1 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 AN ETHNOBOTANICAL STUDY ON SOME EDIBLE PLANTS IN NORTHERN CHIN STATE, MYANMAR Kyaw Kyaw Lwin*

ABSTRACT Plant produces mainly from the cultivated or wild plants grown in Chin State were thoroughly studied with the ethnobotany. The present study included the economically important ( 5 ) species belonging to ( 5 ) genera of ( 4 ) families. These are ( 5 ) species are cultivated plants in this study. Edible plant parts are mature seeds, young pods, fruits and grains. Plant parts are eaten raw, cooked, salad and boiled. The outstanding features of source plants, parts used and traditional preparations, and uses of a traditional food are also presented with photographs.

Keywords: Ethnobotany, Northern Chin State, Myanmar.

INTRODUCTION Human being survives by using the material from his natural environment since human being is evolved on the earth. The plant plays one of the supporting roles on the survival of man from that time to present day. Ever since his appearance on the earth, man used plants as food, medicines, fibres, clothes and shelter, etc. For their basic needs, man obtained from wild plants from flora in his early life, before civilization is appeared. Then man domesticated wild plants to produce the food called agriculture. It has been estimated that about 3,000 species of plants have been used as food by human being throughout history and that about 200 species have been domesticated as food crops. Today plants are not only cultivated for food, but also for other man‟s requirements, such as fibres, latexe and resins, dyes, tannin and drugs, etc. Since the prehistoric time man is always dependant upon the plants for his food, shelter and health. So the relationship between man and plants is as old as history of mankind and indigenous knowledge about the plants is as old as human civilization. The study of direct interaction between human and plant population through its culture, each human population classified plants, develops attitude and beliefs and learns the use of plants, while human behavior has a direct impact on the plant communites with which they interact, the plant themselves also impose limitations on human, these mixture interactions are the focus of ethnobotany. However the botanical systematic record of economically important plant in study area is not available. Therfore, a survey on cultivated plants and plant products which are thrived on Chin State has done with the scope of ethnobotany. The plant products produced from cultivated or wild species of this township are as many as counting by numbers. But some are minors for local only. The cultivated or wild species thrived in Chin State are Canavalia gladiata, Cyphomandra betacea, Parkia speciosa, Setaria italica and Zea mays. Therefore, this study

* Lecturer, Department of Botany, Kalay University

2 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 emphasized on plant products and their source plants in Chin State, in connection with ethnobotany. The aims and objectives of this paper are to inform the loss of traditional uses of wild plants, to present an inventory of the plant used by Chin State for food in cultural relationships and to study inter-connection of ethnobotanical knowledge among the villagers. LITERATURE REVIEW 'Ethno' is a popular prefix in these days, because it is a short way of saying that's the way other people look at the world. When used before the name of an academic discipline such as botany or pharmacology, it implies that researchers are exploring local people's perception of cultural and scientific knowledge (Saklani and Jain, 1994). Ever since his appearance on the earth, man has tried to live in harmony with nature. Besides providing his basic needs such as food, fodder and fuel the plants also cater to men's requirement of medicinal, fibres, tannins, gums, etc.. This intimate interrelationship between human beings and plants has always intrigued mankind. It has copelled scientists to dead with as an interdisplanary subjects involving not only the botanical but also the anthropological, historical, geographical and social aspects, which is now understood as ethnobotany. Ehtnobotany is the study of the interaction between plants and people with a particular emphasis on traditional tribal cultures. Ethnobotany is a branch of botany, the study of plants and is closely related to cultural anthropology, the study of human societies. An important branch of ethnobotany called economic botany focuses on the commercial use of plants especially in industrialized societies (Saklani and Jain, 1994). Vegetables are generally low in energy and dry matter content but most important as sources of protective nutrients, especially vitamins and minerals. Vegetables (together with fruits) are the most important of vitamin A. Vegetables also provide fibre in the form of cellulose which aids the digestion of the other foods and stimulates and cleans the intestinal canal (Siemonsma and Piluek, 1994). The grain is very nutritious, with a high percentage of carbohydrate, fats and proteins. It is used for making various alcoholic beverages. The glucose is also manufactured from the grain.Vegetables from a large and diverse commodity group. They are considered a distinct group, but largely because of the way in which they are grown and their produce is used. Vegetables are usually cultivated intensively in “gardens" and consequently are part of horticulture (Siemonsma and Piluek, 1994). The grain of foxtail millet is used for human food in Asia, South-Eastern Europe and northern Africa. It may be cooked and eaten like rice, either entire or broken. The flour is also used to make porridge and puddings. In northern China it is part of the staple diet and usually mixed with pulses and cooked or the flour is mixed with pulses and cooked or the flour is mixed with flour of other cereals in the preparation of dough for bread and noodles. In India foxtail millet grain is prized as a eood and considered as a “holy” dish in religious ceremonies. Burma (Myanmar), for the preparation of beer and alcohol and in China also for vinegar and wine. Foxtail millet is an important fodder crop and in the United States it is grown for hay and silage (Grubben and Partohardjono, 1996).

3 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 The need for a complete work on flora of Myanmar has never so recenly been felt as now when the forestry world is rapidly moving on toward the ideal of close and complete utilization on every constituent species under the integration of forest industries (Hundley and Chit Ko Ko, 1987). Sword bean is used as vegetable cover crop, forage and green manure. The young green pods are extensively eaten in tropical Asia, served as a boiled green vegetable similar to common bean. Sword bean is not a popular pmlse because of the strong flavous and the thick, tough seet-coat. Dry fully mature seeds should be eaten with caution as they may be somewhat poisonous. Both the flowers and young leaves are used steamed as a flavouring. The urease extracted from sword beans is used in analytical laboratories (Siemonsma and Piluek, 1994). The seeds of Parkia speciosa eaten as a vegetable, usually raw, cooked or roasted. Also eaten are the young leaves, immature pods and flower stalks. The seeds are used in traditional medicine to treat liver diseases, oedema kindey inglammation, diabetes and to expel interstinal worms. The leaves are used against jaundice. The timber can be used for the making of boxes and cabinets. The trees cna be used as shade plants in coffee nursers (Chong, et al. 2009). The fruit of Cyphomandra betacea is used in a variety of ways, including savoury as well as sweet dishes. The unripe fruit can be used for chutney, curry and sambal (hot, chilli-based condiment), the mature fruit for stews, soups, stuffings and salads. Halves may be seasoned and baked or grilled for use as a vegetable. Only mature tree-ripened fruits grown under favourable conditions develop the full flavour and aroma. Properly ripened fruits is also essential for good quality stews, jellies, jams, desserts and ice-cream toppings. The hard seeds may be strained out ofter boiling. Lime juice and sugar can be added to taste (Verheij and Coronel, 1992). Maize also known as Indian corn or simply as corn or simply as corn is a food crop of considerable important in many parts of the world (Pandey, 1999). Maize grain is prepered and sonsumed in a multitude of ways. For human consumption it is usually ground ir pounded and the meal may be boiled, roasted or fermented. The main industrial products are strach, oil syrup, organic liquids and alcoholic beverages. Maize also has a great number of subsidiary uses. Mature plants are used for animals feed. Crop residues such as the stalks are used for fuel or compost. The inner husks of the ear and the fibre in the stems have been used for making paper. Unripe ears can be consumned as a vegetable (Grubben and Partohardjono, 1996). MATERIALS AND METHODS Field study has done to some villages lived Chin tribes in Chin State during 2018. Information concerning ethnobotanical uses of Chin tribes are recorded by interviewing with Chin families. The source plants are collected and identified ( Lawrence (1964) and Pandey (1999)). All the collected specimen were recorded with color photographs. The local names, scientific names were checked by Hundley and Chit Ko Ko (1987), Kress, et al. (2003) and Pandey (1999). The families were arranged by the classification system of Cronquist (1981).

4 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 RESULTS Food is a major requirement for life. The Chin people have taken their meals twice or thrice a day. The typical meals for the Chin tribes include rice, maize, millet and vegetable. Most chin tribes living near forest and on mountainous area rely on edible parts, such as stems, buds, leaves, flowers, fruit, tubers, roots, shoots and whole plants. Most of plants were produced by small scale cultivation in their home graden (study area of chin villages living in the hill). Transportation is difficult, especially in rainy season. Meat and other goods are not readily consumed. Therefore, the home garden is the low capital input (no agrochemicals applied, no special tools needed, planting by hand) and use of cheap family labor mostly in spare time. Every chin people's house are small home garden. They are obtained fresh vegetables readily from their home garden. This is an advantageous fact because home gardens are well suited to feed the family. There were ( 5 ) plant species traditionally used as food by Chin tribes in Northern Chin State. Among them ( 5 ) plant species are used by major crop food and minor crop food. Edible plants are consumed in different ways. Most of plants are collected from seasonal crop cultivated in their home garden. This study recorded a total of ( 5 ) species of plants used as food by the some villagers in the chin village surveyed Table (1). This is given in Table (1) with information on the family, botanical names, local names, chin names, parts used and uses. The outstanding features of source common plants, parts used and traditional preparations and uses a traditional food were described.

