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Social, Cultural and Educational Legacies NASA Reflects America’s Changing Opportunities; Social, NASA Impacts US Culture Education: Inspiring Cultural, and Students as Only NASA Can Educational Legacies Social, Cultural, and Educational Legacies 459 NASA Reflects The Space Shuttle, which began flying in 1981 and ushered in an entirely new human spaceflight program, was a watershed for cultural diversity America’s within NASA and had substantial cultural impact outside the realm of Changing spaceflight. In the 1950s and 1960s, opportunities for American women and minorities were limited as they were often segregated into pink Opportunities; collar and menial jobs. NASA’s female and minority employees faced NASA Impacts similar obstacles. The Space Shuttle Program opened up opportunities US Culture for these groups—opportunities that did not exist during Projects Mercury and Gemini or the Apollo and Skylab Programs. NASA’s transformation was a direct consequence of a convergence of events Jennifer Ross-Nazzal Shannon Lucid that happened in the 1960s and 1970s and continued through the Helen Lane following 3 decades. These included: public policy changes instituted on the national level; the development of a spacecraft whose physical capabilities departed radically from the capsule concept; and an increase in the number of women and minorities holding degrees in the fields of science and engineering, making them attractive candidates for the space agency’s workforce. Over the course of the program, the agency’s demographics reflected this transformation: women and minorities were incorporated into the Astronaut Corps and other prominent technical and administrative positions. The impact of NASA’s longest-running program extends beyond these dramatic changes. Today, the shuttle—the crown jewel of NASA’s spaceflight programs—symbolizes human spaceflight and is featured in advertisements, television programs, and movies. Its image exemplifies America’s scientific and economic power and encourages dreamers. 460 Social, Cultural, and Educational Legacies Social Impact—NASA positions, and none were in the illegal for employers to pay women Astronaut Corps, even though four lower wages than those paid to men for Reflects America’s women had applied for the 1965 doing the same work. President Lyndon Changing Opportunities astronaut class. By the end of the Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of decade, NASA offered few positions 1964, which prohibited employment Before the Space Shuttle was to qualified minorities and women. discrimination (hiring, promoting, or conceived, the aerospace industry, Only eight Blacks at Marshall Space firing) on the basis of race, sex, color, NASA employees, and university Flight Center in Alabama held religion, or national origin. Title VII researchers worked furiously on early professional-rated positions while of the Act established the Equal human spaceflight programs to achieve the Manned Spacecraft Center Employment Opportunity Commission, President John Kennedy’s goal of (currently known as Johnson Space which executed the law. The Equal landing a man on the moon by the end Center) in Texas had 21 , and Kennedy Employment Opportunity Act of 1972 of the 1960s. Although these programs Space Center in Florida had only five. strengthened the commission and expanded its jurisdiction to local, state, employed thousands of personnel Signs of change appeared on the and federal governments during across the United States, White men horizon as federal legislation addressed President Richard Nixon’s overwhelmingly composed the many of the inequalities faced by administration. The law also required aerospace field at that time, and very women and minorities in the workplace. federal agencies to implement few women and minorities worked as During the Kennedy years, the president affirmative action programs to address engineers or scientists on this project. ordered the chairman of the US Civil issues of inequality in hiring and When they did work at one of NASA’s Service Commission to ensure the promotion practices. centers, women overwhelmingly served federal government offered positions in clerical positions and minorities not on the basis of sex but, rather, on One year earlier, NASA appointed accepted low-paying, menial jobs. merit. Later, he signed into law the Ruth Bates Harris as director of Equal Few held management or professional Equal Pay Act of 1963, making it Employment Opportunity. In the fall Changing Faces of the Astronauts From 1985 Through 2010 In 1985, STS-51F—Center: Story Musgrave, MD, mission specialist, In 2010, STS-131 and International Space Station (ISS) Expedition 23— medical doctor. To Musgrave’s right, and going clockwise: Anthony Clockwise from lower right: Stephanie Wilson, mission