Nourishing Archaeology and Science Patrick Degrysea,1 and Andrew J
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COMMENTARY COMMENTARY Nourishing archaeology and science Patrick Degrysea,1 and Andrew J. Shortlandb pare meat mummies, offerings of food es- aEarth and Environmental Sciences, Centre for Archaeological Sciences, Katholieke b pecially prepared for the dead. This work Universiteit Leuven, BE-3001 Leuven, Belgium; and Center for Archaeological and Forensic complements previous work on animal and Analysis, Cranfield Forensic Institute, Cranfield University, Shrivenham SN6 8LA, human mummies from ancient Egypt (4, United Kingdom 5), and uses advanced organic chemistry to answer some of the higher-level archae- ological research questions mentioned above. Archaeology is an interdisciplinary science studying prehistoric sites throughout the The production and preservation of food is par excellence. In its quest to reconstruct world. Perhaps one of the key reasons for this fundamental to every society. Clark et al. (3) human behavior in the natural and cultural is the very limitation of the evidence supplied discuss the preservation of meat products, environment of the past, archaeology uses by scattered, nonliterate, prehistoric groups specifically that of birds and large mammals. knowledge and techniques from many differ- and societies. Until recently, the efforts of Meat production could be broadly divided ent academic disciplines. Indeed, there are prehistorians to include scientific analysis into two main categories: (i) the general pro- very few sciences that have no relevance to left scholars working on the great ancient duction for routine consumption by either archaeology. The concept of “holistic archae- civilizations far behind. The very wealth of the population as a whole, or some elite sub- ology” was specifically defined as an inclusive evidence available here, especially that de- group of the population; and (ii)theproduc- approach to archaeology, comprising all as- rived from abundant ancient textual sour- tion and preservation of meat products for pects of human societies, from ecology and ces, has militated against the application of ritual use. This second group could include economy, to social organization and politics, scientific analysis on the same scale as that meat for temple offerings and the victual to art and ideology (1). In many excavation used in prehistory. However, that applica- mummies, designed to provide food for the projects, however, the term has been partic- tion is rapidly changing, especially with the dead [figure 1 in Clark et al. (3)]. As Clark ularly used to refer to the integration in ar- understanding that the texts do not tell the et al. (3) state, the preservation of victual chaeology of the work and results of exact entire story. More and more analysis is be- mummies sits at an interesting intersection or beta scientists, and less so to the work of ing conducted by established teams of re- between routine production and preservation anthropologists or humanistic scholars (2). searchers using advanced techniques. In of meat (which it resembles because it is a The integration of the exact sciences into PNAS, Clark et al. (3) present the chemical food product being preserved), and the much archaeological research has been led by those composition of organic balms used to pre- better known, studied, and much more wide- spread preservation of human and animal mummies (which have the ritual aspect, but not the food link). In Egypt, the problems of producing and preserving meats are exacerbated by two key factors: urban living and climate. From the beginning of the fourth millennium B.C.E., we see the formation of a single state in Egypt and the growth of urban living. By the time of the objects analyzed, the second half of the first millennium B.C.E., urban areas were large and relatively abundant. Therefore, food hadtobepreparedatadistanceandbrought into the population centers, necessitating some time delay. The climate in Egypt was very similar then to what it is now. The heat would mean that meat would have to be eaten very quickly before it became bad, whichwouldhappeninonlyamatterof hours. There is, therefore, an absolute neces- sity to preserve food—especially meat prod- ucts—and fast, to prevent them from spoiling. Very little is known about how this preserva- tionwasdonedaytodayforlargeancient Author contributions: P.D. and A.J.S. wrote the paper. The authors declare no conflict of interest. Fig. 1. Egyptian tomb model showing a scene of food preparation, including the butchery of a cow (Lower, Right), See companion article 10.1073/pnas.1315160110. from Sedment, Egypt, ninth Dynasty (2160–2025 B.C.E.). Now in the Ashmolean Museum, museum no. 1To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: Patrick. AN.1921.1416. Copyright of the Ashmolean Museum, University of Oxford. [email protected]. www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1319940110 PNAS Early Edition | 1of2 