1. Canavalia gladiata DC. Family - Fabaceae English Name - Horse bean; Jack bean; Sword bean Local Name - Aung-loun Chin Name - Gatam Biennial or perennial climbing vines. Leaves pinnately trifoliolate- compound, alternate, stipulate; leaflets ovate. Inflorescences axillary racemes with many flowers on the tubercles. Flowers white, bracteolate, showy, zygomorphic. Calyx campanulate, 5-lobed; the tube with 2 minute bracteolates. Corolla papilionaceaeous. Stamens monadelphous; anthers uniform. Ovary superior, oblong, unilocular with many ovules on the marginal placenta, stipitate; style incurved; stigma beardless. Pod ensiform, large, beaked, 16 to 19-seeded. Seeds oblong-ellipsoid with dark mottle. Part used - Mature seeds Uses - Aung-loun is boiled with water for 5 or 6 hour. It is dipped in running water for 4 or 5 days. After that the skin is peeled off. Then dipped in clean water for 2 weeks. Then cooked with corn, millet, sweet potatoes, jaggery, rice and eat.

5 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 2. Solanum betaceum Cav. Family - Solanaceae English Names - Tree tomato; Tamarillo Local Name - Chin-khayan-gyin Chin Name - Sing Meh thuk Brittle shrub to tree; trunk short; branches thick. Leaves simple, alternate, cordate-ovate, muskily odorous. Flowers small, fragrant, pentamerous, hypogynous, pink to light blue. Calyx broadly campanulate, with 5-lobes, persistent. Corolla bell-shaped, 5-lobed. Stamens 5, epipetalous; anthers dehiscing poricidally. Ovary bicarpellary, many ovules; stigma small. Fruit an obovoid or ovoid berry, pungent, long-stalked within persistent calyx; the pericarp thin, smooth, purple- reddish, orange-red to yellow when ripe, many-seeded in the pulp. Seed circular, flat, thin, hard. Part used - Fruits Uses - Baked in the fire, peeled off the skin, mixed with chilli powder, salt, ginger, onion, garlic. Then edible. It can be mixed with fish-paste, meat and fired. Then it is edible. It is boiled as it is the skin is peeled off. Then edible. It is mixed with Kazun-ywet, Bottle gourd, pin-zein and boiled. Then it is used as thin soup. It is washed, sliced thinly, mixed with salt, sweeting agent, onion, garlics and boiled oil. Then it is edible. It contains vitamin C.

3. Parkia speciosa Hassk. Family ` - Mimosaceae English Names - Petai; bitter bean Local Name - Myauk-ngo-thee Chin Name - Zawng teh A tall tree, branching above the middle of the trunk. Leaves bipinnate, alternate; leaflets (18-)31-38 pairs per pinna, linear, apex rounded. Inflorescence a pear-shaped, pendulous head. Flowers small and numerous, bisexual at the apex of the head, male or asexual at the base of the head, yellowish brown. Calyx and corolla tubular, 5-lobed. Stamens 10, filaments at base united into a tube. Ovary superior, stipitate, elliptic, unilocular with many ovules on the marginal placentae; style long; stigma simple. Pods linear, fascicled on the pear-shaped receptacle, long-stalked, usually twisted and with long intervals between the seeds; pericarps especially pungent odorous. Fruit a legume on a long stalk. Seed broadly ovoid, horizontal in the pod, testa very thin, white. Part used - Young pods. Uses - At first it is scratched with spoon or a scratcher. Then it is washed with water. After that the ends are cut off with scissors or knife. After that it is cut bit by bit. After that they are dipped in hot water for about 3 minutes. After that the pieces are mixed with chilli powder green tomatoes or baked tomatoes, and coriander leaves. Moreover, Petai fruits may be mixed with pounded cooked potatoes and eat. Petai fruits may be roasted in fire and peel off the skin and cooked with any 6 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 meat. In some places it is not dipped in hot water, it is eaten in raw with fish-paste sauce.

4. Setaria italica ( L.) P. Beauvois syn. Panicum italicum L. Family - Poaceae English Name - Foxtail millet; Italian millet Local Name - Sat; Hsat-san Chin Name - Taany Annual grass. Leaf-sheath cylindrical; blade linear-acuminate. Inflorescence a spike-like panicles, bearing 6 to 12 two flowered and subsessile spikelets, scabrid hairy. Lower glume small and 3-veined; upper glumes large and 5- veined, lower florets sterile; upper florets bisexual with 5-veined lemma and palea; lodicules 2, minute, membranous. Stamens 3, free. Ovary ovoid, unilocular with a solitary basal ovule; styles 2; stigma plumose. Caryopsis broadly ovoid, at first pale yellow to orange and then changed into when mature red, brown or black. Part used - Grains Uses - Hsat-san can be cooked by mixing grains of foxtail millet (Setaria italica) and rice (Oryza sativa). Foxtail millet have to be dried in the sun or by smoking it. Foxtail millet have to be pounded in the mortar for clean. The rice is chiefly used as staple fried rice. It is generally eaten with pulses or some other food rich in proteins. Rice mixed with foxtail millet were consumed as chin-hta-min. Chin-hta-min Chin-hta-min can be cook with maize and foxtail millet (Sat). Maize grain and millet have to be pounded separately. Testa of the maize grains were removed by grinding gently as mortar and pestle. And them, the pounded maize grain and sat have to be mixed and cooked. The cooked chin rice can be made by rolling it gently with the hand. Finally, the chin traditional rice can be eaten.

5. Zea mays L. Family - Poaceae English Name - Maize Local Name - Pyaung-bu Chin Name - Vai Mim Annual, monoecious herb; stem stout, solid, joined at the nodes. Leaves simple, distichous; blade flat, linear-lanceolate, truncate at the base, entire along the margin, acuminate at the apex, ciliate; sheaths overlapping. Male inflorescence terminal raceme spike; bracts 2. Female inflorescence axillary, solitary; bracts 2. Male spikelets 2-flowered; glumes 2, lodicules 2. Stamens 3, free; anthers dithecous. Female spikelet 1-flowered, sessile, densely crowed in many verttical series on the thick cylindrical rachis; glumes 2; lodicule absent. Ovary superior,

7 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 unilocular with anatropous ovule, obliquely ovoid, planoconvex. Fruit caryopsis subgloboid, hard and shinning. Part used - Grains Uses - Pyaung-hta-min is staple food of Chin tribes. Maize and rice were used to cook as Pyaung-hta-min. To prepare pyaung-hta-min, testa of the maize grains were removed by grinding gently with mortar and pestle and pounded into powder. And pounded grain was sifted with sieve. Then, grain had mixed with rice and cooked for about 30 min. They made the cooked pyaung-hta-min to form like the ball of rice. The chin traditional Pyaung-hta-min is ready to be eaten . Sa-bu-ti Sa-bu-ti is a very popular staple food among chin tribes in studied area. Sa-bu-ti was make by maize and meat, etc.. First, the meat chosen had to be boiled and the meat soup mixed with grain and boiled again for a few min.. Chin tribes were ate sa-bu-ti together with meat or vegetable.

A B

C D

Figure -1-A. Habit of Canavalia B. Seeds of Canavalia gladiata DC. gladiata DC. C. Habit of Solanum betaceum Cav. D. Fruits of Solanum betaceum Cav. 8 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019

E F

Figure -1- E. Habit of Parkia speciosa Hassk. F. Pod of Parkia speciosa Hassk.

A B

C D

Figure-2-A. Habit of Setaria italica ( L.) P. B. Inflorescence of Setaria italica ( L.) P. Beauvois Beauvois C. Habit of Zea mays L. D. Grains of Zea mays L.

9 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019

Table – (1) The collected edible plants from Tedim Township in Chin State. No. Family No. Botanical Name Local Name Chin Name Parts used and Uses 1. Fabaceae 1. Canavalia gladiata DC. Aung-loun Gatam Mature seeds are eaten cooked with corn, millet, rice, sweet potatoes. 2. Solanaceae 2. Solanum betaceum Cav. Chin-khayon- Sing Meh Fruits are eaten as baked, soup, boiled and gyin thuk cooked

3. Mimosaceae 3. Parkia speciosa Hassk. Myauk-ngo-thee Zawng teh Young pods are eaten cooked with any meat for curry

4. Setaria italica ( L.) P. Sat Taang Grains are eaten cooked with rice and maize Beauvois (Chin-hta-min) 4. Poaceae 5. Zea mays L. Pyaung-bu Vai Mim Grains are eaten as boiled and cooked with rice

