogue of Jerusalem, in The Early Christian- al-Kutub, 2003), 2:106. As I shall discuss below, the Christian Muslim Dialogue: A Collection of Documents from the First tendency to extreme monasticism is criticized in several verses Three Islamic Centuries (632–900 A.D.) Translations with Com- of the Qur’ān. mentary, ed. N. A. Newman (Hatfi eld, PA: Interdisciplinary Bibli- cal Research Institute, 1993), 285. 4 Ibn Kathir, Tafsir (Beirut: Dar al-Ma’rifah, 2006), 290. Ac- cording to Mujahid and al- Suddi, this verse was revealed for 15 Ibn Kathir, Tafsir, 1414; Tafsir al-jalalayn, 484. al-Harith b. Suwayd, the brother of al-Hulas b. Suwayd, one of the companions of the Prophet. Al Harith was one of the ansar 16 al-Razi, Tafsir, 9:587. (Muslims of Medina); then, he left Islam and joined the Mec- cans. At that time, this verse was revealed. Upon hearing the 17 According to M. Asad, this is “a reference to the Biblical pre- verse, al-Harith sent a message to his brother and expressed his diction of the coming of the Prophet Muhammad, which ef- regret for leaving Islam and joining the Meccans. Cf. Qurtubi, fectively contradicts the Judaeo-Christian claim that all true al-Jami’, 2:128. prophets, after the Patriarchs, belonged to the children of Israel.” M. Asad, The Message of the Qur’ān (Gibraltar: Dar al- 5 Al-Razi, Tafsir, 3:282. Andalus, 1980), 29.

6 Cf. Ibid., 6:261. 18 Ibn Kathir, Tafsir, 285. This point is reiterated in almost all of the classical commentaries. Cf. Qurtubi, al-Jami’, 2:107 where 7 Ibid., Tafsir, 9:617. Qurtubi quotes al-Zujjaj as saying that “this is the clearest proof against Jews and Christians. The Torah and the Gospel 8 In 3:7, the expression umm al-kitab refers to the clearly es- were revealed after him (Abraham) and the name of these reli- tablished and nonallegorical verses of the Qur’ān (ayat muh- gions is not mentioned in them. But the name Islam is in all the kamat). This is contrasted to the allegorical ones (mutashabi- books.” Fakhr al-Din al-Razi adds that “the religions brought by hat), which may create confusion and lead some astray: “Those prophets cannot be diff erent in principles.” Tafsir, 3:254. whose hearts are given to swerving from the truth go after that part of the book [al-kitab] which has been expressed in allego- 19 This is a theme repeated throughout the Qur’ān: “Never have ry, seeking out [what is bound to create] confusion, and seek- We sent forth any apostle otherwise than [with a message] in ing [to arrive at] its fi nal meaning [in an arbitrary manner]; but his own people’s tongue” (14:4). none save God knows its fi nal meaning.” When confronted with such a situation, the believers are asked to follow the example 20 Cf. Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah, Zad al-Masir fi ilm al-tafsir of those “who are deeply rooted in knowledge [who] say: We (Beirut: al-Maktab al-Islami, 2002), 1335. believe in it; the whole [of the divine book] is from our Sustain- er - albeit none takes this to heart save those who are endowed 21 Ibn Qayyim says that they pertain to “matters of religion”; with insight.” Only those whose hearts are pure can compre- Zad al-Masir, 124. hend the whole of the Qur’ānic verses whether allegorical or not because the Qur’ān is ultimately a well-protected book: 22 Some early scholars interpret this as referring to Adam alone “Behold, it is a truly noble discourse [conveyed unto man] in a because he is the fi rst man and the source of all later genera-

