International Journal of Transpersonal Studies

Volume 21 | Issue 1 Article 4

1-1-2002 The Essence of Transpersonal Psychology Contemporary Views S. I. Shapiro University of Hawaii

Grace W. Lee University of Hawaii

Philippe L. Gross University of Hawaii

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Recommended Citation Shapiro, S. I., Lee, G. W., & Gross, P. L. (2002). Shapiro, S. I., Lee, G. W., & Gross, P. L. (2002). The se sence of transpersonal psychology: Contemporary views. International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 21(1), 19–32.. International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 21 (1). http://dx.doi.org/10.24972/ijts.2002.21.1.19

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 4.0 License. This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Journals and Newsletters at Digital Commons @ CIIS. It has been accepted for inclusion in International Journal of Transpersonal Studies by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons @ CIIS. For more information, please contact [email protected]. The Essence of Transpersonal Psychology Contemporary Views

S. L Shapiro Grace W. Lee Philippe L. Gross

Universicy ofHawai'i Honolulu, Hawai'i, USA

The authors compiled 80 chronologically ordered passages from the contemporary psychology literature that address the essence of transpersonal psychology. A thematic analysis of these passages revealed that the two most frequent categories, occurring 53 (66.2%) and 49 (61.2%) times respectively, were: (a) Going beyond or transcending the individual, ego, self, the personal, personality, or personal identity; existence of a deeper, true, or authentic Self; and (b) Spirituality, psychospiritual, psychospiritual development, the spiritual, spirit. Other, less frequent, themes included: special states of consciousness; interconnectivity/unity; going beyond other schools of psychology; emphasis on a scientific approach; mysticism; full range of consciousness; greater potential; inclusion of non-Western psychologies; meditation; and existence of a wider reality.

A monk asked, "If this is the True Realm of of transpersonal psychology in terms of our Reality, where did it come from?" knowledge of the history and development of the The master said, "Please say that one more time." discipline. As a result, all but a few of the sources - Chao-chou [Joshu] for the entries we selected were recognizable to (In Green, 1998, p. 47) us as having been written by colleagues in the transpersonal psychology movement, as having URING THE course of a larger study of appeared in established journals, as having a developmental trends in transpersonal scholarly or reference nature, oreas coming from D psychology, we took special note of established educational organizations. English-language passages in the literature, from The total number of appropriate entries we 1991 through 2001,1 that characterized the field found for the compilation was 80.8 The citation of transpersonal psychology. From these we sources represent: books (40);journal articles (13); selected those statements which specifically websites (8); brochures (5); newsletters (5); reflected how the authors construed the essence dictionaries4 (4); letters or flyers (4); encyclopedias of transpersonal psychology. In choosing the (3); school catalogs (1); organizational constitutions entries we selected only those that clearly (1); and unpublished convention papers (1).5 addressed the essence of transpersonal Below we present the compilation of psychology per se, and not, for example, statements6 in chronological order followed by a transpersonal studies, transpersonal therapy, or thematic frequency analysis. transpersonalism in general. 1. Transpersonal psychology is a Western We also exercised some selectivity in choosing formulation which transcends and includes all 2 entries, such that in our judgment they did not of the Western behavioural sciences. In exhibit narrow sectarianism and that they encouraging the notion of "going beyond" and credibly reflected viewpoints about the essence "more than," transpersonal psychology

The lnternationat]ournal ofTranspersonaL Studies, 2002, Vol. 21, 19-32 19 © 2002 by Panigada Press addresses such concepts as life, breath, soul 5. [. .. ]the new field oftranspersonal psychology and spirit, holism, and perception as (a psychology that deals with all the things communion. Transpersonal psychology is an orthodox psychology deals with, but also studies endeavour in which consciousness and Mind the psychology of spiritual experience). [p. 4) are primary. [p. 30] Wilber, T. K. (1991). In K. Wilber, Grace and grit: Spiritual­ Diespecker, D. (1991). One mind: An introduction to ity and healing in the life and death ofTrey a Killam Wilbe1: transpersonal psychology. Bellingen, NSW, Australia: Boston: Shambhala. Earthrise Press. 6. TRANSPERSONAL PSYCHOLOGY An offshoot 2. Many transpersonal psychologists believe that of humanistic psychology that encompasses a the ego or self is a useful fiction. For these wide range of self-transcending phenomena, psychologists, ego formation is an important including ecstatic and mystical experiences. Its stage in development, but in later proponents seek to appropriate insights fi'om developmental stages this illusion of the great religious traditions, especially those separateness can be transcended, and more ofthe East, in order to develop a new paradigm globally encompassing modes of consciousness of scientific understanding. [Glossary, p. G-30] are possible. [p. 6) Wulff, D. M. (1991). Psychology of religion: Classic and con­ (Statement of Purpose]. (1991, Fall). Transpersonal temporary views. New York: Wiley. Psychology Interest Group (TPIG) Newsletter, 6. 7. Transpersonal psychology is both an evolving 3. The transpersonal perspective is a view of people clinical and scientific tradition within and their relations to the larger world that is psychology and also an ancient psychospiritual compatible with the new world view that sees lineage. Transpersonal psychology can be the universe and everything in it, including understood to be the study of non-ordinary human beings, as a series of interconnected, states ofconsciousness not traditionally covered interacting, and mutually influencing systems. by the discipline of ego psychology. This includes Transpersonal psychology approaches human states of consciousness such as meditation, beings in the context of the wider world, religious ecstasy, trance and "unitive conscious including the invisible world of spirit. It insists experiences" often described in the esoteric and on recognition by individuals of the breadth of spiritual literature of humankind. This would the context in which they live. But also incorporate the study of the transpersonal psychology does not exclude the psychophysiological techniques and introspective practical world of everyday living, for it is disciplines associated with these states of through our daily lives that we make our consciousness. Finally the field includes both imprint on the wider world; while we, in turn, metaphysical and philosophical paradigms are in the process of being transformed by the often encountered in the contemporary fields of practical world every moment of every day. In theoretical physics, neuroscience and cognitive the transpersonal view, the only way the psychology. The transpersonally oriented spiritual world can manifest is through ordinary clinician's perspective is often inclusive of people in the visible world. [pp. 142-143] anomalous experiences and does not reflexively reduce noetic or spiritual experiences to organic, Singer, J. (1991). Seeing through the visible world: Jung, psychopathological or even unconscious causes gnosis, and chaos. San Francisco: HarperCollins. and dynamics, nor elevate disturbed psychological states to the sublime. Also the 4. The published literatme, my own thinking, and range or spectrum of consciousness is not a number ofdiscussion groups lead me to suggest necessarily localized to one mind or set of body­ the following as core characteristics of the field mind boundary conditions, or for that matter [trans personal psychology]: Constructed to one life-time. [pp. 301-302] Consciousness; Valid Alternate States of Consciousness; Superiority of Some Alternate Bynum, E. B. (1992). A brief overview of transpersonal psy­ States; De-Automatizing for Consciousness chology. Humanistic Psychologist, 20(213), 301-306. Change; Consciousness Disciplines in Religions; Genetic Motive for Consciousness Growth; 8. Following in the path ofhumanistic psychology, Cosmic Unity; Cosmic Flow; Interdisciplinary transpersonal psychology grew as a reaction Study ofPersonality.7 [p. 5] to the limitations of mainstream (first and Tisdale, J. R. (1991, Fall). Characteristics of transpersonal second "force") psychology, specifically in psychology. Transpersonal Psychology Interest Group regard to its failure to address adequately "the (TPIG) Newsletter, 5. farther reaches ofhuman nature." [.. .]