10 KalayUniversity Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION The primary necessities of man are three fold food, clothing and shelter. The most essential need of man is food. The food primarily comes from plant in the forms of cereals (rice, wheat, maize, oat, barley, rye and millets), pulses vegetables and fruits. The intimate interrelationship between the human beings and plants has alwalys intrigued making and has compelled scientists to deal with it as an interdisplinary subject involving not only the botanical and social as pacts which is now understood as Ethnobotany (Saklani and Jain, 1994). Many people lived in forest and it surrounding area used plants for food and for many other purposes. The present study reveals the relationship between Chin tribes lived in Chin State and plants growing in its surrounding area. It was found that the Chin tribes were depending on plants and plant products for their food, clothing and housing from teir surrounding plant resources. Cultivation of rice, maize, foxtail millet and other cultivated crops made for their livelihood. It was observed that Chin tribes used a total of (5) plants species the being to (4) families which included both wild and cultivated were used for various purpose. The present work focused on ethnobotanical valve of plants used by Chin tribes were described with botanical name, local name and parts used. The vegetable is usually applied to edible plants which store up reverse food in roots, stems leaves, fruits, seeds and grains, which were eaten by cooking or raw as salad. The vegetables rank next to cereals as souraces of carbohydrate foods. The nutrients value of vegetables is tremendous, because of the presence of indispnsable mineral salts and vitamins. The mostly cultivated vegetables are tree tomato, petai, sorghum. pigweed, maize and egg-plant in studied area. In Grubben and Partohardjono (1996), maize (Zea mays) is prepared and consumed in a multitude of ways ( cooked, boiled, roasted or fermented ). The same result was observed in studied area. Corns are eaten in Pakistan (Hayat, et al. 2008). In the present study, maize was used for various traditional food (Pyaung-hta- min, Chin-hta-min and Sa-bu-ti). In tropical Asia, the young green pods are extensively eaten, served as a boild green vegetable similar to common bean. Sword bean is not a popular pulse because of the storng flavous and the thick, tough seed-coat (Siemonsma and Piluek, 1994). In this present study, sword bean were cooked with corn, millet, sweet potatoes, jaggery or rice and eat. In conclusion, Human being depend on plants as food, medicines, clothes and shelter etc. Since their existence on the earth. Their essential needed foods are obtained from plants belonging to different groups, namely cereals, vegetables and fruits. However, the new generation of Chin tribes lack the knowledge to make their own preparation and uses a traditional food with various plants by themselves. In very near future, the culture and the workmanship of commodities from various plant parts could be disappeared. The hill tribe people indeed, an important cultural resources and their knowledge can be a valuable for conserving what remain of Chin tribe‟s natural heritage.Therefore, it is necessary to record the uses and Chin tribe‟s knowledge to

11 KalayUniversity Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 make traditional food from various plants. It is hoped that, this present study is preliminary record to conserve the Chin tribe‟s culture.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my deep gratitude to Dr Khin Thida Soe, Professor and Head, Department of Botany, Kalay University for providing her advices and necessary research facilities in the field of study. I would like to thank to Dr Ohmmar Thein, Professor, Department of Botany, University of Kalay for his valuable suggestion in this research paper.

REFERENCES Chong, K. Y., et al. 2009. A Checklist of the Total Vascular Plant Flora of Singapore: Native, Naturalized and Cultivated species. Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore, Singapor. 273 pp. Cronquist, 1981. An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants. Columbia University Press, New York. Grubben, G. J. H. and S. Partohardjono, 1996. Cereals. Plnat Resources of South-East Asia No. (10). Bogor, Indonesia. Hundley, H. G. and Chit Ko Ko, 1987. List of Trees, Shrubs, Herbs and Principal Climbers etc., Forest Department, Rangoon. Kress, J. et al., 2003. A Checklist of the Trees, Shrubs, herbs and Climbers of Myanmar. Department of Systematic Biology-Botany. National Museum of natural History, Washington DC, U.S.A. Lawrence, H. M., 1964. Taxonomy of vascular plants, 10th printing. The Macmillan Co, new York. Pandey, B. P., 1999. Taxonomy of Angiosperms for University Students. S. Chand and Company LTD. Ram Nagar, New Delhi. Saklani, A. & S. K. Jain., 1994. Cross-cultural Ethnobotany of Northeast India. National Botanical Research Institute New Delhi, India. Siemonsma, J.S. and K. Piluek, 1994. Vegetables, PROSEA. Bogor, Indonesia. Verheij, E. W. M. And R.E. Coronel, 1992. Plant Resources of South-East Asia, No.2 (Edible fruit and nuts), PROSEA, Bogor, Indinesia.Journal Hayat et al., 2008. Ethnotaxonomical Approach in the Idnetificantion of useful medicinal flora of Tehsil Pindigheb (District Attock) Pakistan. http:// www.ethnobotanyjournal. org/vol 6/i 1547-3465-035. pdf.

12 KalayUniversity Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 PREPARATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF HYDROXYAPATITE FROM FISH SCALE (LABEO ROHITA, NGA-MYIT-CHIN) Than Than Khaing 1, Win Win Shein2

ABSTRACT Hydroxyapatite (HAp) has been widely used as a biocompatible ceramic in many areas of medicine, but mainly for contact with bone tissue, due to its resemblance to mineral bone. Hydroxyapatite was prepared from fish scale powder after calcination of deproteinised fish scale waste. Effect of temperature on the morphological, structural and thermal properties of fish scale HAp was investigated at different temperatures. The crystal structures of synthesized HAp nanostructures were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD) at different calcination temperatures (800 °C, 900 °C, 1000 °C and 11000 °C). The surface morphology of nanostructure was examined by scanning electron microscope (SEM). The obtained nanostructures were characterized by fourier transform infrared spectrophotometer (FTIR) for the purity of the nanostructures. Thermogravimetry-Differential Thermal Analysis (TG- DTA) was then conducted for thermal stability of the synthesized nanostructure. Crystallite size for HAp synthesized from fish scale is 1.45 nm at 1000C and 0.87 nm at 1100C respectively. The cytotoxicity of fish scale HAp will be determined by brine shrimp cytotoxicity bioassay. The results of the brine shrimp lethality bioassay suggested that the fish scale hydroxyapatite is not toxic to biomedical applications. Keywords: fish scale, hydroxyapatite, XRD, SEM, FT-IR, EDX, crystallite size, cytotoxicity 1 2 INTRODUCTION In recent years, hydroxyapatite has attracted interest for use in bone grafting because of its osteoconductive and bioactive properties. Other medical applications of hydroxyapatite have also been examined because hydroxyapatite is biocompatible, bioactive, non-toxic, non-inflammatory and non-immunogenic. Natural hydroxyapatite biocreamics have recently been extracted from various bio-wastes, including corals, cuttlefish shells, fish, porcine teeth and bones, and bovine bones. HAp is derived from natural materials such as coral and fish bone (Jensen et al., 1996), fish scale (Mondal et al. 2010). Attempts have been taken to isolate fish scale derived HAp and use them as an alternate for synthetic HAp (Mondal et al. 2010). Extraction of HAp from these waste not only considered as economically but it also environmentally friendly. 50% of the total weight generated by the fish processing industry is waste, and about 4% of the waste is fish scale. Unlike the preparation of hydroxyapatite by such synthetic methods as expeditious microwave irradiation, chemical precipitation and radio frequency thermal plasma, the extraction of hydroxyapatite from bio-waste is biologically safe (requiring no chemicals) and a potentially lucrative process, especially given the growing global demand for hydroxyapatite bioceramics.

1 Professor, Dr, Department of Chemistry, Kalay University 2 MRes Student

13 KalayUniversity Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 This research aims to produce the hydroxyapatite powder from the natural source followed by calcination method to analyze the hydroxyapatite structures. It involves the preparation and characterization of HAp from Fish Scale (Labeo rohita, Ngar Myit Chin). Preparations were carried out at different calcinations temperatures.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Synthesis of Hydroxyapatite Nanostructures All chemicals used were analytical grade reagents without any further purification. In this research, fresh water fish scales (Rohu fish) were abundantly available and freshly collected from Hledan Market, Yangon Region. Fish scales were washed thoroughly in running tap water and remove salts and dirty substances. Then it was boiled with distilled water for 1 h and then was separated from the remaining tissues. The collected scales were initially de-proteinized through external washing with 1 M HCl solution (2:1, v/w, water HCl /fish scale) for 24 hours at room temperature. Next, the de-proteinized fish scales were washed thoroughly several times with distilled water. Remaining proteins of fish scales were treated with 1M NaOH solution. The filtered fish scales were washed thoroughly with distilled water and dried at 60°C in hot air oven for several hours. The dried de-proteinized fish scale sample was ground into powder. The sample was weighed and then pre-ash was carried out until all the combustible materials were burnt. Treated fish scales were calcined at different temperatures (800C, 900C, 1000C and 1100C). Characterization TGA/DTA and DTG studies was carried out by thermal analyser (Netzsch, STA 409). The thermo gravimetric analysis of chemically treated fish scales were carried out between 0˚C and 600˚C in nitrogen atmosphere at the heating rate of 50 Cel/min. The structural changes of the raw fish scales and synthesized HAp samples were monitored by FTIR. The spectra of the synthesized HAp structure were obtained by FTIR 8400 Shimadzu spectrophotometer using a KBr pallet in the range 400 - 4000 cm-1 with a resolution of 4.0 cm-1. The crystal structure and phase of the samples were confirmed by XRD (model RIGAKU-RINT 2000) using CuKα radiation (40 kV, 40 mA) over a 2θ range from 10º to 70º on a powder type X-ray diffractometer equipped with a diffracted-beam graphite monochromator. Surface morphology of the samples was investigated by SEM (Type: JEOL 15 kV). Investigation of Cytotoxicity by Brine Shrimp Lethality Bioassay The brine shrimp (Anemia salina) was used in this study for cytoxicity bioassay. They were purchased as brine shrimp cysts from pet shop, Baho Road, Hlaing Township, Yangon Region. Brine shrimp cysts require supplied O2, light and heat (28 °C) to hatch in artificial sea water in 24 h incubation time (Ali el al., 2013). In this experiment, potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) and caffeine were used as standards. Potassium dichromate is generally used as the positive control for this brine shrimp lethality assay (Tawahaet al., 2006) and caffeine is a natural product.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION TG-DTA Analysis TGA shows the change in mass with the increase of temperature. The thermogravimetric analysis of chemically treated fish scales were carried out between 14 KalayUniversity Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 35C and 600C in nitrogen atmosphere at a heating rate of 10C / min. In this analysis actual weight losses are observed in two steps. The first loss is due to moisture in the sample material, second resulted from the decomposition and burning of organic components in raw scales. As the washing treatment could not completely remove the organic compounds of the inner parts of scale structure, the large weight loss is resulted mainly from those organics. The total degradation loss is 69.01%. DTA curves shows endothermic peak at 308.75C is due to thermal degradation and combustion of organic residue. Exothermic peak observed at 368.96C is due to change in phase composition of hydroxyapatite to obtain well crystalline nature. However there was minor weight loss on heating up to 1100C with indicates thermal stability of the sample in this range.

