Breakthrough:
Katherine Johnson’s Calculated Climb to Greatness at NASA
Melody Harwood
Senior Division
Historical Paper
Paper Length: 2498 1
“Even though you (Katherine Johnson) grew up in the height of segregation, you did not have
time to think about your place in history and you never had a feeling of inferiority. Instead you
considered yourself, as you described it, ‘as good as anybody, but no better.’”
- Charles Bolden, NASA Administrator1
Since the origins of democracy in the United States, black people have struggled for equality. The Thirteenth Amendment gave their freedom from slavery, but this step forward came with new methods of systematic oppression. The tension and division which resulted from the implementation of these methods, like the Black Codes and segregation,2 remained prominent for decades. Women experienced similar conditions, openly discriminated against throughout history and unable to vote until 1920. In the segregated and tumultuous 1960s, people began to rise up in opposition to gender and racial inequality. It was at this time that Katherine Johnson entered a white, male dominated workplace and broke barriers where not only women, but black women, had never been as she calculated trajectories for NASA’s most important missions. With a skillset and intelligence unparalleled by her peers, Johnson became the first woman to author a technical report and participate in briefings at NASA’s Langley Flight Research Division. As her mathematical prowess propelled her to a prominent role in space exploration, she demonstrated that black women were equally capable of achievement in scientific fields. Johnson made it possible for her black and female successors to receive credit for their work, while opening doors
1 McDonald, Samuel. “Computer Facility Named After ‘Human Computer’ Katherine Johnson.” NASA. NASA, May 4, 2016. http://www.nasa.gov/feature/langley/computational-facility-named-in-tribute-to-nasa-langley-math-master- katherine-johnson.
2 Laws in Relation to Freedmen, Laws in Relation to Freedmen § (1866). https://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage. 2 at Langley Research Center to women. Her story represents the ability to overcome racial and gender barriers with excellence and determination.
Katherine Johnson was born in 1918 in White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia.3 Her passion for education was evident from a young age; even before starting school she recalled
“watching her older siblings go to school and wishing so much that she could go with them.”4
Driven by a motivated family, she moved expeditiously through school, skipping grades from second to fifth.5 By age 10, she was ready for high school. Unfortunately, black students were not allowed to attend the local high school.6 Her father, determined to give her the educational opportunity she longed for, moved their family to Institute, West Virginia, where she attended an integrated high school. She graduated at age 14.7 Through academic achievement, Johnson demonstrated a drive to pursue her goals, despite the social barriers that could have denied her an educational opportunity. Johnson went on to graduate at age 18 from West Virginia State
College, the black state college, with bachelor’s degrees in Mathematics and French,8
3 Smith, Yvette. “Katherine Johnson: The Girl Who Loved to Count.” NASA. NASA, November 20, 2015. http:// www.nasa.gov/feature/katherine-johnson-the-girl-who-loved-to-count.
4 Wild, Flint. “Katherine Johnson: A Lifetime of STEM.” NASA. NASA, November 16, 2015. http://www.nasa.gov/ audience/foreducators/a-lifetime-of-stem.html.
5 Loff, Sarah. “Katherine Johnson Biography.” NASA. NASA, November 22, 2016. http://www.nasa.gov/content/ katherine-johnson-biography.
6 Smith, Yvette. “Katherine Johnson: The Girl Who Loved to Count.” NASA. NASA, November 20, 2015. http:// www.nasa.gov/feature/katherine-johnson-the-girl-who-loved-to-count.
7 Ibid.
8Loff, Sarah. “Katherine Johnson Biography.” NASA. NASA, November 22, 2016. http://www.nasa.gov/content/ katherine-johnson-biography. 3 encouraged to pursue mathematics by her professor, William Claytor (Appendix I), who recognized her excellence in the subject.9
Johnson continued to excel academically after she graduated. In 1939, she was specifically chosen by the president of the white state college, West Virginia State University, along with two black male principals, to be one of the first three students integrated into their university for graduate school.10 Being part of this group, and being the first black woman at
WVS, was a monumental achievement and spoke to her skills which not only transcended the barrier of her race but also her gender. However, Johnson went on to break far more significant barriers as her career progressed, which initially began as a math teacher at black public schools in Virginia, teaching elementary students, high school music, and French classes.11
Despite the slow progression of black people into the professional, technical workforce and their integration into white schools, the general attitude towards blacks entering white- dominated workspaces remained discriminatory and openly hostile at this time. An editor of the
Louisville Courier Journal, Mark Etheridge, stated in June 1942 that “There is no power in the world--not even in all the mechanized armies of the earth, Allied and Axis--which would now force … people to the abandonment of the principle of social segregation.”12 Employers were shameless in their discrimination, even against white minorities like Jewish people and Irish
9 Joylette Hylick, telephone interview with author, February 22, 2020
10 Joylette Hylick, telephone interview with author, February 22, 2020
11Porter-Nichols, Stephanie. “Council Honors One-Time Marion Teacher Katherine Johnson of 'Hidden Figures'.” SWVa Today, May 7, 2019. https://www.swvatoday.com/smyth_county/news/article_35c83f32-df64-11e6-a8e6-bfcf3ba856af.html.
12Tindall, George Brown., and Wendell Holmes. Stephenson. The Emergence of the New South: 1913-1945. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State Univ. Press, 1991. 4 women. Being a black woman in the field of mathematics was almost unheard of, as there were only about one hundred total women (of any race) in professional mathematics jobs in the U.S. in the 1930s.13
Despite these challenges, an unexpected force, World War II, brought some of the first black women into the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics as the war caused a higher demand for workers to replace those who became involved in war efforts.14 This spurred the early beginnings of the Civil Rights Movement as black women moved from domestic servitude to roles traditionally performed by white men. James G. Thompson wrote for the Pittsburgh
Courier that the war represented a “VV for a double victory. The first V for victory over our enemies from without, the second V for victory over our enemies from within--those who perpetrate these ugly prejudices.”15
When Johnson left her teaching job to begin working for the National Advisory
Committee for Aeronautics West Computing Area in 1953, its staff already included some black women. NACA represented a step towards inclusion within engineering and mathematical jobs, forced to “creak open the ‘No Girls Allowed’ door” by its need for talented workers.16 Even so, most workers found it difficult to gain recognition and feel equal to their white, male counterparts who received more credit and pay for the same ideas and calculations.
13 Shetterly, Margot Lee. Hidden Figures. Rock Island, Il: Rock Island Public Library, 2018.
14 Honey, Maureen. “African American Women in World War II.” African American Women in World War II | Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, January 1, 1970. https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-now/essays/african-american-women-world -war-ii.
15 Harris, Michael. “How WWII Affected America's Minorities.” Los Angeles Times. Los Angeles Times, June 13, 2000. https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2000-jun-13-cl-40272-story.html.
16 Helaine Becker, e-mail interview with author, February 18, 2020. 5
Similar to the influx of black female workers during World War II, rising tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union brought a more diverse group of workers into space exploration as the demand grew for “access to scientists and professionals.”17 These
“tended to be people of color, or women, both of whom were excluded from these workforces,” prior to the Cold War.18 Sputnik was launched in October 1957, becoming the first artificial satellite to orbit the Earth. The Sputnik event evoked a feeling of urgency and fright among
American spaceflight engineers, generating “a breadth of interest rarely paralleled.”19 NASA was determined to catch up to the Soviet Union and get not only a satellite into orbit, which they did achieve in early 1958 with the Explorer 1 satellite, but also a man.20 Both the U.S. and the Soviet
Union felt this new pressure. In 1958, resulting from the Sputnik launch, the National
Aeronautics and Space Act21 was passed, transferring NACA into NASA. Johnson’s position performing calculations and analysis on crashed flights at NACA became a position at NASA’s predominantly white Langley Research Center. Subsequently, NASA formed Project Mercury, with the goal of sending men into space and into orbit.
Johnson was quickly assigned to work for Project Mercury as a computer - a job which involved performing manual computations. (Appendix II) The Space Task Group, formed to
17 Audra Wolfe, phone interview with author, March 5, 2020.
18 Audra Wolfe, phone interview with author, March 5, 2020.
19 “Impact of US and Soviet Space Programs on World Opinion.” NASA. NASA, July 7, 1959. https://history.nasa.gov/sputnik/july59.html.
