Revista Internacional de Cooperación y Desarrollo Dossier "Humanitarismo en Latinoamérica: Pasado y Presente" Oscar A. Gómez (Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific University) y Simone Lucatello (Instituto de Investigaciones Dr. José María Luis Mora) Editores invitados

Side-Gigs of the Literati: Humanitarianism at its Best Actividades paralelas de los literatos: el humanitarismo en su máxima expresión Yvonne Captain1

Copyright: © 2020 Abstract Revista Internacional de Cooperación y Desarrollo. Esta revista proporciona acceso abierto a todos sus contenidos This article examines a specific case and a particular style of bajo los términos de la licencia creative commons Atribución– humanitarianism that one finds in celebrity activism. In 2013, the NoComercial–SinDerivar 4.0 Internacional (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) Dominican Republic issued Judgment 168-13, deciding that many

Tipo de artículo: Artículo de Revisión people in the country were not citizens. It was a clear act of purging Recibido: marzo de 2020 people of Haitian descent. It was the Judgment against Juliana Revisado: junio 2020 Deguis. Hence, she became the “poster child” for a legal, cultural, and Aceptado: junio de 2020 humanitarian struggle in existence for decades, indeed more than a Autores century. With a focus on literary superstars, I endeavor to show how 1 Profesora de Literatura y Estudios Internacionales. Departa- such a difficult situation can move closer to a solution, if not a complete mento de Lenguas Romances. George Washington University (EE.UU). Investigadora Principal-"'Apellidos' africanos". resolution. Correo electrónico: [email protected] Keywords: Celebrity activism; constructivism; diplomacy; ORCID: 0000-0001-7598-3433 humanitarianism; intermestic; Judgment 168-13; non-state actors; public sphere; rational choice. Acknowledgments I wish to thank the GW CIBER grant for its generous support as Resumen I read a version of this paper at the International Studies Asso- Este artículo examina un caso específico y un estilo particular de ciation. My heartfelt “thank you” also extends to my colleague Professor Cynthia McClintock who read the manuscript and humanitarismo que se encuentra en el activismo de las celebridades. provided comments that helped to shape the final essay. En 2013, República Dominicana emitió la Sentencia 168-13, en la que decidió que muchas personas en el país no eran ciudadanos. Fue un acto claro de purga de personas de ascendencia haitiana. Fue la Sentencia contra Juliana Deguis. Por lo tanto, se convirtió en la “niña modelo” de una lucha legal, cultural y humanitaria que ha existido durante décadas, de hecho, más de un siglo. Con un enfoque en las Cómo citar: superestrellas literarias, procuraré mostrar cómo una situación tan Captain, Y. (2020). Side-Gigs of the Literati: Humanitarianism at difícil puede acercarse a una solución, que quizá sea una resolución its Best. Revista Internacional de Cooperación y Desarrollo. 7(1).62-81 DOI 10.21500/23825014.4731 completa. Palabras clave: activismo de celebridades; constructivismo; diplomacia; humanitarismo; interméstico; Juicio 168-13; actores no estatales; esfera pública; decisión racional. Dossier "Humanitarismo en Latinoamérica: Pasado y Presente"

I. Introduction the advice of those outside of its borders? This essay interrogates the 2013 Sentencia1 Given that this humanitarian crisis is a long (Judgment) 168-13 of the Dominican simmering one, how might the Dominican Republic. It explores how South-South Republic serve as a model to other nations actors made a difference in its outcome. whose citizens experience similar, although My title playfully suggests idol passions not the same, abuses? of literary figures, but these literati took Seemingly a domestic issue, the seriously the notion of the right of every Judgment has far-ranging cross-border and human being to a sense of belonging and transnational implications, especially when worth. Further, their extra-literary actions the observer considers the determination of are in tandem with their approaches to South-South arbiters of justice. (Chaudoin, literature. I study the involvement of Mario 2014). The Judgment is an intermestic3 issue Vargas Llosa and the group of scholars and because its actions and decisions spill over activists Julia Álvarez, Edwidge Danticat, into other countries. Domestic concerns Junot Diaz, and Mark Kurlansky.2 become intermestic because the choices The Judgment ruled that one young one country makes have significant bearing woman, Julia Deguis, did not hold on what happens in another country. Dominican citizenship and, therefore, One should not ignore these intermestic she could not vote or exercise any rights properties of the Judgment as, without pertaining to citizens of the country. It exposure, these internal concerns could marked a milestone in the history of the continue to fly under the radar of global country, ostensibly for all non-citizens of attention. Such blatant machinations the nation, but, in fact, for those of Haitian as Judgment 168-13 enter humanitarian descent. As an intellectual quandary, history as unfitting for a nation of great the Judgment makes it easy to see how moral stature and international sway –the one might conclude that if a person has image that the Dominican Republic is eager citizenship elsewhere, then the person is to project to the world. In fact, according to not a citizen in another place. The problem Mendelson, the country received plaudits. with the Dominican argument is that It was lifting its citizens out of poverty. In Deguis was never a citizen of Haiti. its own humanitarian efforts, it aided Haiti In such a monumental judgment, my when the 2010 earthquake devastated query is a multi-pronged one: how was it that French and Kreyol speaking country. possible for a government to operate under It was a sincere effort on the part of the international radar regarding its citizens? Dominican Republic, and many took it as What changes must take place that make a sign of healing between the two nations it necessary for a sovereign nation to heed (Mendelson, 2011). However, events that 1 In various publications the reader might find several followed proved that harmonious co- English translations of the word “sentencia” such existence is still in the making. as “judgment,” “ruling,” or “decision”. For the sake of Admittedly, this island nation is not consistency, I will refer to the word “sentencia” in the case alone in its draconian measures to stem of Sentencia 168-13 as “Judgment”with a capital “J”. the influx of ethnic and racial groups that 2 Mario Vargas Llosa is the Nobel-prize winning novelist who frequently writes opinion pieces for newspapers it deems undesirable. Such a segregationist such as El país from Spain. He holds dual citizenship policy towards one or more ethnic groups in Spain and in his native Peru. Junot Díaz and Julia is evident in countries of the virtual Global Álvarez are of Dominican descent and Edwidge Danticat is of Haitian descent. The latter three –all 3 The language and concept of “intermestic” as expressed prize-winning writers– live in the United States, as does by La Porte (2012) and others is valuable to me here. See the journalist Mark Kurlansky. Reference Section.