Fig-1 TG-DTA thermogram of fish Fig-2 TG-DTA thermogram of fish scale sample scale Hap calcined at 1100C XRD XRD diffractograms of synthesized hydroxyapatite from fish scales were shown in Figure 3. It was observed that well resolved characteristic peak of highest 2 value of 32 corresponding to 211 plane. XRD diffractograms of hydroxyapatite heated at 1000C and 1100C shown that all have identical phase composition of hydroxyapatite Ca10 (PO4)6 (OH)2. The peaks of intensity were increased with the increment of calcination temperature and the decrease width. This is due to removal of organic portion and substances that contains in the powder. Sharp peak intensity and well resolved peaks in XRD patterns of the powders at high calcination temperature proves complete crystallization of the powder. The crystallite size of the nanostructures was estimated by using the Debye Scherrer K  equation: D  (Georgekutty at al., 2008), where λ is the wavelength of the B co s 

o incident X-ray beam (1.5405 A for CuKα1), K is a constant equal to 0.89 for spherical shape of particle, β is the FWHM (full width at half maximum), θ is the diffraction angle and D is the crystallite size. The Bragg reflection at (211, 112,002, 300) planes of HAp was considered to calculate the crystallite size. The crystallinity percent and crystalline size of hydroxyapatite from fish scale up to 1100C were presented in Table 1. Crystallite sizes for HAp synthesized from fish scales at different temperatures are 1.433 nm at

15 KalayUniversity Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 800C, 1.37 nm at 900C, 1.45nm at 1000C, 0.87 nm at 1100C respectively. From these result, it indicated that increase in temperature favour small crystalline size of hydroxyapatite. These results also agree with the SEM results of crystal at 1100C. Therefore, 1100C is the most suitable to produce the best hydroxyapatite. Moreover, for hydroxyapatite from fish scale need higher temperature. If high temperature more than 1100C, the better hydroxyapatite will be obtained. FT IR FT IR spectra of powders were similar whatever the composition of powder might be. The FT IR spectrum shows all characteristic absorption peaks of HAp. The first indication for formation of HAp is in the form of a strong complex broad FTIR band centered at about 1000- 1100 cm-1 due to asymmetric stretching mode of -1 vibration for PO4 group. The band at 560-630 cm correspond symmetric P-O stretching vibration of the PO4 group. As a major peak of phosphate group, the vibration peak could be identified in the region between 1100- 960 cm-1 for all 3- powders which are due to P-O asymmetric stretching of PO4 . The crystalline powder generates characteristic stretching modes of O-H bands at about 600 cm-1 which are notice in all FTIR spectra of HAp. EDXRF The chemical compositions of raw powder and after calcination were analyzed by using EDXRF analyzer. Relative percentages of elements present in fish scale and fish scale Hap calcined at different temperature were shown in Table 3. It can be seen that calcium and phosphrous were found as the major elements. K, Sr, Zn,and Fe were found as minor element in fish scale and fish scale Hap samples.By referring the EDXRF result the Ca/ P ratio of thesamples were calculated and the ratios are 2.06 for raw powder, 1.94, 1.83, 1.69 and 1.68 at temperature 800˚C , 900˚C,1000˚C and 1100˚C. The ratios are equivalent with other previous study. SEM analysis The samples were investigated for their microstructure and morphological features by using a scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The morphologies of fish scale is shown in Figure 3.19. The microstructures of synthesized of fish scale Hap powders calcined at different temperatures 800, 900, 1000 and 1100 C are shown in Figure 3.20. From this investigation, it indicated that the hydroxyapatite obtained at these temperatures has a diversified propensity for agglomeration. At 800C, the irregular shape of natural hydroxyapatite was obtained. At 1100C, the size of hydroxyapatite was increased with less impurity. The regular shape grains hydroxyapatite was observed and crystal grain growth to larger cluster. Therefore, the highest propensity for agglomeration was observed and the best crystalline form was obtained at 1100C.

16 KalayUniversity Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e)

Figure 3. XRD diffractogram of (a) fish scale sample (b) fish scale HApcalcined at 800C (c) fish scale HApcalcined at 900C (d) fish scale HApcalcined at 1000C (e) fish scale HApcalcined at 1100C

17 KalayUniversity Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 Table 1 Crystallinity Percent and Average Crystallite Sizes of Fish Scale HAp

Total Area of Average Total area % Samples crystalline crystallite size of all peaks Crystallinity peaks (nm)

Calcined at 43.0 76.7 56.1 1.43 800 C

Calcined at 50.5 79.5 63.5 1.37 900 C

Calcined at 52.0 80.5 64.6 1.45 1000 C

Calcined at 50.8 77.0 65.9 0.87 1100 C

Table 2 FT IR Spectral Data of Fish Scale HAp

Wave number (cm-1) No Uncalcined Remark 800C 900C 1000C 1100C

1 1642 1639 Carbonate group or water

P-O asymmetric stretching 2 1087 1082 1087 1087 -3 of PO4 3 1008 1025 1016 1026 1045

4 962 958 961 960 Bending PO -3 4 5 630 - 630 632

stretching modes of O-H 6 590 599 601 599 601 bands symmetric P-O stretching 7 563 558 565 570 -3 of PO4

18 KalayUniversity Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 Table 3 Relative Elemental Abundance of Fish Scale HAp (uncalcined) and that Calcined at Different Temperatures

Relative abundance (%) Samples Ca P Sr Zn Fe K Ca/P Ratio

Raw 16.26 7.89 0.174 0.098 0.320 - 2.06

800 C 25.79 13.24 0.237 0.074 0.039 0.768 1.94

900 C 21.86 11.94 0.925 0.288 0.345 0.630 1.83

1000 C 31.67 18.73 0.298 0.070 - 0.638 1.69

1100 C 32.13 19.09 0.805 0.208 0.637 - 1.68

SEM analysis The samples were investigated for their microstructure and morphological features by using a scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The morphologies of fish scale is shown in Figure 4. The microstructures of synthesized of fish scale HAp powders calcined at different temperatures 800C 900C, 1000C and 1100C are shown in Figure 5. From this investigation, it indicated that the hydroxyapatite obtained at these temperatures has a diversified propensity for agglomeration. At 800C, the irregular shape of natural hydroxyapatite was obtained. At 1100C, the size of hydroxyapatite was increased with less impurity. The regular shape grains hydroxyapatite was observed and crystal grain growth to larger cluster. Therefore, the highest propensity for agglomeration was observed and the best crystalline form was obtained at 1100C. Cytotoxicity Evaluation The cytotoxicity of fish scale hydroxyapatite was evaluated by brine shrimp cytotoxicity bioassay. This assay is the general toxicity screening of bioactive materials. The animal that has been used for this purpose is the brine shrimp (Sahgal et al., 2010).The cytotoxicity of different doses of fish scale hydroxyapatite against Anemia salina (Brine shrimp) were expressed in term of mean ± SEM and the results are shown in Table 4. The results of the brine shrimp lethality bioassay suggested that the fish scale hydroxyapatite is not toxic to biomedical applications.

19 KalayUniversity Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019

Figure 4 SEM image of fish scale

1000°C 1100C

Figure 5 SEM images of fish scale Hap at different temperatures

20 KalayUniversity Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 Table 4 Cytotoxicity of Uncalcined and Calcined Fish Scale Hap against Artemiasalina (Brine Shrimp)

No. of Dead Brine Shrimp sample (Mean ± SEM) in Various Concentration (mg) 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05

*K2Cr2O7 7 ± 0.00 10 ± 0.00 10 ±0.00 10 ± 0.00 10 ± 0.00

Uncalcined 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ±0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00

1100C 0± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00

SEM = Standard Error Mean, p < 0.01 caffeine = no death untial concentration 1600 mg/mL *Used as cytotoxic standard CONCLUSION In this work, pure and stoichiometric hydroxyapatite can be successfully extractd by using waste material (fish scale). From the XRD analysis of hydroxyapatite it was found that the well resolved sharp diffraction peaks indicated the high crystallinity of HAp. Crystallite size for HAp synthesized from fish scale is 1.45 nm at 1000C and 0.87 nm at 1100C respectively. The calcination temperature affected the crystallization behavior. The yield percent obtained is 30.68% and 30.44%. TG-DTA analysis results showed the thermal stability of hydroxyapatite. FT-IR spectra of powders were similar whatever the composition of powder might be. The FT IR spectrum shows all characteristic absorption peaks of HAp. The first indication for formation of HAp is in the form of a strong complex broad FTIR band centered at about 1000- 1100 cm-1 due to asymmetric stretching mode of vibration for -1 PO4 group. The band at 560-630 cm correspond symmetric P-O stretching vibration of the PO4 group. As a major peak of phosphate group, the vibration peak could be identified in the region between 1100- 960 cm-1 for all powders which are due to P-O 3- asymmetric stretching of PO4 . The crystalline powder generates characteristic stretching modes of O-H bands at about 600 cm-1 which are notice in all FTIR spectra of HAp. From the SEM micrograph revealed that the highest temperature 1100C has the lumps of particles, and soft, agglomerated nature was also observed. From EDXRF result the Ca/ P ratio is 2.06 for raw powder and 1.68 for after calcination at 1100˚C. The ratios are equivalent with other previous study. The results of the brine shrimp lethality bioassay suggested that the fish scale hydroxyapatite is no toxic to biomedical applications. From the overall assessment on the present investigation, waste fish scales are suitable material for synthesis of hydroxyapatite. Finally, fish scale is very expectable material for application to synthesis of calcium phosphate ceramics. The hydroxyapatite synthesized by fresh water fish scales is expected to a superior biocompatible material than the other chemical synthesized powders and mass product may be possible in the low cost and simple process.

