投稿類別: 英文寫作類 篇名: The Shift of Social Status for Japanese Women: A Ride on a Downward Slide 作者: 黎祐彤。國立臺灣師範大學附屬高級中學。高二 1345 班 指導老師: 蔡正儀 老師 The Shift of Social Status for Japanese Women: A Ride on a Downward Slide I. Introduction A. Motivation of the Study Japanese women are often described as kind, humble and good housewives. They usually quit jobs after marriage or after the birth of a child to take care of all the matters at home, exempting their husbands from house duties to concentrate only on their career. As portrayed in novels, movies, and TV series, Japanese women are expected to wake up early in the morning to make breakfast for the husbands and children. Often, they also have to prepare box-lunch, or bento, for the family. If they work, most of them cannot assume leadership positions. In fact, they almost always end up typing documents and serving tea in the office. Though Japan is a highly-industrialized country, Japanese women are more disadvantaged than their male counterparts in terms of wages and employment status. (Ogasawara, 1998) However, as I was reading through information about Japanese Shinto religion, I came across something really surprising. That is, the highest deity in this religion was depicted as a female. Named Amaterasu, she is the ruler of the skies and heavens, the mother of the imperial family, and the goddess of the sun. In addition, many religious roles were filled by women. At Ise Grand Shrine, dedicated to Amaterasu and one of the Shinto’s holiest places, the highest minister of the shrine from the 7th to 14th centuries had been a female member of the imperial household. Clearly, females had a much higher status in ancient Japan than in the current social order. (Nielson, 2010) Such findings led me to explore how women’s role became what we see today and the possible reasons behind this shift in status. B. Purpose of the Study This paper discusses upon and analyzes the different factors that might have led to the decline of social status for Japanese women. II. Thesis A. The definition of “social status” in this research Social status is defined as the relative rank that an individual holds, with attendant rights, duties, and lifestyle, in a social hierarchy based on honor and prestige. (Encyclopedia Britannica) In this research, we will be using women’s political power and their right to material possessions as an indicator for their social status throughout history. 2 The Shift of Social Status for Japanese Women: A Ride on a Downward Slide B. Early Times The Kojiki [Records of Ancient Times] and Nihongi [Chronicles of Japan] are the two original records that first documented Japanese attitude towards women. The Nihongi holds insight into the birth of Shinto through the story of Amaterasu, which was previously preserved by oral tradition. In the Shinto religion, Amaterasu is portrayed as the symbol of perfection—exemplifying intelligence, beauty, fertility, and purity. As the Sun Goddess, Amaterasu is the primary goddess (kami) of worship whose feminine qualities are respected and admired. This mythology based on femininity created a “matriarchal antiquity” in Japan. “The mythology surrounding Amaterasu was not only the birth of the Yamato line, but of a feminine allure that would dictate a reputable attitude towards women until the sixth century.” (Silva-Grodin, 2010) Chinese records dating back to the first century reveal that women were not only allowed but also encouraged to rule due to the belief that women would bring peace and order to the country. We know from documents such as the History of the Kingdom of Wei (Weizhi, c. 297 C.E.) and the History of the Latter Han Dynasty (Houhanshu, c. 445 C.E.) that a shamanic queen named Himiko ruled the country of Yamatai (also called Wa) in the third century. These documents recorded that the country of Wa was in a state of great confusion from 147 to 189 C.E. and there was no ruler. Therefore, people agreed on a female ruler, Himiko, and the confusion died down. When her female descendant, Iyo, succeeded her position, she had also gained much support from the people, once again putting an end to the fights of throne. This moment of historical record is believed to have shown themes that parallel in the Shinto mythology. Historian Dr. Lebra confirms, “What Amaterasu represents, the symbol of order and perfection, is personified in Himiko and Iyo.” Moreover, according to the Nihongi, there had been a semi legendary ruler, Empress Jingu, who ascended the throne in the year 201 after her husband’s death. Legend has it that she, aided by a pair of divine jewels, led a successful invasion of Korea without shedding a drop of blood. However, there is no credible proof that Korea was invaded by Japan during that time. There is much mystery and