20 The International journal ofTranspersonal Studies, 2002, VoL 21 Transpersonal psychology responded to these guided imagery, and Eastern meditative limitations by developing an expanded view of practices, as well as traditional therapeutic human nature and potential, through which techniques. Unlike other branches ofWestern human identity could be perceived as including psychology, however, the transpersonal and transcending conventional understandings approach accepts spiritual insight as a of ego and personality. [pp. 3-4] legitimate part of the healing process, so it includes realms of experience, wisdom, and Cordts, J. (1992, August). Consciousness, culture, and method: creativity beyond the personality, such as Integrating transpersonal and phenomenological psycholo­ mystical experience, ecstasy, and enlightenment, gies. Paper presented at the Centennial Annual Conven­ which were once thought to be the exclusive tion of the American Psychological Association, Washing­ domain of religion. [p. 92) ton, DC. Miller, R. S., & The Editors of New Age Journal. (1992). As 9. Transpersonal psychology. Name given to the above so below: Paths to spiritual renewal in daily life. so-called "fourth force" in psychology. Los Angeles: Tarcher. Transpersonal psychology follows from "first force" classical psychoanalytic theory; "second 13. Thus humanistic psychology tended to neglect force" behaviorist psychology; and "third force" another part ofhuman development, our fourth humanistic psychology. It deals with such areas aspect, the spirit. Not "spirit" in the limited of human conditions as self-transcendence, sense of vitality or authenticity, but as peak experience, mystical transformation, and something real behind the material ultimate values. The term "transpersonal" manifestations oflife, something we get fleeting itself refers to that which transcends the ego, glimpses of in "mystical experiences," the vital and thus implies a sympathy for mystical and energy underlying religions before they all too paranormal topics and ideas. [p. 301] often ossify into mechanisms for social control. Transpersonal psychology, the study of the parts Drury, N. (1992).Dictionary ofmysticism and the esoteric tra­ of our nature that are beyond (trans) our ditions (Rev. ed.). Bridport, England: Prism Press. ordinary, limited, personal self, is the social manifestation of trying to understand and 10. For me Transpersonal Psychology is a develop this fourth aspect. [p. ix] psychological perspective or framework which assigns primary importance to experiential Tart, C. T. (Ed.). (1992). Transpersonal psychologies: Perspec· reports of concern or contact with entities, tiues on the mind from seuen great spiritual traditions (3rd beliefs or realms greater than oneself using ed.). San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco. them as a basis for conducting and interpreting psychological theories, 14. Another important conceptual difference intervention and research. When I say theory I [between traditional and transpersonal mean development theory, motivational theory, psychology) exists in regard to the dimensions personality theory. When I say interventions I of the human psyche. While the model of traditional psychology is limited to post-natal mean psychotherapy, counseling, and biography and to the individual unconscious, education. [p. 308) the transpersonal image of the human psyche K:t;ppner, S. (1992). In R. May, S. K:t·ippner, & J. L. Doyle, The resembles that in the perennial philosophy. It role oftranspersonal psychology in psychology as a whole: suggests that there exist no absolute A discussion. Humanistic Psychologist 20(213), 307-317. boundaries in the universe and that, in the last analysis, the human psyche of each 11. Transpersonal psychology is concerned with the individual is commensurate with all of study of humanity's highest potential, and existence. It thus confirms the famous with the recognition, understanding, and statement of the Upanishad, tat tuam asi (thou realization of unitive, spiritual , and art That: you a:re divine, of the same nature transcendent states of consciousness. [p. 91] as the creative principle). [p. 9] Lajoie, D. H., & Shapiro, S. I. (1992). Definitions of Grof, S. (1993, Fall). in F. Vaughan, C. Grof, R. McDermott, transpersonal psychology: The first twenty-three years. C. T Tart, & R. Walsh, The future of transpersonal psy­ Journal ofTranspersonal Psychology 24(1), 79-97. chology. ATP [Association for Transpersonal Psychology) Newsletter, 8-11. 12. The beauty oftranspersonal psychology is that it accepts the full spectrum of human 15. I see transpersonal psychology as a science which consciousness, working with the body, studies the person in his/her wholeness, in the emotions, mind, and spirit, according to context of a social, ecological and cosmic Frances Vaughan, a well-known transpersonal relationship. In this way transpersonal psychology therapist. Practitioners use dreamwork, is intercultural, as well as related to other scientific

The Essence ofTranspersonaL Psychology 21 approaches such as medicine, anthropology, recognized spirituality as an important sociology, physics, and other sciences. dimension in human life and studied the entire Transpersonal psychology also incorporates spectrum of human experience, including non­ elements from other schools of psychology such ordinary states of consciousness. Transpersonal as behaviorism, psychoanalysis, Jungian psychology has provided an important bridge psychology, humanistic psychology, and others between Western psychology and the spiritual that study human consciousness, especially in history of humanity, particularly shamanism, its capacity to transcend the person and the the great mystical traditions of the world, and ego. Transpersonal psychology can be defined, the spiritual philosophies of the East. therefore, as the scientific study of states of Grof, C., & Grof, S. Letter/Flyer received ca. 1994. consciousness. [p. 3] Matos, L. (Winter, 1993). An intercultural perspective on 20. Transpersonal psychology attempts to research transpersonal psychology. ATP [Association for those experiences in which the sense of Transpersonal Psychology] Newsletter, 3-7. identity expands beyond (trans) the individual person, personality, or ego to encompass 16. At the turn of the century, he [William James] aspects of humankind, life, and the universe. outlined the foundations for the discipline of Such experiences have been valued in most psychology that would include cognitive cultures at times. Transpersonal psychology science, transpersonal psychology (the aims to explore the natw·e, varieties, effects, investigation of spiritual a"nd religious and means of inducing such experiences as experience) and psychical research. [p. 276] well as the philosophies and traditions Mishlove, J. (1993). The roots of consciousness (Rev. ed.). inspired by them. It attempts to integrate Tulsa, OK: Council Oak Books. contemporary science and philosophy with the perennial wisdom of East and West [. .. ]Topics 17. Transpersonal psychology is about dualism, of special interest include consciousness and trans meaning beyond, beyond the personal altered states, cross-cultUl'al studies, meditation, [... ] Transpersonal psychology is the study of contemplation and yoga, lucid dreaming, experiences that seem to transcend that mythology, psychedelics, philosophical assumption oflimited embodiment. [p. 124] foundations, values, ethics, relationships, Tart, C. T (1993). Mind embodied: Computer-generated vir­ exceptional psychological well-being and tual reality. InK. R. Rao (Ed.), Cultivating consciousness: capacities, transconventional development, Enhancing human potential, wellness, and healing (pp. transpersonal emotions such as love and 123-138). Westport, CT: Praeger. compassion and motives such as altruism and service, transpersonal pathologies, 18. Transpersonal experiences may be defined as psychotherapies and related clinical concerns, experiences in which the sense of identity or comparative religion, and psychological roots self extends beyond (trans) the individual or of contemporary global crises. [pp. 548-549] personal to encompass wider aspects of Walsh, R., & Vaughan, F. (1994). Transpersonal psychology humankind, life, psyche, and cosmos [.. .] II. In R. Corsini (Ed.), Encyclopedia of psychology (2nd Transpersonal psychology is the psychological ed., Vol. 3, pp. 548-550). New York: Wiley. study of transpersonal experiences and their correlates. These correlates include the nature, 21. The aim oftranspersonal psychology, then, is to varieties, causes, and effects of transpersonal giye a psychological presentation of the experiences and development, as well as the perennial philosophy and the Great Chain of psychologies, philosophies, disciplines, arts, Being, fully updated and grolmded in modern cultures, lifestyles, reactions, and religions that research and scientific developments. It fully are inspired by them, or that seek to induce, acknowledges and incorporates the findings of express, apply, or understand them.8 [pp. 3-4] modern psychiatry, behaviorism, and Walsh, R., & Vaughan, F. (Eds.). (1993). Introduction. In Paths developmental psychology, and then adds, where beyond ego: The transpersonal vision (pp. 1-10). Los An­ necessary, the further insights and experiences geles: Tw:cher. of the existential and spiritual dimensions of the human being. We might say it starts with 19. Transpersonal psychology has been in existence psychiatry and ends with mysticism. [p. x] for the last twenty-five years and has become Wilber, K. (1994). Foreword. In J. E. Nelson, Healing the split: an increasingly important force in scientific, Integrating spirit into our understanding of the mentally cultural, and political life. It began in the late ill (Rev. ed., pp. viii-xii). Albany, NY: State Univexsity of 1960s as a new movement in psychology which New York Press.