20 “Space Race Timeline.” Royal Museums Greenwich | UNESCO World Heritage Site In London. Accessed 2019. https://www.rmg.co.uk/discover/explore/space-race-timeline.
21Suckow, Elizabeth. “NACA Overview.” NASA. NASA, April 23, 2009. https://history.nasa.gov/naca/ overview.html. 6 drive Project Mercury into existence, included Johnson as a close affiliate - due to her high mathematical skill level and her calculations featured (without credit) in NASA’s “Notes on
Space Technology.”22 The Space Task Group was male-dominant, with only eight of its forty-five members female.23 Johnson’s work on the project involved trajectory analysis for both Freedom
7 and Friendship 7(see Appendix III), which would put the first American in space and send the first American, John Glenn, into orbit around the Earth.
Throughout this period, Johnson combated the barriers that remained within her new workplace. At times, she couldn’t tell whether the discrimination from colleagues was coming from a place of racism, sexism, or difference in job description. Margot Lee Shetterly, author of the book, “Hidden Figures,” which brought light to Johnson’ story, described the racial environment at Langley: “The demons that had haunted black Americans for three centuries … presented themselves in the form of racism and discrimination.”24 NASA considered many of the black engineers “sub-professionals,” although their qualifications often met or exceeded those of the white professionals.25 Johnson’s daughter recalls that at NASA, “You had to have a degree.
Although white people didn't necessarily have to have a degree.”26 The barrier between men and
22 “Notes on Space Technology.” Notes on Space Technology. NASA, n.d.
23 “Space Task Group - Nasa CRgis.” NASA. NASA. Accessed November 11, 2019. https://crgis.ndc.nasa.gov/historic/Space_Task_Group.
24 Shetterly, Margot Lee. Hidden Figures. Rock Island, Il: Rock Island Public Library, 2018.
25 Ibid.
26Joylette Hylick, telephone interview with author, February 22, 2020 7 women, and between white people and people of color was reflected in the professional system in which NASA operated.27
Johnson’s spirit was undeterred by the racial and gender roles which were commonplace at the time. As she became more involved with trajectory calculations, she became the first woman to attend editorial meetings, breaking what her daughter considered to be one of
Johnson’s biggest barriers at work.28 Her work demanded extreme attention to detail and frequent updates on the conditions of the mission’s variables. In dealing with something as significant as space exploration and calculations that determine the safety of an astronaut, being present at briefings was highly important - and in the sexist cultural climate of the 1960s, Johnson entering the room was a historic moment. She said she “wanted to know what they talk about,” asking “is there a law?”29 to prevent her from participating. Not only was Johnson present, but she actively contributed, breaking stereotypical expectations. Johnson recalls the typical behavior of women at her workplace: “The women did what they were told to do,” she explained. “They didn’t ask questions or take the task any further. I asked questions; I wanted to know why. They got used to me asking questions and being the only woman there.”30 At the first meeting she attended, a man asked about a figure and Johnson immediately answered it, as it was her own work that he mentioned. Her skill and talent propelled her to the forefront of discussions as her contributions
27Barsh, Joanna, and Lareina Yee. “Unlocking the Full Potential of Women in the US Economy.” Genius, n.d. http:// news.genius.com/Joanna-barsh-unlocking-the-full-potential-of-women-in-the-us-economy-annotated.
28 Joylette Hylick, telephone interview with author, February 22, 2020
29Martin, Victoria St. “'Hidden' No More: Katherine Johnson, a Black NASA Pioneer, Finds Acclaim at 98.” The Washington Post. WP Company, January 27, 2017. https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/hidden-no-more-katherine-johnson-a-black-nasa-pioneer-finds-acclaim- at-98/2017/01/27/d6a6feb8-dd0f-11e6-ad42-f3375f271c9c_story.html.
30 Wild, Flint. “Katherine Johnson: A Lifetime of STEM.” NASA. NASA, November 16, 2015. http://www.nasa.gov/audience/foreducators/a-lifetime-of-stem.html. 8 were crucial to the missions. The precision and importance of her computations gave her a status of excellence, where oftentimes no one double-checked her work. Johnson described her work ethic at NASA: “I always did my best because I didn’t want anybody to give me my work back to correct it -- and they never did.”31 This framed a new narrative for women and racial minorities in what is now called STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics), one where people recognized that not only can women engage in science, but they can excel and out-perform their colleagues regardless of gender or race.
Johnson’s involvement in the Friendship 7 and Freedom 7 missions proved to be much more significant than a feat of mathematics. It was in her work at these missions that Johnson broke down the barriers which prevented women and women of color from being truly successful and recognized at NASA. In 1960, as she calculated the re-entry trajectory for John
Glenn’s first earth orbit, she finally made it to the title page of a technical report at NASA’s
Flight Research Division. She was given credit as the co-author of “Determination of Azimuth
Angle at Burnout for Placing a Satellite Over a Selected Earth Position (Appendix IV),”32 a technical report which set the precedent for more than just calculating orbital spaceflight trajectories. It was the first time a woman had authored a report in that division. It was at this time, during the excitement of John Glenn’s Friendship 7 mission, that Johnson was credited as
“one of the most brilliant mathematicians of the present era,” by the Pittsburgh Courier in
31Joylette Hylick, telephone interview with author, February 22, 2020
32 Johnson, Katherine G., and Ted Skopinsky. “Determination of Azimuth Angle at Burnout for Placing a Satellite Over a Selected Earth Position.” Determination of Azimuth Angle at Burnout for Placing a Satellite Over a Selected Earth Position, n.d. https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19980227091.pdf. 9
1962.33 Johnson’s capability pushed her into the public eye, drawing attention to the black women who were quietly making some of NASA’s most important calculations.
Johnson continued working at NASA until 1986 (Appendix V&VI), with her wide scope of projects described as “a Greatest Hits album of mankind’s efforts in space, from its slide-rule and wind tunnel origins to its dreams of interplanetary exploration and satellite proliferation.”34
Even after her barrier-breaking work on Project Mercury, she held prominent roles in Apollo 11,
12, and 13. Her own backup parameters and charts allowed the Apollo 13 astronauts to safely return to Earth after a sudden mission abort35 due to an oxygen tank’s explosion.36
After her retirement from NASA, she went on to travel, care for family, and entertain her hobbies.37 In recent years, Johnson received many high-level awards and distinctions to include thirteen honorary degrees from esteemed universities.38 In 2015, she was awarded the
Presidential Medal of Freedom, the nation’s highest civilian honor, by President Barack Obama, for her work on the Freedom 7 Mercury capsule. Obama described Johnson’s legacy as he presented her medal: “In her 33 years at NASA, Katherine was a pioneer who broke the barriers of race and gender, showing generations of young people that everyone can excel in math and
33 “Lady Mathematician Played Key Role in Glenn Space Flight.” Pittsburgh Courier, March 10, 1962.
34 DeBakcsy, Dale. “Maestro Of Trajectories: The Fascinating Tale Of Katherine Johnson's Orbital Mathematics.” Women You Should Know, August 26, 2018. https://womenyoushouldknow.net/maestro-of-trajectories-the- fascinating-tale-of-katherine-johnsons-orbital-mathematics/.
35 Vitug, Eric. “Katherine G. Johnson.” NASA. NASA, May 25, 2017. https://www.nasa.gov/feature/katherine-g- johnson.
36 “Apollo 13 Accident.” NASA. NASA. Accessed April 22, 2020. https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/ ap13acc.html.
37Loff, Sarah. “Katherine Johnson Biography.” NASA. NASA, November 22, 2016. http://www.nasa.gov/content/ katherine-johnson-biography.
