DOCSLIB.ORG

Document Advocating Against Teenage Marriage

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Document Advocating Against Teenage Marriage Document Advocating Against Teenage Marriage Prepared by Dr. Faysal El-Kak Clinical Associate- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics- American University of Beirut Medical Center Senior Lecturer- Faculty of Health Sciences – American University of Beirut December 2014 Contents: 1. Overview of teenage marriage in the Arab region and the world 2. Reasons and motives for marrying off minors 3. Consequences and Implications 4. The measures and steps taken 5. References 1. Overview of child marriage in the Arab Region and the World: About one third of women in the world are married before the age of 18; furthermore, records show that the highest rate of early matrimony is in South Asia. See: http://data.unicef.org/child-protection/child-marriage?q=printme#sthash.zjAYUzXl.dpuf Table 1: Proportion of women married before the age of 18 among women aged between 20 and 24 years old by geographical region International Context of early marriage The choice of partner and appropriate timing for marriage is one of the most important life decisions that an individual should make for his/her self. No other person is entitled to make, control and/or influence this decision. Based on that belief, the choice to wed must be associated with the individual’s complete freedom and the absence of any element of coercion, hatred, fear or external pressure in the course of making this decision. It is acknowledged that in order for an individual to have the freedom and ability to consent they are required to be adults, 18 years of age or older. Most states agree on this principle, which is also reflected in International Human Rights Measures, precisely the Convention on the rights of the Child (CRC), the Convention on the Elimination of all forms of discrimination against Women (CEDAW), which banned child marriage, as well as the International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD), which called on all Member States in 1994 to work towards the elimination of child marriage and the enforcement of laws that guarantee the complete consent of minors. http://www.unfpa.org/webdav/site/global/shared/documents/publications/2012 /MarryingTooYoung.pdf Globally, 18 years is the legal age of marriage, yet many countries allow individuals younger than 18 to marry if parental and judicial authorities’ consent is provided. More than 30 States allow the marriage of those 15 years of age or younger if their parents’ approval was granted. Furthermore, a large number of countries allow the marriage of girls, under the same conditions mentioned above, at a younger age than those specified for boys, thus demonstrating that the early marriage phenomenon is influenced by gender. Legal Age of Marriage in some Countries: Arab Countries: Islamic Sharia did not specify a certain age for marriage though it authorized Muslim religious figures to wed couples under the age of puberty, overlooking the civil status laws in Arab and Islamic countries which identified the minimum age of marriage. For example: 1) Article 5 of the Jordanian civil status law stated that in order for a marriage to be competent the groom and bride must be mature and the groom must be minimum 16 years old while the bride must be 15 years or older, 2) The first paragraph of article 20 of the Arab Emirates civil status law defines the legal age of marriage to be 18 years for boys and 16 years for girls, 3) The Syrian civil status law identified the legal age of marriage to be 18 year for boys and 17 years for girls. The marriage of boys aged 15 and girls aged 13 is also authorized only with the permission of the judge and the consent of the guardian. 4) While, the Tunisian civil status law defined the legal age of marriage to be 20 years for boys and 17 years for girls The European laws also specify a minimum age of marriage, for example: 5) The French law determined the legal age of marriage to be 18 years for boys and 15 for girls, 6) And the German law determined 21 years to be the legal age for men and 20 years for women, 7) While the Swiss law specified the age of marriage to be 20 years for boys and 18 years for girls. It should be noted that other religions (non-Christian and non-Muslim) have identified the legal age of marriage. In Jewish law, for example, they identified the marriage age of boys to be 13 and 12 for girls. Even during the Roman era, the minimum marriage age was specified, 14 years for boys and 12 years for girls. Early marriage in the Arab World Recently, in March 2013, the World Health Organization issued a common press conference with the United Nations Population Fund and Non- Governmental Organizations advocating for women's and children's health, announcing that one out of seven girls are married under the age of 18 years. The study shows that more than 140 million girls are estimated to get married at a young age between the year 2011 and 2020, totaling around 39,000 girls daily(2). The highest rate of early marriages, which occur below 18 years of age, are in South Asia; their teenage marriage rate constitutes around half of the number of girls worldwide, followed by the South African Sahara, which constitutes one- third of girls globally(2). As for the Arab world, according to the Pan-Arab Program for Family