22 The International journal ofTranspersonal Studies, 2002, Vol. 21 22. Transpersonal has been called the "fourth force" Kelly, E. W., Jr. (1995). Spirituality and religion in counsel­ in psychology (the other three being depth, ing and psychotherapy: Diversity in theory and practice. behavioral, and humanistic psychology). In Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association. many ways the transpersonal work has put the soul, spirit, and even consciousness back into 27. A much larger and faster growing field of the discipline of psychology. [p. 98] investigation, though, is transpersonal psychology, a twenty-five-year-old branch of Achterberg, J. (1994). The foundations and future of psychology that actively investigates mystical transpersonal psychology. ReVision, 16(3), 98. experiences and the like, experiences that are trans, beyond our ordinary personal and biological 23. Transpersonal psychology seeks to awaken the self. It is primarily interested in understanding individual's fullest potential and consciousness, and helping to facilitate such experiences. We to reach through and beyond the personal to moderns are desperate for genuine spirituality the essence of being, the mystery of life. based on deep experience, not simply ideas, and Embracing this mystery brings us together as there is great hope that transpersonal psychology we share the sense that there is something can bring a nonsectarian spiritual vitality into more, a vision of healing, creating, becoming our culture that can help us. whole. Transpersonal psychology rests on an Department ofTranspersonal Psychology, Graduate School understanding that a "successful" spiritual life for Holistic Studies. (n.d.). [Brochure). Received 1995. needs a solid basis in deep experience. [p. 9] Orinda, CA: John F. Kennedy University. Tart, C. T. (1995). World parliament of superstition? Scien­ tific evidence for a basic reality to the spiritual. ReVision, 24. Transpersonal psychology has set for itself the 18(1), 3-10. goal of constructing a paradigm that accounts Also: Tart, C. T. (1997). Body, mind, spirit: Exploring the para­ for the full range of human consciousness. [p. psychology of spiritualism. Charlottesville, VA: Hampton 132] Roads. [pp. 47-48) Flier, L. (1995). Demystifying mysticism: Finding a develop­ mental relationship between different ways of knowing. 28. So they established transpersonal psychology Journal ofTranspersonal Psychology, 27, 131-152. as a means of studying psychological health, peak experiences, and nonordinary states of 25. Adherents of this branch of psychology consciousness. [. .. ] The movement has [transpersonal psychology) believe that there attracted many individuals of varied is more to being human than is recognized by backgrounds who are interested in the the other main approaches in the field. development ofhuman potentialities and who Transpersonal psychology contrasts with have found existing images of the person to perspectives that reduce human experiences be too limited [. .. ] [l]ts primary focus on to strictly personal terms. [p. 283] subjective experiences allows these experiences to be interpreted in different ways, George, L. (1995). Alternative realities: The paranormal, the though in a spiritual context. [p. 21] mystic and the transcendent in human experience. New York: Facts On File. Vaughan, F. (1995, Fall). Transpersonal psychology. Gnosis, 21. Also:9 George, L. (n.d.). Welcome to spiritual emergence. Retrieved November 14, 2001, from http://www 29. At times it seems that one of transpersonal .spiritualemergence.nei/pages/trans.html psychology's special contributions is to "make sense" of realities that a conventional 26. The defining perspective of transpersonal viewpoint might dismiss or ignore. [p. iv] psychology is the application of scientific Vich, M. (1995). Editor's note. Journal o{Transpersonal Psy­ methods to those areas of human experience chology, 27, iv. beyond the strictly empirical, such as unitive consciousness, transcendence of self, spirit and 30. Transpersonal psychology has attempted to spiritual practices, meditation, and examine phenomena which are an intrinsic compassion based in a cosmic consciousness pru:t of the quest for wholeness in a situation [... ] Transpersonal psychology has come to give in which "Boundaries are illusions" (Wilber, particular attention to Eastern religious 1985, p. 31). It is, then, an attempt to once experience and Eastern psychology [. .. ] The again find a place for ourselves as part of the transpersonal realm involves levels of universe rather than as its exploiters and spiritual experiences-described primarily in dominators (Fox, 1990), and to bring back into terms of Eastern religious/psychological consideration experiences and ideas which are thought-moving toward enlightened oneness generally regarded as "spiritual" rather than with ultimate reality. [p. 66] scientific. [p. 42; References are to: Wilber, K

