thors, no doubt. Their photos, however, University of Massachusetts Boston, Graduate actualization, and states of consciousness seemed to offer only one kind ofaccount: that College of Education, Boston MA 02125- (Alexander, Rainforth, & Gelderloos, 1991; which belongs to the dominant cultural group 3393. Electronic mail may be sent to Mwphy & Donovan, l 997; Walsh & Vaugh­ in the United States. [email protected]. an, 1993; West, 1987). A variety of specific Where were all the authors who could exists to cultivate exceptional ca­ reflect the manifold variety of the United pacities such as concentration, compassion, States'! Where in this issue were the writers DOI: 10.10l71/000l--066X.S6. I.83 and altruism, although little experimental who speak about the histories, courage, chal­ work has been done on these (Walsh, 1999). lenges, and success of people of color? The Positive : Researchers of have a contributing authors deconstructed some of East and West theoretical and practical gold mine of more the major dominant theories on psychology, than 2,000 years of exploration of positive but little was offered toward deconstructing RogerWulsh psychology on which to draw. how, in hosting such a relevant theme, the University ofCalifornia , Irvine The field of psychology major journal in the field simply kept the draws on this data and has developed theo­ perspectives of of color si­ 1don't think I have ever been as excited by an ries that integrate Asian ideas with Western lenced and invisible. The reader may have issue of the American as I was concepts and research. As such, it has begun concluded that overcoming, struggling with, by the January 2000 issue on positive psy­ to develop the outlines of a global integral surviving, and thriving in adversity is a sub­ chology edited by Martin E. P. Seligman and psychology, best exemplified in the writings ject that belongs to White American authors Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi. At last the leaders of . A valuable overview of his and subjects. . of the American Psychological Association ideas can be found in Wilber (1996), and a Addressing issues ofsocial justice from are focusing on the positive rather than only denser survey can be found in Wilber (2000) the perspective ofa positive psychology can­ the pathological and are discussing topics or in his collected works. not be replaced by a study about bio-cultural such as happiness, well-being, and . ln drawing attention to the omission of inheritance (Massimini & Delle Fave, Janu­ I feel happier already, and I applaud their Asian perspectives and the work on I.hem ary 2000) or a cross-cultural study that com­ effocts. already done by transpersonal psychologists, pares attributions of well-being by citizens At the same time, I feel compelled to I do not wish in any way to detract from the from a selected group of countries (Diener, point to an unfortunate gap: The issue is superb work done by contributors to the January 2000). Seligman and Csikszentmi­ ethnocentric and lacks attention to, or even American Psychologist on positive psychol­ halyi (2000) stated that they wanted to be mention of, non-Western psychologies and ogy. 1 wish only to urge Western psycholo­ "comprehensive without being redundant" (p. therapies, as well as the field oftranspersonal gists to look beyond Western psychology 8), but the results demonstrated the lack of psychology, which has worked to integrate and culture to incorporate the best ofall psy­ inclusion that people ofcolor so often experi­ Western and non-Western approaches. This chologies and cultures. ence when psychologists address themes that is especially unfortunate because it is now they construe as significant. Seligman and apparent that certain Asian psychologies are RIFERENCES Csikszentmihalyi suggested that the articles not only sophisticated systems with effective were intended to be "broad overviews with techniques- and being the Alexander, C., Rainforth, M., & Gelder!oos, an eye turned to cross-disciplinary links and best known- -but also focus specifically on P. ( 1991 ). Transcendental meditation, self­ actualization and psychological health: A practical significance" (p. 9). Is it possible positive well-being and exceptional develop­ that there are no seasoned scholars ofcolor or conceptual overview and statistical meta­ ment. analysis. Journal of Social Behavior and perspectives that use a positive psychology For example, the Indian psychologies Personality, 6, 189-247. framework to speak about nondominant of and yoga lack infonnation on Murphy, M., & Donovan, S. (1997). The groups in the United States, not only within the nature and treatment of major psychopa­ physical and psychological effects of medi­ psychology but also across disciplines? A thology. However, they contain a wealth of tation (2nd ed.). Sausalito, CA: Institute of blind eye that continues to render large seg­ information on exceptional psychological Noetic Sciences. ments ofsociety invisible.cannot be compen­ health, postconventional transpersonal devel­ Tart, C. (Ed.). ( 1992). Transpersonal psy­ sated for by one informed eye turned only opment, exceptional abilities, and the meth­ chologies (3rd ed.). New York: Harper toward individuals and groups in mainstream Collins ods for cultivating them (Tart, 1992; Walsh, Walsh, R. ( 1999). Essential : The psychology. 