投稿類別: 英文寫作類

篇名:

The Shift of Social Status for Japanese Women:

A Ride on a Downward Slide

作者:

黎祐彤。國立臺灣師範大學附屬高級中學。高二 1345 班

指導老師:

蔡正儀 老師

The Shift of Social Status for Japanese Women: A Ride on a Downward Slide

I. Introduction

A. Motivation of the Study

Japanese women are often described as kind, humble and good housewives. They usually quit jobs after marriage or after the birth of a child to take care of all the matters at home, exempting their husbands from house duties to concentrate only on their career. As portrayed in novels, movies, and TV series, Japanese women are expected to wake up early in the morning to make breakfast for the husbands and children. Often, they also have to prepare box-lunch, or bento, for the family.

If they work, most of them cannot assume leadership positions. In fact, they almost always end up typing documents and serving tea in the office. Though is a highly-industrialized country, Japanese women are more disadvantaged than their male counterparts in terms of wages and employment status. (Ogasawara, 1998)

However, as I was reading through information about Japanese religion, I came across something really surprising. That is, the highest deity in this religion was depicted as a female. Named Amaterasu, she is the ruler of the skies and heavens, the mother of the imperial family, and the goddess of the sun. In addition, many religious roles were filled by women. At Ise Grand Shrine, dedicated to Amaterasu and one of the Shinto’s holiest places, the highest minister of the shrine from the 7th to 14th centuries had been a female member of the imperial household. Clearly, females had a much higher status in ancient Japan than in the current social order. (Nielson, 2010) Such findings led me to explore how women’s role became what we see today and the possible reasons behind this shift in status.

B. Purpose of the Study

This paper discusses upon and analyzes the different factors that might have led to the decline of social status for Japanese women.

II. Thesis

A. The definition of “social status” in this research

Social status is defined as the relative rank that an individual holds, with attendant rights, duties, and lifestyle, in a social hierarchy based on honor and prestige. (Encyclopedia Britannica) In this research, we will be using women’s political power and their right to material possessions as an indicator for their social status throughout history.

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The Shift of Social Status for Japanese Women: A Ride on a Downward Slide

B. Early Times

The [Records of Ancient Times] and Nihongi [Chronicles of Japan] are the two original records that first documented Japanese attitude towards women. The Nihongi holds insight into the birth of Shinto through the story of Amaterasu, which was previously preserved by oral tradition. In the Shinto religion, Amaterasu is portrayed as the symbol of perfection—exemplifying intelligence, beauty, fertility, and purity. As the Sun Goddess, Amaterasu is the primary goddess (kami) of worship whose feminine qualities are respected and admired. This mythology based on femininity created a “matriarchal antiquity” in Japan. “The mythology surrounding Amaterasu was not only the birth of the Yamato line, but of a feminine allure that would dictate a reputable attitude towards women until the sixth century.” (Silva-Grodin, 2010)

Chinese records dating back to the first century reveal that women were not only allowed but also encouraged to rule due to the belief that women would bring peace and order to the country. We know from documents such as the History of the Kingdom of Wei (Weizhi, c. 297 C.E.) and the History of the Latter Han (Houhanshu, c. 445 C.E.) that a shamanic queen named ruled the country of Yamatai (also called ) in the third century. These documents recorded that the country of Wa was in a state of great confusion from 147 to 189 C.E. and there was no ruler. Therefore, people agreed on a female ruler, Himiko, and the confusion died down. When her female descendant, Iyo, succeeded her position, she had also gained much support from the people, once again putting an end to the fights of throne. This moment of historical record is believed to have shown themes that parallel in the Shinto mythology. Historian Dr. Lebra confirms, “What Amaterasu represents, the symbol of order and perfection, is personified in Himiko and Iyo.”

Moreover, according to the Nihongi, there had been a semi legendary ruler, Empress Jingu, who ascended the throne in the year 201 after her husband’s death. Legend has it that she, aided by a pair of divine jewels, led a successful invasion of Korea without shedding a drop of blood. However, there is no credible proof that Korea was invaded by Japan during that time. There is much mystery and legend surrounding her as a historical figure as well as various debates over her identity. Nevertheless, her legends give us an insight on how it could have been possible for a woman to have almost equal position and power to that of men.