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North as well as in the virtual Global South.4 to reach the mainland U.S.5 As the research Whether ethnic cleansing, a holocaust, and writing of this article progressed, genocide, police brutality, or some other Venezuela produced Latin America’s largest form of group hatred, many countries migrant outflow in decades. In general, harbor deep-seated animosity towards whether the immigrants are attempting their neighbors and even towards their own to enter a Global North country or another citizens who are of a different ethnic and Global South country, the rebuff they cultural make up. In this unprecedented receive is telling. Nevertheless, even though moment of mass migration, Global North the Dominican Republic is not unique in countries mainly seek to rebuff would-be- its actions or passions, Judgment 168-13 immigrants from the Global South nations, stood out in the twenty-first century for its but the latter grouping of countries does boldness and determination to eliminate the same towards fellow Global South all vestiges of a Haitian past and present. nations. Now with the pandemic COVID-19, In gauging which countries receive the nastiness of the rebuffs multiply the effects of the Judgement, of obvious exponentially, illogically blaming victims of import is Haiti, but also member states of the sickness for all manner of woes within the Caribbean, especially the Caribbean the country where they happen to reside. Community and Common Market The practice knows no limits regarding (CARICOM). The Tribunal Court of the periods in history or to unscrupulous Dominican Republic agreed with the methods to hide them from view. Further, lower court with this pronouncement governments are adept at flaming the about Deguis “[S]he was not a citizen and hatred that would keep the new people therefore, could not exercise such privilege outside of its borders. Hundreds of years [the right to vote]”.6 before the current Dominican example, the I draw mainly from the broad definition practice was in place around the world, and of humanitarianism through the actions it will more than likely occur well into the of celebrity activists to show how reactions future. It is not necessary to dwell on the to the Judgment might serve as a case headlining countries whose actions inform study beyond one nation and as a means of the public like Italy, Germany, or Spain and mapping future possibilities of navigating the boatloads of Global South migrants diplomatic and humanitarian situations, seeking haven on their shores. Instead, particularly as they are more inclusive of non- the reader might think about Central state actors. A study of reactions to Judgment Americans, and now Africans, attempting 168-13 is a confirmation of the shifting role to use Mexico as a gateway to the United of non-state actors in twenty-first century States or to start anew in Mexico. One can global affairs (Sending, et al., 2011). also consider Ethiopians in South Africa or Sub-Saharan Africans who are choosing 5 The Immigration and Customs Enforcement - ICE arm to make Maghreb countries their home– of Homeland Security in the United States consistently whether the new country wants them or shows that Dominicans are one of the highest groups of “removals” or deportees. For example, in 2019, there not. Ironically, one learns about a steady were 2,186 deportees from the Dominican Republic, influx of undocumented Dominicans more than any other country in the Caribbean. This directly or traveling through Puerto Rico comparison includes the deportation of 619 Haitians. See Reference Section for complete citation. 4 There are no geophysical locations on any world map 6 Constitución. Sentencia TC/0168/13 República with the designations “Global South” or “Global North”. Dominicana Tribunal Constitutional P.11/147. See Hence, there is the need to refer to them as virtual Reference Section regions.