The Essence ofTranspersonal Psychology 23 (1985). No boundary: Eastern and Western 33. Of note in the mission statement [in the first approaches to personal growth. London: issue of the Journal of Transpersonal Shambhala; Fox, W. (1990). Towards Psychology] are three major motifs: (1) a focus transpersonal ecology. London: Shambhala.] on issues traditionally considered religious or spiritual, for example, transcendence and Brazier, D. (1995). Zen therapy. London: Constable. ultimate meanings or values; (2) an emphasis on empirical, scientific studies; and (3) a 31. Transpersonal Psychologies. In the 1960s, suspension of belief in the content of the transpersonal psychology emerged as a experiences, that is, "optional" interpretations movement devoted in part to the study of about whether the phenomena are alternative states of consciousness. Though by supernatural or not. In other words, no means representative of the mainstream of transpersonal psychology was to be a psychological research in the West, reflective, scientific-minded approach to transpersonal psychologists are intrigued by matters traditionally considered religious or the possibility that human beings possess spiritual. [p. 11] transcendent powers of consciousness. Some speculate about the mind's untapped potential Chinen, A. B. (1996). The emergence of transpersonal psy­ chiatry. In B. W. Scotton, A. B. Chinen, & J. R. Battista for awareness and hold to a view of the universe (Eds.), Textbook of transpersonal psychiatry and psychol­ as conscious and purposive. They are convinced ogy (pp. 9-18). New York: Basic Books. that we can be motivated by broader and less selfish impulses than physiological needs and 34. In its strict sense, transpersonal psychology egoistic emotions. For these psychologists, our (trans from the Latin for "beyond" or most important motivations spring n·om a "through," and personal from the Latin for selflessness that revolves around the pondering "mask") studies those experiences which of ultimate questions-questions about the allegedly enable the individual to see beyond meaning, purpose, and value of human life. the conditioned ego, and to identify some Often influenced by the recent influx ofEastern deeper and more enduring sense of self. By psychologies and philosophies into the West, extension it is also concerned with those beliefs transpersonal psychology seeks to reverse what (such as religious beliefs) that regard it considers the disproportionate attention individual existence as an expression of some given to man's psychological afflictions at the wider reality, whether this reality is defined expense of his great potentialities. This in terms of an impersonal life force, or movement may be understood as an attempt personalized into a deity or deities. [p. 3) to reconnect the science of psychology with the Fontana, D. , & Slack, I. (1996, Fall). The need for perennial metaphysical teachings of the transpersonal psychology. ATP (Association for spiritual traditions. [p. 57] Transpersonal Psychology] Newsletter, 3-7. Needleman, J., & Eisenberg, R. (1995). Consciousness, States of In M. Eliade (Ed.), The encyclopedia of religion (Vol. 4, 35. Transpersonal psychology is a branch of pp. 57-59). New York: Simon & Schuster Macmillan. (Origi­ psychology that recognizes and accepts nally published 1987) spirituality as an important dimension of the human psyche and of the universal scheme of 32. In the 1960s Abraham Maslow's research on things. It also studies and honors the entire healthy, self-actualizing people included a spectrum of human experience, including concern for spiritual issues ... various levels and realms of the psyche that By the end of the decade, transpersonal become manifest in non-ordinary states of psychology was differentiated from humanistic consciousness (NOSC). [p. 44) psychology, placing greater emphasis on the Grof, S. (1996). Theoretical and empirical foundations of study of spiritual experiences, optimum transpersonal psychology. In S. Boorstein (Ed. ), psychological health and the full spectrum of Transpersonal psychotherapy (2nd ed., pp. 43-64). Albany, human consiousness, including some states NY: State University of New York Press. that had previously been mapped only by Eastern disciplines ...Trans personal psychology, 36. Transpersonal psychology has developed since as it developed in the seventies and eighties, this period [late 1960s) as that branch of focused more on the relationship of psychological theory which takes religious and psychological health to spiritual development and mystical experiences seriously as constituting the investigation of inner experience. [p. 162] a domain sui generis, refusing to follow the redilctionistic interpretations widely accepted (1995). Shadows of the sacred: Seeing through Vaughan, F. iil other psychological schools. In doing so, it spiritual illusions. Wheaton, IL: Quest Books. claims well-known authorities like William

24 The InternationaL journal ofTranspersonaL Studies, 2002, voL. 21 James and Carl Gustav Jung as predecessors. 38. transpersonall (in literature, etc.) transcend­ Transpersonal psychologists have devoted ing the personal. 2 Psychology (esp. in psycho­ themselves to both empirical and theoretical therapy) of or relating to the exploration of research. The empirical branch has largely transcendent states of consciousness beyond concentrated on the field of so-called Altered personal identity. States of Consciousness (ASC's) induced either The Oxford English reference dictionary. (1996, 2nd ed.). New by drugs or by various mind-expanding York: Oxford University Press. techniques. Theoretical work has concentrated on devising all-embracing "cartographies of 39. The word transpersonal simply means consciousness" which distinguish a hierarchy "personal plus." That is, the transpersonal of levels in the psyche. The premise is that orientation explicitly and carefully includes all the traditional psychological schools address the facets of personal psychology and the lower levels of the psyche, but are largely psychiatry, then adds those deeper or higher inadequate for dealing with the higher or aspects of human experience that transcend transpersonal levels. The latter are seen as the ordinary and the average-experiences the proper domain of spiritual traditions, that are, in other words, "transpersonal" or especially of Oriental origin. Transpersonal "more than the personal," personal plus. Thus, psychology thus aims at a theoretical in the attempt to more fully, accurately, and synthesis of western psychology and Oriental scientifically reflect the entire range ofhuman spiritual systems and technologies. [p. 51] experience, transpersonal psychiatry and A central concern of transpersonal psychology take as their starting point the psychology lies therefore in developing "maps" entire spectrum of consciousness. [p. xviii) of the mind which explain the dynamics of consciousness within a comprehensive Wilber, K. (1996). Foreword. In B. W. Scotton, A. B. Chinen, framework, encompassing the complete & J. R. Battista (Eds.), Textbook oftranspersonal psychia­ spectrum from unitive consciousness to the try and psychology (pp. xvii-xx). New York: Basic Books. limited ego. [p. 24:6] 40. In Maslow's final years, he advanced a new Hanegraaff; W. J. (1996). New Age religion and Western cul­ outlook that he calledtranspersonal psychology­ ture: Esotericism in the mirror ofsecular thought. Leiden , focusing on spirituality and "the farthest reaches The Netherlands: Brill. of human nature." He was a key figure in launching tills nasceuL clisdpliue, fur he felL LhaL 37. Transpersonal psychology is a vital, thirty-year­ humanistic psychology was inadequately dealing old international movement that is leading the way toward reintegrating spirit-the essence with spiritual concerns. [p. 14] of consciousness and selfhood- into modern Hoffman, E. (Ed.). (1996). Future visions: The unpublished healing practices. Its success in challenging the papers ofAbraham Maslow. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. powerful resistances of entrenched materialism and religious dogmatism speaks for the hunger 41. Transpersonal psychology can be understood in Western societies to return psychology to its as the melding of the wisdom of the world's ancient roots as a logos of the psyche, a path to spiritual traditions with the learning of knowing the soul. modern psychology. [p. 8) The overriding aim of these transpersonal [... ) Transpersonal psychology studies how techniques is essentially fourfold: (1) To open the spiritual is expressed in and through the the compassionate heart to recognize one's own personal, as well as the transcendence of the self. authentic self, which leads to empathetic Transpersonal psychology in this sense acceptance of the uniqueness, yet common affords a wider perspective for all the learning spirit, of others; (2) To foster creativity by of conventional psychology. It includes and gaining access to recurring archetypal myths exceeds traditional psychology. And by holding that guide humanity to greater wisdom; (3) all of conventional psychology within it, it To open the intuitive "inner eye" that lifts an recasts psychology into a new mold and individual beyond the constraints of his spiritual framework. [p. 10] ordinary senses, opening the visionary capacity latent in us all; (4) To expand Cortright, B. (1997). PsychOtherapy and spirit: Theory and practice in tfanspersonal psychotherapy. Albany, NY: State consciousness to the point that an individual Umversity of New York Press, directly experiences identity with a u:ti.iversal divine Presence. [pp. 137-138] 42. Tralispersonal psychology is a scientific Nelson, J. E. (1996). Transpersonal psychol~;>gy and depres­ dlscipline that investigates human experiences sion. In J. E. Nelson & A. Nelson (Eds.), Sacred so1-rows: which transcend the ordinary, particularly Embracing and transforming depression (pp. 137- 145). Los spiritual experiences and altered states of Angeles: Tarcher. consciousness.