2000). A large body of research- several seven central practices. New York: Wiley. hundred studies on meditation alone-sug­ Walsh, R. (2000). Asian therapies. In R. Corsini IW'EUNCES gests that meditation and yoga have effects & D. Wedding (Eds.), Current psychothera­ ranging across psychology, physiology, and pies (6th ed., pp.407-444). Itasca, IL: Pea­ Diener, E. (2000). Subjective well-being: The biochemistry and can enhance both psycho­ cock. science of happiness and a proposal for a logical and physical health, sometimes to ex­ Walsh, R., & Vaughan, F. (Eds.). (1993). national index. American Psychologist, 55, ceptional degrees. Path.v beyond ego: The transpersona/ vi­ sion. New York: Tarcher/Putnam. 34-43. . ln the psychological arena, personality, Massimini, F., & Delle Fave, A. (2000). Indi­ West, M . (Ed.). (1987). The psychology of vidual development in a bio-cultural per­ performance, and may be en­ meditation. Oitford, England: Clarendcn spective. American Psychologist, 55, 24- hanced. Intriguing findings include evidence Press. 33. for enhanced empathy, perceptual sensitivity, Wilber, K. (1996). A brief history of every­ Seligman. M. E. P., & Csilcszentmihalyi, M. creativity, lucid dreaming, marital satisfac­ thing. Boston: Shambbala. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduc­ tion, and a positive sense of self-control. Wilber, K. (2000). Integral psychology. Bos­ I tion. American Psychologist, 55, 5-14. Studies oftranscendental meditation suggest ton: Shambhala. that it can foster maturation as measured by Correspondence concerning this comment scales ofmoral, ego, and cognitive develop­ Correspondence concerning this comment should be addressed to Gonzalo Bacigalupe, ment, , academic achievement, self- should be addressed to , Dep8r1-

January 2001 • American Psychologist 83 ment of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, The dangers ofeliminating the influence DOI: I0.1037//0003--066X.56.1.Mb University of California, Irvine, CA 92697- of values from theories ofwell-being can be 1675. illustrated with an example. Evidence indi­ Prior Positive Psychologists cates that officers at Nazi concentration camps Proposed Personality and would probably score quite high on current DOI: I0.1037/I000)-066X.S6. l.14a measures of happiness and satisfaction with Spiritual Growth life. That is, they thought highly of them­ The Values Problem in selves, felt in control of their lives, enjoyed Charles L. McLafferty, Jr., Subjective Well-Being evening concerts ofMozart with their friends, and James D. Kirylo and believed they were involved in an impor­ University ofAlabama at Birmingham William C. Compton tant cause that gave their life meaning and Middle Tennessee State University purpose. Ofcourse, their well-being was only Seligman and Csilcszentmihalyi (January possible by systematically ignoring the hu­ 2000) and the other authors in the January The American Psychologist should be ap­ manity ofthose they mercilessly sentenced to 2000 special issue of the American Psychol­ plauded for its January 2000 special issue on death. ogist should be applauded for opening a dia­ happiness. This area is an avenue for re­ Therefore, the recent special issue pre­ logue about a psychology of human health search and scholarship that deserves increased sents a wonderful first attempt at exploring and well-being, one encompassing concepts attention. The research in this area, however, the potentials for research in positive psy­ such as hope, love, courage, optimism, faith, is also complicated by a unique problem that chology. However, the fact that conceptual­ and flow. Seligman and Csiksz.entmihalyi as­ was not sufficiently addressed in the special izations of well-being are inexorably tied to serted that " did not attract much of an empirical ba.