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A Dissertation Submitted to The A Landscape Archaeology Approach to Understanding Household Water Management Practices of the Ancient Lowland Maya A dissertation submitted to the Graduate School of the University of Cincinnati in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Geography of the College of Arts and Sciences by Jeffrey L Brewer M.A. University of Cincinnati B.A. University of Cincinnati March 2017 Committee Chair: Nicholas P. Dunning, Ph.D. Abstract For the ancient Maya, the collection and storage of rainfall were necessary requirements for sustainable occupation in the interior portions of the lowlands in Mexico, Guatemala, and Belize. The importance of managing water resources at the household level, in the form of small natural or culturally modified tanks, has recently been recognized as a spatially and temporally widespread complement to a reliance on the larger, centralized reservoirs that occupied most urban centers. Emerging evidence indicates that these residential tanks functioned to satisfy a variety of domestic water needs beginning in the Middle Preclassic (1000 – 400 BC) period. The research presented in this dissertation aims to clarify the role of small topographical depressions in ancient Maya domestic water management utilizing a combination of satellite remote sensing and archaeological excavation to identify, survey, and evaluate small household tanks. The three research articles included here focus on the lidar identification and subsequent archaeological investigation of these features at the central lowland sites of Yaxnohcah in southern Campeche, Mexico and Medicinal Trail in northwestern Belize. In addition to clarifying the origin and functions of these reservoirs, their role within the broader mosaic of ancient Maya water management infrastructure and practices, particularly within the Elevated Interior Region (EIR) of the Yucatán Peninsula is also explored. This original research supplements existing archaeological, environmental, and remote sensing studies of ancient Maya civilization and contributes to the advancement of Maya studies by: (1) providing a scheme for identifying closed depressions as probable water features within lidar imagery; (2) placing household tanks within the larger framework of ancient Maya water systems and practices; and (3) identifying spatial and temporal linkages between household tanks and differing levels of urban development in the Maya lowlands. ii iii Acknowledgements I would first like to thank the Department of Geography at the University of Cincinnati for accepting me into the Doctoral Program, funding my graduate studies, and providing me the platform for conducting this dissertation research. Dr. Nick Dunning, who served as my Advisor and Ph.D. Committee Chair, shepherded me through the program, offering guidance, advice, support, and criticism when necessary. Thanks, Dr. D.! Thank you also to my Ph.D. Committee: Dr. Hongxing Liu, Dr. Robert South, Dr. Kevin Raleigh, and Dr. Vern Scarborough. Your time and efforts of my behalf are greatly appreciated. The research reported here was conducted through two archaeological projects: the Programme for Belize Archaeological Project (PfBAP) in Belize and the Yaxnohcah Archaeological Project (YAP) in Campeche, Mexico. The PfBAP is directed by Fred Valdez, Jr. from the University of Texas at Austin and Kathryn Reese-Taylor and Armando Anaya Hernández from the University of Calgary and the Universidad Autónoma de Campeche, respectively, co-direct the YAP. Thank you all for hosting and supporting my fieldwork. Finally, this work would not have been possible without the support of my friends and family, particularly my wife Megan, throughout my graduate school career. Thanks for the love, support, and patience! iv Table of Contents 1. Introduction........................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Statement of Problem ................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Organization of the Dissertation.................................................................................. 2 2. Literature Review .................................................................................................................. 5 2.1 Study Area ..................................................................................................................... 5 2.2 Water Availability ....................................................................................................... 13 2.3 Ancient Maya Water Management Practices: Place, Power, and Control ........... 15 2.4 Preclassic Period Water Management ...................................................................... 21 2.5 Classic Period Water Management ........................................................................... 28 2.6 Recent Interdisciplinary Approaches to Ancient Maya Water Management ....... 36 3. Research Article 1 ................................................................................................................ 50 4. Research Article 2 ................................................................................................................ 85 5. Research Article 3 .............................................................................................................. 148 6. Summary and Conclusions ............................................................................................... 204 7. Bibliography ....................................................................................................................... 207 v List of Figures Research Article 1 Figure 1: Map of the Maya region showing Yaxnohcah .............................................................. 75 Figure 2: Lidar-derived hillshade image of study area ................................................................. 76 Figure 3: Elevation profile of closed depression CD-101 at the Wo’ Group ............................... 77 Figure 4: Alba Group and adjacent depressions ........................................................................... 78 Figure 5: Fidelia Group and Operation D-4 .................................................................................. 79 Figure 6: Wo' Group with Operations D-1, D-2, and D-5 and associated watersheds ................. 80 Figure 7: Closed depression D-3 (Op. 16F) north profile drawing ............................................... 81 Figure 8: Closed depression D-4 north profile image ................................................................... 82 Figure 9: Base of closed depression D-2 showing cut limestone blocks ...................................... 83 Research Article 2 Figure 1: Map of the Maya region showing Medicinal Trail and Yaxnohcah ............................ 137 Figure 2: Medicinal Trail site map showing structure groups discussed in the text ................... 138 Figure 3: Map of Group A at Medicinal Trail ............................................................................ 139 Figure 4: South profile drawing of Operations 10Q, 10R, 10Y, and 10Z .................................. 140 Figure 5: Image of cf. Onagraceae seeds .................................................................................... 140 Figure 6: Plan map of Group C at Medicinal Trail ..................................................................... 141 Figure 7: Map of Yaxnohcah showing the location of investigated depressions ....................... 142 Figure 8: Operations 16B, 16C, and 16D south profile drawing ................................................ 143 Figure 9: Operation 16F west profile image showing remnants of plaster floor ........................ 143 Figure 10: Image of Operations 16G, 16H, and 16I showing large placed stones ..................... 144 vi Figure 11: Operation 16J north profile drawing ......................................................................... 145 Figure 12: Pre-excavation image of the Yax-3 hinterland aguada ............................................. 146 Figure 13: North profile image of the Yax-3 group reservoir .................................................... 147 Research Article 3 Figure 1: Map showing the situation of the EIR and sites discussed in the text......................... 197 Figure 2: Diagram showing depression filling and stream damming reservoirs. ....................... 198 Figure 3a: Profile of south wall of Op. SB3C-1 in Aguada San Bartolo; Figure 3b: Lidar-derived hillshade image of Brisa Reservoir and associated ceremonial center, Yaxnohcah. .......... 199 Figure 4: Cross-sectional drawing of Aguada Tintal, northeast of San Bartolo. ........................ 200 Figure 5: Cross-sectional drawing of La Milpa Aguada with buk'te. ......................................... 200 Figure 6a: Idealized drawing of Puuc residential group with chultun; Figure 6b: Photo of chultun from the site of Yaxhom. .................................................................................................... 201 Figure 7a: Idealized drawing of residential tank; Figure 7b: Photo of a residential tank at Yaxnohcah prior to excavation; Figure 7c: Photo of excavation in Yax-3 Residential Group tank (Yaxnohcah) ................................................................................................................ 202 Figure 8: Space Shuttle photo of Uxmal and surrounding reservoirs, with inset photo of Aguada ChenChan. ..........................................................................................................................
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