Health PAPFAM, the early marriage rates are higher in countries with low income (income below than 2,000USD per person in 2011), like Yemen (%32), Sudan (%33), Somalia (%45), South Sudan (%52). However, teenage marriage remains to be a rare phenomenon in countries like Tunisia, Algeria, and Libya(%2). Egypt is seen to have the highest prevalence of teenage marriage in terms of its dense population (%17). (4) Graph #2: The rate of married women under the age of 18 who are now between the age of 20 and 24 years in some Arab countries. In most of the Arab countries today, a reduction in child marriage rates is witnessed compared to what it was like in the past. Yet, Iraq, in particular, is showing a considerable regression in this area. A UNICEF multiple indicator cluster survey (MICS4), conducted on areas and regions in Iraq in 2011, reported the age group between 15 and 19 years to make up 22.41% of the entire population, the highest proportion among age groups, suggesting that Iraq is mostly a young community where a high percentage of married individuals are from within this age group, 45.1% to be precise. This high percentage highlights the widespread of the phenomenon of forced marriage of minors, who constitute a high proportion of the population. Additionally, a survey conducted by the Iraqi Ministry of Planning’s Central Bureau of Statistics in cooperation with the Central Bureau of Statistics of Kurdistan and the ministries of health and women on ' knowledge, attitudes and aspirations of adolescent girls ', showed that the estimated number of girls in Iraq within the age group of 10-14 years was 1.9 million girls. According to these estimates, these girls represent approximately 6% of the total population. According to the results of this survey, the girls in this age group are distributed by 65.4% in cities and 34.6% in rural areas. Region Kurdistan South/Centre % % Total % Region Iraq 15-19 2755 20.53 9618 23.02 12394 22.41 20-24 2643 19.69 7404 17.72 10067 18.21 Age 25-29 2345 17.47 6481 15.52 8843 15.99 30-34 1928 14.36 5708 13.66 7650 13.84 35-39 1669 12.43 5321 12.74 7002 12.66 40-44 1209 9.01 4232 10.13 5450 9.86 45-49 873 6.50 3008 7.20 3888 7.03 Total 13422 100 41772 100 55294 100 Table 3 shows the age distribution by categories and regions It is noted in table 3 that the proportion of young ages, 15-19 years, represents the highest proportion of age groups in the country; making Iraq a young community. This category constitutes 22.41% of the population, which is the same age group teenage marriage girls belong to. Marital/Union status Currently married Formerly married Never married Kurdistan South/Centre Kurdistan South/Centre Kurdistan South/Centre Region Iraq Region Iraq Region Iraq Count % Count % Count % Count % Count % Count % 15-19 255 3.4% 2060 7.7% 10 2.5% 70 4.1% 2490 45.6% 7488 55.9% 20-24 1057 14.0% 4294 16.1% 31 7.6% 147 8.6% 1555 28.5% 2963 22.1% Age 25-29 1600 21.2% 5115 19.2% 33 8.1% 191 11.2% 712 13.0% 1175 8.8% 30-34 1499 19.9% 4759 17.8% 55 13.5% 228 13.4% 374 6.8% 721 5.4% 35-39 1380 18.3% 4520 16.9% 89 21.9% 303 17.8% 200 3.7% 498 3.7% 40-44 1031 13.7% 3521 13.2% 83 20.4% 373 21.9% 95 1.7% 338 2.5% 45-49 729 9.7% 2402 9.0% 105 25.9% 393 23.0% 39 .7% 213 1.6% Table 4 shows the rates of early marriages by categories and age groups It is determined from table 4that the percentage of married women and ex- married women within the age group 15-19 is 45.1%; a high rate which clearly shows the prevalence of underage marriage. In southern and central Iraq, only 55.9% of girls in this age group are unmarried.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Selling Daughters: Age of Marriage, Income Shocks and Bride Price Tradition⇤
    Selling daughters: age of marriage, income shocks and bride price tradition⇤ Lucia Corno† Alessandra Voena ‡ June 2015 PRELIMINARY Abstract When markets are incomplete, cultural norms may play a greater role in shaping economic behavior. In this paper, we explore whether the custom of bride price – a transfer made by the groom to the bride’s family at marriage – increases the probability of teenage marriages. We develop a simple model in which households are exposed to income shocks and have no access to credit markets and show that girls have a higher probability of marrying early when their parents have higher marginal utility of consumption because of adverse income shocks. We test the prediction of the model by exploiting variation in rainfall shocks over a woman’s life cycle. Using a survey dataset from Tan- zania, we find that adverse shocks during teenage years increase the ⇤We thank Veronica Guerrieri, Eliana La Ferrara and participants to the COSME work- shop for helpful comments, Helene Bie Lilleor and Sofya Krutikova for useful discussion on the Kagera Health Development Survey and Kalle Hirvonen for the clarification re- garding weather data. Simone Lenzu and Jorge Rodriguez provided outstanding research assistance. Data obtained from the NASA Langley Research Center are greatefully ac- knowledged. This research was partly funded by a Research Grant from the Social Sciences Division at the University of Chicago. †Queen Mary, University of London and IFS. Email: [email protected] ‡The University of Chicago and NBER. Email: [email protected] 1 probability of early marriages, particularly in the sub-sample of re- spondents who report a bride price payment at marriage.