The Essence ofTrampersonal Psychology 25 Lukoff, D. (1997). Sample learning guide for transpersonal Transpersonal psychologists believe that any psychology and psychotherapy (Course #3510). San Fran­ model of the human psyche must include this cisco: Saybrook Graduate School and Research Center. full range of human experience, for it is the Retrieved January 3, 2002, from http://www.saybrook.edu/ upper range that sets the context for textonly/Learnguide.html understanding the whole human being. As the transpersonal perspective unites the 43. [ ... ] transpersonal psychology, a new spiritual with the psychological aspects of philosophical-psychological trend engaged in human experience, it addresses an integration the study of human nature and the integrity of the whole person-body, mind, emotion and of human consciousness beyond its personal spirit. In doing so, the field is grounded in manifestations. [p. 13] Western psychological theory and draws on the Granovsky, Yu. (1997). Dedicated to the memory of V. V. world's spiritual traditions, mythology, Nalimov. Voices of Russian Transpe1·sonalism, Vol. 4, In· anthropology and the arts as well as research ternational Journal ofTranspersonal Studies, 16(2), 9-14. on consciousness. {p. 3) Department of Transpersonal Psychology. Graduate School 44. Transpersonal Psychology is a marriage of for Holistic Studies. (n.d.). [Brochure). R~ceived August, psychology and spirituality. It is the human 1998. Orinda, CA: John F. Kennedy University. science that studies, with scientific methods, the psycho-spiritual development of the 4 7. Transpersonal psychology recognizes as a individual and its manifestations. working hypothesis the infinite variability and Austl·alian Transpersonal Association. (n.d.). [Flyer]. Received the infinite potential of the human mind, and August, 1998. the essential challenge that underlies the mystery ofbeing. [p. 71 45. Whenever possible, transpersonal psychology Fontana, D. (1998). Modern science and the transpersonal seeks to delve deeply into the most profound vision. Transpersonal Psychology Review, 2(2), 5-9. aspects of human experience, such as mystical and unitive experiences, personal transformation, 48. Transpersonal psychology, with its initial meditative awareness, experiences of wonder and intellectual roots in the work ofWilliam James, ecstasy, and alternative and expansive states of Carl Jung, humanistic psychology (particularly consciousness. In these experiences, we appear the work of Abraham Maslow), and early to go beyond our usual identification with our studies of Asian contemplative traditions, was limited biological and psychological selves. [p. xxi] self-consciously forged as a separate discipline An important concept within transpersonal in the late 1960s. The initial impetus was to psychology is interconnectedness. The trans bring into psychology the study of a variety of in transpersonal conveys two aspects of that experiences not commonly examined in connectedness. One meaning of trans is mainstream psychology and to develop wider "beyond"; it implies the existence of, and conceptions of the nature of the mind, connectedness with and relationship to, consciousness, human nature, and reality than something beyond the individual. Another were found in behaviorist, psychoanalytic, and meaning of trans is "through"; this implies a humanistic approaches. [p. 3] connectedness among the various aspects of oneself, as well as a connectedness of oneself Rothberg, D. (1998). Ken Wilber and the future of tl·anspersonal psychology: An intl·oduction to the conver­ with others and with all of Nature. [p. 39) sation. In D. Rothberg & S. Kelly (Eds.), Ken Wilber in Braud, W., & Anderson, R. (1998). Transpersonal research dialogue: Conversations with leading transpersonal think­ methods for the social sciences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. ers (pp. 1-27). Wheaton, IL: Quest Books.

46. The transpersonal perspective includes the 49. It was out of the humanistic movement that wisdom and methods of the preceding the "fourth force" grew, namely transpersonal orientations [the psychoanalytic, behaviorist, psychology, in which psychological science has and humanist perspectives], and expands on formed a central connection with spiritual and them to include the spiritual aspects ofhuman religious studies [.. .] In this forum, psychology experience. not only opened itselfto a realm of experiences Transpersonal psychologists are concerned that had been only marginally considered by with the development of a healthy individuality any science but also entered into a dialog with and its extension to include aspects of the the full spectrum of world religions. [p. 63] Higher Self. This viewpoint acknowledges that behind the masks, roles and melodramas of Wertz, F. J. (1998). The role of the humanistic movement in one's conditioned personality lies a deeper state the history of psychology. Journal ofHumanistic Psychol­ of being that transcends individual identity. ogy, 38(1), 42-70.

26 The International journal ofTranspersonal Studies, 2002, Vol. 21 50. Transpersonal psychology is a fundamental ordinary states of consciousness, and area of research, scholarship and application integrating the various expressions of the based on people's experiences of temporarily spiritual heritage of humanity, both from the transcending our usual identification with our Eastern and Western traditions. limited biological, historical, cultural and The Annual Council Meeting of EUROTAS [European personal self and, at the deepest and most Transpersonal Association) and the Founding Assembly profound levels of experience possible, of the EUROTAS Creative Initiative. (1999). [Flyer). recognizing/being "some-thing" of vast intelligence and compassion that encompasses/ 56. transpersonall going beyond what is personal. is the entire universe. [p. 4] 2 denoting a form of psychology or Institute ofT:ranspersonal Psychology. General Catalog, 1998- psychotherapy that emphasizes the use of 1999. Menlo Park, CA: Author. mystical, psychical, spiritual, religious, etc. experiences as a way of achieving greater self­ 51. Transpersonal psychology, a more recent awareness, potential, etc. Early 20c. development in the field of psychology, views Chambers 21st century dictionary. (1999). Edinburgh, Scot­ the individual as a whole: body, mind, and land: Chambers Harrap. spirit. It goes beyond the limits of the ego-self toward the transcendent/spiritual Self. [p. 310] 57. Transpersonal psychology extends psychologi­ Marcandonatou, 0 . (1998). The experience of being silent. In cal research to optimal mental health, con­ R. Valle (Ed.), Phenomenological inquiry in psychology: sciousness and its non-ordinary states, and Existential and transpersonal dimensions (pp. 309-320). unexplored human potentialities, such as New York: Plenum Press. meaning, will, values, creativity, etc. A funda­ mental purpose is to develop a global psychol­ 52. transpersonal psychology, a branch of ogy, based on planetary rather than egocen­ psychology that recognizes altered states of tric needs, encompassing the entire spectrum consciousness and transcendent experiences ofhuman experience, the psychopathological, as a means to understand the human mind the existential and the spiritual one. and treat psychological disorders. [1970-75] [Brackets in original] European Transpersonal Psychology Association. (1999). Constitution: October 1999. Random House Webster's unabridged dictionary. (1998, 2nd Also: European Transpersonal Psychology Association. (n.d.). ed.). New York: Random House. Retrieved October 27,2001, from http://www.descamps. org/ etpa/index.html 53. Transpersonal psychology: a body of psychological and spiritual insights into the 58. Transpersonal psychologists define their field spectrum ofhuman consciousness incorporating as one that studies experiences in which one's the stages in the development of the ego and sense of identity extends beyond the personal the stages of development beyond ego. [pp. 317- to encompass wider aspects of humankind, life, 318] and the cosmos [. .. ] [p. xii] Singh, K. D. (1998). The grace in dying: How we are trans­ Krippner, S. (1999). Foreword. In D. Moss (Ed.), Humanistic formed spiritually as we die. San Francisco: and transpersonal psychology: A historical and biographi­ HarperSanFrancisco. cal sourcebook (pp. xi-xiii). Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.