21 KalayUniversity Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to express their profound gratitude to Prof. Dr. Tha Tun Maung (Rector, Kalay University) for their his permission to conduct this research work and provision of research facilities.

REFERENCES Mondal, S., Mahata, S., Kundu, S., and Mondal, B., 2010, “Processing of natural resourced hydroxyapatite ceramics from fish scale.” Adv. Appl.Ceram.: Struct. Funct. Bioceram., Vol. 109, pp. 234-239. Jensen, S.S., Aaboe, M., Pinholt, E.M., Hjoerting-Hansen, E., Melsen, F. & Ruyter, I.E. (1996). Tissue reaction and material charac-teristics of four bone substitutes. Interna-tional Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Implants, 11(1), 55-66. Howden A., (1980), "Tissue Reaction to the Bioceramic Synthos; Mechanical Properties of Biomaterials", John Wiley and Sons, USA, 445-456 Jarcho M., (1981), “Calcium Phosphate Ceramics as Hard Tissue Prosthesis”, Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res., 157, 259-78 Sahgal G, Ramanathan S, Sasidharan S, Mordi MN, Ismail S, Mansor SM. “Brine shrimp lethality and acute oral toxicity studies on Swietenia mahagoni (Linn.) Jacq. seed methanolic extract” Pharmacognosy Res. 2, 215-220 Thin Thin Nwe, (2005), “Study on the Apatitic Calcium Phosphate Bone Cements from Natural Resources”, Ph. D. Dissertation, Department of Chemistry, University of Yangon 22 KalayUniversity Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 STUDY ON WINE PRODUCTION FROM TAUNG ZA LAT FLOWER (Rhododendron arboreumSm) Htwe Sandar Kyaw1 and Than Than Khaing2

ABSTRACT Rhododendron arboreum (Taungzalat), a plant of Chin State of Myanmar, was screened for its active chemical ingredient. The flowers of Rhododendron arboreum have been reported to possess certain polyphenolic compounds. Preliminary phytochemical screening of flowers using conventional natural products identification tests indicated the presence of different classes of phytochemicals such assteroids, flavonoids, glycosides, saponins, tannins and phenolic compounds. The presence of these various compounds could act as a source of therapeutic agent. The suitability of Taungzalatflower was investigated for the production of wine. Fermentation of flower was carried out by traditional yeast. The developed wine was then subjected to various physicochemical techniques such as pH, titratable acidity, total SO2 content, total dissolved solids and ethanol concentration to assess aging profile. The maximum yield of ethanol (~10 % v/v) occurred at 29º C with pH 3.3 after one month of fermentation of Taungzalatflower. The wine contained titratable -1 -1 acidity (2.3 gL ), total SO2 concentration (0.08 gL ) and total dissolved solid (266 ppm). These values are acceptable for wine. Total phenolic content in wine was measured spectrophotometricaly by Folin-Ciocalteu method. The total phenolic content inTaungzalat flower wine was found to be 2111.37 μg/mL.The studies related Taungzalatflower wine was very few so, the suitability of Taungzalatflower for wine making was tested. Keywords: Rhododendron arboreum, phytochemicals, wine, chemical assessment

INTRODUCTION Wine is great importance in our society today, has been so for thousands of years. Wine has had religious significance as both an offering and a sacrament since Biblical times, and this has helped its development. Today an enormous variety of wine is available, made from more than 5000 varieties of a single species of sample. Wines are obtained from the total or partial alcoholic fermentation of crushed sample that contain sugar. In the fermentation process, sugar present in the sample gets convert into ethanol by anaerobic action of yeast. In general, there are three main types of wine; table wine, sparkling wine and fortified wine (Lanskenset al., 1988). The use of alcoholic beverages existed at least as early as 10,000 BC. The Greeks, Romans, and Babylonian are first culture which used alcohol for religious festivals, pleasure, as a source of nutrition and part of medicinal practices. Nowadays alcoholic beverage incorporated into most cultures, and has a central role in daily life. Whiskey, champagne, distilled spirits, gin and win are the most alcoholic beverage that have been used through the world (Idiseet al., 2011). Wine is a complex alcoholic beverage, which contains numerous compounds, capable of influencing perceived quality of wine.The phenolic are major non-volatile

1 Associate Professor, Dr,Department of Chemistry, Kalay University 2 Professor, Dr, Department of Chemistry, Kalay University

23 KalayUniversity Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 compounds widely known as essential components of red wine quality. Among the phenolic compounds, tannins are of particular importance in red wine.Alcoholic beverage is one of the most multipurpose drugs known to mankind, with multiple direct effects on neurochemical systems(Ströhleet al.,2012).Wine includes a variety of compound that influences its quality. These compounds originated from wine obtaining biotechnological processes. Alcoholic fermentation along with care treatments, conditioning and maturation applied has a direct influence on the physico- chemical and aroma compound (Teodoraet al., 2014). Wine components include water, alcohols, acids, sugars, phenolics, nitrogenous compounds, vitamins and various volatile compounds, with each constituent capable of contributing unique aromas, tastes and oral sensations to the wine and ultimately, affecting its perceived quality. The consumption of wine has several health benefits like lowering the mortality from cardiovascular disease and cancer, delaying dermentia and preventing arthritis (Remedios, 2010). Wine can be made from any non-poisonous flower, fruit and leaf or root plant. Antioxidants can be found in all part of plants such as fruits, flowers, leaf, stem and root. Therefore wines making from herbs are enriching with natural antioxidants. The present investigation was for the development of wine from Rhododendron arboreum flower. Rhododendron arboreumSmith (Taungzalat) Kingdom : Plantae Family : Ericaceae Genus : Rhododendron Species : R.arboreum Botanical name : Rhododendron arboreum Binomial name : RhododendronarboreumSmith English name : Rhododendron Common name : Tree Rhododendron Myanmar name : Taungzalat Part used : Flower

Figure 1. Plant and flowers of Rhododendron arboreum

24 KalayUniversity Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 Botanical Descriptionof R. arboreum The family of Rhododendron arboreum is Ericaceae and the genus is Rhododendron. An evergreen tree is growing up to 20 m tall, having rough and pinkish brown bark. The trunk is often much branched, crooked or gnarled.Bark is reddish brown, soft and rough, exfoliating in thin flakes. An evergreen tree is growing up to 20 m tall, having rough and pinkish brown bark. Leaves are glossy green, oblong-lanceolate, 10-20 cm long and 3.6 cm wide. Crowded towards the ends of branches, petiole covered with white scales when young. It is glossy green, with deeply impressed veins from above white fawn, cinnamon or rusty brown felt is found at the under surface. The flowers of R. arboreum range in color from a deep scarlet, to red with white markings, pink to white. Flowers are showy, red in dense globose cymes. Fruits are capsule-curved central column composed of fine lobes, ribbed, up to 3.8 cm long and 1.25 cm wide. Seeds are minute, dark brown, compressed, thin linear having an obvolute membrane. December - April and June – September bearing deep red or crimson to pale pink flower (Pallavi, 2012). Distribution of R. arboreum Rhododendrons are distributed mainly in the temperate zone of the northern hemisphere, with the greatest diversity of species occurring in southern China, the Himalayas, Japan, Southeast Asia and North America.Rhododendron L. Ericaceae is represented by about 1025 species in the world mostly concentrated in the temperate regions of Northern hemisphere especially in Sino Himalayas (Eastern Himalayas and Western China). Besides this main center, the Rhododendrons are further extended towards southern and northeastern China, Japan, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines and New Guinea. A few species are also reported from Afghanistan, Pakistan, southern Europe and northern America (Debjyoti, 2011). Chemical Constituents in R.arboreum Flowers: Quercetin-3-rhamnoside a crystalline chemical compound has been reported from the flowers of this species (Rangaswamy&Sambamurthy, 1960). Three biologically active phenolic compounds i.e. quercetin (C15H10O7), rutin (C27H30O16) and coumaric acid (C9H8O3) have been reported in flowers of R..arboreum using high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC) (Pallavi, 2012). It contains fatty acid such as palmitic acid, linoleic acid, eicosanoic acid, heptadecanoic acid. Trierpene such as methyl commatediterpene as phelalic acid, terpene alcohol as hexadecanol, sesqueterpene as globulol and carboxalic acid such as docosanoic acid, octadecadienoic acid. Flowers of R. arboreum contain phenols, saponins, xanthoprotein, steroids, tannin, and coumarin (Vandanaet al., 2016). Leaves: Green leaves are reported to contain glucoside, ericolin (arbutin) (C12H16O7), ursolic acid (C30H48O4), α-amyrin (C30H50O), epifriedelinol (C30H52O), a new triterpenoid named campanulin, quercetin&hyperoside (C21H20O12). Chemical analysis of the leaves of R. arboreum var. nilagiricum revealed the presence of hyperoside (3-D -galactoside of quercetin), ursolic acid and epifriedelinol, a triterpenoid compound. The leaves are also reported to contain the flavone glycoside and dimethyl ester of terephthalic acid and certain flavonoids (Pallavi, 2012). Some other HPTLC, NMR, IR and spectroscopic studies revealed the presence of phenolics, epicatechin, syringic acid, quercitin, terpenoids and flavonoids in methanolic, alcoholic, aqueous and hexane extracts of R. arboreum leaves (Vanadaet al., 2016).