38 Joylette Hylick, telephone interview with author, February 22, 2020 10 science, and reach for the stars.”39 This event, pictured in Appendix VII, showed many broken barriers as the United States’ first black president honored a black woman for her calculations on a groundbreaking space mission. In 2016, NASA opened a $30 million, 40,000 square foot computer facility named after her: The Katherine G. Johnson Computational Research Facility
(Appendix VIII). At the facility’s naming ceremony, Representative Bobby Scott shared that
“Johnson’s story is one that we ought to be telling our children.”40 Sadly, Johnson passed away on February 24, 2020, with prominent figures paying tribute to her legacy: Hillary Clinton stated that “as a mathematician, she broke barriers to reach the stars,”41 and Barack Obama acknowledged that “she spent decades as a hidden figure, breaking barriers behind the scenes.”42
Johnson paved her own way in a world where black people and women were still fighting for recognition, and their representation in STEM fields was minimal. She made it possible for women to follow in her footsteps, and set a precedent for the capabilities of women in fields like mathematics and physics. After Johnson, NASA became more accepting of women in high- clearance, high-profile research. From 1972 to 1978, female permanent employment at Langley
39 “Remarks by the President at Medal of Freedom Ceremony.” National Archives and Records Administration. National Archives and Records Administration. Accessed April 22, 2020. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the- press-office/2015/11/24/remarks-president-medal-freedom-ceremony.
40 McDonald, Samuel. “Computer Facility Named After ‘Human Computer’ Katherine Johnson.” NASA. NASA, May 4, 2016. http://www.nasa.gov/feature/langley/computational-facility-named-in-tribute-to-nasa-langley-math- master- katherine-johnson.
41 Clinton, Hillary. Twitter Post. February 24, 2020, 9:51AM. https://twitter.com/HillaryClinton/status/ 1231984990319251457
42 Obama, Barack. Twitter Post. February 24, 2020, 2:57PM. https://twitter.com/BarackObama/status/ 1232061971148746754 11
Research Center rose from 13.7% to 16.3%, and in 1997,43 reached 26.4% female employees.44
Although there is still much room for improvement, women have become more accepted and represented in NASA, currently the “largest employer of female STEM professionals,” according to Lori Garver, NASA’s former deputy administrator.45
Johnson functioned as a pioneer for women’s recognition at Langley, which was followed by significant growth in female employment. Her courageous, outspoken, and determined attitude led her to places women hadn’t been before. Her work, monumentally important and groundbreaking, combined with her pioneering and determined attitude, drove her to a level of greatness that opened doors for future women in her field. Her influence on young women was described by Charles Bolden, an administrator at NASA: “She’s one of the greatest minds ever to grace our agency or our country, and because of the trail she blazed, young Americans like my granddaughters can pursue their own dreams without a feeling of inferiority.”46 Johnson tore down the barrier which kept women from attending editorial meetings and showed how it is simply common sense to let women claim authorship of their own work at NASA’s Flight
Research Division. Through her excellence, work ethic, and exceptional talents, Johnson broke
43 “Table 3-38. Females as a Percentage of Permanent Employees by NASA Installation, 1972-1978.” NASA Historical Data Book. NASA. Accessed January 15, 2020. https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4012/vol4/t3.38.htm.
44 “Women as Percent of Total Employees.” NASA History Division. NASA. Accessed January 12, 2020. https:// history.nasa.gov/pocketstats/sect D/Women Em.pdf.
45 Lineberry, Denise. “Women in Aerospace: Are We There Yet?” NASA. NASA. Accessed January 12, 2020. https://www.nasa.gov/centers/langley/news/researchernews/rn_WomensPanel.html.
46 “State Launches Career of Pioneering NASA Mathematician Katherine Johnson.” West Virginia State University - Katherine Johnson. Accessed October 20, 2019. http://www.wvstateu.edu/About/History-and-Traditions/Katherine- Johnson.aspx. 12 long-standing barriers of gender and race, and sparked confidence in a new generation of women in their fields - a generation where women know their talents will transcend their identity. 13
Appendix I
William Waldron Schieffelin Claytor, Katherine Johnson’s mathematics teacher at West Virginia
State College,47 was a talented mathematician and one of the first black men to receive a PhD in mathematics in the United States. He created special classes for Johnson and encouraged her to
become a research mathematician and major in mathematics as well as French.48
47 William Claytor. n.d. Photograph. Dolph Briscoe Center for American History.
48 Joylette Hylick, telephone interview with author, February 22, 2020 14
Appendix II
Katherine Johnson at her work desk at NASA’s Langley Research Center. Note the paper, pencil,
and adding machine in front of her rather than a computer. In these days, mathematicians were regarded as “computers” before they had access to what we now know as calculators and desktop
computers.49
49 Joseph, Natalie. “NASA Langley Images.” NASA. NASA, March 27, 2015. https://www.nasa.gov/langley/ images. 15
Appendix III
John Glenn pictured next to the Friendship 7 capsule, where he orbited the Earth in 1962.50
Glenn placed his trust in Katherine Johnson, who calculated his landing trajectory and
coordinates. He recognized her excellence at Langley and even requested that she check the
numbers one last time before he went into orbit, as he trusted her more than the new IBM
computer they had begun using.
50 NASA. Mercury Friendship 7 Astronaut John Glenn. 1962. 16
Appendix IV
These excerpts from Johnson’s groundbreaking paper, “Determination of Azimuth Angle at
Burnout for Placing a Satellite Over a Selected Earth Position,” including sinusoidal functions, describe the parabolic path of the Friendship 7 capsule. This paper made history as it became the
first of its kind to be authored by a woman.51
51 Johnson, Katherine G., and Ted Skopinsky. “Determination of Azimuth Angle at Burnout for Placing a Satellite Over a Selected Earth Position.” Determination of Azimuth Angle at Burnout for Placing a Satellite Over a Selected Earth Position, n.d. https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19980227091.pdf. 17
Appendix V
Katherine Johnson, in the blue dress, with her teammates at NASA’s Langley Research Center in
1985, the year before she retired. Note the high proportion of men on her research team, with
Johnson being the only black woman.52
52Langley Team . n.d. Photograph. 18
Appendix VI
Katherine Johnson’s retired NASA ID from Langley Research Center.53
53Katherine G. Johnson ID. n.d. Photograph. 19
Appendix VII
Barack Obama awarding Johnson the Presidential Medal of Freedom as Willie Mays watches on, circa November 24, 2015. Barack Obama has always regarded Johnson as an inspiration to him
and his family.54
54 Ingalls, Bill. November 24, 2015. Obama White House Archives. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/ 2015/11/25/honoring-nasas-katherine-johnson-stem-pioneer. 20
Appendix VIII
Katherine Johnson in front of the computational research facility named after her.55
55 Bowman, David C. Katherine Johnson and Katherine Johnson Computational Facility. Photograph. NASA Langley’s Katherine Johnson Computational Research Facility Officially Opens. NASA, September 22, 2017. NASA. 21
Annotated Bibliography
Primary Sources Interviews Audra Wolfe, telephone interview with author, March 5, 2020.
My interview with Audra Wolfe, a Cold War expert and the author of two books about the relationship between the war and scientific progress, provided me with contextual information regarding the origins of NASA and her opinion on the way that Sputnik encouraged more diverse participation within scientific fields.
Dr. Sonya Armstrong, telephone interview with author, September 24, 2019.
Dr. Armstrong, a black female professor of mathematics at West Virginia State University, shared important information and personal anecdotes regarding the experience of many black mathematicians. She described the statue of Katherine Johnson erected at her university and explained the strong need for female role models in fields of science and mathematics. This was useful in my paper as I discuss Johnson’s impact and the social barriers she faced in her career.
Frances Northcutt, telephone interview with author, February 25, 2020.
Francis Northcutt, the first woman to work at NASA’s Mission Control during Apollo 8, provided me with her perspective on being the only woman in her work environment, which likely felt similar to Katherine Johnson. Northcutt also explained to me the interactions between engineers and mathematicians at NASA: how they relayed messages to each other, and their different salaries.
Helaine Becker, e-mail interview with author, February 18, 2020.
Helaine Becker is the author of a children’s book about Katherine Johnson, where she is depicted as the hero who saved Apollo 13. My interview with Becker provided me with a greater understanding of her motivations to write the book, as well as her thoughts about the barriers that Johnson faced. 22
Joylette Hylick, telephone interview with author, February 22, 2020
My telephone interview with Joylette Hylick, Katherine Johnson’s daughter, was illuminating and extensively detailed. As a former NASA engineer/mathematician herself, she explained to me some of the methods and mathematical principles behind Johnson’s work, and described in detail the dynamic of being a black woman at Langley Research Center. Hylick also confirmed some details about her mother’s life and achievements; she explained to me which highly publicized details were true and which weren’t. Hylick’s interview also provided me with a deeper insight to Johnson’s personality, and provided much anecdotal evidence, quoted in my paper, that she was an incredibly hard-working woman her whole life.