    [Show full text]
  • By Jennifer M. Fogel a Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
    A MODERN FAMILY: THE PERFORMANCE OF “FAMILY” AND FAMILIALISM IN CONTEMPORARY TELEVISION SERIES by Jennifer M. Fogel A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Communication) in The University of Michigan 2012 Doctoral Committee: Associate Professor Amanda D. Lotz, Chair Professor Susan J. Douglas Professor Regina Morantz-Sanchez Associate Professor Bambi L. Haggins, Arizona State University © Jennifer M. Fogel 2012 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I owe my deepest gratitude to the members of my dissertation committee – Dr. Susan J. Douglas, Dr. Bambi L. Haggins, and Dr. Regina Morantz-Sanchez, who each contributed their time, expertise, encouragement, and comments throughout this entire process. These women who have mentored and guided me for a number of years have my utmost respect for the work they continue to contribute to our field. I owe my deepest gratitude to my advisor Dr. Amanda D. Lotz, who patiently refused to accept anything but my best work, motivated me to be a better teacher and academic, praised my successes, and will forever remain a friend and mentor. Without her constructive criticism, brainstorming sessions, and matching appreciation for good television, I would have been lost to the wolves of academia. One does not make a journey like this alone, and it would be remiss of me not to express my humble thanks to my parents and sister, without whom seven long and lonely years would not have passed by so quickly. They were both my inspiration and staunchest supporters. Without their tireless encouragement, laughter, and nurturing this dissertation would not have been possible.
    [Show full text]
  • Household Determinants of Teen Marriage and Childbearing: Sister Effects Across Four Low- and Middle-Income Countries
    University of Pennsylvania ScholarlyCommons Population Center Working Papers (PSC/PARC) Penn Population Studies Centers 3-29-2018 Household Determinants of Teen Marriage and Childbearing: Sister Effects Across Four Low- and Middle-Income Countries Luca Maria Pesando University of Pennsylvania, [email protected] Alejandra Abufhele University of Pennsylvania, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://repository.upenn.edu/psc_publications Part of the Demography, Population, and Ecology Commons, Family, Life Course, and Society Commons, and the Gender and Sexuality Commons Recommended Citation Pesando, Luca Maria, and Alejandra Abufhele. 2018. "Household Determinants of Teen Marriage and Childbearing: Sister Effects Across Four Low- and Middle-Income Countries." University of Pennsylvania Population Center Working Paper (PSC/PARC), 2018-16. https://repository.upenn.edu/psc_publications/ 16. This paper is posted at ScholarlyCommons. https://repository.upenn.edu/psc_publications/16 For more information, please contact [email protected]. Household Determinants of Teen Marriage and Childbearing: Sister Effects Across Four Low- and Middle-Income Countries Abstract Using data from the “Young Lives” study of childhood poverty tracking a cohort of children from the ages of 8 to 19, this paper aims to investigate the household determinants of teen marriage and teen pregnancy in four low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), namely Ethiopia, India, Peru and Vietnam. Its contribution is twofold. First, we offer a descriptive and comparative overview of the prevalence of teen marriage and childbearing in geographically selected areas across the four countries of interest, together with their socio-demographic determinants. Second, we place a specific focus on the oler of gender and sibling sex-composition in shaping the probability of getting married and/or having a child by age 19.