25 KalayUniversity Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 Bark: The petroleum ether extract of the bark indicated the presence of a single triterpenoid substance taraxerol (C30H50O) &ursolic acid acetate (C32H50O4). The ether extract of the bark following petroleum ether extract showed the identity of betulinic acid (C30H48O3). The acetone extract of the bark gave the substance leuco- pelargonidin (C15H14O6) (Pallavi, 2012). Roots: Alkaloid, terpenoid, tannin, reducing sugar, steroid and saponins were found (Mohammad et al.,2011).

MATERIALS AND METHODS Preparation of Plant Sample Fresh petals of Rhododendron arboreum (Taungzalat) was collected from Kennedy Mountain, Tedim Township, Chin State, December 2017.The collected flowers were cleaned and washed. And then, the collected flower specimen was dried on new paper at room temperature. Then the dried flowers were powdered by grinding machine and stored in the screw-capped bottles before the extraction process to remove the moisture content. Preliminary Phytochemical Tests for R. arboreum (Taubgzalat) Flower Preparation of different Extracts Powdered plant material was soaked in methanol for 24 hrs at room termperature and the solvent was filtered with Whatman filter pater. This was repeated 3-4 times until the extract gave no coloration. The extract was distilled and concentrated yielding a gum-like residue. The same was repeated with 97% ethanol and distilled water. The solvent from each extract was filtered and concentrated yielding a gum-like residue. Finally ethanol, methanol and water crude extracts were collected and stored in refrigerator for further phytochemical analysis. Test for alkaloids The ethanol extract was dissolved in dilute HCl and filtered. The filtrate was treated with Dragendorff‟s reagent. The formation of red precipitate indicates the present of alkaloids (Prashantet al., 2011). Test for flavonoids

The methanolic extract was treated with conc. H2SO4 and observed for the formation of red orange color.The methanolic extract was treated with few drops of 10% lead acetate solution. Formation of precipitates indicates the presence of flanonoids (Prashantet al., 2011).

One ml of methanolic extract was mixed with few drops of 5% AlCl3 and the intense color formation indicates the presence of flavonoids (Gujjeti, 2013). Test for glycoside Fehling‟s solution A and B was diluted with distilled water and boiled for 1 min. To this clear blue solution, 8 drops of water extract was added and boiled in a water bath for 5 min. The formation of orange precipitation indicates the presence of glycosides (Gujjeti,2013).

26 KalayUniversity Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 Test for phenol The methanolic extract was treated with 3-4 drops of ferric chloride solution. Formation of bluish black color indicates the presence of phenols (Prashantet al., 2011). Test for saponin 2 g of water extract were diluted with distilled water to 20 ml and this was shaken in a graduated cylinder for 15 minutes. Formation indicates of 1 cm layer of foam indicates the presence of saponins (Prashantet al., 2011). Test for steroids 4 mg of ethanolic extract was treated with 0.5 ml of acetic anhydride and 0.5 ml of acetic acid. The concentrated H2SO4 was added slowly and blue green color was observed for terpenoids and reddish brown color for steroids (Gujjeti, 2013). Test for tannis To the aqueous extract, 1% gelatin solution containing sodium chloride was added. Formation of white precipitate indicates the presence of tannins (Prashantetal., 2011). Preparation of R.arboreum (Taungzalat) Flower Wine 100 g of Taungzalat flower powder was boiled with 7 L of water and cool. The extract was put into the fermentation jar. The jar was inoculated with 1800 g sugar and 50 g of yeast. Then the mixture was incubated at 25ºC for a few weeks. When the main fermentation finished, the upper liquid was transferred to the other container in order to remove impurities. Then the mixture continued to ferment at 25ºC for a few days. After that, the storage conditions at 25ºC aged three months. Determination of Physicochemical Properties of Wine pH pH was measured with a digital pH meter. Total dissolved solids (TDS) TDS was measured with a TDS meter, KEDIDO, CT-3060, China. Refractive index Refractive index of wine was recorded on a pocket refractometer, ATAGO, Japan.

Estimation of Total SO2 content in Wine by Titrametric Method 20 cm3 of wine sample was pipette out in a conical flask and 0.1M 25.0 cm3 of sodium hydroxide was added. After 10 minutes 5.0 cm3 of starch and25% of 10.0 cm3 of sulfuric acid were added. And then, 1g of sodium bicarbonate was added and immediately titrated with 0.01M iodine. When the purple color obtained, the end point was reached (AOAC, 2000). The procedure was repeated with three times and the results were tabulated in Table (3.4).

3 -1 Iodine (cm ) × Iodine (M) × 64 × 1000 Total SO2 (mgL ) = 3 Wine sample (cm )

27 KalayUniversity Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 Estimation of TotalAcidity in Wine (Titratable Acidity) 10ml of wine sample was pipette out in a conical flask and 2-3 drops of phenolphthalein indicator was added. Titrate with standard 0.1M sodium hydroxide and at the end point the pink color was obtained (AOAC, 2000). The procedure was repeated with three times and the results were tabulated in Table (3.4). Total acidity (gL-1 tartaric acid) = 0.75 x titre volume of 0.1 M NaOH Determination of Total Phenolic Content inWine Total phenolic content of wine was determined employing the method involving Folin-Ciocalteu reagent (FCR) as oxidizing agent and Gallic acid as standard (Rekhaet al., 2012) Preparation of reagents 10% FC reagent 10ml of FC reagent was taken in a beaker and specific water was added for 10% FC reagent.

Preparation of 7.5% Na2CO3 solution

7.5 mg of Na2CO3 was taken in a 100 ml volumetric flask and a small amount of distilled water was added in it and shaken to dissolve Na2CO3 and the volume was made up to the mark by adding distilled water. Preparation of standard gallic acid solution 1 mg gallic acid was dissolved into 1 ml distilled water, so the concentration of the solution is 200ug/mL. this is called stock solution. Then serial dilution was performed in order to 100ug/mL, 50ug/mL, 25ug/mL, 12.5ug/mL, 6.25ug/mL and 3.125 ug/mL respectively. 1ml of wine sample was taken in a test tube. 5ml of Folin-Ciocalteu‟s solution were added. After 5minutes 4ml of 1 M Na2CO3 was added. After 15minutes, the absorbance was determined using spectrophotometer at λmax = 765nm.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Preliminary Phytochemical Tests for R.arboreum Flower The flowers of R.arboreumwere subjected to preliminary phytochemical screening for the detection of various plant constituents present. The active ingredients, after isolation, can be incorporated into the modern medicine system for the development of newer formulation for therapeutic ailments. Phytochemical investigate was carried out to know the type of health benefit of chemical constituent compounds present in the petals of R. arboreum (Taung-za-lat). These results were show in the Figure 3and Table 1. According to these result steroids is found in the ethanolic extract. Flavonoid, glycoside and phenolic compounds were found in methanolic extract. Saponin and tannin were present in water extract whereas alkaloids were absent in the flower.

28 KalayUniversity Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019

extract extract extract

Figure 2. Phytochemical test of Taung-za-lat flower

Table 1. Phytochemical Test of Taung-za-lat Flower

No Test Extract Test reagent Observation Remark 1. Alkaloids EtOH Dragendorff‟reagent Orange ppt -

2. Flavonoids MeOH 5% AlCl3 Intense color + Lead acetate Yellow ppt +

Conc. H2SO4 Red color + 3. Glycoside MeOH Fehling reagent Brick red ppt +

4. Phenol MeOH 1% FeCl3 Bluish black +

5. Saponin H2O Water Foam + 6. Steroid EtOH Libermann-burchard Bluish black +

7. Tannin H2O Gelatin White ppt +

+ = present - = not detected

29 KalayUniversity Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019

Winemaking and Some Physicochemical Properties Red wine was produced from Taung-za-lat (TZL) flower, granulated sugar and commercial yeast. The nutritive value of wine is increased due to release of amino acid and other nutrients from yeast during fermentation. Wine includes a variety of compounds that influence its quality. These compounds originate from raw material and wine obtaining biotechnological processes. Wine contains over 600 nutritional substances including vitamins, organic acids and more importantly polyphenols. pH of plant extract is important parameter for the successful progress of fermentation. Control of pH during wine fermentation is important because the growth of harmful bacteria is retarded by acidic solution and yeast growth well in acidic condition of pH range from 3.5 to 6.5. The initial pH of the fermentation fluid was 4 and the overall pH change in the fermentation process was not much changed. After one month fermentation the pH decreased to 3.3. Alcohol, or ethanol, is the intoxicating agent found in beer, wine and liquor. Alcohol is produced by formation of yeast, sugars, and starches. The volumetric titre of ethanol in wine is one of the most important indicators for the alcoholic beverages and its accurate determination is essential for the classification of the commodity.One month after fermentation, the alcohol content increased and changed significantly. The maximum value was 10.0% v/v after distillation. Refractive index and total dissolved solids of wine are shown in Table 2. Determination of Total PhenolicContent in TZL flower wine The amount of phenolic compounds depends on the variety, the annual climatic conditions, and soil and agro technical factors. The proportion of the different phenols in any wine will therefore vary according to the type of vinification. Measuring the total phenolic content in wine is important in estimating the taste and health benefits of wine. Total phenolconcentration was determined spectrophotometricaly by Folin- Ciocalteu method. One month after fermentation, the total phenolic content in TZL flower wine was found to be 2111.37μg/mL.