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When sharing my concerns regarding This situation was ripe for humanitarian this Judgment, I was not surprised that action. Responsibility to Protect (R2P) my students and most of my colleagues activities were an admirable step in that were unaware of it, despite the admirably direction, but clearly more was necessary as high level of international activity at my regional governing bodies tried, but failed university. Within the broader world to move the Dominican Republic from its community, there is a dearth of news stance. “Side Gigs of the Literati” analyzes focusing on the Global South. Within portions of the exposure of this negative academia, only now are we beginning to see development in recent history. As such, a measure of interest in the Global South this essay deals with the three factors that outside of specific academic fields dealing Gómez outlines as key to humanitarian with development. Beyond issues like approaches: crisis, action, and actors starvation, mass genocide, and terrorism, (Gómez, 2019). While there are many actors major news outlets are not providing the who are worthy of research in this historical world’s citizens with a satisfactory amount case, I focus on one small group. Their of information on what happens within actions do not reveal the entire story, but the virtual region that is the Global South. they obviously made inroads into the way Finally, one sees little attention for the that the Dominican government responded internal politics of many Global South to the issue. countries, especially when activities occur in a language other than English and II. Methodology when these activities have no perceived Humanitarian Studies is a developing impact on the Global North. Therefore, area of scholarship and allows me to when issues like Judgment 168-13 transpire, draw on several scholarly resources few outside of the region most directly (Lucatello, 2017). It is not possible to limit affected by the issue, and few outside of my methodology to one field of inquiry. In the intellectual community that studies order to answer the questions that I posed the country, notice its development. As at the beginning of this essay, it is necessary such, the happenings within a Global to combine approaches. Analysis through South country often do not receive the humanitarianism, in my research, cannot same level of scrutiny of a few Global be separate from new forms of diplomacy. North countries. In the case of negative Further, within these two, a look at old- activities, such inattention too often leaves fashioned rationalism, and constructivist rogue and otherwise wayward actors to do inquiry aid in getting to the heart of my what they will. There is little pressure from study. None of the approaches negates the international groups –outside of a select use of the others (Epstein, 2013; Hopf, 2013; few– to have a government rethink its Gómez, 2019). In fact, Sharp lays out ways stance. It is logical that those who receive in which scholarship on diplomacy and direct consequences from decisions are the other forms of inquiry must find ways to ones most likely to pay close attention. On collaborate. Humanitarianism is useful in the other hand, there are times when it is both scholarship and action in this regard imperative to expose globally the ugliness (Sharp, 2009). of the seemingly domestic actions beyond Further, as I attempt to answer my the neighborhood of states surrounding own primary research question, I had the offending government. to wade through a series of dilemmas confronting me on this issue in the

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Dominican Republic. On the one hand: their attack on Judgment 168-13. For these 1) should not any sovereign nation have literary figures, I will continually refer to the right and even the desire to define them as the literati and acknowledge that who is a citizen and who is not? After all, theirs is not state-to-state discourse, not we in the Americas are far from achieving truly non-state-actor-to state, but rather the ultimate borderless entity that could non-state actors addressing the public writ see the complete unfettered movement large. Whereas the diplomat is a nearly of people throughout the region. 2) invisible actor in the equation between Throughout my scholarly life, I insist states, the non-state actors are bold in their that groups of people have the right to attempts at persuasion, seemingly not define themselves, including those that caring, but, in fact, hoping, that the world form a nation. Therefore, who am I to witnesses the entire exchange. In this sense, state otherwise? 3) Seeking models of I look at the literati in the public sphere. best practices on which the Dominican Related to the question of exposure of government can base its decisions, I found heinous issues or simply mundane ones, very little to encourage this analysis. the Global South historically receives scant Many readers might ask what the United attention for its humanitarian and even States –or Britain, France, or Germany– diplomatic efforts. (Braveboy-Wagner & would do in similar situations. While any Snarr, 2003; Gómez, 2019; Zvogo, 2019). Even practice might serve as a model of what less scrutiny acknowledges humanitarian is possible and what is not, the focus here efforts among Global South nations, and is on a) a small state7 that is b) part of the as such, it is an under-studied component developing world and that is c) squarely of south-south research. Typically, it is engaged in South-South relationships. the assumption that existing frameworks Even before the time that the case was in of humanitarianism, diplomacy and decision, the United States was not always a international relations theory hold the model of immigration policies. During the key to analyzing all manner of interactions Trump administration, advice about how and for all societies. I would also add that to handle immigration in the Dominican scholars and practitioners often overlook Republic and anywhere else would come domestic concerns within these developing across as very hypocritical, if not cynical. countries because they deem them as Yet, tackling these dilemmas, I believe to having no pertinence to international have come up with some useful tools of issues. Fortunately, such attitudes are analysis. A partial answer lies in scholarship changing, and we are seeing the budding that acknowledges the non-state actors results in scholarship, including on South- who are outside of the official diplomatic South humanitarianism (Gómez, 2019; and government circles, but who insist Lucatello, 2017). on being key players on the world stage. My increasingly specific pursuit becomes III. Exposing Judgment 168-13 literary giants, mainly of the Global South in In the scholarship and reportage on the subject of Judgment 168-13, logically, 7 When defining small states, I choose to focus on the size of the population, not the economy or other factors. the focus is on the horrific actions and Not all small states are developing economies, but consequences of the decision (Carrón, many of the developing economies are small states. 2013; Cote-Muñoz, et al., 2015; García, 2016; Important for me is that there are strategies particular to their size that they use to carry sway in the world. Katz, 2018; Pelletier, 2020, Ricourt, 2016; (Braveboy-Wagner, 2008; Cooper & Shaw, 2012; Corgan, Sala, 2013; Schoaf, 2016). Exposing how 2008 & Hey, 2003).