Downloaded by guest on October 1, 2021 cities. The Egyptians did not write about such othervariationsofthetransliterationofthese Great Royal Wife of Amenhotep III—that things in detail, and surviving meat from names are used), and tombs of high-rank- is to say, his principal queen—and as such habitation sites is at best very rare. What ing individuals, such as Isetemkheb. she was perhaps second in power only to do survive are iconographic representations The results show that three of the four the King himself. The monarchs received in tombs of animal slaughter and, poten- victual mummies were apparently not treated a lavish funeral, and the tomb was dis- tially, the preservation of the meat (Fig. 1). with any organic balms or resins (3). This covered largely intact by J. E. Quibbel in However, these scenes are often difficult to finding fits in with what is inferred about 1905. It was the most important tomb to interpret and represent idealized views, not Egyptian meat production in general. The be found until the discovery of the Tomb of necessarily what was being carried out in main preservation techniques for meat were Tutankhamen (incidentally, Yuya and Tjuiu’s actuality. To these interpretations can be probably various sorts of drying and salting great-grandson) by Harold Carter in 1922. added ethnographic observations from Egypt (7). Previous work on victual mummies has That Yuya and Tjuiu belonged to the highest and elsewhere in the world. There is, there- suggested that these were the most common level in Egyptian society is beyond doubt, and fore, very little information about the preser- way the meats were preserved (7, 8), and pre- so it is interesting that the victual mummy vation of meat products in general in ancient vious work by scanning electron microscope from their tomb is different from the others. Egypt, which makes the study of meat that showed salt crystals that were interpreted as The work of Clark et al. (3) shows that the waspresentedasgiftsintombs,asinClark evidence of meat salting (7). The salt used in tomb is preserved with a mixture of fat/oil et al. (3), even more significant. These find- mummification and preservation is termed and Pistacia resin, probably applied to the ings are the best view we have of what was a natrun and is an evaporitic deposit of alkaline bandages. Pistacia was used in incense and major industry, but for which direct evidence lakes. These deposits are a mixture of differ- in human mummies, and was a frequent part is lacking. ent minerals in varying proportions, mostly of the rituals of temple and tomb (16). Of the The other area where Clark et al. (3) have natron, trona, burkeite, and halite, all con- four species of Pistacia, only one is found in significant impact is that second intersection taining sodium (9). The source of the natrun Egypt, and there is no evidence that this was discussed above, the relationship to human used in this period is thought to be situated in exploited. It is likely, therefore, that this resin and animal mummies. Human mummies the Wadi el Natrun in Northern Egypt, 100 represents an import from the shores of the are of course some of the most iconic re- km northwest of Cairo. This theory is mainly Mediterranean Sea or Levant. Pistacia resin mains to survive from ancient Egypt. These based on the writing of Pliny the Elder (10), has been detected in imported Canaanite am- mummies have been studied in detail since although he also mentions other sources, phorae found at the ancient city of Amarna, the beginning of the 19th century A.C.E. which are interpreted as al-Barnuj in Egypt andinbowlsfromthesamesite,whereitwas The method of wrapping human remains, and current lake Pikrolimni in Greece (11). burned as incense (16). Once again, there is carried out by the people of Egypt through- Other possible sources are at-Tarabiya in a link to Yuya and Tjuiu, as the creator of out the millennia, is well known. Closely the Eastern Delta and al-Kab in Upper Amarna was probably their grandson, King linked are animal mummies, which are ex- Egypt (12). However, Egypt, and most likely Amenhotep IV, later known as Akenhaten. tremely abundant, with millions of mum- the Wadi el Natrun and al-Barnuj, is con- The fact that the most complex prepara- mies of mammals, birds, and reptiles being sidered the main supplier of salt to the pre- tion for a victual mummy belongs to a very produced as votive offerings for temples and medieval world. No unambiguous evidence high-status tomb shows the owners’ access to tombs (4). Clark et al. (3) analyze the organic exists for the use of either a single or multi- costly and rare resources. High status does preservatives, such as bitumen, beeswax, and ple sources of salt during these times, al- not always equate to complex preparations, resins used in the mummification process, though efforts are being made to develop though, as relatively simply preserved meats a relatively new approach in the study of a method for provenancing natrun salts (13).