Figure 3. Images of wine and mixture of wine with Folin-Ciocalteu reagent (FCR) in Na2CO3

30 KalayUniversity Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019

Concentration of gallicacid (μg/mL)

Figure 4. The calibration curve of the standard gallic acid solution at 765 nm

Determination of Total SO2 Content and Total Acidity Content in Wine During alcoholic fermentation yeast naturally produced sulfur dioxide as a metabolic intermediate of the sulphate reduction pathway. Sulfur dioxide, in contract, is an essential additive to all wines because certain amount of sulfur dioxide prevents the wine deteriorating incompatible. It destroyed bacteria and also acts as an antioxidant. Total sulfur dioxide is the sum of free sulfur dioxide and the combined -1 sulfur dioxide. The total SO2 content of TZL flower wine was 0.08 gL . Determination of Total Acidity in Wine The typical acidity measurement in TZL flower wine was pH and titratable acidity (TA). TA was applied to sensory perception of wine‟ acidity, i.e. its tartness, sourness, crispness. A wine with too much acidity will taste excessively sour and sharp. A wine with too little acidity will taste flabby and flat, with less defined flavors. The total acidity content in wine was 2.3 gL-1.

Figure 5. Taungzalat flower wine

31 KalayUniversity Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 Table 2.Some Physicochemical Properties of Taung-za-lat Wine No. Property Value

1. Colour Red 2. Odour Pleasant 3. Taste Good 4. pH 3.3 5. Alcohol% ~10% (v/v) 6. TDS 266ppm 7. Refractive index 12 Brix % -1 8. Total SO2 0.08 gL 9. Total acidity 2.3 gL-1 10. Total phenolic content 2111.37μg/mL

CONCLUTION According to the physicochemical investigation, flavonoids, glycosides, phenol, steroids, saponins and tannins were found to be present while alkaloids were absent in Taungzalat flower. Taungzalat flower wine incorporates all the nutritional benefits of Taungzalat flowers during the course of fermentation and aging. It did not require chemical preservation.The chemical analysis of this wine reveals its superior oenological stability. The present study indicates that the Taungzalat flower can be converted into value added product through fermentation. It may be concluded that elaboration of beverage with acceptable characteristics of wine that may be produced by using Taungzalat flower extract as a substrate, is technically feasible, and a good alternative use for raw material.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my sincere gratitudeto Professor Dr. Myint Myint Khine (Head of Department of Chemistry, Kalay University) and Professor Dr.Than Than Khaing (Department of Chemistry, Kalay University) for their invaluable advice, suggestions and encouragement.

32 KalayUniversity Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019

REFERENCES AOAC.(2000), Official Methods of Analysis. 17th Edition, The Association of Official Analytical Chemists, Gaithersburg, MD, USA. Debjyoti, B., (2011), “Rhododendron Species and Their Uses with Special References to Himalayas – A Review”, Assam University Journal of Science & Technology: Biological and environmental Science, 7 (1): pp. 161-167. Gujjeti, P.R., Mmixl, E., (2013), “ Phytochemical Analysis and TLC Profile of Madhucaindica Inner Bark Plant Extract”, International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, 4(10): pp. 1507-1510. Idise, O.E. and Ofiyai O., (2011), “Antioxidant Activity of Herbal Wine Made from Cassava Starch” World Applied Science Journal, 16 (6): 874-878. Mohammad, N., Sajid, A. and Muhammad, Q., (2011), “Preliminary Phytochemical Screening of Flowers, Leaves, Bark, Stem and Roots of Rhododendron arboretum”, Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research,10 (4): pp. 472-476.. Linskens, H.F. and Jackson, J. F., (1988), “Wine Analysis”; Part of the Modern Method of Plant Analysis book series, 6: pp.1-12. Pallavi, S., (2012), “Rhododendron arboreum: An overview”, Journal of Applied Pharmaceutical Science, 2(1): pp. 158-162. Prashant, T., Bimlesh K., Mandeep, K., Gurpreet, K. and Harleen, K., (2011), “Phytochemical Screening and Extraction: A Review”, Internationalepharmaceutica Science, 1(1): pp. 98- 105. Rekha, C., Poornima, G., Manasa, M., Abhipsa,.,Pavithra, J., Kumar, H.T.V. and Kekuda, T.R.P. (2012). “ Ascorbic acid, total phenol content and antioxidant activity of fresh juices of four ripe and unripe citrus fruits”, ChemSci Trans, 1 (2), 303-310. Remedios, R. V., (2012), “The impact of wine components on the chemical and sensory properties of wine”, PhD Thesis, Washington State University, school of Food Science, pp. 8-9. Ströhle, A., Wolters, M. and Hahn, A., (2012), “Alcohol intakea two-edged sword. Part 1: metabolism and pathogenic effects of alcohol. MedizinischeMonatsschriftfürPharmazeuten”, 35: pp. 281-292. Teodora, E.C., Elena, M., Carmen, C. and Andrie, B., (2014), “Chemical Assessment of White Wine during Fermentation Process”, 71(1): pp. 1. Vandana, G., Anket, S., Saroj, A. and Renu, B., (2016), “Bioactive compound in the different extracts of flower of Rhododendron arboretum Sm.”, Journal of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Research, 8(5):pp. 439-444.

33 KalayUniversity Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 INVESTIGATION ON THE TOXIC HEAVY METALS IN THE WATER IRRIGATED AROUND KALAYMYO Sann Myint Oo1, Wai Yan Tun2 and Shein Aung3

ABSTRACT A study was done to estimate the heavy metal content in irrigated water around Kalamyo, Sagaing Region. Water samples were collected from three irrigated sources (West, South and North) of Kalaymyo. The determination of heavy metal concentrations such as Cd, Pb, Mn, Zn, Cr, Cu and Hg in water samples was analyzed. Moreover, arsenic (As) and cyanide (CN) contents were measured. Heavy metals, Mn and Zn contents were much lesser than the value set by WHO and USEPA in irrigation water samples. Chromium was higher while Cd, Pb, Cu, As and CN were found to be absent in irrigation water samples. Some physico-chemical properties of irrigation water were investigated. Keywords: irrigated water, heavy metal, physico-chemical properties

INTRODUCTION Long term waste water irrigation may lead to the accumulation of heavy metals in agricultural soils and plants. Food safety issues and potential health risks make this as one of the most serious environmental concerns (Cui et al., 2004). Vegetables accumulate heavy metals in their edible and non edible parts. Although some of the heavy metals such as Zn, Mn, Ni and Cu act as micro-nutrients at lower concentrations, they become toxic at higher concentrations. Health risk due to heavy metal contamination of soil has been widely reported (Eriyamremuet al., 2005; Muchuwetiet al., 2006; Sataruget al., 2000). Uptake and accumulation of elements by plants may follow two different paths i.e. through the roots and foliar surface. Thus toxic metals may be absorbed by vegetables through several processes and finally enter the food chain (Fytianoset al., 2001). These heavy metals are very harmful because of their non-biodegradable nature, long biological half-lives and their potential to accumulate in different body parts. The intake of heavy metal can lead to altering of humans and animals healthiness state. Food safety issues and potential health risks make this as one of the most serious environmental concerns (Cui et al., 2004). The growing problem of water scarcity has significant negative influence on economic development, human livelihoods, and environmental quality throughout the world. Farmers are mainly interested in general benefits, like increased agriculture production, low cost water source, effective way of effluent disposal, source of nutrients, organic matter etc, but are not well aware of its harmful effects like heavy metal contamination of soils, crops and quality problems related to health. Industrial wastewater is mostly used for the irrigation of crops and vegetables, mainly in per urban ecosystem, due to its easy availability, disposal problems and scarcity of fresh

1Lecturer, Dr, Department of Chemistry, KalayUniversity 2Assistant Lecturer, Department of Chemistry, MonywaUniversity 3Assistant Lecturer, Department of Chemistry, KalayUniversity 34 KalayUniversity Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 water. Due to lack of facilities these untreated waste water is being used by farmers to satisfy crop water needs. This indiscriminate continuous use of such effluent for crop production could result in the concentrations that may become phytotoxic (Ghafooret al., 1999). The most important sources of heavy metals in the environment are the anthropogenic activities such as mining, smelting procedures, steel and iron industry, chemical industry, traffic, agriculture as well as domestic activities. Non-essential heavy metals of particular concern to surface water systems are cadmium, chromium, mercury, lead, arsenic, and antimony (Kennish, 1992). Waste water from factories often contains toxin if it is not disposed, toxicity may make aquatics death or mutation especially in the downstream. Toxins include strong acid, strong base, cyanide, chrome, copper, mercury, and radiation materials. The fate and effects of pollutants discharged into a particular water body will depend not only on the amount of polluting substances emitted but also on the hydrological, physical, chemical and biological conditions characterizing the water body concerned (Nazifet al., 2006). This research work deals with the quantification of heavy metal concentrations and some physicochemical properties in irrigated water in a around area of Kalaymyo, Sagaing Region. Three sampling sites around Kalaymyo were selected to study on evaluation of irrigation water for heavy metals.The aim of this research work is to assess the concentration of some toxic heavy metals and also some physic-chemical parameters such as pH, electrical conductivity and hardness of water and collected from the canal irrigation water.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Sample Collection Three irrigation water sampling sites around Kalaymyo, Sagaing Region, were chosen to study on the heavy metals in the irrigated water: one from canal water, the western part (Sample I) of Kalaymyo, one from the southern part (Sample II) and one from the northern part (Sample III) as shown in Figure 1. Three water samples were collected seasonably with two duplications from December, 2015 to April, 2016. Water samples were taken in the clean plastic bottles labeled; winter season noted as W I (West, Loc 1) W II (south, Loc 2) and W III (north, Loc 3). Similarly, they were marked: hot season as H I, H II and H III.