specialist, England, PhD, mission specialist, geophysicist; Karl Henize, PhD, aerospace engineer; Tracy Caldwell Dyson, PhD, ISS Expedition 23 mission specialist, astronomer; Roy Bridges, pilot, US Air Force (USAF); flight engineer, chemist; Dorothy Metcalf-Lindenburger, mission Loren Acton, PhD, industry payload specialist; John-David Bartoe, PhD, specialist, high school science teacher and coach; Naoko Yamazaki, Navy payload specialist; Gordon Fullerton, commander, USAF. Japanese astronaut, aerospace engineer. Social, Cultural, and Educational Legacies 461 Though few in number, women and minorities made important contributions to the Space Shuttle Program as NASA struggled with issues of race Guion Bluford, PhD and sex. Dottie Lee, one of the few Colonel, US Air Force (retired). women engineers at Johnson Space Astronaut on STS-8 (1983), Center and the subsystem manager for STS-61A (1985), aerothermodynamics, encouraged STS-39 (1991), and STS-53 (1992). engineers to use a French curve design for the spacecraft’s nose, which is now affectionately called “Dottie’s nose.” Astronaut Guion Bluford conducting research on STS-53. NASA named Isaac Gillam as head of Shuttle Operations at the Dryden Flight In 1983, Colonel Guion Bluford became the first African American to fly in space. Research Center, where he coordinated He earned a Bachelor of Science in aerospace engineering from Pennsylvania the Approach and Landing Tests. State University, followed by flight school and military service as a jet pilot In 1978, he became the first African in Vietnam, which included missions over North Vietnam. He went on to earn American to lead a NASA center. a Master of Science and Doctor of Philosophy in aerospace engineering with a JoAnn Morgan of Kennedy Space Center served as the deputy project minor in laser physics from the Air Force Institute of Technology. He also earned manager over the Space Shuttle a Master of Business Administration after joining NASA. Prior to joining NASA Launch Processing Systems Central as a US Air Force astronaut, he completed research with several publications. Data Subsystems used for Columbia’s Since leaving NASA, he has held many leadership positions. first launch in 1981 . As a NASA astronaut, he flew on four missions: two on Challenger (1983, 1985) Astronaut Corps and two on Discovery (1991, 1992). Forced to diversify its workforce in the Dr. Bluford has said, “I was very proud to have served in the astronaut program 1970s, NASA encouraged women and and to have participated on four very successful Space Shuttle flights. I also minorities to apply for the first class felt very privileged to have been a role model for many youngsters, including of Space Shuttle astronauts in 1976. African American kids, who aspired to be scientists, engineers, and astronauts When NASA announced the names in January 1978, the list included six in this country. For me, being a NASA astronaut was a great experience that women, three African Americans, and I will always cherish.” one Japanese American, all of whom held advanced degrees. Two of the women were medical doctors, another held a PhD in engineering, and the of 1973, Harris proclaimed NASA’s against women and minorities. others held PhDs in the sciences. equal employment opportunity Eventually, a resolution was reached, Two of the three African Americans program “a near-total failure.” with Fletcher reinstating Harris as had earned doctorates, while the third, Among other things, the agency’s NASA’s deputy assistant administrator Frederick Gregory, held a master’s record on recruiting and hiring for community and human relations. degree. The only Asian member of their women and minorities was inadequate. From 1974 through 1992, Dr. Harriett class, Ellison Onizuka, had completed In October, NASA Administrator Jenkins, the new chief of affirmative a master’s degree in aerospace James Fletcher fired Harris and action at NASA, began the process of engineering. This was the most diverse Congress held hearings to investigate slowly diversifying NASA’s workforce group of astronauts NASA had ever the agency’s affirmative action and increasing the number of female selected and it illustrated the sea change programs. Legislators concluded that and minority candidates. brought about within the Astronaut NASA had a pattern of discriminating Corps by 1978. From then on, all 462 Social, Cultural, and Educational Legacies astronaut classes that NASA selected The Gemini and Apollo-era astronauts in height.) The capabilities of the included either women or minorities. in the office in 1978 were not used shuttle were so unusual that astronauts In fact, the next class included both as to working with women as peers. of all sizes could participate; even well as the first naturalized citizen “But, they knew
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