C. Reigning empresses in Japanese History

Unlike ancient China, where Confucianism was against the idea of female monarchs, there were eight female imperial reigns in Japan. In the span of roughly two hundred years (593-770), six 3

The Shift of Social Status for Japanese Women: A Ride on a Downward Slide empresses ruled for eighty-nine years, which is nearly half of that period. Two more ruled in the early modern period (Edo era). (Shillony, 2002)

Female Reign Notes

Empress Jingu （神功皇后） 201-269 Removed from list of .

Empress Suiko（推古天皇） 593-628 First ruling empress.

Empress Kōgyoku (皇極天皇) 642-645

Empress Saimei (斉明天皇) 655-661 Same person as Empress Kōgyoku.

Empress Jitō (持統天皇) 690-697

Empress Gemmei（元明天皇） 707-715

Empress Genshō (元正天皇) 715-724 Formerly Princess Hidaka

Empress Kōken（孝謙天皇） 749-758

Empress Shōtoku(称徳天皇) 764-770 Same person as Empress Kōken

Empress Meishō(明正天皇) 1629-1643

Empress Go-Sakuramachi(後桜町天皇） 1762-1770 Most recent ruling empress

Among the female monarchs listed above, some had great influence in Japanese history:

Under the reign of , the ultimate supremacy of the monarch was established. According to the Nihongi, it was during her rule that the first embassy was sent to China, resulting in the adoption of Chinese bureaucratic system. (Jackson, 1999) Most importantly, Buddhism was also encouraged during her reign. (Ponsonby-Fane, 1959)

Empress Jito’s reign became a great influence at court. She was even believed to have had the experience of communicating directly with Amaterasu at Ise Grand Shrine. According to the Nihongi, she built the first capital, Fujiwara-kyō.

Empress Genmei was the fourth of the eight reigning empresses to take the throne. She adopted the Chinese (Tang Dynasty) use of currency, created laws, and charged nobleman Ō no Yasumaro with the duty of writing the Kojiki in 711. Most significantly, she moved the capital to Heijō-kyō at , thus marking the start of the (710-794). She abdicated her throne in favor of her daughter. (Ponsonby-Fane, 1959) 4

The Shift of Social Status for Japanese Women: A Ride on a Downward Slide

Afterwards, Empress Genshō succeeded the throne from her mother to become the only reigning empress to inherit the position from another reigning empress, rather than a male predecessor. Under her reign, the first Japanese history book, known as Nihongi was finished in the year 720. She also made notable changes to the laws. (Ponsonby-Fane, 1959)

In year 749, Empress Kōken ascended the throne, but there were many conspiracies to overthrow her. Even though the conspiracies were not successful, she abdicated her throne to her cousin after three years of reigning. In year 765, though, she ascended the throne once again as Empress Shōtoku after overthrowing her cousin. (Ponsonby-Fane, 1959) Unfortunately, she was denigrated for having an affair with a Buddhist monk. She then became the stereotypical example of “dangerous” women in Buddhist texts. Her reign was described as turbulent, and she had to survive many coup d’état attempts by those nobles that were against her.

After Empress Kōken’s reign, women never ruled again as empresses in their own right. The only exceptions were those who ruled in the Tokugawa Shogunate (徳川幕府) when the imperial family was a political prisoner of the shoguns (hereditary military governor).

The first of the two would be Empress Meishō, who ascended the throne after her father’s abdication. It is said that her enthronement was due to the pressure of the shogunate as her mother was the daughter of the shogun himself. (Lillehoj, 2011) During her reign, she never held any real power at all (Ponsonby-Fane, 1959) After her retirement, her family discouraged her from marrying to avoid disputes over succession, since she was merely a placeholder on the throne. Meishō came to terms with her situations without complaints. Diary entries even verified that she only had few acquaintances and rarely went beyond the palace and temple grounds when she became a nun after her abdication. (Lillehoj, 2011) According to Lillehoj, “The emphasis on a male-dominated imperial lineage seems to explain the abbreviated treatment of Meishō in most historical accounts.”