65 tions. Others, however, insist that it refers to both Adam and New York University Press, 1996). Eve. The underlying idea is that we are all children of Adam and Eve. Cf. Qurtubi, al-Jami’, 2:30. 37 The exegetical tradition has identifi ed the Sabians in various ways. Imam Shafi ’i considers them a Christian group. Cf. Ibn 23 Tafsir al-Jalalayn, 116. Qayyim, Ahkam, 1:92. al-Razi mentions several possibilities: a group from among the Magians; a group that worships angels 24 Qurtubi, al-Jami’, 2:211. Cf. al-Razi, Tafsir, 4:373, and Mu- and prays to the sun; still, a group that worships the stars (a hammad al-Ghazali, A Thematic Commentary on the Qur’ān reference to the Sabians of Harran). Cf. al-Razi, Tafsir, 1:536. (Herndon, VA: International Institute of Islamic Thought, They have also been described as Mandaeans, a Baptist sect of 2000), 102. See also Ibn Qayyim, Zad al-Masir, 388. Judaeo-Christian origin. The etymology of the word s-b-‘ gives the meaning “baptizing.” Cf. “Sabi’a,” Encyclopaedia of Islam 25 Ibn Kathir, Tafsir, 506. (2), VIII, 675a. For other interpretations, see J. D. McAuliff e, “Exegetical Identifi cation of the Sabiun,” The Muslim World 26 As Fazlur Rahman points out, this was also due to the fact 72 (1983): 95–106. It is a notorious fact that the Harranians, that, while in Mecca, Muslims were not allowed to pray in the an obscure religious sect with gnostic inclinations from the Ka’ba. There was no reason for them not to face the Ka’ba when Harran region, have identifi ed themselves as Sabians during they migrated to Medina. The argument that the change of di- the time of the Abbasid caliph al-Ma’mun. They have traced rection came after the so-called “Jewish-Muslim break out” is, their origin back to the prophet Enoch (Idris in the Islamic therefore, unsubstantiated. Cf. Fazlur Rahman, Major Themes sources) and claimed to have been related to the Hermetic of the Qur’ān (Minneapolis, MN: Bibliotheca Islamica, 1989), tradition. Cf. Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Science and Civilization in 147–48. Islam (Cambridge: Islamic Texts Society, 1987), 31.

27 Ibn Qayyim, Zad al-Masir, 93. 38 Another verse makes the same point, but this time criticizes the People of the Book for their obstinacy: “Say: ‘O followers 28 Pickthall translates wa li-kullin wijhatun huwa muwalliha of the Book! [ahl al-kitab]. You have no valid ground for your as “and each one hath a goal toward which he turneth,” inter- beliefs - unless you [truly] observe the Torah and the Gospel, preting huwa as referring to the person who prays, not God to and all that has been bestowed from on high upon you by your whom one turns in prayers. Yusuf Ali translates as “to each is a Sustainer!’ Yet all that has been bestowed from on high upon goal to which Allāh turns him.” Other translations give diff er- thee [O Prophet] by thy Sustainer is bound to make many of ent interpretations. While all these readings are linguistically them yet more stubborn in their overweening arrogance and in possible, Asad’s rendering of huwa as “He”, i.e., God seems to their denial of the truth. But sorrow not over people who deny be in keeping with the classical commentaries. Tafsir Jalalayn the truth: for, verily, those who have attained to faith [in this renders huwa as “his direction in ritual prayer” and “his Mas- divine writ], as well as those who follow the Jewish faith, and ter”; cf. p. 23. Cf. Ibn Qayyim, Zad al-Masir, 94. the Sabians, and the Christians - all who believe in God and the Last Day and do righteous deeds - no fear need they have, and 29 The plural abrar refers to those who have attained salvation neither shall they grieve” (al-Ma’idah 5:68–69). because of their godly acts. See the references in the Qur’ān: 3:193, 197, 56:5, 82:13, 83:18, 22. 39 There is a consensus on this in the Hanafi and Maliki schools of law as well as some Hanbali scholars. For references in Ara- 30 Ibn Qayyim, Zad al-Masir, 102. bic, see Yohanan Friedmann, Tolerance and Coercion in Islam: Interfaith Relations in the Muslim Tradition (Cambridge: Cam- 31 According to Ibn ‘Abbas, the verse is a reference to Najashi, bridge University Press, 2003), 85–86. For the inclusion of Zo- the king of Abyssinia. Cf. Ibn Kathir, Tafsir, 521. As a Christian roastrians among the People of the Book, see Friedmann, Toler- king, Najashi had received a delegation of Muslims from Mecca ance and Coercion, 72–76. before the migration of the Prophet to Medina and given them asylum, despite the demands of the Meccans for their deporta- 40 The incident is recorded in Baladhuri’s Futuh al-buldan. Cf. tion. See also Ibn Qayyim, Zad al-Masir, 401. Friedmann, Tolerance and Coercion, 85.