    [Show full text]
  • Selling Daughters: Age of Marriage, Income Shocks and the Bride Price Tradition
    Selling daughters: age of marriage, income shocks and the bride price tradition IFS Working Paper W16/08 Lucia Corno Alessandra Voena The Institute for Fiscal Studies (IFS) is an independent research institute whose remit is to carry out rigorous economic research into public policy and to disseminate the findings of this research. IFS receives generous support from the Economic and Social Research Council, in particular via the ESRC Centre for the Microeconomic Analysis of Public Policy (CPP). The content of our working papers is the work of their authors and does not necessarily represent the views of IFS research staff or affiliates. Selling daughters: age of marriage, income shocks and the bride price tradition⇤ Lucia Corno† Alessandra Voena ‡ June 11, 2016 Abstract When markets are incomplete, cultural norms may play an important role in shap- ing economic behavior. In this paper, we explore whether income shocks increase the probability of child marriages in societies that engage in bride price payments – transfers from the groom to the bride’s parents at marriage. We develop a simple model in which households are exposed to income volatility and have no access to credit markets. If a daughter marries, the household obtains a bride price and has fewer members to support. In this framework, girls have a higher probability of marrying early when their parents have higher marginal utility of consumption because of adverse income shocks. We test the prediction of the model by exploiting variation in rainfall shocks over a woman’s life cycle, using a survey dataset from rural Tanzania. We find that adverse shocks during teenage years increase the probability of early marriages and early fertility among women.
    [Show full text]
  • To Child Marriage: Creating a Federal Minimum Marital Age Requirement Through the Treaty Power
    SAYING “I DON’T” TO CHILD MARRIAGE: CREATING A FEDERAL MINIMUM MARITAL AGE REQUIREMENT THROUGH THE TREATY POWER Caylin Jones I. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................... 396 II. CHILD MARRIAGE AND ITS DETRIMENTAL EFFECTS ..................... 399 III. MINORS LACK THE ABILITY TO GIVE “FREE AND FULL CONSENT” TO MARRIAGE .............................................................. 402 A. Children are a Target for Coercion, Leaving Them Vulnerable to Being Manipulated or Forced into Marriage .. 403 B. Legal Principles Indicate That Children Do Not Have the Ability to Consent ................................................................... 404 C. Children are Psychologically Incapable of Understanding the True Ramifications of Marriage ....................................... 406 IV. TREATY POWER AND THE COVENANT ........................................... 409 V. WHY CHILD MARRIAGE IS NOT PROTECTED UNDER THE RIGHT TO MARRY AND WHY CURRENT SAFEGUARDS ARE INEFFECTIVE ................................................................................... 414 VI. CONCLUSION .................................................................................. 418 I. INTRODUCTION “I was sixteen years old and pregnant, so in my mind that should have been evidence of a rape.”1 The father of the child was twenty-eight years old, but instead of being prosecuted for statutory rape, the State of Nevada 1. Charlotte Alter, Child Marriage Survivor: I Was Introduced to Him in the Morning and Handed Over That
    [Show full text]
  • Delayed Marriage and Abstinence-Until-Marriage
    Issues & Implications limited, but in the developing world, marriage itself sometimes can oper- Delayed Marriage and ate as a significant reproductive health risk factor. There, unplanned Abstinence-until-Marriage: pregnancies, whether clandestinely aborted or carried to term, often On a Collision Course? lead to complications that cause death or serious disability. By Susan A. Cohen Unprotected sex with a husband who is not monogamous increases a Early marriage can be life-threaten- Indeed, in the United States, woman’s likelihood of being exposed ing to young women in developing research indicates that marriage— to HIV or to other STIs that increase countries. A new bride, often although for reasons not entirely susceptibility to HIV or that can coerced by her family into marrying understood—does seem to bring with cause infertility. an older man, may be at higher risk it a range benefits for individuals, of contracting HIV than if she had couples and, especially, children. The Indeed, married women in the remained single. Even if she is not Center for Law and Social Policy world’s poorest countries often pos- physically or emotionally ready, she (CLASP) reports, for example, that sess less power than do unmarried generally is expected to bear chil- children who grow up in a low-con- women to negotiate if and under dren right away. If she survives the flict household with married biologi- what conditions to have sex—and physical tolls of childbirth, a young cal parents, when compared with whether and what kind of contracep- mother’s life prospects often remain children who grow up in other types tive or disease prevention method to dim—as do those of her children, of households, are usually healthier, use.