REVISTA INTERNACIONAL DE COOPERACIÓN Y DESARROLLO / VOL 7 NUM 1 / ENERO - JUNIO DE 2020 / CARTAGENA COLOMBIA / E-ISSN: 2382-5014 66 Dossier "Humanitarismo en Latinoamérica: Pasado y Presente" the decision lacks validity contributes to that Deguis had the right to claim citizenship this burgeoning scholarship. If one takes in Haiti and, therefore, should “go home” to Judgment 168-13 literally, solutions to it that country. Newspapers sympathetic to would be relatively easy. For example, just the government supported the judgment by showing that Ms. Deguis had the right to wholly, including the predictable vote in the country of her birth and returning accusation that “outside agitators” were the the birth certificate to this Dominican cause of this nuisance. For example, Melvin would have put an end to the legal case in Matthews, columnist for the newspaper which a regional judge was seemingly too Hoy (Today) had this to say: “She is Haitian, zealous in his ruling. However, it is clear that protected by the Constitution of Haiti. Why the matter had not-so-hidden components doesn’t Haiti issue her an identity card that defy logic. Despite the Judgment that and a passport?”9 However, in subsequent purported to rid the country of all non- interviews with her, the press confirmed Dominican permanent residents regardless her birth in the Dominican Republic and of their origins, the de facto target of the revealed that she never set foot in Haiti. judgment was people of Haitian descent Crucially, citizenship was at stake for in the country. Furthermore, initially, the over 200.000 Dominican-born people judgment retroactively included all Haitian (Inter-American Commission on Human descendant people –identified, in part, by Rights - IACHR, 2015). The claim by Deguis Haitian-sounding names– as far back as is that she is a Dominican citizen by virtue 1929, leaving no doubt as to which people of her birth in the country. The situation in the Dominican Republic received the grew beyond the individual who is Deguis brunt of its repercussions (Ricourt, 2016). and spoke to the issue of domestic rights If one is not familiar with a particular for thousands of Dominicans. It was never circumstance, especially its longstanding solely about this one individual (Peguero, history, a logical reaction is to take at face 2016). In fact, the Dominican courts ruled value the explanation of those making the that Deguis is now a citizen of the country. claim. Accepting the Judgment word-for- However, the problems with Judgment 168- word would have de-nationalized many 13 did not stop there. By extension, for many Dominican citizens. At the time of the Haitian Dominicans the claim involves the Judgment, the country had limited jus soli multi-generational permanence of their or birthright citizenship, but did not act on families in the country. Paradoxically, when its legality with any other group of people. the Dominican Court initially ruled that Such inaction before the Judgment gives Deguis was not a citizen, they deprived her this reader pause. of the right to leave the country because she This decision is historically very had no passport. A state of limbo continues significant –with implications far beyond to exist for too many. In the wake of the long simmering animosities between growing international condemnation, the the Dominican Republic and neighboring Dominican Courts issued Judgment 168-14, Haiti.8 Further, it is apparent that, in their which modified slightly the original ruling rationalist actions, the judges anticipated 168-13. Among other changes, no longer some international criticism when they would the Courts insist on making the focused on the question of rights to a decision retroactive to 1929. While certainly nationality. The judgment tacitly suggested an improvement, this act did not strike at 9 “Ella es haitiana, protegida por la Constitución de 8 See below for some historical context on Dominican- Haití. ¿Por qué Haití no le expide cédula y pasaporte?” Haitian relations. translation mine. See Matthews reference below.

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the core of the problem –accepting as full against the Dominican Republic, it is citizens the Dominicans whose ancestors likely that the outcome of the Deguis case were Haitians. has some permanence and that future generations of people of Haitian descent IV. Context for Judgment 168-13 in the Dominican Republic will suffer less Deguis was not the first person to legally indignities. However, one cannot claim sue the Dominican Republic for citizenship. total victory in this area. In 2005, Dilcia Yean and Violeta Boscio did While reactions to Judgment 168-13 the same and won the right to that sacred are useful for understanding domestic claim in the country of their birth. Yet, one of atrocities in other nations, it is necessary the immediate precursors to Judgment 168- to examine each country, each situation 13 is Law 285 that dates from 2004. This law within its own context. It speaks to the defined Dominican children of parents born intermestic properties of a particular elsewhere as non-citizens because they action –how the Dominican Republic and were offspring of people “in transit”. In effect, Haiti have fought since their beginnings the law de-nationalized both the children, to separate identities. Negative attitudes even though they had certificates of birth towards its neighbor were in existence for and other legal documents like the national so long in the Dominican Republic that identification card showing that they were the phrase “anti-Haitianism” captures the from the Dominican Republic. There was sentiment. It partially explains why the outcry, particularly from the neighbors of government methodically planned its the country in the Caribbean. A few of the actions leading up to the Judgment to carry many Dominicans of Haitian descent like out illegal mass deportations (Ricourt, 2016, Yean and Boscio who sued in court, won p. 38). On the surface, anti-Haitianism was their cases and achieved citizenship, with a deep-seated suspicion and even hatred some caveats though. Yet, the majority of for all that connotes Haitian background: those affected by the Law continued to suffer from thoughts on the very definition of from its blow. It was not until Ruling 168-13 civilization to the deep hue of one’s skin that international attention far beyond the color to the texture of one’s hair (Shoaff, region began to focus on its implications. 2016). As I briefly discuss in this paper, it In 2015, the Inter-American Commission is more complicated than that below the on Human Rights (IACHR) further showed surface. Importantly, I build my research that the Dominican Republic had no right based on the weary declaration of Torres- to declare such Haitian Dominicans as Saillant. The Dominican people do not being “in transit” decade after decade. reject any notion of African ancestry and When it appeared that the world forgot presence, but the ruling elite often do.10 these judgments, the Dominican courts re- It is telling that, despite the long history instituted their decision to deny citizenship of Dominican-Haitian relations appearing to those they considered “in transit” or in written format, scholars continue to feel otherwise undesirable. The judgments the need for explaining anti-Haitianism. state their opposition to anyone who Context is a partial reason for this complex does not fit their definition of Dominican history. However, as the scholarship gains citizens, but if there are records of people ever-wider readership, there is a need to not of Haitian descent who are “in transit”, explain again the relationship. Younger these records are very few. Despite earlier atrocities and the subsequent judgments 10 See Torres-Saillant in the Reference Section.