32 Cf. al-Ghazali, A Thematic Commentary, 111–12. 41 al-Sirat al-Nabawiyyah li-Ibn Hisham, (Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyyah, 2004), 255. The full text of the Medinan Treatise 33 Ibn Qayyim, Zad al-Masir, 402. is also published in Muhammad Hamidullah, Documents sur la Diplomatie a l’Epoque du Prophete et des Khalifes Orthodoxes 34 Cf. Ibn Kathir, Tafsir, 521. (Paris, 1935), 9–14. For an English translation, see Khadduri, War and Peace, 206–209. 35 Cf. Waardenburg, Muslims and Others, 176. This is not to deny the existence of the relatively rich literature of Jewish– 42 Quoted in Khadduri, War and Peace in the Law of Islam, 179. Muslim polemical works. Cf. Camilla Adang, Muslim Writers on The original text of the Najran treatise is quoted in Abu Yusuf’s Judaism and the Hebrew Bible: From Ibn Rabban to Ibn Hazm Kitab al-kharaj and Baladhuri’s Futuh al-buldan. (Leiden: Brill, 1996) and Moshe Perlmann, “The Medieval Po- lemics Between Islam and Judaism,” in Religion in 43 From the Treaty of Capitulation of Jerusalem (633) recorded a Religious Age, ed. Solomon dob Goitein, 103–138 (Cam- by al-Tabari, Tarihk alrusul wa’l-muluk, quoted in Youssef Cour- bridge, MA: Association for Jewish Studies, 1974). bage and Philippe Fargues, Christians and Jews under Islam, translated from the French by Judy Mabro (London/New York: 36 For a well-informed discussion of these points, see Mark Co- I. B. Tauris Publishers, 1998), 1. Another treaty of safeguard hen, “Islam and the Jews: Myth, Counter-Myth, History,” in Jews given to the people of Damascus follows the same rules: “In the among Muslims: Communities in the Pre-colonial Middle East, name of Allāh, the compassionate, the merciful. This is what eds. Sholomo Deshen and Walter P. Zenner, 50–63 (New York: Khalid ibn al- Walid would grant to the inhabitants of Damas-