    [Show full text]
  • Experiences of Cohabitation, Marriage and Parenting in Peruvian Adolescents and Youth
    Research Report Experiences of cohabitation, marriage and parenting in Peruvian adolescents and youth Vanessa Rojas and Francis Bravo July 2020 Experiences of cohabitation, marriage and parenting in Peruvian adolescents and youth Vanessa Rojas and Francis Bravo © Young Lives 2020 ISBN 978-1-912485-31-4 A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library. All rights reserved. Reproduction, copy, transmission, or translation of any part of this publication may be made only under the following conditions: • with the prior permission of the publisher; or • with a licence from the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd., 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1P 9HE, UK, or from another national licensing agency; or • under the terms set out below. Young Lives holds the copyright on this publication, but it may be reproduced by any method without fee for teaching or non-profit purposes, but not for resale. Formal permission is required for all such uses, but normally will be granted immediately. For copying in any other circumstances, or for re-use in other publications, or for translation or adaptation, prior written permission must be obtained from the publisher and a fee may be applicable. About YMAPS This research report was authored and produced by Young Lives as part of the Young Marriage and Parenthood Study (YMAPS), a three-year programme of comparative research examining young marriage and parenthood. YMAPS is a collaboration between Young Lives, a longitudinal study of childhood poverty following the lives of 12,000 children in Ethiopia, India, Peru and Vietnam over 18 years, and Child Frontiers, a consulting company that works in partnership to promote the care, well-being and protection of children.
    [Show full text]
  • Marriage Decline in Korea: Changing Composition of the Domestic Marriage Market and Growth in International Marriage
    Demography (2020) 57:171–194 https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-019-00844-9 Marriage Decline in Korea: Changing Composition of the Domestic Marriage Market and Growth in International Marriage James M. Raymo1 & Hyunjoon Park 2 Published online: 9 January 2020 # Population Association of America 2020 Abstract Explanations for the substantial decline in rates of marriage in East Asian countries often emphasize the role of rapid educational expansion for women in reducing the desirability of marriages characterized by a strong gender-based division of labor. Focusing on South Korea, we consider a very different scenario in which changing educational composition of the marriage market reduces the demographic feasibility of such marriages. Analyses of 1% microsamples of the 1990 and 2010 Korean censuses show that changes in the availability of potential spouses accounted for part of the decline in marriage rates over a period of 20 years (1985–1989 to 2005–2009) for highly educated women and less-educated men. We also show that growth in interna- tional marriages played a role in preventing an even more dramatic decline in marriage among low-educated men. These findings support the general relevance of marriage market mismatches in gender-inegalitarian societies and highlight the declining feasi- bility of marriage for low-educated men in such contexts. Findings also hint at important implications for inequality in a society such as Korea, where marriage remains a symbol of social success and is closely related to women’seconomicwell- being and men’s health and subjective well-being. Keywords Marriage . Education . Assortative mating . International marriage . Korea * James M.
    [Show full text]
  • Youthful Transgressions: Teenagers, Sexuality, and the Contested Path to Adulthood in Postwar America
    Youthful Transgressions: Teenagers, Sexuality, and the Contested Path to Adulthood in Postwar America By Julie Solow Stein A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the Requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History and the Designated Emphasis in Women, Gender, and Sexuality in the Graduate Division of the University of California, Berkeley Committee in charge: Professor Paula Fass, Chair Professor Richard Cándida Smith Professor Kristin Luker Fall 2013 © 2013 by Julie Solow Stein All rights reserved Abstract Youthful Transgressions: Teenagers, Sexuality, and the Contested Path to Adulthood in Postwar America by Julie Solow Stein Doctor of Philosophy in History and the Designated Emphasis in Women, Gender, and Sexuality University of California, Berkeley Professor Paula Fass, Chair “Youthful Transgressions” examines teenage sexual culture in the United States after World War II. It focuses in particular on the ways that changing notions of childhood and adulthood influenced the place of sexually precocious adolescents in American society. This dissertation argues that between the 1940s and the 1980s, teenage sexuality transformed from a private problem that was seen as leading children into premature adulthood, to a public problem that kept adolescents in a pathologized version of childhood. This dissertation addresses the question of how Americans decided who was an adult and who was a child, as well as the consequences of those decisions. In the immediate postwar years, sexually active teenagers were reclassified as adults and hidden from public view through hasty marriages and mandatory expulsions from schools. In the 1960s and 1970s, married and pregnant youth took advantage of a newly expansive concept of childhood to fight their way back into schools and reclaim many of the legal and social rights of children.