Books
Bilstein, Roger E., and Frank Walter. Anderson. Orders of Magnitude: a History of the NACA and NASA, 1915-1990. Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Office of Management, Scientific and Technical Information Division, 1989.
This source provided extensive information on the entire history of NACA, which then became NASA, up until the year 1990. Understanding the progression of the space programs and the ways that the administration tackled problems has been important for my understanding of NASA’s operations and overall goals.
Collins, Patricia Hill. Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment. New York: Routledge, 2015.
I gathered information on the psychology of being a black woman in America from this source, including Hill’s personal opinions and experiences. It provided me with an understanding of the social complexities they face and the ways they manage the oppression they face. I used this source to support my claims about the way black women are treated, and the way that society interacts with them. 23
Fries, Sylvia Doughty. NASA Engineers and the Age of Apollo. Washington, D.C.: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1992.
I consider this source primary since its information comes from NASA’s records. Doughty explains NASA’s reaction to John F. Kennedy’s explicit call to action to get a man on the moon before the “decade is out.” The book provides many notable quotes from Kennedy that helped me understand his attitude and motivation as I discussed the urgency of space exploration in my paper. I also found relevant information on the way engineers and scientists approached the mission, which gave me an idea of how Johnson worked on the mission. The source focuses mainly on technical scientific details, which is important as I consider the sheer amount of work required of Langley Research Center employees to accomplish a moon mission.
Hansen, James R. SPACEFLIGHT REVOLUTION: Nasa Langley Research Center From Sputnik to Apollo (Classic Reprint). FORGOTTEN Books, 2015.
This book details the history of projects that NASA worked on up to the Apollo missions. I found the prologue to be the most useful part to me in understanding the origins of spaceflight technologies, as it described the ideological conflict between Soviet Union and the United States and the Soviet militarization of space. An important reference is made to the Pulitzer prize winning book, “The Heavens and the Earth: A Political History of the Space Age,” by Walter A. McDougall in regards to the militarization of space and the need for Eisenhower to use satellites to uncover the secrets of the Soviet Union.
Johnson, Katherine G. Reaching for the Moon: the Autobiography of NASA Mathematician Katherine Johnson. New York: Atheneum Books for Young Readers, 2019.
Kathrine Johnson’s autobiography is profoundly beneficial to my paper. There are many useful anecdotes that more clearly show the type of life she lived, along with the barriers she faced. 24
Kalme, Albert P. “Racial Desegregation and Integration in American Education: the Case History of West Virginia State College, 1891-1973,” 1976.
Integration had a significant impact on the college that Johnson attended for her undergraduate degree, West Virginia State College. The college was predominantly black and had to begin accepting white students. I found it useful to know that Johnson studied at a predominantly black school. Additionally, this source allowed me to learn more about the various effects of integration, even the more unconventional situations.
“Notes on Space Technology.” Notes on Space Technology. NASA, n.d.
The extensive history of NASA and its developments in space technology is detailed in this book. I found it useful to know the key dates of NASA’s various discoveries and victories to have a greater understanding of the administration’s timeline of achievements.
Newspaper Harris, Michael. “How WWII Affected America's Minorities.” Los Angeles Times, June 13, 2000. https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2000-jun-13-cl-40272-story.html.
I was able to gather information and a direct quote that I included in my paper from James G. Thompson about the “double V.” This is the victory against the Axis as well as the victory against prejudices within the United States as the country moved towards a more diverse group of workers. I used the quote in my paper to describe how World War II brought black women into professional careers and I compared it to the ways that Sputnik improved diversity in professional workplaces.
“Lady Mathematician Played Key Role in Glenn Space Flight.” Pittsburgh Courier, March 10, 1962.
This newspaper article is something of an anomaly. Finding sources that described Johnson’s work at the time it was occuring has been challenging, since she didn’t receive much recognition until later in her life. This article provides information on Johnson’s importance to the space program. I used a quote from this article in my paper that hails Johnson as “one of the most brilliant mathematicians of the present era.” 25
Stradling, Richard. “Retired Engineer Remembers Segregated Langley.” Daily Press, February 8, 1998. https://www.dailypress.com/news/dp- xpm-19980208-1998-02-08-9802080064-story.html.
Mary Jackson, the first black female engineer at NASA, shares her experience at Langley in this article. Her description of the reality of being a black woman at Langley Research Center provided me a truer understanding of the conditions black people faced at Langley. This enriched my paper as I described the segregation within NASA’s professional system.
Rorty, James. “Virginia's Creeping Desegregation: Force of the Inevitable.” Commentary, July 1956.
This source is valuable to my paper because it is topical and specific to the state of Virginia, where Katherine Johnson worked for Langley Research Center, and was written during the time of the beginnings of desegregation. It describes the effect and implications of desegregation in its nascence. This article supplemented my description of how this affected Johnson’s life.
Articles “A Brief History of African Americans in West Virginia.” African-Americans in West Virginia. Accessed October 21, 2019. http://www.wvculture.org/history/archives/ blacks/blachist.html.
This source provided more specific information on the dynamic between the different races and the government, from the creation of the state to the more recent Civil Rights movement of the 1960s. I used this source to contextualize the way African Americans interacted in society during Katherine Johnson’s educational and professional life.
Davis, Jonnelle. “Daughter of NASA Mathematician Portrayed in 'Hidden Figures' Talks about 'Smart but Humble' Mom.” Greensboro News and Record, January 16, 2017. http://www.greensboro.com/news/local_news/daughter-of-nasa- mathematician-portrayed-in-hidden-figures-talks-about/article_a14b217f- e216-54a7-99fa-f3dc41901c2b.htm
An interview with Katherine Moore, Katherine Johnson’s daughter, gave me a more personal insight into Johnson’s character and personality, beyond the calculations she did for NASA. I believe that the lessons instilled in Johnson’s daughter are representative of the lessons that Johnson has implicitly given to all black women in the STEM fields through her accomplishments. This information helped me understand Johnson’s dynamic and inspiring character. 26
Dunbar, Brian. “She Was a Computer When Computers Wore Skirts.” NASA. NASA, May 2, 2016. http://www.nasa.gov/centers/langley/news/researchernews/ rn_kjohnson.html.
Dunbar’s article, a primary source since the information comes from NASA, illustrates the way in which computations were done for NASA during the time of early space exploration. The article focuses on Johnson and the computations she did manually. I used this information in the explanation of Johnson’s various calculations and the missions she worked on, as well as the description of her job title “computer.”
Ernest, Harry W. “School Integration in West Virginia.” School Integration in West Virginia. Accessed October 21, 2019. http://www.wvculture.org/history/ africanamericans/schoolintegration004.html.
Since Johnson was selected as one of the first three students to integrate in West Virginia State University, information regarding integration in West Virginia is important to my paper. I gathered information on when desegregation within schools became widespread and when schools really began to integrate, so I could accurately understand the racial dynamic where Katherine Johnson attended college.
Ford, Hope. “Daughter of 'Hidden Figures' Math Genius: 'Mom Defined Fearless'.” WLTX, January 29, 2017. http://www.wltx.com/article/news/history/daughter-of- hidden-figures- math-genius-mom-defined-fearless/101-394209572.
Johnson’s daughter’s quotes and stories about her mother illuminated the leadership and bravery that Johnson had. The interview helped me understand the segregated context in which Johnson did her research, and the gracious ways in which she dealt with it. I used this to develop concrete evidence that backs my description of how Johnson used her resilience to break barriers in her workplace.
Howat, Kenna. “The Women of NASA.” National Women's History Museum, October 2, 2017. https://www.womenshistory.org/exhibits/women-nasa.
As one of the National Women’s History Museum’s Women of NASA, Johnson is recognized as a prominent figure in history. The description of Johnson’s achievements clearly shows how she broke barriers, which supported my decision to choose Katherine Johnson as my topic. 27
Keating, Caitlin. “Hidden Figures' Real-Life NASA Mathematician Katherine Johnson: 'If You Like What You're Doing, You Will Do Well'.” PEOPLE.com, January 29, 2017. https://people.com/human-interest/nasa-katherine-johnson-mathematician- advice-interview/.