Empress Go-Sakuramachi was the last reigning empress in the . The empress ascended the throne after the death of her brother, Emperor Momozono. As Momozono’s son, Prince Hidehito, was only five years old at the time, she was expected to occupy the throne until he would be able to take on the responsibility.

Most of the eight reigning empresses served as temporary substitutes for the male successors while they were too young and unable to assume the responsibility. On the other hand, remains the sole exception. Despite having a son, she still abdicated the throne in favor of her daughter, Empress Genshō., 5

The Shift of Social Status for Japanese Women: A Ride on a Downward Slide

D. Buddhism and Confucianism impact women’s social status

According to the Nihongi, Confucianism was introduced to Japan near the end of the 3rd century C.E. Its teachings first achieved prominence during the time of Empress Suiko, around the 7th century. The original Confucianism had no real commitment to subordination of women, but over time, such ideology thrived. In the Confucian structure of society, women at every level were to occupy a position lower than men. Most Confucians agreed on women’s attachment to men as appropriate. Confucian writings emphasized that admirable women were those who are unselfishly loyal and willing to sacrifice to do anything to help their husbands.

In later times, the Neo-Confucianism interpretations further reinforced male authority and patrilineal customs. The most influential Neo-Confucian scholar, Kaibara Ekken (1631-1714) wrote the book Onna Daigaku (Great Learning for Woman) claiming:

“A woman has no particular lord. She must look to her husband as her lord, and serve him with all worship and reverence…. The great lifelong duty of a woman is obedience.”

“The sole purpose of her education should be learning to please her future husband and his parents, to whom she is to become virtually a slave.”

“…These five infirmities (indocility, discontent, slander, jealousy, and silliness) are found in seven or eight out of every ten women, and it is from these that arises the inferiority of women to men.”

These beliefs significantly reduced the power and rights of women in the society, as they were not thought of as an individual but an attachment to her husband and family.

In 552 C.E., the introduction of Buddhism would, again, interfere with the Shinto-dominated perception of women. According to Dr. Lebra and Joy Paulson, “The aspects of Buddhism which define its character had begun to make inroads on society’s attitude towards women.” Buddhism had beliefs that women were of evil nature, and were not found in Heaven, which led woman into a submissive role in Japanese society. Some teachings even associate women as “agents of the devil" to seduce men away from enlightenment. (Silva-Grondin, 2010) In the 13th century Buddhist morality tale, The Captain of Naruto, the emperor desired a wife of the captain. The captain orders his wife to go to the emperor and she agreed, clearly illustrating an act of submission. In the The Tale of Genji by Lady Murasaki also provides examples of Buddhist values by stating, “If they were not fundamentally evil, they would not have been born a woman at all.”

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The Shift of Social Status for Japanese Women: A Ride on a Downward Slide

Once again, the Buddhist perception of women fuels the deterioration of women status in the society. (Mallary S., 2010).

E. The (794-1185)

Preceded by the Nara Period, the Heian Period is the last division of classical Japanese History. It is the period when Buddhism and other Chinese influences were at their height. Most notably, The Tale of Genji by Lady Murasaki Shikibu was written in this era. Restricted physically by customs influenced by Buddhism, such as women were not to be seen by other men or forbidden to step out of the house, those aristocratic women had a literary revolution. Silva-Grondin states, “They were locked away from the world, with nothing else to do but to think and imagine the world outside the walls of their detainment.” Many aristocratic Heian women were well educated in arts such as writing, calligraphy, poetry, and different kinds of musical instruments. Relatively free from politics and other matters, they had much time of leisure to compose many of the poems about their daily lives we can see today.

