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Geophysical characterisation of the Onewhero and Kellyville volcanic complexes, South Auckland Volcanic Field A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Science in Earth and Ocean Sciences at The University of Waikato by Kevin Joseph Chase Mullane _________ The University of Waikato 2015 Abstract The Quaternary-aged (1.59 – 0.51 Ma) intraplate, monogenetic, basaltic South Auckland Volcanic Field consists of at least 82 volcanic centres that span an area of 300 km². This study focusses on the volcanic and sedimentary histories of the Onewhero and Kellyville maars, interpreted from additional geological observations, which build upon previous geological studies, and gravimetric and magnetic surveys. New geological observations of the Onewhero maar reveal the presence of diatomaceous sediment, and at least one lava flow, that probably originated from the nearby Klondyke cone to the south, and which occupies a significant area of the crater floor. A geological investigation of the Kellyville maar reveals a crater that has been partially filled by a thick accumulation of basalt and scoria and overlain by Karapiro Formation sediments and diatomite. Available borehole stratigraphy suggests that the Glass Hill basalt cone present in the Kellyville maar was an early- stage volcanic product rather than a late-stage product as previously thought. Gravimetric surveys in the Onewhero and Kellyville maars revealed contrasting crater fill deposits. Raw gravity data was acquired in the field, corrected for drift and then reduced to a Bouguer anomaly. The Onewhero maar is characterised by an anomaly of -5.8 mGal that has a concave profile. The post-eruption geological body present at Onewhero is two-dimensionally modelled with a density of 1.3 g/cm³, and has a maximum thickness of 100 m in the northwest of the crater. The Kellyville maar is characterised by an anomaly of +2.5 mGal that has a convex profile. The dominant geological body present in the crater is a lava-lake deposit that is two-dimensionally modelled with a density of 2.9 g/cm³, and has a maximum thickness of 60 m. The total magnetic field strength of the Onewhero and Kellyville maars was recorded with a proton magnetometer and the values were mapped in ArcMap. In the Onewhero maar, two subdued anomalies were outliers. A positive magnetic anomaly (213 nT) with a broad crescent shape was identified in the middle of the crater and interpreted to be either an extrusive feeder dyke or an accumulation of highly magnetic volcanic sediment deposited in a topographic trough. A circular negative anomaly (-1057 nT) in the northwest of the crater is an accumulation of lake sediment with a low magnetic susceptibility. In the Kellyville maar, two contrasting anomalies were observed. The strongly positive anomaly (1275 nT) corresponds to the geographical position of Glass Hill, a basaltic cone. A strong negative anomaly (-3315 nT) in the middle of the crater corresponds to a known deposit of diatomite. i Overall, the structure of the Onewhero maar, as inferred by this investigation, is similar to many other maars globally and its sedimentary fill is remarkably similar to the Dottingen maar in Germany. The Kellyville maar has a more unique structure but can be compared to the Domain maar in the nearby Auckland Volcanic Field. ii Acknowledgements I would like to thank my supervisors Adrian Pittari, Beth Fox, and Andrew Gorman, for without them this study would not have been possible. Adrian, you anchored this project and provided the patience and personality that was needed to keep this ship afloat. Beth, you provided valuable information, and your extra knowledge was crucial. Without the support of the University of Otago, I would have been without equipment, so thank you Andrew. Thank you to the rest of the staff in the Earth and Ocean Sciences department at the University of Waikato who all provided snippets of advice and inspired a love of the sciences throughout my years at university. I am especially grateful to the landowners in Onewhero and Mercer who were all very approachable. Their generosity in allowing me to roam around their farms and borrow equipment should I need it ensured that I could gain full access to my field areas. Thank you to Nelson and the Black family from Mercer and the Green, Shakeshaft, Bovill, and Pellowe families from Onewhero. I am very appreciative of funding received from the Broad Memorial Fund and internal University of Waikato research funds held by Adrian Pittari. Cheers to the volcanology office crew (of which George is an honorary member) for the distractions and endless NBA procrastination (Billy). To my family, thank you for instilling and nurturing in me a love for the natural world and for always being supportive of my endeavours. Lastly to my field-helper Fiona, without your optimism, laughs and high-level off road skills we would never have made it through the fieldwork alive. Long live the Pokeno ice-cream trips. iii iv Table of Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................... i Acknowledgements ........................................................................................... iii Table of Contents .............................................................................................. v List of Figures ................................................................................................... xi List of Tables ................................................................................................... xv Chapter One: Introduction .............................................................................. 1 1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Objectives ................................................................................................... 2 1.3 Study area ................................................................................................... 2 1.4 Chapter outlines .......................................................................................... 3 Chapter Two: Formation and structure of maar volcanoes ......................... 5 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 5 2.2 Maar crater or tuff ring? ............................................................................. 8 2.3 Geophysical case studies ............................................................................ 9 2.4 North Island intraplate volcanism ............................................................. 11 2.5 South Auckland Volcanic Field ................................................................ 12 2.6 Country rock geology ............................................................................... 14 2.7 Controls on volcanism .............................................................................. 17 2.8 Eruption controls ...................................................................................... 17 2.9 Previous work: Kellyville Volcanic Complex .......................................... 18 2.10 Previous work: Onewhero Volcanic Complex ......................................... 19 Chapter Three: Geology of the Onewhero and Kellyville complexes ........ 21 3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 21 3.2 Geology of the Onewhero region ............................................................. 21 3.2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 21 v 3.2.2 Country rock geology .......................................................................... 22 3.2.3 Volcanic geology................................................................................. 23 3.2.4 Borehole interpretation ........................................................................ 24 3.2.5 Onewhero crater post-eruption fill ...................................................... 30 3.2.6 Onewhero crater lava flow .................................................................. 31 3.2.7 Updated geological map ...................................................................... 33 3.3 Geology of the Mercer region .................................................................. 34 3.3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 34 3.3.2 Country rock geology .......................................................................... 35 3.3.3 Volcanic geology................................................................................. 36 3.3.4 Borehole interpretation