The interview with Johnson is inspiring and provided several quotes, as she describes her love for science and her humility towards her work, described as “ordinary.” This source showed me that she was an incredibly passionate scientist.
Lindsey, Sue. “NASA Pioneer Katherine Johnson Q&A.” AARP, February 19, 2018. https://www.aarp.org/politics-society/history/info-2018/katherine-johnson-fd.html.
This interview with Katherine Johnson provided me with important quotes from her on several different subjects, most more philosophical than scientific. I learned more about Johnson’s overall attitude towards life and her steadfast self-assurance that pushed her to greatness. I found it helpful to my paper to further understand her personality and motivations, which explain why she achieved so much in her lifetime.
Lineberry, Denise. “A Look Back with Langley's NACA Alumni: NACA's 95th Anniversary.” NASA. NASA. Accessed September 27, 2019. http://www.nasa.gov/ centers/langley/news/researchernews/rn_NACA95.html.
Coming from Langley Research Center, where Johnson did her most influential work, this article discusses the black women of NACA, where women did computations separately from NASA due to segregation. This source gave me a clear idea of what the purpose of NACA was.
Lineberry, Denise. “Women in Aerospace: Are We There Yet?” NASA. NASA. Accessed January 12, 2020. https://www.nasa.gov/centers/langley/news/researchernews/ rn_WomensPanel.html.
Lineberry analyzes the state of women at NASA and in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics as a whole, importantly stating that NASA is the largest employer of females in the STEM community right now. She also mentions the need for improvement and the persistent disproportional representation of women in these fields. I used this information in my paper’s conclusion to discuss the progress made, and need for further progress, in NASA after Katherine Johnson. 28
Loff, Sarah. “Apollo 11 Mission Overview.” NASA. NASA, April 17, 2015. https:// www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/missions/apollo11.html.
NASA provides a scientific and factually driven mission overview of Apollo 11, which includes important dates and descriptions of the project, which she was integral to. This information was helpful to me as I detailed her work on NASA’s Apollo missions.
Loff, Sarah. “Katherine Johnson Biography.” NASA. NASA, November 22, 2016. http://www.nasa.gov/content/katherine-johnson-biography.
The biography provided by NASA has provided me with important dates regarding Johnson’s employment and education, as well as specific details about which specific research centers and laboratories she worked at.
McDonald, Samuel. “Computer Facility Named After ‘Human Computer’ Katherine Johnson.” NASA. NASA, May 4, 2016. http://www.nasa.gov/feature/langley/ computational-facility-named-in-tribute-to-nasa-langley-math-master-katherine- johnson.
Finally, at age 96, Johnson received the long deserved honor of having a NASA computational facility named after her. The recognition of Johnson’s work on space exploration and the resulting advancement of the agency reinforces my conclusion, where I describe her influence on today.
“Our History Runs Deep.” West Virginia State University - History and Traditions. Accessed October 21, 2019. http://www.wvstateu.edu/About/History-and- Traditions.aspx.
This brief historical description of West Virginia State University primarily cleared up some questions I had. It helped me understand that it used to be called West Virginia State University, and I also found out that “Institute,” where Katherine Johnson went for high school, is the same institution as WVSU.
Smith, Yvette. “Katherine Johnson: The Girl Who Loved to Count.” NASA. NASA, November 20, 2015. http://www.nasa.gov/feature/katherine-johnson-the-girl-who- loved-to-count.
Written soon after Johnson received her Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2015, this article covers the deep-rooted lifetime passion that Johnson has had for mathematics. It shows that she was determined to explore her field of study, regardless of the barriers that had been placed before her as a black woman. 29
“State Launches Career of Pioneering NASA Mathematician Katherine Johnson.” West Virginia State University - Katherine Johnson. Accessed October 20, 2019. http:// www.wvstateu.edu/About/History-and-Traditions/Katherine-Johnson.aspx.
West Virginia State University is where Johnson received her degrees in mathematics and French. The article brings in many different elements of Johnson’s education as it also references important films and moments that gave me more information and quotes for Johnson. From this article I got an amazing quote from Charles Bolden, a NASA administrator, describing Johnson as a great mind and a trailblazer. I used the quote in my paper’s conclusion to reinforce my description of her impact on women in STEM today.
Vitug, Eric. “Katherine G. Johnson.” NASA. NASA, May 25, 2017. https:// www.nasa.gov/feature/katherine-g-johnson.
This article by NASA credits Johnson as the mathematician whose work saved the Apollo 13 capsule, which was at an extreme risk of crashing, and includes details about the disaster and how her backup parameters were used.
Databases “AMERICAN REACTIONS TO CRISIS: Examples of Pre-Sputnik and Post-Sputnik Attitudes.” NASA. NASA. Accessed October 20, 2019. https://history.nasa.gov/ sputnik/oct58.html.
The attitude towards space exploration changed drastically after Sputnik. Americans became afraid that Russia would gain control of space and missile technology. This source was helpful to me in more specifically explaining the actions that the US government took after the launch of Sputnik, which show the urgency for NASA to successfully put a man on the moon.
“Apollo 13 Accident.” NASA. NASA. Accessed April 22, 2020. https:// nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/ap13acc.html.
This description of the Apollo 13 accident is helpful to me because Johnson’s calculations and backup parameters were used to save the mission and the astronauts involved. This source gave me the knowledge necessary to accurately discuss the accident in my paper. 30
“Dwight D. Eisenhower.” The White House. The United States Government. Accessed October 23, 2019. https://www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/presidents/ dwight-d-eisenhower/
As the president during the Sputnik event and the beginning of the space race, information regarding Dwight Eisenhower is important to my paper. This website was helpful in developing the baseline knowledge required to accurately depict him in my paper.
“Eisenhower Sputnik Conference Memo.” National Archives and Records Administration. National Archives and Records Administration. Accessed October 20, 2019. https://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/sputnik-memo.
Eisenhower’s reaction to Sputnik is important to this paper as the event sparked the United States’ entry into the Space Race. This memo discusses the threat level that Sputnik caused, as well as reasons why the United States wasn’t able to beat Russia in launching the first satellite. I used this source to explain what the Sputnik moment meant for the United States.
“Impact of US and Soviet Space Programs on World Opinion.” NASA. NASA, July 7, 1959. https://history.nasa.gov/sputnik/july59.html.
Sputnik was a monumentally important world event, as stated by this summary assessment by the USIA Office of Research Analysis. The quote “The dramatic appeal of that event generated a breadth of interest rarely paralleled” shows how much the Sputnik event shook the world. I used this quote in my paper in my description of the event’s impact on the engineers at NASA.
“Introduction to Outer Space.” NASA. NASA, March 26, 1958. https://history.nasa.gov/ sputnik/16.html.
This statement from the President’s Science Advisory Committee was issued because of the “aftermath of the launches of Sputnik 1 and 2.” It discusses the benefits and argues for a bigger and more productive space program. The Science Advisory Committee highlights four main reasons for the new space program: human need to explore, the need for defense, the importance of America’s confidence in science and technology, and the new opportunities space can provide. These reasons were very important to me as I discussed the context of Sputnik and the ways that the US took action afterwards. 31
“John Foster, Dulles to James C. Hagerty, October 8, 1957, with Attached: ‘Draft Statements on the Soviet Satellite.” NASA. NASA, October 5, 1957. https:// history.nasa.gov/sputnik/15.html.
This draft of a statement to be released in reaction to Sputnik shows personal sentiments about the event and speaks to the impact on American society that Sputnik had. The source describes the intense reaction of the public to the event, and how Eisenhower, the president at the time, didn’t expect it. This source contributed to my understanding of the United States government’s reaction to the event, and how they planned to address it publicly.
“John F. Kennedy.” The White House. The United States Government. Accessed October 23, 2019. https://www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/presidents/ john-f-kennedy/.
I found John F. Kennedy’s speeches to be useful regarding the discussion of space exploration. In order to frame him in a more contextual way in my writing, I used this website to learn the timeline of his presidency and important facts about him.
Johnson, Katherine G., and Ted Skopinsky. “Determination of Azimuth Angle at Burnout for Placing a Satellite Over a Selected Earth Position.” Determination of Azimuth Angle at Burnout for Placing a Satellite Over a Selected Earth Position, n.d. https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19980227091.pdf.