54. A "fourth force" in Western psychology was 59. Transpersonal or Spiritual P sychology also emerging that was explicitly concerned acknowledges the reality, which transcends with extending the parameters to encompass beyond body-ego boundaries. Transpersonal the upper reaches of psychospiritual Psychology also transcends extensive focus on development. As such, it aspired beyond ego, negative values, weaknesses, problems and or beyond the personal, hence its name: pathology, and without ignoring challenges, Transpersonal Psychology. [p. 253] draws its strength from positive values, wellness and creativity For raising questions about the Snelling, J. (1998). The Buddhist handbook: The complete true purpose and meaning of one's life on earth guide to Buddhist schools, teaching, practice, and history Transpersonal Psychology aims to strengthen (Rev. ed.). Rochester, VT: Inner Traditions. one's ability to be present in the moment. [p. 1] 55. The purpose of transpersonal psychology was Hiltunen, S. S. (1999). Therapeutic Noh Theater [Brochure]. to create a new psychological approach based Washington, DC: Author. on planetary needs rather than egocentric ones, honoring the entire spectrum of human 60. Transpersonal Psychology is the extension of experience, including spirituality and non- psychological studies into consciousness

The Essence ofTranspersonal Psychology 27 studies, spiritual inquiry, body-mind the personal state. In asserting that there are relationships and transformation. [p. 21 peak and transcendent. experiences, there is Institute ofTranspersonal Psychology. (n.d.). [Brochure]. Re­ also the implicit position that these are worth ceived March, 1999. Palo Alto, CA. seeking, just as humanistic psychology holds Also: Institute ofTranspersonal Psychology. (n.d.). Retrieved that human potential is worth exploring and November 14,2001, from http://www.itp.edu/aboutJtp.html achieving. [p. 197] Hastings, A. (1999). Transpersonal psychology: The fourth 61. The experiences mystics have described since force. In D. Moss (Ed.), Humanistic and transpersonal the beginning of history are the focus of what psychology: A historical and biographical sourcebook (pp. is today called Transpersonal Psychology­ 192-208). Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. psychology beyond the self. [p. 34] Katra, J., & Targ, R. (1999). The heart ofthe mind: How to expe­ 66. Transpersonal psychology stands at the interface rience God without belief Novato, CA: New World Library. of psychology and spirituality. It is the field of psychology that integrates psychological 62. [. ..] transpersonal psychology is the disciplined concepts, theories, and methods with the subject study ofbehaviors and experiences that appear matter and practices of the spiritual disciplines. to transcend those hypothetical constructs Its interests include spiritual experiences, associated with individual identities and self­ mystical states of consciousness, mindfulness concepts, as well as their developmental and meditative practices, shamanic states, antecedents, and the implications of these ritual, the overlap of spiritual experiences with behaviors and experiences for education, disturbed states such as psychosis and training, and psychotherapy. [p. 97] depression, and the transpersonal dimensions of interpersonal relationships, service, and Krippner, S. (1999). The varieties of dissociative experience. encounters with the natural world. International Journal ofTranspersonal Psychology, 18(2), The core concept in transpersonal psychology 81-101. is non-duality, the recognition that each part (e.g., each person) is fundamentally and ultimately a 63. [. ..] transpersonal psychology, is devoted to the part of the whole (the cosmos). [p. 4] scientific study of what may be called the "spiritual core" ofhuman beings, and implies a Davis, J. (2000). We keep asking ourselves, what is much bruau~r vi~::w of Lht: human l:r::~n!'pP.rsonal pRycholoey? r.ui.dnnt:P. & (;mm.~r>.ling, 1!1(?.), psychoperceptual range than that proposed in 3-8. conventional Western psychology. Also: Davis, J. (n.d.). A briefdefinition oftranspersonal psychol­ [... JAt the heart oftrans personal psychology ogy. Retrieved September 1, 2000, from Metropolitan State is the proposal that there is a "mind" or "life" College ofDenver Web site: http://clem.mscd.edu/-davisj/tp' component to consciousness that is qualitatively different from known physical systems, and that 67. Transpersonal psychology, while not necessarily some transpersonal experiences are not to be denying Freudian theory, sees "transpersonal" or spiritual development as another phase of dismissed as merely interesting illusions, unusual patterns ofneural firing, and so on, but human growth beyond the level of ordinary personal concerns. To adheren ts of this actually tell us something about the potential for transcending our ordinary physical limits, movement, transpersonal work is intended not only to heal personal trauma, but to help as for example in out-of-body experiences. [8) people realize their fullest potential. Hughes, J. (1999). Altered states: Creativity under the [... ] Taken at its broadest, transpersonal influence. New York: Watson-Guptill. psychology encompasses all forms of psychology that regard the "transpersonal" or 64. [ ... ] between 1967 and 1969, humanistic spiritual dimension to be an integral part of psychology split into at least three parts: The the psyche; it says that developing this first was transpersonal psychology, with its dimension is part, perhaps even the core, of emphasis on spiritual practice, meditation, the purpose of human life. [pp. 299-301) and higher states of consciousness. [p. 274) Smoley, R., & Kinney, J. (1999). Hidden wisdom: A guide to Taylor, E. I. (1999). Shadow culture: Psychology and spiritu­ the Western inner traditions. New York: Penguin/Arkana. ality in America. Washington, DC: Counterpoint. 68. Transpersonal psychology seriously studies and 65. Transpersonal psychology is also a psychology respects the entire spectrum of human with a vector, with an emphasis on mental experience, including holotropic states, and all health and optimal well-being. The human the_ domains of the psyche-biographical, being is assumed to be basically good and pennatal and transpersonal. As a result, it is oriented toward growth, including not just the more culturally sensitive and offers a way of self, but also the transcendent levels beyond understanding the psyche that is universal

28 The InternationaL journal ofTrampersonaL Studies, 2002, \111. 21 and applicable to any human group and any 72. "In short, transpersonal psychology stands historical period. It also honors the spiritual for there-enchantment of psychology in com­ dimensions of existence and acknowledges the bination with the highest levels of theoreti­ deep human need for transcendental cal and clinical perception and skill. It advo­ experiences. In this context, spiritual search cates freedom and full self-realization for all appears to be an understandable and beings. It sees the meaning and value of all legitimate human activity. [p. 217] things and the sacredness of the life journey. Grof, S. (2000). Psychology of the future: Lessons from mod­ Without discounting suffering-psychologi­ ern consciousness research. Albany, NY: State University cal, social, political, environmental­ of New York Press. transpersonal psychology finds delight, com­ fort, and a sense of Home in the primal and 69. Ordinary psychology has adch·essed itself to profound interconnection of all existence."­ the ego and the instinctual personality. John Davis Transpersonal psychology, while also interested [... ] Transpersonal Psychology stands for in the ego, is especially interested in the Soul, the study and cultivation of optimal mental as a spiritual dimension that is beyond ego and health, and it calls for the inclusion of the flow of mental phenomena[. .. ] spirituality in psychology as the foundation Transpersonal psychology expands the for full human development. Psychology scope of inquiry into human nature to explore benefits from a recognition and ability to work the further reaches ofhuman development and with an expanded range of human potentials, consciousness. Three decades of research providing a fuller and richer understanding combining ancient wisdom with contemporary of therapy and growth. At the same time, science have yielded a rich treasury of insights. psychological concepts and methods can Formerly unsuspected states of consciousness benefit transpersonal seekers. Thus, have been discovered, with higher stages of transpersonal psychology represents the development and latent abilities that are integration of spirituality and psychology potentially available to us all. through theory, research, and practice. Italian Association ofTranspersonal Psychology. (2000).Assisi Transpersonal Counseling Psychology. (n.d.). Retrieved Oc­ 2000, Time of the soul: Consciousness, creativity, commit­ tober 27, 2001, from Naropa University Web site: http:// ment [Brochure]. www.naropa.edu/transpersonall