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and pass legislation. In recent history, the between the dueling camps of President infamous activities surrounding the 1996 Medina and former President Fernández. presidential bid of the late José Francisco She viewed Judgment 168-13 as having Peña Gómez provide further claims to anti- a profound impact on the presidential Haitianism on the part of Dominicans.11 election of that season, as it did in the Although his surname legally would not past for those seeking to satisfy what the have placed him in jeopardy of deportation ultra-right dictates.14 Anti-Haitianism is because of Judgment 168-13, Peña Gómez arguably now on the wane, but it mattered apparently has a Haitian background a great deal in the Judgment. and, purportedly, he is a descendant of Racism and anti-Haitianism are well- parents who died in the same “Parsley rehearsed explanations for why the Massacre” that I mention above. Most relationship between the Dominican Dominicans voted for him, although he Republic and Haiti were often rocky or did not win enough votes to prevent a run- even why the treatment of Dominicans off election against Leonel Fernández12. toward Haitian descent was so blatantly Afraid that Peña-Gómez might win negative. Yet, despite the validity of claims the presidency, the ruling elite literally of anti-Haitianism in the country, ethnicity painted such a negative portrait of this –more than race– is one of the roots of the Dominican that he lost his bid to become issue. Most Dominicans do have the blood president. Fernández who was not of the of sub-Saharan Africa in their veins, and right political wing, sided with that ruling increasingly they publicly acknowledge elite, giving legitimacy to the aphorism that.15 For those with no background in “politics makes strange bedfellows”.13 African Diaspora debates, this may seem Apparently winning the prize of leader of to be a trivial issue. However, this fact alone the country stood above other goals for his adds to the peculiar mix of sentiments and nation. Long after Trujillo’s assassination, actions of the Dominican people. Given that candidates continued to be successful at racial identification is often a question of swaying the public with fears of a Haitian choice, the Dominican Republic often fell takeover, in similar ways to what the below the radar of interracial strife before dictator accomplished. In contemplation recent public declarations of blackness for of the 2016 presidential elections, the many prominent Dominicans. Oddly, even noted educator Rosario Espinal wrote of Trujillo spoke of the Dominican Republic the feud within the ruling party, especially as a model for racial tolerance. No matter 14 See her many blog entries, among them: “Leonel 11 It is difficult to imagine anti-Haitian elements Fernández A Contracorriente” https://rosarioespinal. increasing their level of hatred, but, in one of the ugliest wordpress.com/2014/11/12/leonel-fernandez-a- political campaigns of modern times, the former mayor contracorriente/ and “¡La Patria! ¿Cuál Patria?” Julio 30, of Santo Domingo and the winning candidate of the 2014. In addition, her many publications are useful. See Dominican Revolutionary Party was not only vilified references in her blog: https://rosarioespinal.wordpress. as incompetent and ill-meaning, but also his distant com/ Haitian origins became a rallying cry against him. 15 I often make a distinction between public expressions 12 Torres-Saillant points this out when he discusses a of racial identification and the everyday practices of Dominican way of embracing blackness. See Torres- people who go about their lives without contemplating Saillant 2003 race. For the Dominican Republic one can consider the 13 Ricourt. p. 39 reminds us of other seemingly works of the poet Blás Jiménez, novelists Junot Diaz and contradictory political moments in the history of the Nelly Rosario, as well as scholars García Peña, Torres- two nations: “[A[l-though physical, cultural, political, Saillant and Sherezada (Chiqui) Vicioso, just to name a and symbolic borders divide the Dominican Republic few. In addition, see Captain, “Aída Cartagena Portalatín: and Haiti, dictators and antidemocratic forces have ¿intelectual entre iguales?” which references the above- cooperated across it.” mentioned Dominicans in the Reference Section.