This technical report from NASA’s Technical Reports Server is the first of its kind: Katherine Johnson is credited as an author. This is the first report she officially authored, which is a focus of my paper as it represents a major barrier Johnson broke.
Laws in Relation to Freedmen, Laws in Relation to Freedmen § (1866). https:// memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage.
The Library of Congress includes this congressional report, which begins as a letter from the United States Secretary of War requesting all slave states to send in their laws regarding the newly freed slaves in their state. This compilation includes all of the black laws, created to continue the oppression and dehumanization of black people after they were granted citizenship by the fourteenth amendment. I used this source in my description of the persisting systematic discrimantion after the Civil War and the lingering effects of continued racism and segregation. 32
“Remarks by the President at Medal of Freedom Ceremony.” National Archives and Records Administration. National Archives and Records Administration. Accessed April 22, 2020. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2015/11/24/ remarks-president-medal-freedom-ceremony.
This website includes an account of the ceremony where President Barack Obama presented Johnson with the Presidential Medal of Freedom. I used a quote from Obama at this event to show how significant and barrier-breaking her achievements were.
“Space Race.” Space Race | DPLA. Accessed October 20, 2019. https://dp.la/primary- source-sets/space-race.
This source is a collection of political cartoons, analyses of the missile gap between the US and the USSR, and other primary sources which provided me with a substantial understanding of the space race and public opinion in a topical context.
“Space Task Group - NasaCRgis.” NASA. NASA. Accessed November 11, 2019. https:// crgis.ndc.nasa.gov/historic/Space_Task_Group.
Katherine Johnson was closely involved with the Space Task Group, with only eight women in the 45-member team. It was created to organize the mathematical work for Project Mercury. This article gave me information on the mission of the Group, the original members, and the context of their work at NASA. I used the list of its original members to explain that it was largely dominated by males.
Suckow, Elizabeth. “NACA Overview.” NASA. NASA, April 23, 2009. https:// history.nasa.gov/naca/overview.html.
I gathered my general understanding of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics from this primary source. Its history, namely its transfer over to NASA in 1958, was used in my paper as I described the role of the committee. 33
“Table 3-38. Females as a Percentage of Permanent Employees by NASA Installation, 1972-1978.” NASA Historical Data Book. NASA. Accessed January 15, 2020. https:// history.nasa.gov/SP-4012/vol4/t3.38.htm.
The quantitative data presented in this data book helped me describe the progress within NASA in regards to their female employment. The table includes specific information on the demographics of Langley Research Center, where Katherine Johnson did her work at NASA. The data shows significant improvement in the proportion of female workers, which I used to support my argument in the conclusion of my paper.
“The Fifth Mission: The First Lunar Landing.” NASA. NASA. https://history.nasa.gov/ SP-4029/Apollo_11a_Summary.htm.
This report includes technical information about the Apollo mission and provides useful key dates that I used when explaining Johnson’s role in the mission that brought a man to the moon.
“Total Launch Window Considerations.” NASA. NASA. https://history.nasa.gov/afj/ launchwindow/lw1.html#Total.
Included in this source are examples of the important physical calculations involved in the moon landing. This explains the mission and furthered my understanding of its mathematical complexity.
Urgent national needs: a special message to Congress by President Kennedy, May 25, 1961, Urgent national needs: a special message to Congress by President Kennedy, May 25, 1961 § (1961).
This is the speech that John F. Kennedy gave when he called the United States to action. He wanted a man on the moon within ten years. This source gives concrete information that shows how urgent space exploration had become for Americans in the 1960s.
Warren, Earl, and Supreme Court Of The United States. U.S. Reports: Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483.
This source provided me with an important date and Supreme Court decision which affected black students throughout the United States. In May 1954, the Supreme Court ruled segregation to be unlawful, which supported integration efforts. This context is helpful to me as I describe the social climate in which Katherine Johnson existed. 34
“Women as Percent of Total Employees.” NASA History Division. NASA. Accessed January 12, 2020. https://history.nasa.gov/pocketstats/sect D/Women Em.pdf.
This data table from 1997 shows the percentage of female employees in each of NASA’s installations. I synthesized this source with another source containing similar data from the 1970s to show the significant increase in female employment by percentage over time in the conclusion of my paper.
Photos Bowman, David C. Katherine Johnson and Katherine Johnson Computational Facility. Photograph. NASA Langley’s Katherine Johnson Computational Research Facility Officially Opens. NASA, September 22, 2017. NASA.
I included this photo of Johnson in front of her newly opened facility in my appendix to show that she is still receiving substantial recognition for her barrier breaking work.
Joseph, Natalie. “NASA Langley Images.” NASA. NASA, March 27, 2015. https:// www.nasa.gov/langley/images.
I used this photo of Katherine Johnson at her desk at Langley Research Center to provide a visual for my paper’s appendix, showcasing the technology at the time. Her typewriter and hand-written calculations more clearly show that humans used to be the “calculators” for data analysis and computations in NASA’s early days.
Ingalls, Bill. November 24, 2015. Obama White House Archives. https:// obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/2015/11/25/honoring-nasas-katherine-johnson- stem-pioneer.
This image supplements my paper in the appendix and creates a connection between Johnson’s accomplishments and today. It features President Barack Obama placing the Presidential Medal of Freedom on Katherine Johnson.
Katherine G. Johnson ID. n.d. Photograph.
This photo of Katherine Johnson’s NASA ID is included in my paper’s appendix. The visual of her ID enhances my paper’s story about her employment at NASA and gives readers a better idea of her appearance. 35
Langley Team . n.d. Photograph.
This photo shows the Langley Research team, with Johnson included, and supplements my paper’s information in the appendix. It is notable that Johnson is the only black woman on the team, even after her many years of employment there.
NASA. Mercury Friendship 7 Astronaut John Glenn. 1962.
John Glenn pictured in his space suit in front of the iconic Friendship 7 capsule. This image shows the astronaut I mentioned in my paper, with an explanation of his faith in her as a mathematician.
William Claytor. n.d. Photograph. Dolph Briscoe Center for American History.
This picture provides a visual to supplement my description of Johnson’s highly motivational math professor, and is included in my paper’s appendix.
Videos “Katherine Johnson Interview, Sept. 2017,” YouTube Video, 2:33, “NASA Langley Research Center” September 22, 2017. https://www.youtube.com/watch? v=FgW2kpNQ7BY.
Direct statements from Johnson are very useful and many of them speak to her humility and persistence. Johnson seemed to be unfazed by the various challenges she faced in her professional life, as she simply did the calculations she needed to do and asked the important needed questions. Her quotes about work showed me her attitude towards her experience at Langley, and gave me a greater idea of her character as I wrote about her persistence in the workplace.
“Katherine Johnson, National Visionary.” Katherine Johnson: Visionary Videos: NVLP: African American History, n.d. http://www.visionaryproject.org/ johnsonkatherine/.
When I watched this video in my initial research, it was clear to me that Katherine Johnson broke barriers and that she was the correct choice for my topic. Johnson faced significant barriers to even go to high school, as evident in this article - she had to drive 125 miles to the nearest school that would let in a black girl. Katherine’s resilient attitude despite her challenges is evident in this article, and it is imperative to the focus of my paper. 36
Tweets
Clinton, Hillary. Twitter Post. February 24, 2020, 9:51AM. https://twitter.com/ HillaryClinton/status/1231984990319251457
Hillary Clinton’s tweet on the day of Katherine Johnson’s death honors her legacy and her barrier-breaking career. I used an excerpt from this tweet in my paper to show that prominent political figures recognize how integral Johnson was for both social and scientific advancements in the United States.
Obama, Barack. Twitter Post. February 24, 2020, 2:57PM. https://twitter.com/ BarackObama/status/1232061971148746754
Barack Obama tweeted on the day of Johnson’s death a tribute to her influence on him and Michelle. I used a quote from this tweet as I discussed Johnson’s death and its impact on important world figures like Obama.
Secondary Sources Books
Beery, Janet, Sarah J. Greenwald, Jacqueline A. Jensen-Vallin, and Maura B. Mast. Women in Mathematics: Celebrating the Centennial of the Mathematical Association of America. Cham, Switzerland: Springer, 2017.
This source describes the history of women in mathematics and their struggle for recognition, which helped me contextualize and understand how being a woman in mathematical fields has changed over time. This source was helpful as I described the challenges that Johnson faced as a calculator for Langley Research Center, as well as the reluctance to hire women at NASA.