66 cus if he enters therein: he promises to give them security for 61 War is also waged to defend the rights of “those who are their lives, property and churches. Their city wall shall not be weak, ill-treated, and oppressed among men, women, and chil- demolished; neither shall any Moslem be quartered in their dren, whose cry is: ‘Our Lord! Rescue us from this town whose houses. Thereunto we give to them the pact of Allāh and the people are oppressors’” (al-Nisa 4: 75). protection of His Prophet, the caliphs and the believers. So long as they pay the poll tax, nothing but good shall befall them.” 62 Ibn al-Qayyim, Zad al-Masir, 425. Qurtubi has a similar in- Baladhuri, Futuh al-buldan, quoted in Philip K. Hitti, History of terpretation; cf. al-Jami’, 10:43. the Arabs, 7th ed. (London: Macmillan and Co Ltd, 1960, 150. 63 Quoted in Taha Jabir al-Alwani, Towards a Fiqh for Minori- 44 Ibn Qayyim, Ahkam ahl al-dhimmah, 1:24. For the amount ties (London/Washington: The International Institute of Islamic of jizya and the treatment of Jews and Christians in Islamic his- Thought, 2003), 26. tory, see my “Islam and Peace: A Survey of the Sources of Peace in the Islamic Tradition,” Islamic Studies 44, no. 3 (2005): 64 Ibid., 11. Numerous studies have been undertaken by con- 327–62. temporary Muslim scholars to address the question of how to engage Islamic law in the face of the contemporary challenges 45 Cf. Ibn Taymiyyah, al-Siyasat al-Shar’iyyah (Beirut: Dar al- the Muslim world faces. Imam Shatibi’s concept of the “pur- Rawi, 2000), 127–28. poses of Islamic law (maqasid al-shari’ah), which he has devel- oped in his al-Muwafaqat, has been the subject of many studies 46 Khadduri, War and Peace, 85. in recent years. One fi ne example is Ahmad al-Raysuni, Imam 47. Quoted in Friedmann, Tolerance and Coercion, 40. Shatibi’s Theory of the Higher Objectives and Intents of Islamic Law, trans. Nancy Roberts (London/Washington: The Interna- 48 Contemporary applications of this can be followed from the tional Institute of Islamic Thought, 2005). Taha Jabir al-Alwani growing literature on Islam, nonviolence, and confl ict-resolu- has dealt with the sources and development of Islamic juris- tion. For an overview, see Muhammad Abu-Nimer, “Framework prudence in his Source Methodology in Islamic Jurisprudence, for Nonviolence and Peacebuilding in Islam,” in Contemporary 3rd ed., trans. and ed. Yusuf Talal Delorenzo and Anas al-Shaykh Islam: Dynamic, not Static, eds. A. Aziz Said, M. Abu-Nimer Ali (London/ Washington: The International Institute of Islamic and M. Sharify-Funk, 131–172 (London/New York: Routledge, Thought, 2003). Another contemporary scholar Yusuf al-Qa- 2006). radawi has adopted a similar point of view in his Approach- ing the Sunna: Comprehension and Controversy, trans. Jamil 49 Cf. Ibn Qayyim, Zad al-Masir, 157. Qureshi (London/Washington: The International Institute of Islamic Thought, 2006). Other works with a similar approach 50 Qurtubi, al-Jami’, 2:280. and scope include Shaykh al-Tahir ibn Ashur, Maqasid al- Shari’ah al-Islamiyyah (Tunis: al-Dar al-Tunisiyyah, 1972), and 51 Ibn Kathir, Tafsir, 239–40. Yusuf al-‘Alim, Maqasid al-Shari’ah (Herndon, VA: IIIT, 1991).

52 Ibid., 239. 65 Abu Bakr ibn Sahl al-Sarakhsi, al-Mabsut (Istanbul: Cagri Yayinlari, 1983), 10:109. 53 Qurtubi, al-Jami’, 2:280. 66 Cf. Taha Jabir al-Alwani, La ikraha fi ’l-din: ishkaliyat al- 54 Al-Razi, Tafsir, 3:15. riddah wa’l-murtaddin min sadr al-islam ila’l-yawm, 2nd ed. (Cairo/Herndon VA: IIIT and Maktab al-Shuruq al-Duwaliyyah, 55 For an analysis of this point, see David Dakake, “The Myth of 2006). a Militant Islam,” in Islam, Fundamentalism and the Betrayal of Tradition, ed. Joseph Lumbard (Bloomington, IN: World Wis- dom, 2004), 5–8.

56 Ibn Qayyim, Zad al-Masir, 390.

57. The word fi tnah has a wide range of meanings: trial, calam- ity, disorder, civil strife, sedition, and even persecution in the particular verse above.

58 Cf. al-Sirat al-Nabawiyyah li-Ibn Hisham, 332

59 For full references, see David Dakake, “The Myth of a Militant Islam,” 9–11.

60 For “just war” (jus ad bellum) and conditions of war (jus in bello), see my “Islam and Peace,” 342–50. Not surprisingly, Osama bin Laden quotes the “slay them . . .” verse in his in- famous 1998 fatwa for the “killing of Americans and their al- lies - civilian and military.” For the text of this fatwa and its critique based on the Islamic sources, see Vincenzo Oliveti, Ter- ror’s Source: The Ideology of Wahhabi-Salafi sm and its Conse- quences (Birmingham, AL: Amadeusbooks, 2002).

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