legend surrounding her as a historical figure as well as various debates over her identity. Nevertheless, her legends give us an insight on how it could have been possible for a woman to have almost equal position and power to that of men. C. Reigning empresses in Japanese History Unlike ancient China, where Confucianism was against the idea of female monarchs, there were eight female imperial reigns in Japan. In the span of roughly two hundred years (593-770), six 3 The Shift of Social Status for Japanese Women: A Ride on a Downward Slide empresses ruled for eighty-nine years, which is nearly half of that period. Two more ruled in the early modern period (Edo era). (Shillony, 2002) Female Emperor Reign Notes Empress Jingu （神功皇后） 201-269 Removed from list of Emperors. Empress Suiko（推古天皇） 593-628 First ruling empress. Empress Kōgyoku (皇極天皇) 642-645 Empress Saimei (斉明天皇) 655-661 Same person as Empress Kōgyoku. Empress Jitō (持統天皇) 690-697 Empress Gemmei（元明天皇） 707-715 Empress Genshō (元正天皇) 715-724 Formerly Princess Hidaka Empress Kōken（孝謙天皇） 749-758 Empress Shōtoku(称徳天皇) 764-770 Same person as Empress Kōken Empress Meishō(明正天皇) 1629-1643 Empress Go-Sakuramachi(後桜町天皇） 1762-1770 Most recent ruling empress Among the female monarchs listed above, some had great influence in Japanese history: Under the reign of Empress Suiko, the ultimate supremacy of the monarch was established. According to the Nihongi, it was during her rule that the first embassy was sent to China, resulting in the adoption of Chinese bureaucratic system. (Jackson, 1999) Most importantly, Buddhism was also encouraged during her reign. (Ponsonby-Fane, 1959) Empress Jito’s reign became a great influence at court. She was even believed to have had the experience of communicating directly with Amaterasu at Ise Grand Shrine. According to the Nihongi, she built the first capital, Fujiwara-kyō. Empress Genmei was the fourth of the eight reigning empresses to take the throne. She adopted the Chinese (Tang Dynasty) use of currency, created laws, and charged nobleman Ō no Yasumaro with the duty of writing the Kojiki in 711. Most significantly, she moved the capital to Heijō-kyō at Nara, thus marking the start of the Nara Period (710-794). She abdicated her throne in favor of her daughter. (Ponsonby-Fane, 1959) 4 The Shift of Social Status for Japanese Women: A Ride on a Downward Slide Afterwards, Empress Genshō succeeded the throne from her mother to become the only reigning empress to inherit the position from another reigning empress, rather than a male predecessor. Under her reign, the first Japanese history book, known as Nihongi was finished in the year 720. She also made notable changes to the laws. (Ponsonby-Fane, 1959) In year 749, Empress Kōken ascended the throne, but there were many conspiracies to overthrow her. Even though the conspiracies were not successful, she abdicated her throne to her cousin after three years of reigning. In year 765, though, she ascended the throne once again as Empress Shōtoku after overthrowing her cousin. (Ponsonby-Fane, 1959) Unfortunately, she was denigrated for having an affair with a Buddhist monk. She then became the stereotypical example of “dangerous” women in Buddhist texts. Her reign was described as turbulent, and she had to survive many coup d’état attempts by those nobles that were against her. After Empress Kōken’s reign, women never ruled again as empresses in their own right. The only exceptions were those who ruled in the Tokugawa Shogunate (徳川幕府) when the imperial family was a political prisoner of the shoguns (hereditary military governor). The first of the two would be Empress Meishō, who ascended the throne after her father’s abdication. It is said that her enthronement was due to the pressure of the shogunate as her mother was the daughter of the shogun himself. (Lillehoj, 2011) During her reign, she never held any real power at all (Ponsonby-Fane, 1959) After her retirement, her family discouraged her from marrying to avoid disputes over succession, since she was merely a placeholder on the throne. Meishō came to terms with her situations without complaints. Diary entries even verified that she only had few acquaintances and rarely went beyond the palace and temple grounds when she became a nun after her abdication. (Lillehoj, 2011) According to Lillehoj, “The emphasis on a male-dominated imperial lineage seems to explain the abbreviated treatment of Meishō in most historical accounts.” Empress Go-Sakuramachi was the last reigning empress in the history of Japan. The empress ascended the throne after the death of her brother, Emperor Momozono. As Momozono’s son, Prince Hidehito, was only five years old at the time, she was expected to occupy the throne until he would be able to take on the responsibility.