Burgess, Colin. Friendship 7: the Epic Orbital Flight of John H. Glenn, Jr. Cham: Springer, 2015.
The orbital flight of John Glenn is the first time an American orbited the earth, with the crucial trajectory calculations for the flight done by Katherine Johnson. This book describes in great detail the efforts to make the mission possible, the triumph of its success, and its effect on NASA. This book improved my understanding of the logistics of the mission. 37
Case, Bettye Anne, and Anne M. Leggett. Complexities: Women in Mathematics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2015.
Anecdotal stories from many different women pursuing advanced mathematical fields provide important evidence that it’s a big challenge to be a female mathematician. This source provided me with a clearer perspective of the challenges and nuances of being a woman in a male-dominant field like mathematics.
Dudziak, Mary L. Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy ; with a New Preface. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011.
I chose this source because it gives more holistic information on race relations in America, accounting for the specific time period of the Cold War and its socio-political implications. This source was useful in contextualizing both the race issue in America in the 1960s as well as the looming threat of nuclear war with the Soviet Union; both of which were important aspects of society during Katherine Johnson’s career.
Engs, Robert Francis. Freedom’s First Generation: Black Hampton, Virginia, 1861-1890. New York: Fordham University Press, 2004.
This source describes post-slavery attitudes of black men towards white men in Hampton, Virginia. Information on the interactions between races in the South is important to consider when writing a paper on a black woman in a white STEM field.
Grier, David Alan. When Computers Were Human. Princeton (New Jersey): Princeton University, 2007.
Grier describes the role of computations done by humans as they explored astronomy over time, from the early discovery of Halley’s Comet up until the last human computers were used for engineering calculations at NASA. The journal explores all of this in a particularly philosophical way, providing commentary on the reasons to continue exploring space. This source showed me a history of space exploration in the pre- computer era, and provided me with a better understanding of scientists’ motivations to explore space more deeply.
Holt, Nathalia. Rise of the Rocket Girls: the Women Who Propelled Us, from Missiles to the Moon to Mars. NY, NY: Back Bay Books (Little, Brown and Company), 2017.
Nathalia Holt tells the stories of 50 women other than Katherine Johnson who helped with very important calculations that advanced space travel. The book described the doors that Johnson opened for women at Langley Research Center. It also gave me descriptions of how women were treated by colleagues in scientific environments. 38
Krislov, Samuel. The Negro in Federal Employment: the Quest for Equal Opportunity. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1970.
Written during Johnson’s career at NASA, I used this journal to find more information on the advancement of black people in federal jobs and the history of their introduction to the professional workforce. This source gave me more reasons why black people began to enter professional environments and the dynamics of the newly integrated workplace.
Light, Jennifer S. When Computers Were Women. Baltimore, 1999.
This book describes the era of NASA when calculations were largely done by women, who were not given enough recognition for their work. I used this information to describe their lack of acknowledgement despite their massive influence.
Rossiter, Margaret W. Women Scientists in America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995.
Johnson is credited with her work at NASA in this source, and it provides important details regarding her research, career, and education. This provided me with biographical information as well as a description of the progress of women in science over time.
Shetterly, Margot Lee. Hidden Figures. Rock Island, Il: Rock Island Public Library, 2018.
This book was made into a less historically accurate movie, but the book itself provided me with information regarding Johnson’s life as well as a detailed analysis of the context in which she existed-- Sputnik, Cold War politics, race relations, and general attitudes towards women. The book’s bibliography includes many helpful websites, journals, and books which led me to find reliable sources. Additionally, the book includes very relevant quotes that I have used to contextualize Johnson’s surroundings throughout my paper.
Tindall, George Brown., and Wendell Holmes. Stephenson. The Emergence of the New South: 1913-1945. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State Univ. Press, 1991.
This book discusses the process of desegregation in the southeast United States. From this source I drew a quote that helped me describe the attitude of many Americans towards segregation, and it is included in my explanation of long-standing racial divide in the United States. 39
Dissertations/Scholarly Journal Articles Golemba, Beverly E. “Human Computers: The Women in Aeronautical Research.” Human Computers: The Women in Aeronautical Research. Tidewater Center, March 6, 1995. crgis.ndc.nasa.gov/crgis/images/c/c7/Golemba.pdf.
While the manuscript does not directly mention Katherine Johnson, it discusses the women of NACA who did many calculations for NASA. Johnson was part of this group of these unsung geniuses, so learning about the context in which she began her career is important.
McCuistion, Fred. “The South’s Negro Teaching Force.” The Journal of Negro Education 1, no. 1 (1932): 16. https://doi.org/10.2307/2292011.
Before entering the field of aeronautical exploration, Johnson was a teacher in fourth, fifth, sixth grade, and high school. I believe it’s important to understand her teaching career before NASA, and the way that African-Americans came into the teaching force. This helped me create more accurate background information for Johnson.
Articles Barrow-Green, June. “Women in Mathematics: The History behind the Gender Gap.” OpenLearn. The Open University, October 9, 2018. https://www.open.edu/ openlearn/science-maths-technology/mathematics-statistics/women-mathematics- the-history-behind-the-gender-gap.
I found this source useful to understand the sexism that embodies the mathematical field, which has been (and still is) largely dominated by men. Katherine Johnson is not only a woman but a black woman, and as a mathematician, she was automatically placed at a social and professional disadvantage.
Barsh, Joanna, and Lareina Yee. “Unlocking the Full Potential of Women in the US Economy.” Genius, n.d. http://news.genius.com/Joanna-barsh-unlocking-the-full- potential-of-women-in-the-us-economy-annotated.
This source discusses the influence of womens’ employment in economics, and focuses on the gap between the recognition of men and womens’ skills within professional environments. I used this article to reinforce my argument that women must work harder to achieve the same level of praise/recognition as men. 40
Blue, Jennifer, Adrienne L. Traxler, and Ximena C. Cid. “Gender Matters.” Physics Today. American Institute of Physics, March 1, 2018. https:// physicstoday.scitation.org/doi/full/10.1063/PT.3.3870.
Although Johnson’s education focused mainly on mathematics, her work at Langley Research Center was focused on physics. I used this source to deepen my understanding of the struggle women have in physics as they face sexism in a field where they typically have little to no representation. As a black woman in the 1940-70s, Katherine Johnson faced this type of underrepresentation intensely.
DeBakcsy, Dale. “Maestro Of Trajectories: The Fascinating Tale Of Katherine Johnson's Orbital Mathematics.” Women You Should Know, August 26, 2018. https://womenyoushouldknow.net/maestro-of-trajectories-the-fascinating-tale-of- katherine-johnsons-orbital-mathematics/.
This article gave an overall biography of Johnson and her career at NASA. The most important thing that I used from this source is a quote, included in my paper, which describes the achievements of Johnson in a very impactful way.
Futurism. “Meet the Woman Who Did the Calculations for the First Moon Landing.” Futurism, August 22, 2017. https://futurism.com/meet-the-woman-who-did-the- calculations-for-the-first-moon-landing.
This article describes one of the most monumental contributions Johnson made for space exploration. It provides important information regarding Apollo 11, which I used in the description of her role in the mission. Additionally, understanding that Katherine Johnson contributed to more missions other than just the famous Friendship 7 mission is important to me - it showed me the true scope of her influence at NASA.
Gohd, Chelsea. “Katherine Johnson, Trailblazing NASA Mathematician, Celebrates 100 Trips Around the Sun.” Space.com. Space, August 27, 2018. http:// www.space.com/41638-katherine-johnson-celebrates-100th-birthday.html.
I found the information about the NACA Langley laboratory to be very helpful, as well as the description of Dorothy Vaughan, a mathematician who became the first black female supervisor at NASA, who grew up in a similar situation to Johnson’s. This article also gave me the title of Katherine Johnson’s technical report, which was the first paper that a woman authored at NASA’s Langley Research Center. Knowing this title led me to more research on that technical report. 41
Gutman, David. “West Virginia Has a Complicated History with Race and Civil Rights.” Mail, October 27, 2017. https://www.wvgazettemail.com/news/west- virginia-has-a-complicated-history-with-race-and-civil/article_4805cb60-d947-5946- ab37-8f2e7f410fb3.html.