F. Feudal Times (1185-1603)

From the (Heian Period) and onwards, the power of women declined until the onset of great civil wars of the 12th century. (Turnbull, 2012) During the feudal times, women of the samurai class were responsible for raising children with proper samurai upbringing. (Szczepanski, 2009) These women were allowed rights of inheritance and to bequeath property as defined in Jōei Shikimoku, which was the legal code during that time. Women were expected not only to manage the house, but also to defend their household and honor in times of war. (Shintaku, 2010) They are referred to as onna-bugeisha; in other words, a female samurai. According to Dr. Lebra, “In this less structured society, the freedom and strength of women grew, and the (1185-1333) became a high point in the status of Japanese women.” Women were playing a more active role in society, reconnecting from behind the Heian Barriers. (Silva-Grondin, 2010)

There are several examples of onna-bugeisha. The most noteworthy of all would perhaps be Tomoe Gozen (Lady Tomoe), said to be the wife of Minamoto no Yoshinaka, a general of the late Heian Period. In The Tale of Heike, she was described as a “remarkably strong archer, and as a swords-woman she was a warrior worth a thousand”. Although not proven to be a historical figure, she has impacted much of the warrior class. (Amdur, 2009)

Another example would be Hōjo Masako (1157-1225), wife of Minamoto no Yoritomo, the

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The Shift of Social Status for Japanese Women: A Ride on a Downward Slide founder of the Kamakura Shogunate. After the death of her husband, she became a Buddhist nun. However, she was still involved in politics and became known as “nun shogun” for her exceptional political ability. (Jones, 1997) Along with her father and son, she took over the ruling power from the Minamoto clan to her own Hōjo clan. (Shintaku, 2010)

Shintaku states that, “After this period in Japanese history, daughters were used in power struggles as pawns in marriage. This practice greatly reduced the influence of women in the samurai class”

G. Edo (Tokugawa) Period (1603-1868)

“By the 17th century, women had lost their previous rights of inheritance and the ability to bequeath land.” (Shintaku, 2010) This period can be a turning point marking the real downfall of Japanese women status. Society during the was exceedingly strict with various regulations intended to promote stability after the great confusions during feudal times. Confucian ideas, or more specifically, Neo-Confucian ideas, provided the foundation for such society. (Duus, 1998) Hence, women’s status relapsed again. The husband and wife relationship began to reflect that of lord and subject ideal. (Silva-Grondin, 2010) Lebra states that, “women’s status during the Tokugawa Period was completely dependent on her father, then on her husband, and eventually on her son.”

On the other hand, Buddhism seems to have lost its influence on the society during this period, only functioning in the sphere of religion. (BDEA, part 1)

H. Era (1868-1912)

In 1868, a chain of events known as the Meiji Restoration restored the practical abilities and strengthened the political system under . It was also responsible for the accelerated industrialization and modernization in Japan. According to Jo and Yoon (2010), "The Meiji Civil Code (1898) denied women legal rights, leaving them subjugated to the will of household heads.” It also denied women of their right to vote. During this period, the key phrase to describe the calling of a woman would have been ryosai kenbo or “good wife and wise mother,” introduced by Japanese leader and educator Nakamura Masanao. (Jo and Yoon, 2010) At first glance, it seemed that the Meiji Civil Code granted women more rights, such as the right to divorce their husbands, and legally own lands. However, according to Paulson (1978), women were still kept under unfair and firm restrictions. For example, they could not divorce their husbands for infidelity. As to the property they

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The Shift of Social Status for Japanese Women: A Ride on a Downward Slide own, once they are married, they would need their husbands’ permission for all buying and selling contracts.

Moreover, the Imperial Household Law issued in 1889 officially prohibited female reigns by stating, “The Imperial Throne of Japan shall be succeeded to by legitimate male descendants in the male line of Imperial Ancestors.”

Consequently, it is reasonable to say that this is the low point of Japanese women status.

III. Conclusion

If we draw a line that describes the status of Japanese women throughout history based on the descriptions above, it would look like this:

Namely, the shift in Japanese women status resembles a ride on a downward slide.