~ . . . and issue. values presents psychology with a fascinat­ encouraged a self-centeredness that played The problem is that any definition of ing challenge. This unavoidable issue will down concerns for a collective well-being" well-being, happiness, or the good life is require a different approach to research, one (p. 7). In this comment, I outline an overarch­ intricately tied to values. Over 40 years ago, that will most likely not be entirely empiri~l. ing theoretical framework for a positive psy­ M. Brewster Smith ( 1959) concluded that it Historical, hermeneutic, phenomenological, chology, supported by psychoanalytic, exis­ is not possible to create a value-free defini­ and other modes of inquiry must inevitably tential, humanistic, and transpersonal .theo­ tion of psychological well-being. The basic be added to the research mix ifthis research ries. Jung, Frankl, Maslow, and Assagioli problem is that although human beings may area is to remain both valid and relevant to emphasized wholeness and wellness without have certain biologically given emotional re­ real-life struggles toward happiness. encouraging narcissism, though admittedly sponses (Plutchik, 1984), it is the psycholog­ with little empirical support. Each of these ical interpretation of those physiological re­ RIFERINCH theorists implicitly or explicitly acknowledged actions that provides meaning (Schachter & two overlapping processes of growth: the Singer, 1962). Messages about how people Baumeister, R. (1987). How the self became a emergence of personality and the alignment problem: A psychological review of the should create meaning, a sense ofreality. and ofthat personality with a transcendent (spiri­ historical research. JourMI of Perso11ality a sense of self are socially given and iary tual) cent.er. and Social Psycliology, 52, 163-176. For Jung (1933), every patient over 35 over time, within societies, and among cul­ Berger, P. L., & Luckman, T. (1967). The years old "fell ill because he had lost that tures (Baumeister, 1987; Berger & Luckman, social construction of . New York: which the living religions of every age have 1967; Kitayama, Markus, Matsumoto, & Anchor Books. given to their followers, and none of them Norasakkunkit, 1997). All of these factors Kitayama, S., Marlcus, H.• Mat.~umoto, H., & has been really healed who did not regain his contribute to decisions about what kinds of Norasakkunlcit, V. (1997). Individual and collective processes in the construction of religious outlook'' (p. 229). He addressed experiences people should desire, as well as narcissism when he stated, "man is never what kinds ofrelationships with other human the self: Self-enhancement in the United States and self-criticism in Japan. Journal helped in his suffering by what he thinks for beings may be ignored without consequence. of Personality and , 72, himself, but only by revelations of a wisdom Over 2,500 years ago, Aristotle defined 1245-1267. greater than his own" (Jllllg, 1933, pp. 240- the good life as eudaemonia. This is not Plutchik, R. (1984 ). Emotions: A general 241). Jung acknowledged both processes of simply fulfilling one's potentials or having psycboevolutionary theory. In K. R. Scherer growth when he noted that it is in personality what is desirable. Rather, it is· having and & P. Ekman (Eds.), Approaches to emotion unfoldment (individuation) that a person de­ desiring that which one should desire. The (pp. 197-219). Hillsdale, NJ: Guilford Press. velops a transcendent function that gives one explicit appeal to values was necessary to Schachter, S., & Singer, J. E. (1962). Cogni­ the ability to move beyond the self-.centered avoid that which is pleasurable or enjoyable tive, social and physiological determinants ego. but is ultimately destructive to the individual of emotional state. Psychological Review, ( 1970) defined self­ 69, 379-399. and the society. That is, for Aristotle, de­ actualizingpcrsons as being self-determined, Smith, M. B. (1959). Research strategics to­ scriptions of the good are always teleologi­ self-organized, and self-directed. Their be­ ward a conception of positive . havior is marked by a naturalness and spon­ cal. They should point people toward those American Psyclwlogist, 14, 673-681. taneity that is congruent with the "positive goals in life that are deemed the best, that personality" of Seligman and Csikszentmi­ illustrate the highest potential ofthe species, halyi (2000, p. 8). Maslow ( 1971) noted two or that instill nobility and honor on the per­ Correspondence concerning this comment should be addressed to William C. Compton, processes in his two types ofself-actualizing son. The problem for a psychological science Department of Psychology, Box 87, Middle people, nontran.~cenders and transcenders. of well-being is that scieoce must exclude TennCS$CC State University, Murfreesboro, TN Whereas nontranscenders are high achievers, values in the search for presumed universal 37132. Electronic mail may be sent to transccnders an: more spiritual, more ego and ahistorical laws ofhuman behavior. [email protected]. transcendent, and have a greater nwnber of ·-......

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