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with his first novel The Time of the Hero in shared understanding”, each of the letter 1963. One of his latest novels, The Feast of writers had to cease, at least temporarily, the Goat, 2000, is a gripping depiction of viewing themselves as belonging to one or Rafael Trujillo and the events leading up even two groups simultaneously. Instead, to his assassination. In the case of Julia they had to think in terms of a larger, global Álvarez, Edwidge Danticat, Junot Díaz, and society of compassionate souls who would balk at, and possibly apply pressure to, the Mark Kurlansky (2013) the reason for their authorities. The fact that they hailed mostly intervention may be more obvious. All are from the developing world was a plus in social activists in their own right, and the their ability to garner support for the cause three literary stars frequently pen tomes of Deguis and others like her. It is precisely that address the anti-Haitianism present this sense of shared social character in Dominican society. Both Julia Álvarez that propelled the literati to the relative and Junot Díaz continually write about success that they helped to bring about. the politically dominant Dominican elite In truth, their approaches were not a strict forces, including continuing Trujillismo16. dictionary definition of humanitarianism Despite the present self-inflicted woes of and diplomacy. In the case of the former, Junot Díaz, it is unlikely that he will cease to none of the literati wrote for an NGO or pillory the Dominican elite. Add to this the organization with formal recognition. fact that Haitian-born Edwidge Danticat Mario Vargas Llosa wrote from within the daily newspaper El País, and this was not a does not shy away from tackling any issues commissioned piece on human rights, but that relate to the troubled, yet beloved rather, a part of his regular contributions place of her birth. Award winning journalist to the journal. In addition, the literati Mark Kurlansky (2013; 2014) aided in acted decidedly outside of government providing the perfect storm for upstaging a diplomatic circles –as there is no indication recalcitrant Dominican elite. that they sent either letter with the Finally, both the solitary figure Mario permission or knowledge of their respective Vargas Llosa and the quadrumvirate governments. Hence, their actions are more appointed themselves as “people at citizen humanitarianism and diplomacy. ambassadors”, preferring to take their Clearly, both groups of literati wrote messages directly to a global audience. As seeking to engage both the government Sharp indicates, of the Dominican Republic as well as the global public. Both were aware that the It is possible, indeed probable, that public letters would end up in the hands even in the absence of a government of government officials. At the same time, or overarching authority, relations by writing open letters in newspapers with between peoples can develop a social high readerships, the two groups of literati character in the sense of shared were keenly aware that their efforts would understandings, conventions and rules garner a response by both the larger public about what is, and what is supposed and by the government and its followers. to be, going on (Berridge, 2010; Sharp, For the government and its supporters, 2009; 114, pp. 290-292). history was a partial guide to its decision. The Parsley Massacres, the continued Even though Sharp analyzes primarily poverty of Haiti that sees its citizens seeking nation states and not groups like literati, employment in its neighbor’s country, his words ring true. To create a “sense of through the once porous borders, the 16 Trujillismo was the dictator’s governing style that imposed its inability of the international diplomatic will with violence and fear. To this day, its effects are in place in corps to render any decisive blow to their the country, and there continue to be people who defend his reign. actions, undoubtedly contributed to their

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While it bears relation to many of the broad 17 Admittedly, Copeland analyzes former guerrilla warriors, as issues of the day –economic disparities, they become legitimized leaders of their countries. However, ethnic animosities, border disputes– the there is no reason why the tactics they used during war cannot serve to describe the tactics for the war on words waged by the primary catalyst for even the small amount literati against the government of the Dominican Republic.

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century take on Habermas, is an opposite In addition, Junot Díaz saw the revocation of officialdom– had an impact on where the of the Order of Merit that he received in issue of Haitian descendant Dominicans 2009 (Kellog, 2015). Yet, in no instance, stands today. Their approach benefitted was the opposition to the literati able to from part of what Hopf terms “mass engender much empathy beyond the public common sense” (Habermas, 1993; Hopf, that was pro-government in the first place. 2013; Black Public Sphere Collective, 1995). Further, unlike with the letters written by “Guerrilla diplomacy,” while initially an the literati, there is little indication that analysis of how former guerrilla warriors the attacks by the government’s supporters enter the global diplomatic communities, is held sway beyond the borders of the particularly apropos here. Absent physical Dominican Republic. Finally and in yet war, some of the tactics that the literati another paradox, the Dominican Republic employed are remarkably similar to some is one of the nations whose current literary of the actions that guerrilla fighters use in figures livingwithin the country receive less times of battle. Strike when your opponent acknowledgment in the larger world than least expects it; use whatever means is their ex-pats. Julia Álvarez, Junot Díaz, and available to you; get the public on your side; a host of other writers of Dominican descent continue to attack until there are results; garner more fame than their brethren and finally, move on to the next fighting arena. sisters within the nation.20 Far from making In the case of the literati, this could be a critique of the talent of those who remain simply a return to their fictional pieces. in the Dominican Republic, I wish to remark Both the lone critic of the Judgment, that, because of their global recognition, Mario Vargas Llosa, and the group of the ex-pats were successful in their goal to protesters that I highlight above received focus world attention on the cause that is in pushback indirectly from the government opposition to Judgment 168-13. and through the elite’s faithful supporters. In some ways, the literati’s actions For Mario Vargas Llosa, there were opinion are exemplary in South-South pieces stating, “Who does he think he is?” humanitarianism. Not only are four of the since he is not of Dominican descent. In literary giants from the developing world addition, there were efforts to declare and continue to identify themselves in that him and family members as persona way, so are many of the humanitarian and non grata in the country.18 The harshest diplomatic actors who involved themselves criticism of the group of four went to the in protesting Judgment 168-13. two Dominican ex-pats, particularly their diminished skills in the Spanish language.19