This article provided me with specific information about West Virginia’s civil rights movement which had its own challenges separate from the countrywide movement. I used this information in my paper as I described the civil rights movement as context for Johnson’s upbringing in West Virginia.
Honey, Maureen. “African American Women in World War II.” African American Women in World War II | Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, January 1, 1970. https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-now/essays/african-american- women-world-war-ii.
I found the reason for African American women flowing into professional jobs and moving away from domestic jobs as I read this article. The article also describes the persisting challenges in employment that these women faced at the time. This information was helpful to me as I discussed the dynamic of black women entering the workforce during the war.
Jha, Martand. “This Is How the Space Race Changed the Great Power Rivalry Forever.” The National Interest. The Center for the National Interest, July 27, 2017. https://nationalinterest.org/feature/how-the-space-race-changed-the-great-power- rivalry-forever-21690.
Here I gathered more information on the political and ideological aspects of the space race, especially the United States’continuous motivation to be the greatest country and dominate technological advancements. Since Johnson entered NASA during a critical time in the space race, this information has enriched my understanding of the ideological conflicts that drove NASA and Johnson to focus intensely on the Mercury Project.
Merry, Stephanie. “The Nearly Forgotten Story of the Black Women Who Helped Land a Man on the Moon.” The Washington Post. WP Company, September 13, 2016. https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/the-nearly-forgotten-story-of-the- black-women-who-helped-land-a-man-on-the-moon/ 2016/09/12/95f2d356-7504-11e6-8149-b8d05321db62_story.html.
I gathered important quotes from Margot Lee Shetterley, an expert on Johnson and the author of “Hidden Figures.” Her statements highlight the importance of seeing role models of all races, like the “brown faces” at Langley. I also read in this source that the jobs given to employees of color were often labeled “subprofessional,” which simply created another barrier keeping black people out of the spotlight. 42
Meyers, Catherine. “Exploring the Math in 'Hidden Figures'.” Inside Science, February 24, 2017. https://www.insidescience.org/news/exploring-math-hidden-figures.
An article targeted at STEM aficionados, it investigates the real calculations and mathematics used in the Friendship 7 trajectory calculations. I find it important to acknowledge and understand the mathematics that were required for the mission to succeed, especially as I briefly discuss in my paper the calculations that Katherine Johnson performed for NASA.
Min, Arya. “The Past, Present and Future of Women in STEM.” PCS Edventures. Accessed October 21, 2019. https://edventures.com/blogs/stempower/the-past- present-and-future-of-women-in-stem.
This article includes a timeline of advancements for women in science, technology, engineering, and mathematical fields. It gave me an understanding of the gender gap within these fields that still exists, and the ways that the gender dynamic has changed over time. This is relevant to my paper because it focuses on the gender barriers Johnson faced as a woman in a time of significant sexism.
Onion, Rebecca. “The Amazing Cold War Advocates for Women in Science.” Slate Magazine. Slate, July 14, 2014. https://slate.com/technology/2014/07/women-in- science-technology-engineering-math-history-of-advocacy-from-1940-1980.html.
This article provided me with a different perspective on the Cold War and feminism. It describes the Cold War as an obstacle for women in science and technology fields. In order to holistically understand the context of Johnson’s scientific work, I must consider this argument and assess the Cold War as a possible obstacle as I describe its impact on women mathematicians.
Porter-Nichols, Stephanie. “Council Honors One-Time Marion Teacher Katherine Johnson of 'Hidden Figures'.” SWVa Today, May 7, 2019.
Most sources that include an autobiography mention that Johnson was a teacher before her career at NASA, but this article, written specifically by a Southern West Virginia publication, gave me the details I needed about what she taught in school and what grade levels she taught. These details about her teaching job are included in my paper. 43
Roberson, Stephen. “Katherine Johnson.” Katherine Johnson. Accessed October 8, 2019. http://www.nsbp.org/nsbp-news/bhm-physics-profiles/2017-honorees/34- katherine-johnson.
The National Society of Black Physicists recognizes Katherine Johnson as an important historical figure, which speaks to her barrier breaking ability to open doors for women and people of color in the field of physics. The article provided me with important biographical information and key dates in her career.
Rouse, Parker. “Hampton Archive: Early Days at Langley Were Colorful,” March 25, 1990. https://www.dailypress.com/history/dp-hampton400-archive-langley2- story.html.
Early scientists at Langley are described in this article as “bearded,” which speaks to the clear male majority of the research facility. This detail provided me with further evidence that supports the claim that Langley, as well as NASA mathematicians as a whole, were mostly male.
Shetterly, Margot Lee. “The Woman the Mercury Astronauts Couldn't Do Without - Issue 43: Heroes.” Nautilus, December 1, 2016. http://nautil.us/issue/43/heroes/the- woman-the-mercury-astronauts-couldnt-do-without
Shetterly, the author of this article, as well as the author of the book, “Hidden Figures,” has gathered an enormous amount of information regarding Katherine Johnson. This article features many quotes from Johnson and her professors in school, which helped me contextualize her education and her background. The article also describes in great detail the racist circumstances in which she worked, and the logistics and importance of the calculations she did for the Space-Race era missions.
Sichynsky, Tanya. “How World War II Opened the Door for One of the First Black Women at NASA.” The Washington Post. WP Company, April 21, 2019. https:// www.washingtonpost.com/news/arts-and-entertainment/wp/2016/09/19/how-world- war-ii-opened-the-door-for-one-of-the-first-black-women-at-nasa/.
The story of the very beginning of black women working at NASA (formerly NACA) provided me context that explains the shift in NASA towards more diverse employment. I found this source useful in describing the increase of demand for workers during the war, which led to more minority groups being hired in professional fields. 44
Smith, Kiona N. “Katherine Johnson Fought To Get Credit For Her Work.” Forbes. Forbes Magazine, August 30, 2018. http://www.forbes.com/sites/kionasmith/ 2018/08/30/katherine-johnson-fought-to-get-credit-for-her-work/#2eee999b597e.
Johnson wasn’t given credit as an author of her research papers and calculations for NASA for a significant period of her career, nor were other black female computers. I used this article to understand that this issue was widespread among black females, especially when I discuss their general lack of recognition in my paper.
“Space Race Timeline.” Royal Museums Greenwich | UNESCO World Heritage Site In London. Accessed 2019. https://www.rmg.co.uk/discover/explore/space-race- timeline.
The clear and concise format of this timeline helped me more easily view the key accomplishments and dates of the Space Race era. This information gave me the date for the first United States satellite, Explorer 1, that I used in my paper, as well as a solid overall understanding of the pace and scope of the space exploration period.
Sylvester, Roshanna. “John Glenn and the Sexism of the Early Space Program.” Smithsonian.com. Smithsonian Institution, December 14, 2016. http:// www.smithsonianmag.com/history/even-though-i-am-girl-john-glenns-fan-mail-and- sexism-early-space-program-180961443/.
Focusing on the sexism that many women had internalized even as they admired John Glenn, this article gave me an important perspective to the way women were viewed at the time that Johnson was doing important calculations. Since she did not get mainstream recognition until later in her life, many girls at the time still didn’t have a figure to look up to in aeronautics and especially in space exploration. I used this in my paper to fully describe the nature of this period’s sexism.
Walsh, Kenneth T. “The 1960s: A Decade of Change for Women.” U.S. News & World Report. U.S. News & World Report, March 12, 2010. https://www.usnews.com/news/ articles/2010/03/12/the-1960s-a-decade-of-change-for-women.
The 1960s represent a period of systematic change for minority groups and women -- the way people interacted, the way they entered the workforce, and the subject of segregation all were transformed by this time period. As a woman in a heavily male-dominated field at this time, Johnson experienced these changes in a unique way. I used this source to reinforce the idea that the civil rights movement was turbulent and tense, and how it specifically affected women. 45
Wild, Flint. “Katherine Johnson: A Lifetime of STEM.” NASA. NASA, November 16, 2015. http://www.nasa.gov/audience/foreducators/a-lifetime-of-stem.html.
Katherine Johnson’s impressive advancement through school is highlighted in this article, like the fact that she entered high school at ten years old and received her degrees at age 18. Another important element of this article is the emphasis on the lessons that many young students interested in STEM can learn from Johnson’s life.