70. Transpersonal psychology [... ] aims to study 73. Transpersonal psychology embraces what aspects of the psyche or cosmos beyond the writer/philosopher Aldous Huxley (1945) personal, ego, or individual, such as called the "perennial philosophy." This spirituality and mystical experiences. It might philosophy holds the following premises: be considered an example of ontological idealism (or dualism) if it posits a • The world as we know it is an expression of a transcendental realm; or epistemological Divine ground of being. idealism, insofar as it employs the methods of • Humans can know about the Divine ground intuition and contemplation. [p. 206] of being from inference and from direct Valentine, E. R. (2000). Metaphysics. In A. E. Kazdin (Ed.), intuition. Encyclopedia ofpsychology (Vol. 5, pp. 204-209). New York: • All human beings possess a dual nature of Oxford University Press. phenomenal ego and eternal Self. 71. "Transpersonal psychology" is a branch of • Each person can identify with either the psychology that is concerned with the study of phenomenal ego or the eternal Self and each those states and processes in which people person's life on earth is a means to the end experience a deeper or wider sense of who they of identifying with the eternal Self. are, or a sense of greater connectedness with Transpersonal psychology includes in its others, nature, or the "spiritual" dimension. The mission a facilitation of human development term "transpersonal" means "beyond the toward these transpersonal goals, as embodied personal" and a common assumption in in the perennial philosophy. As such, it transpersonal psychology is that transpersonal becomes a valuable resource for counselors experiences involve a higher mode of who seek to integrate spirituality into their consciousness in which the ordinary mental­ practice. [p. 13] egoic self is transcended. Faiver, C., Ingersoll, R. E., O'Brien, E., & McNally, C. (2001). Daniels, M. (n.d.). What is transpersonal psychology? In In­ Explorations in counseling and spirituality: Philosophi­ troduction to Transpersonal Psychology. Retrieved Octo­ cal, practical, and personal reflections. Belmont, CA: ber, 27, 2001, from http://www.mdani.demon.co.uk/trans/ Brooks/Cole. tranintro.htm The Essence ofTrampersonal Psychology 29 74. transpersonal 1: extending or going beyond recognized as not only an important focus of the personal or individual2: of, relating to, or psychological theory and research but an being psychology concerned esp. with esoteric essential foundation of psychological health mental experience (as mysticism and altered and healing. [p. viii] states of consciousness) beyond the usual Tamas, R. (2002). Foreword. In J. N. Ferrer, Revisioning limits of ego and personality. transpersonal theory: A participatory vision ofhuman spiri­ Merriam-Webster's collegiate dictionary. (2001, lOth ed.). tuality (p. vii-xvi). Albany, NY: State University of New Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster. York Press.

75. It [transpersonal psychology] embraces the 79. Broadly inclusive, it [transpersonal psychology] combined fields of clinical psychology, spiritual focuses on psychological, physical, and and pastoral counseling as well as any spiritual experiences that are transpersonal­ philosophies which recognize the close connection reaching through, across, and beyond the self. between the body and the spirit. Transpersonal It is concerned with the study of the origins Psychology works on the basic assumption that and development of humanity's deepest physical, emotional, intellectual and spiritual potentials and their impact on individuals, growth are interrelated. Transpersonal groups, and cultures [... ] Psychology focuses attention on the human The field was founded with a commitment capacity for self-transcendence as well as self­ to open inqui.J.-y, experiential and empirical realization and is concerned with the optimum validation, and a holistic approach to human development of consciousness. [p. 1) experience. National Association for Transpersonal Psychology. (n.d.). Association for Transpersonal Psychology. (n.d.). [Flyer]. Re­ What is Transpersonal Psychology? Retrieved November ceived January, 2002. San Francisco, CA. 14, 2001, from http://www.starlighter.com/natp/ 80. Transpersonal psychology contributes to the 76. [... ] transpersonal psychology stresses spiri­ more traditional concerns of the discipline an tuality, transcendence, and compassionate acknowledgment of the spiritual aspect of social action [... ) [p. x:xiv, n. 1] human experience [ ... ] One basic tenet of Schneider, K. J., Bugental, J. F. T. , & Pierson, J. F. (Eds.). transpersonal psychology is that there is in (2001). Introduction. In The handbook of humanistic psy­ each individual a deeper or true self that is chology: Leading edges in theory, research, and practice experienced in transcendent states of (pp. xix-xxv). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. consciousness. Distinct from the personality and the personal ego, it is the source of inner 77. Transpersonal theory is concerned with the wisdom, health, and harmony. [p. 452] study of the transpersonal and spiritual Fadiman, J., & Frager, R. (2002). Personality and personal dimensions of human nature and existence. growth (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Etymologically, the term transpersonal means beyond or through (trans-) the personal, and is generally used in the transpersonal Thematic Analysis literature to reflect concerns, motivations, experiences, developmental stages (cognitive, o BETTER grasp the degree of congruence in moral, emotional, interpersonal, etc.), modes the contents of the compilation, we did a of being, and other phenomena that include T but transcend the sphere of the individual frequency analysis ofhow often different themes personality, self, or ego. [p. 5] in the entries occurred. Table 1 presents the themes and their associated frequencies for those Ferrer, J. N. (2002). Revisioning transpersonal theory: A par­ ticipatory vision of human spirituality. Albany, NY: State themes occurring six or more times in the 80 University of New York Press. entries comprising the compilation. (In tabulating frequencies we did not count the same theme 78. Compared with the positivism and reductionism occurring more than once in a given entry.) that had long dominated the field, The most frequently occurring theme (n =53; transpersonal psychology's inclusion and validation of the spiritual dimension ofhuman 66.2%) reflected going beyond or transcending the experience opened the modern psychological personal, ego, or self in some sense- not vision to a radically expanded universe of surprising, since the term "transpersonal" directly realities-Eastern and Western, ancient and suggests this meaning (see, e.g., Sutich, 1976). contemporary, esoteric and mystical, shamanic Although this theme appeared the most frequently, and therapeutic, ordinary and non-ordinary, the precise meaning of terms like "ego" and "self' human and cosmic. Spirituality was now have yet to be explicated and agreed upon in 30 The International journal ofTranspersonaL Studies, 2002, V0l. 21 the transpersonal literature (Ferrer, 2002, p. Table 1 196, n. 9; Lajoie & Shapiro, 1992a, 1992b). 10 Thematic Frequency Analysis* The second most prevalent theme (n = 49; 61.2%) encompassed the notion of spirituality. Frequency Theme This theme, too, can be traced to the origin of transpersonal psychology, one of the aims being 53 (66.2%) Going beyond or transcending: the to enable the study of religious/spiritual individual, ego, self, the personal, personali[)', experiences independently of institutionalized or personal identi[)'; existence of a deeper, religion and theological frameworks (Shapiro, authentic, or true Self 1994; and see Maslow, 1970). The number of entries that contained both of the most frequent 49 (61.2%) Spirituali[)', psychospiritual, psychospiritual themes was 27 (33.7%). development, the spiritual, spirit Beyond the two prevailing themes, the 26 (32.5%) Non-ordinary states of consciousness; altered frequencies of other themes ch·opped precipitously, states of consciousness; other modes of as Table 1 indicates. These themes, occurring six or more times, were: special states ofconsciousness; consciousness; transcendent states; higher interconnectivity/unity; going beyond other schools states of consciousness of psychology; emphasis on a scientific approach; 17 (21.2%) Interconnectiveness; cosmic unity or mystical experience/mysticism; studying the full consciousness; cosmic relationship; uni[)', range/spectrum of consciousness/experience; unitive, unitive consciousness emphasis on recognizing greater human potential; inclusion ofnon-Western psychologies; meditation; 17 (21.2%) Goes beyond other schools of psychology and the existence of a wider reality. Some examples of infrequently occurring themes (occurring fewer 14 (17.5%) Emphasis on transpersonal psychology as a than six times) were: perennial philosophy; optimal scientific approach or discipline; using mental health; transformation; mystery of being; scientific methods; inregracing a scientific and reality or consciousness as constructed. approach with other approaches Two earlier studies have some bearing on the 14 (17.5%) Mystical experience; mysticism thematic frequency analysis. In an analysis ofthe "Statement of Purpose" published in the Journal 14 (17.5%) Full range or spectrum of consciousness or of Transpersonal Psychology from its inception human experience in 1969 through the first issue of 1982, Lajoie, Greater! deepest/highest/ fullest/ infinite Shapiro, and Roberts (1991) found that while some 13 (16.2%) terms were deleted in the Statement and others potential were added, some terms continued to appear in 10 (12.5%) Inclusion of non-Western psychologies one form or another, including peak experiences, ecstasy, mystical experience, essence, bliss, awe, 7 (8.7%) Meditation wonder, unitive consciousness, oneness, cosmic 6 (7.5%) Existence of a wider reali[)' awareness, cosmic play, spirit, sacralization of everyday life, and individual and species-wide synergy. Of these concepts, mystical experience, *Based on total of 80 entries unitive consciousness, oneness, cosmic awareness, and spirit appear with some frequency in the spanning the first twenty-three years of the present study. However, it should be noted that transpersonal psychology movement were among the ongoing terms that appeared in the compiled and subjected to a thematic frequency Journal ofTranspersonal Psychology Statement, analysis, similar to the present study. The most ecstasy, bliss, awe, wonder, cosmic play, and frequent themes, occurring 15 or more times in individual and species-wide synergy were rarely, the 37 entries analyzed, were: states of if ever, the subject of articles published in the consciousness; highest or ultimate potential; journal (Lajoie, Shapiro, & Roberts, 1991). beyond ego or personal self; transcendence; and In a second study by Lajoie and Shapiro spiritual. Themes that occurred 5 to 14 times (1992b), definitions of transpersonal psychology were: transpersonal experience; cross-cultural