18 https://eldia.com.do/piden-declarar-vargas-llosa- 20 The greater the number of printings, the more likelihood persona-grata-en-republica-dominicana/ The of reaching a broader audience. In many countries, Dominican government did declare his son Gonzalo, including the Dominican Republic, a writer can expect who lived in the country, as persona non grata: the press to print 3,000 copies of a publication; often they https://elcomercio.pe/mundo/actualidad/republica- print 1,000. In contrast, the literati who are the focus of this dominicana-declaran-personanon-grata-hijo-mario- article, see publications in the 100,000 range and higher. vargas-llosa-noticia-1658378/ This truth might seem contradictory in the case of former 19 Their open letter was in the English language, President Balaguer who, even years after his death, has the and so their critics were committing on their works distinction of being one of the most read Dominicans, but that had no direct bearing on the letter. Julia Álvarez within his country, and with small printings each time. As and Junot Díaz both address how their language skills Torres-Saillant points out, his La isla al revés: Haití y el destino changed since ending their formative years in the United dominicano has yet to go out of print, despite its initial States and not in their native Dominican Republic. debut in 1983. Its torrid anti-Hatianism is a major reason However, even if they wrote the letter in “Spanglish,” why upper-class Dominicans continue to buy it. (Torres- it would not have diminished its scathing power. The Saillant 1994) Unlike with the ex-pats Álvarez and Díaz, message of the government’s historical cruelty towards there is no evidence of a non-Dominican following of this its Haitian descendants would have been just as clear. or his other works.

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VII. Getting to “Yes”: Community and Common Market, 2013; While this paper by no means can offer Braveboy-Wagner, 2008, p. 152; Linos & the solution to such a protracted problem Pegram, 2016). While seemingly innocuous as a nation that repeatedly mistreats its condemnations, the Dominican government own people, it, nonetheless, traced some understood the carefully measured steps of the actions on the road to success so far official diplomacy was taking in order to and suggested some measures that might move forward incrementally with stronger further the remedy along. In this case, that actions. Yet, the Dominican Republic could be nudging Dominican decision traveled a similar path before and with the makers towards a different outcome. same regional bodies as well as the global Moreover, how the Global South treats the polity, that is the United Nations. What was issue of Judgment 168-13 is instructive for different this time? Certainly, not a change what South-South diplomacy is capable of heart in the Dominican government. of achieving. In what I deem to be a very The literati can claim victory, even if they positive development, regional bodies were only part of the solution. The decisive such as CARICOM and, to a lesser degree, activists of non-state actors, who happen to the Organization of American States (OAS) have star power, did not require prolonged responded with the type of vehemence that contemplation or action for their success. “officialdom” permits: “we are concerned” The two separate letters to the editors –one and later “we are very concerned”. Officials in by man of letters Mario Vargas Llosa and the government agencies and affiliated bodies other by artists and activists such as Julia must speak and act in an approved, measured Álvarez, Edwidge Danticat, and Junot Díaz, way. Thus, they voice “concern” and “deep along with journalist and activist writer concern” rather than outright indignation. Mark Kurlansky et al., (2013)– exemplify Admittedly, the diplomatic community’s this difference between officialdom and response to Judgment 168-13 was more Celebrity activist humanitarianism. meaningful than those few words. CARICOM There is an advantage to broadening worked ceaselessly and with united strength the definition of humanitarianism and in order to resolve this situation. The OAS, diplomacy so that it embraces other parties with less involvement, nevertheless made of interest. Individuals, NGOs and other resolutions and sent communications, albeit non-government entities can speak in a in a more perfunctory manner. This latter language and act in a manner that more action hones my point that those with the directly conveys the sentiments of the most to gain from the ending of a crisis are practitioners (Rieff, 2004). The swift action those who should involve themselves to a by prominent global citizens of Dominican greater degree in its resolution. By sending descent like writers Junot Díaz, Julia separate official letters, CARICOM and to a Álvarez, and as well as the writer of Haitian lesser degree, the OAS put the Dominican descent Edwidge Danticat, Peruvian- Republic officials on notice that their actions Spaniard Vargas Llosa and the journalist were under observance and that further Kurlansky helped to propel recognition of action might take place. However, the the issue forward, making action against diplomatic route is a long-winding one that Judgment 168-13 a cause célèbre. It is a requires many official signatories in order to fact that other individuals and groups also act in even the gentlest of ways. Moreover, chipped away at the Judgment. Agency on bureaucracy in the diplomatic world almost the part of Haitian Dominicans continues ensures that officials will be slow to act, even to be obvious. For example, the late Sonia when loss of life is imminent. It is even less Pierre worked ceaselessly to ensure a likely to act quickly when the issues are not quality of life for Dominicans of Haitian life threatening on a major scale –no matter descent. Her NGO Movement of Dominico- how onerous the situation– (Caribbean Haitian Women (MUDHA) was the catalyst

