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Identity Salience and Opposition to Hydropower Development IDENTITY SALIENCE AND OPPOSITION TO HYDROPOWER DEVELOPMENT A survey experiment in the Eastern Himalaya M.Sc. Thesis by Nicholas Bosoni International Development Studies March 2017 Development Economics Identity salience and opposition to hydropower development A survey experiment in the Eastern Himalayas Master thesis for Development Economics submitted in partial fulfilment of the degree of Master of Science in International Development at Wageningen University, the Netherlands March 2017 MSc International Development Nicholas Bosoni Supervisors: Dr. Maarten Voors Dr. Andries Richter DEC-80439 Wageningen University The Netherlands ii Contents 1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 1 2 Social identity theory, Superordinate and Subordinate identities ......................................................... 2 3 Study context ........................................................................................................................................ 4 3.1 Sikkim at a glance ......................................................................................................................... 4 3.2 A short history ............................................................................................................................... 4 3.3 The Sikkimese reservations ........................................................................................................... 5 3.4 Who are the Sikkimese? ................................................................................................................ 5 3.5 Hydropower Development in Sikkim ............................................................................................ 7 3.6 The anti-dam movement ................................................................................................................ 8 4 Study design ....................................................................................................................................... 10 4.1 Research Question ....................................................................................................................... 10 4.2 The Experimental design ............................................................................................................. 10 4.3 Research area ............................................................................................................................... 12 4.4 Sampling and descriptive statistics .............................................................................................. 14 4.5 Variables description ................................................................................................................... 15 4.6 Balance test.................................................................................................................................. 16 5 Results ................................................................................................................................................ 18 5.1 Identity salience and support for the SIBLAC proposal .............................................................. 18 5.2 Secondary analysis: Identity salience and Hydropower Development perceptions .................... 20 6 Discussion .......................................................................................................................................... 21 7 Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................ 23 8 References .......................................................................................................................................... 23 9 Appendix ............................................................................................................................................ 27 9.1 Details about sampling and the sample ....................................................................................... 27 9.2 Robustness check ........................................................................................................................ 28 9.3 Wiconox mann test ...................................................................................................................... 29 9.4 Proposal ....................................................................................................................................... 30 9.5 Consent form ............................................................................................................................... 31 9.6 Surveys ........................................................................................................................................ 32 iii Tables Table 1. Current Hydropower projects in Sikkim (2015-2016). Source: SSERC (2015) 8 Table 2. Hydropower projects in the study area. 13 Table 3. Descriptive statistics of the whole sample 14 Table 4. Balance test between the two groups (only Nepali respondent) 16 Table 5. Mean Support for SIBLAC proposal by Treatment among Nepali respondents 19 Table 6. Average Hydropower Development Perceptions by Treatment 20 Table 7. Additional details about village visits with location and number of observations 27 Table 8. Comparison of the socio-economic categories’ proportions between sample and real population by study areas. 27 Figures Figure 1. Eastern Himalaya map, Sikkim circled in red. 4 Figure 2. Question wording 11 Figure 3. A map of the experimental design 11 Figure 4. Map of the Study Area 13 Figure 5. Distribution of responses to the SIBLAC proposal 18 Figure 6. Distribution of responses to SIBLAC proposal by Treatment among Nepali respondents 19 Figure 7. Distribution of responses to HPD perceptions questions by its three dimension 20 iv Identity Salience and Opposition to Hydropower Development 1 Introduction Hidden in the Eastern Himalayas, the former kingdom of Sikkim is part of the so-called “Indian future powerhouse”, a peripheral part of India with enormous hydropower potential. National and local politicians consider hydropower the agent for development integration of this marginal part of the country. Therefore, favoured by the energy sector deregulation, between 2003 and 2011, the Government of Sikkim granted thirty different hydropower projects to twenty diverse public and private firms (Huber & Joshi, 2015). Most of the projects in Sikkim involve the construction of large dams with annexed race underground tunnels. Although promoted as a clean source of energy, recent research found hydropower to have a negative environmental impact, especially when it involves projects of considerable size and underground tunnelling (Ahlers et al., 2015; Chandy et al., 2012; Dharmadhikary, 2008; Huber & Joshi, 2015). In Sikkim, where more than two-third of the population live in rural areas and depend on natural resources for their livelihood, these adverse effects of hydropower can be substantial. While several studies document the response to hydropower development by the inhabitants of Sikkim, the majority of them follow a qualitative approach and focus on the reaction to hydropower of indigenous groups with strong ethnic identity (Little, 2010; McDuie-Ra, 2011; Wangchuk, 2007). The current work, instead, adopts an experimental design and focuses on the non-indigenous Nepali community of Sikkim. The aim of this thesis is to determine the effect of the salience of a Sikkimese identity on hydropower development opposition in Sikkim. I use the Common Ingroup Identity Model (Gaertner et al., 1999) to test if the salience of ethnic/Sikkimese identity influences the support for a proposal that aims to stop hydropower development in certain areas of Sikkim. Moreover, since the proposal comes from indigenous ethnic groups, targeting the Nepali community permits to assess if the salience of a common Sikkimese identity foster cooperative behaviour across ethnic lines. Charnysh et al. (2015), and Transue (2007) used a similar experimental approach in India and in the United States. Charnysh et al. (2015) found that when a shared Indian national identity is salient monetary donations by member of a dominant ethnic group to members of a rival, minority group increased. Transue (2007) presented evidence that making American national identity salient increased support for a tax increase. I collected the data using a survey experiment between January and February 2016, in three different districts of Sikkim. I varied the salience of ethnic identity and Sikkimese identity changing a question within the surveys that I randomly assigned to the respondents. While the randomized experimental design guarantees the internal validity of my study, the sample well represents the different socio- economic categories in the area, ensuring high external validity. I found that making a common Sikkimese identity salient increases significantly the support for an anti-dam proposal made by indigenous non-Nepali ethnic groups. In a state as Sikkim, where it is convenient for the state government to keep the ethnic division in place to control the problem of collective mobilization (Chettri, 2015), a more “inclusive” civil society could foster the effectiveness of the anti-dam protests. I organize the paper as follows. The following section briefly reviews recent experimental studies on identity and intergroup attitudes. The third section gives background information on the Sikkimese context, from its
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