The Essence ofTranspersonaL PsychoLogy 31 (Asian/East/West); inner states; unitive Transpersonal psychology is the area of consciousness; holistic; transformation; and psychology that focuses on the study of mystical/mysticism. Although no direct transpersonal experiences and related phenomena. These phenomena include the comparison between these results and the present causes, effects and correlates of transpersonal study is possible because the criteria for selecting experiences and development, as well as the entries in the two compilations differ, 11 we note disciplines and practices inspired by them. [p. that most of the themes of the earlier 1992 study 203) are represented in our Table 1. Walsh, R., & Vaughan, F. (1993). On transpersonal defini­ Our overall conclusion, based on the thematic tions. Journal ofTranspersonal Psychology, 25, 199-207. analysis of the entries in the compilation, is that contemporary views of the essence of 9. In cases where we found another (verbatim or near­ transpersonal psychology over the past decade verbatim) citation source for a given entry, we included favor the theme of going beyond the personal and the additional source for the convenience of readers. the theme of spirituality, although, less frequently, 10. For an example of the potential intricacy of more the essence of transpersonal psychology also precisely characterizing a concept like ego in a single reflects a variety of other characterizations. tradition of Tibetan Buddhism, see Guenther (2001). 11. We chose to focus the present compilation on the Notes essence of transpersonal psychology rather than on definitions of the field in the hope of capturing more 1. Including a few from 2002 that came to our attention information about bow transpersonal psychology is before going to press early in the year. conceptualized. 2. The Internet is where we exercised the most selectivity, inasmuch as this medium reflected the most idiosyncrasy References in potential entries-not surprisingly, as it is generally less subject to external review than books and journals Ferrer, J. N. (2002). Revisioning transpersonal theory: A par­ and is more often associated with marketing endeavors. ticipatory vision of human spirituality. Albany, NY: State The compilation is likely to be least exhaustive with University of New York Press. Green, J. (Trans.). (199.8). The recorded sayings of Zen Mas­ respect to. the Internet, where search engines can produce ter Joshu [Chao-chou ch'an-shih yu-lu]. Boston: thousands ofwebsites with some link, however tenuous, Shambhala. the phrase "transpersonal psychology"; moreover, the to Guenther, H. (2001). The emergence of the ego/self contents of websites can periodica.lly change. complementarity and its beyond. International Journal 3. We did not include entries that ¥.Vere a diJ:ect or nearly ofTranspersonal Studies, 20, 19-31. direct quote of a previous entry in our compilation unless Lajoie, D. H., Shapiro, S. I., & Roberts, T. B. (1991). A histori­ cal analysis ofthe Statement of Purpose in the Journal of addit~onal substantive material was included, and in Transpersonal Psychology. Journal ofTranspersonal Psy· these cases (entries 25, 65, and 80) we included only the chology, 23, 175-182. additional material. Lajoie, D. H., & Shapiro, S. I. (1992a). On defining 4. Although we consulted several dozen English-language transpersonal psychology. Psychologia, 35, 63-68. dictionaries of various sizes, we only found four that Lajoie, D. H., & Shapiro, S. I. (1992b). Definitions of referred to transpersonal psychology, though some others transpersonal psychology: The first twenty-three years. contained the term "transpersonal." Journal ofTranspersonal Psychology, 24, 79-98. Maslow, A. H. (1970). Religions, values, and peak experiences. 5. The total number of citations for the 80 entries is 85 New York: Viking Press. (Paperback reissue of 1964 edi­ because five entries are listed with two sources. tion; preface added 1970) Shapiro, S. I. (1994). Reli~on, spirituality, and transpersonal 6. Bracketed material, including bracketed ellipses, are psychology. International Journal ofTranspersonal Stud­ our additions unless otherwise noted. ies, 13(1), 33-41. Sutich, A J. (1976). The emergence of the transpersonal ori­ 7. The nine items in this list are captions, each of which entation: A personal account. Journal of Transpersonal the author explains in more detail. Psychology, 8, 5-19. 8. Cf. following variant entry of same year: Transpersonal experiences may be defined as e:x:periences in which the sense ofidentity or self extends beyond (trans) the individual or personal to encompass wider aspects of humankind, life, psyche, or cosmos [... )

32 The International journal ofTranspersonal Studies, 2002, Vol. 21