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for much of the activism leading up to mass was always in existence, but it is far more protests and action. The Santo Domingo prominent than before. Elections no NGO, Centro Bonó, maintains its efforts to longer center on whether people of Haitian fight for Dominicans of Haitian descent. The descent are “taking over and bringing their younger Reconoci.do group works fervently savagery with them”. The nation’s everyday 21 for the cause of recognition as Dominicans. citizens are more knowledgeable about the To name a few others, I cite former New York elite who once dominated their actions, State Senator Adriano Espaillat, and the and they are less prone to the ethnic baiting aforementioned regional body CARICOM, as well as the Jesuit Refugee Service. They that would have them turn on their fellow are worthy of greater study, especially for citizens. Dominican expats began returning their humanitarian actions. to the island with very different thoughts about who constitutes the nation when VII. In the Wake of Judgment 168-13 they left, including, for most of them, their The Dominican Republican has a unique status as citizens of the African Diaspora. history that affects its international Their influence is palpable, and popular relations, particularly with respect to its culture provides evidence of such in neighbor Haiti, with which it shares the movies, music, and other performative arts, island of Hispaniola. While some of the including beauty pageants. Spanish-speaking country’s concerns are My focus has been on one particular specific to that nation– others directly group that aided in this shift. Literary impact surrounding nations, thereby activists –some with ties to the Dominican becoming intermestic encounters. Such Republic and Haiti, one with ties to the larger is the case with Judgment 168-13. Barely Latin American and Spanish-speaking shielding its attempt to mass deport world, and one who emanates from the Dominicans of Haitian descent, the journalist world of the United States. From government received surprised opposition the onset, I had questions that needed to its tactics and practices– opposition answering. After much contemplation, I that is helping to turn the tide on the anti- am reasonably certain that the Dominican Haitianism within its borders. It will take elite was able to perpetrate such some time before there is closure to the crisis unhumanitarian acts because few outside that is the Judgment. As Pelletier states, of their region were paying attention. “Overcoming structural and historical What is helping to change the behavior of discrimination and racism as a root cause the government and its supporters is the of statelessness in the Dominican Republic knowledge that the world is watching. The will take years [...]” Pelletier (2020). literati, who were the focus of this essay, did While the aftermath of Judgment their part in bringing the crisis to the public 168-13 continues to be in debate and anti- sphere. Combined with the pressure of Haitianism is still visible, there is some long-standing organizations, their celebrity evidence that the struggle for human status helped to propel the changes now in rights for Dominican-Haitians is gaining place. Hence, one might argue that the fame strength. The resistance to anti-Haitianism of some can lead to the exposure of negative issues and work towards the eradication of 21 The name “Reconoci.do” with the dot towards the those problems. The actions of the literati end of the title is a play on words. It means both constitute a specific and useful lesson that “recognized” and the Dominican Republic, as the internet geodomain designation for the country. serves as a case study. See their comments on the Judgment: https://www. facebook.com/watch/?v=777853719694198

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On the one hand, the Dominican Republic the problems of the Global South. Yet, if has every right to govern itself as the the South is ever to become the significant sovereign nation that it is. On the other hand, player that it wants to be, then more action when governments abuse their citizens, the on its part is necessary. This article has been diplomatic mechanisms that are in place about one such problem and about ways in should step in. Fortunately, non-state actors which South-South relations played a role. take it upon themselves to aid in a crisis when Judgment 168-13 is but one of many the authorities are recalcitrant and when the national atrocities that a government traditional routes of problem solving cannot perpetrates on its own people. Further, the move quickly enough. In this sense, the actions were not singular in nature, but rather literati serve as a model, as others have done part of a stream of events that more-or-less in the past, to hasten the necessary changes. culminated in this fateful decision. Haitian During the Civil Rights struggles of the United Dominicans suffered tremendously under States, few in northern states paid attention the thumb of their own government since the to the movement of the 1950s and 1960s dawning of the nation as its own Republic in as southern governors and everyday white 1844. Despite its lack of singularity, Judgment citizens defied national laws of integration. 168-13 saw many voices come together – In came movie stars from Hollywood, and both national and international– to change suddenly the world was paying attention the tide of events in a definitive way. The and beginning to understand the need for literati, the diplomatic community, led by change. “We Are the World” stated musicians countries of the Global South, civil society in the mid-1980s as they helped to stem groups– both local and international, NGOS, hunger in Africa, much more quickly than and enraged global citizens all contributed any governments or official aid societies did. to eradicating some of the most egregious The reader can list other equally compelling components of the Judgment. Of particular interventions by celebrity activists –whether interest to me were the humanitarian tactics regional or global. by the literati and the swift responses to Of significance to me is that most of their work. When one approaches Judgment the major players in getting this far in 168-13 as indicative of what might occur in Dominican-Haitian crisis are from the other nations of similar ilk, a global, partial Global South. After more than sixty years of solution becomes evident. The best way to arguing for inclusion in world governance, solve a problem is, for the people who receive what does the Global South do in order to direct impact from it, to take the helm. ensure that members of its community If the world continues to watch and act are performing at their best –particularly in a humanitarian fashion, there will be when it comes to the problems that are less hidden intermestic crises that plague only visible within its member states? all nations. A global watch can be key in South-South studies is now mature enough curtailing abuses in countries that do not to ask such questions. On the one hand, often get the spotlight. Rather than waiting the Global North is often oblivious or decades to solve international crimes, unconcerned with these problems. On the constant pressure, coupled with monitoring other hand, the Global South community can find the underlying cause of the crime is all too aware of what is happening within much earlier and perhaps even prevent it. its virtual borders. Too often in the past, What will affect change among Global the solution was to ignore the problems or South nations is the knowledge that the look mainly to the Global North to solve world is watching and acting on the atrocities

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