From Shinto mythology in which the great sun goddess, Amaterasu, was believed to have ruled both heaven and earth, to historical accounts of political and social figures, women status have changed drastically during the course of history. The original Japanese society before the introduction of the Chinese culture influence was thought to have been matriarchal and matrilineal. The fact that the chief deity Amaterasu is a goddess seemed to say something about the power women had in antiquity. (Yusa, 1994) A study by Yusa shows that women, formerly having derived

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The Shift of Social Status for Japanese Women: A Ride on a Downward Slide their political power from their spiritual and religious ability, were gradually shut out from the bureaucratic system of Heian aristocracy. In this process, controlling powers shifted to the hands of men

In addition, anti-feminine tendencies of Buddhism redefined the role of women by convicting them of being born with evil nature. Furthermore, Empress Kōken’s affair with a Buddhist monk shocked Nara society and led to the exclusion of women from imperial succession. Exceptions were the two empresses from the Edo Period installed on the throne for political reasons. Even so, the two clearly had much less political influence than the six empresses in earlier history.

By the time of the Heian Period, in which Chinese influences were at their heights, even more restrictions had been placed upon women’s power. Still, they had basic control over their property and were allowed to be educated in arts. (Clarks College Study)

During the feudal times, women’s powers and rights appeared to make its way slightly up again. A woman of the samurai class was usually capable of fighting by her husband’s side, protecting their home and honor, besides managing the house.

Nevertheless, in the Edo Period, women’s status was devastated under the Neo-Confucian ideology. Some scholars firmly believed in the inferiority of women, rendering them as merely attachments to their husbands or family, rather than an independent individual. (Yusa, 1994)

By the Meiji Period, the political power of women deteriorated due to the official prohibition of women reigns. Additionally, the image of “good wife and wise mother” we see today had taken root in people’s minds, putting women more into the submissive roles of the society.

Thus, we can say the main possible reasons for the decline of Japanese women status are:

1. Anti-feminine tendencies of Buddhism

2. Confucianism/Neo-Confucianism with beliefs in the inferiority of women.

3. More organized bureaucratic system introduced from China excluded women who derived their political powers from their spiritual and religious abilities from participating in politics.

4. First modern laws issued during the Meiji Period meant prohibition of female rulers and the denial of women’s rights.

We can observe that the principal factor driving the downward trend may be the teachings of Confucianism, especially the latter Neo-Confucianism, which completely put women into submissive 10

The Shift of Social Status for Japanese Women: A Ride on a Downward Slide roles. Adopted by the Tokugawa Shogunate in the Edo Period, Confucianism continues to influence the country even until now. Although Japanese women’s social status has been gradually rising over the past decades due to the promotion of gender equality throughout the world, we can still see traces of these teachings in the Japanese society.

IV. References

Lebra-Chapman, J., Paulson, J., & Powers, E. (Eds.). (1978). Women in Changing Japan. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

Turnbull, S. (2012). Samurai Women 1184-1877. Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing.

A Guide to Japanese Buddhism. (n.d.). Retrieved from Buddha Dharma Education Association website: http://www.buddhanet.net/nippon/nippon_partI.html

Shintaku, M. (2006). Women Warriors- Female Samurai in Ancient Japan? Retrieved from Ten Shin Ichi Ryu Traditional Japanese Martial Arts website: http://www.tenshinichiryu.com

Jo, A., & Yoon, A. W. (2010, May 29). Japanese Women of the Meiji Era. Retrieved from &REW website: https://andrewy12.wordpress.com/2010/05/29/japanese-women-of-the-meiji-era/

Women and Confucianism. (1996). Retrieved from Women in World History Curriculum website: http://www.womeninworldhistory.com/lesson3.html

Lillehoj, E. (2014). Empress Meisho and Cultural Pursuits. Retrieved from University of San Francisco website: http://www.usfca.edu/center-asia-pacific/perspectives/empress/

Jackson, G. M. (1999). Women Rulers Throughout the Ages: An Illustrated Guide. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.

Silva-Grondin, M. A. (2010). Women in Ancient Japan: From Matriarchal Antiquity to Acquiescent Confinement. 2(9), 1. Retrieved from http://www.studentpulse.com/articles/286/

Sharma, A. (Ed.). (1994). Religion and Women. New York, NY: SUNY Press.

Women in Medieval Japanese Society. (n.d.). Retrieved from Clarks College website: http://web.clark.edu/afisher/HIST252/lectures_text/women_medieval_%20japan.pdf

Ogasawara, Y. (1998). Office Ladies and Salaried Men: Power, Gender, and Work in Japanese Companies. Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press. 11