    [Show full text]
  • Research Findings on Marriage and Choosing a Marriage Partner
    Ten Important Research Findings on Marriage and Choosing a Marriage Partner Information Brief, November 2004 David Popenoe and Barbara Dafoe Whitehead, The National Marriage Project http://marriage.rutgers.edu/Publications/pubtenthingsyoungadults.htm 1. Marrying as a teenager is the highest "having children is still one of the least known risk factor for divorce. desirable characteristics a potential People who marry in their teens are two marriage partner can possess." The only to three times more likely to divorce than partner characteristic men and women people who marry in their twenties or rank as even less desirable than having older. children is the inability to hold a steady job. 2. The most likely way to find a future marriage partner is through an 5. Both women and men who are introduction by family, friends, or college educated are more likely to acquaintances. marry, and less likely to divorce, than people with lower levels of education. Despite the romantic notion that people meet and fall in love through chance or Despite occasional news stories fate, the evidence suggests that social predicting lifelong singlehood for college- networks are important in bringing educated women, these predictions together individuals of similar interests and have proven false. Though the first backgrounds, especially when it comes generation of college educated women to selecting a marriage partner. (those who earned baccalaureate According to a large-scale national degrees in the 1920s) married less survey of sexuality, almost sixty percent of frequently than their less well-educated married people were introduced by peers, the reverse is true today. College family, friends, co-workers or other educated women's chances of marrying acquaintances.
    [Show full text]
  • Early Teen Marriage and Future Poverty*
    EARLY TEEN MARRIAGE AND FUTURE POVERTY* GORDON B. DAHL Both early teen marriage and dropping out of high school have historically been associated with a variety of negative outcomes, including higher poverty rates throughout life. Are these nega- tive outcomes due to preexisting differences, or do they represent the causal effect of marriage and schooling choices? To better understand the true personal and societal consequences, in this article, I use an instrumental variables (IV) approach that takes advantage of variation in state laws regulating the age at which individuals are allowed to marry, drop out of school, and begin work. The baseline IV estimate indicates that a woman who marries young is 31 percentage points more likely to live in poverty when she is older. Similarly, a woman who drops out of school is 11 percentage points more likely to be poor. The results are robust to a variety of alternative specifi cations and estimation meth- ods, including limited information maximum likelihood (LIML) estimation and a control function ap- proach. While grouped ordinary least squares (OLS) estimates for the early teen marriage variable are also large, OLS estimates based on individual-level data are small, consistent with a large amount of measurement error. Historically, individuals were allowed to enter into a marriage contract at a very young age. In Ancient Rome, the appropriate minimum age was regarded as 14 for males and 12 for females. When Rome became Christianized, these age minimums were adopted into the ecclesiastical law of the Catholic Church. This canon law governed most marriages in Western Europe until the Reformation.
    [Show full text]
  • Teenage Pregnancy Has Long Been a Part of American History (Child Trends Fact
    The Lived Experience of Second-Generation Hmong American Teen Mothers: A Phenomenological Study A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA BY Phoua Xiong IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS Catherine Solheim, Ph.D. June 2014 © Phoua Xiong 2014 i Acknowledgements I would like to express thanks to my adviser Dr. Catherine Solheim for her support, encouragement, patience, and guidance from the start to end of this project. This work would not be possible without her help. I would also like to express my thanks and gratitude to my committee members as well, Drs. Zha Blong Xiong and Bic Ngo for their support and patience. I would like to extend a special thank you to Dung Mao, Ashley Landers, Hue Vang, and Veronica Deenanath for their support, time, and advices. Also, a special thank you to Dr. Elizabeth Wieling for her wonderful insight and counsel. I would like to extend my appreciation to Nue Lor for her help, support, and time in recruiting and gathering of the data for this paper. I would also like to extend my appreciation to Zer Vang from Lao Family Inc. for her help in recruiting. I would like to offer my sincere thanks to the women who shared their stories and words of wisdom with me for this project. I hope I have presented their story with accuracy and clarity. ii Dedication To all the brave, strong, and loving young mothers who push through the daily struggles of motherhood. And to family and friends who stood by their side.
    [Show full text]