35 KalayUniversity Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 Figure 1. Map of sampling sites around Kalaymyo

Figure 2.Western part (sampling site) of Figure 3.Southern part (sampling site) of Kalaymyo (Sample I) Kalaymyo (Sample II)

Figure 4.Northern part (sampling site) of Kalaymyo (Sample III)

Sample Analysis Samples of irrigation water were transported to University of Research Centre (URC), University of Yangon for the determination of toxic heavy metals like Cd, Pb, Mn, Zn, Cr and Cu, fish inspection and quality control division, Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Irrigation for Hg and Water and Sanitation Department, Mandalay City Development Committee for the toxic materials, As, CN and some physic-chemical properties. They were then analyzed.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Heavy Metal Concentrations in Irrigation Water Kalaymyo, Sagaing region, is an urban area and some small scale productions like alcohol, eaten oil and vegetable and crop in this area discharge their effluents and dust particles to this area. Some household waste products are also discharged into the water channel which may be due to the cause of detectable heavy metals in the water sample. Specially, there are the Mountains that may produce some heavy metals such as Ni, Cr and so on, in around Kalay region. From this mountain, the creep water flows as the irrigated water around Kalaymyo. Table 1 shows the concentration of heavy metals in the irrigation water. At three different sites (Sample I, II and III), the concentrations of heavy metals in all 36 KalayUniversity Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 water samples were analyzed. The values of Manganese (Mn) content were found to be ranged form 0.007 to 0.064 mgL-1 in irrigated water samples. The manganese (Mn) concentration in all water samples were below the permissible value set by USEPA (2010) and WHO (2007) guidelines (Chauhan, 2014). It was found that the Mn content in the irrigated water samples is in safe range. Most of the heavy metal contents of canal water decreases as it approach towards its end. It might be due to sedimentation (Nazif, 2006).Zinc is one of the important trace elements that play a vital role in the physiological and metabolic process of many organisms. Nevertheless, higher concentrations of zinc can be toxic to the organism. It plays an important role in protein synthesis and is a metal which shows fairly low concentration in surface water due to its restricted mobility from the place of rock weathering or from the natural sources (Nazirlet al., 2015). The values of Zn in water samples ranged between 0.014 and 0.025 mgL-1. In the collected irrigation water samples, the concentration of Zn was recorded below the permissible value set by WHO and USEPA.The concentrations of chromium (Cr) in water samples were between 0.199 and 0.231 mgL-1. Table 1. Heavy metal concentration (mg/L) in the irrigated water samples Element/ USEPA W I W II W III H I H II H III WHO Sample (2004) Cd ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND Pb ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND Mn 0.033 0.043 0.064 0.007 0.027 0.023 0.200 0.500 Zn 0.014 0.022 0.022 0.016 0.018 0.025 2.000 2.000 Cr 0.213 0.218 0.231 0.212 0.199 0.220 0.100 0.100 Cu ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND Hg 0.00006 0.00003 0.0002 0.00031 0.00055 0.00047 1.000 2.000 As ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND CN ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND = No Detected The Cr content was observed to be exceeded the permissible limit in irrigation water samples. Reemtsmaet al. (2000) reported that Fe, Pb and Zn originate from urban runoff, while Cr and most alkaline earth metals are provided by municipal wastewater. The permissible limit of mercury (Hg) in irrigation water samples are 1 mgL-1 set by WHO (1993) and 2 mgL-1 USEPA (1980) guidelines (World Bank Group, 1998).

Figure 5. Concentrations of Manganese, Zinc, Chromium and Mercury in irrigation water samples

37 KalayUniversity Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 In the collected water samples, the contents of Hg ranged from 0.00003 to 0.00047 mgL-1. It was found that it is much lesser than the permissible limit. Mercury is present in trace amounts in all environmental media (World Bank Group, 1998). Moreover, the concentrations of cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), arsenic (As) and cyanide (CN) were not totally detected in water samples because there may be no industry. Except for Cr, the irrigation water samples at three different sites (Sample I, II and III) were observed to be within the permissible values. Table 2. Mean concentrations (mgL-1) of heavy metals in the irrigated water samples Element/ Sample I (West) Sample II (South) Sample III (North) sample Cd ND ND ND Pb ND ND ND Mn 0.020 0.035 0.0435 Zn 0.015 0.020 0.0235 Cr 0.2125 0.2085 0.2255 Cu ND ND ND Hg 0.000185 0.000290 0.000335 As ND ND ND CN ND ND ND ND = No Detected

Figure 6. Mean concentration of heavy metals of water sample I, II and III

Physico-chemical Parameters of Irrigation Water The physico-chemical parameters of irrigation water samples were measured. The results of some physic-chemical parameters of irrigation water samples are tabulated in Table 3. The pH of irrigation canal water samples were between 6.91 and 7.22. The electrical conductivity of water samples ranged from 221 to 277 µSm-1. The total dissolved solid contents of irrigation water samples were recorded to be ranged from 110.1 to 148.1 mgL-1, the hardness from 132 to 148 and the total alkalinity from 138 to 160 mgL-1. The values of pH, electrical conductivity, and total dissolved solid and hardness contents were recorded within the normal range of WHO and USEPA guidelines.

38 KalayUniversity Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 Table 3. Some physico-chemical parameters of the irrigated water samples Parameter/ WHO USEPA W I W II W III H I H II H III Sample guideline guideline pH 7.10 7.10 7.10 7.25 7.22 6.91 6.5-8.5 6.5-9.5 Conductivity 248 256 277 221 235 231 400-600 (micro S/cm) TDS (mg/L) 132.5 136.4 148.1 110.1 121.3 120.5 Hardness 144 160 148 132 145 141 50-200 200 (mg/L) Total Alkalinity 148 140 160 142 138 153 200 (mg/L)

CONCLUSION In this paper, the irrigation water samples were collected seasonally (winter and hot seasons) with two duplications from three different sites around Kalaymyo. The concentrations of heavy metals in all water samples were analyzed from three different sites. The irrigated water samples reveals that there were within the normal range of the heavy metals when compared with USEPA and WHO guidelines except for Cr.The concentrations of manganese (Mn) and zinc (Zn) in all irrigation water samples are below the permissible value set by USEPA and WHO guidelines. The value of chromium (Cr) content was higher than the permissible limit set by USEPA and WHO. Cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb) and copper (Cu) were however not detected (totally absent) in all water samples. Moreover, it was found that the arsenic (As) and cyanide (CN) contents obtained from three sites are absent in irrigation water samples. Table 3 indicates that all physico-chemical parameters of all collected water samples were recorded in the normal range set by EPA and WHO guideline. The collected irrigation water samples are chemically potable. So, all water samples will not contribute any harmful effects to agricultural land and crop but may also be used for drinking purpose. Analysis of all these parameters is very necessary because their knowledge is very important for fish and human health. All irrigation water samples are well suited for irrigation and may be used for agriculture without any hazardous effects to plants and soil except for Cr. The research work should be carried out to study on the accumulation of chromium (Cr) in the plants and soil. People should not be allowed to dispose the waste materials into the creep. Not to be pollutant in irrigation water later, awareness should be developed in the people.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We greatly thank to DrMyintMyintKhine, Head of Professor and DrThan ThanKhaing, Professor, Department of Chemistry, Kalay University, for her guideline and encouragement to the research work. Specially, we thank to Dr Aye AyeLwin, Associate professor, Department of Chemistry, Yae Nan Chaung College for her patiently helpful to research work. Moreover, we are thankful to Dr Tint SweMyint, Lecturer, Department of Geology, Kalay University, for his support to the project paper.

39 KalayUniversity Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 REFERENCES Cui, Y.J., Zhu, Y.G., Zhai, R.H., Chen, D.Y., Huang, Y.Z., Qui, Y., Liang, and J.Z., (2004), "Transfer of metals from near a smelter in Nanning, China",Environ. Int., 30, p. 785– 791. Eriyamremu, G.E., Asagba S.O.,Akpoborie A. and Ojeaburu S.I., (2005), "Evaluation of lead and cadmium levels in some commonly consumed vegetables in the Niger-Delta oil area of Nigeria", Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 75, p. 278-283. Ghafoor, A., Ahmed, S., Qadir, M., Hussain, S.I. and Murtaz, G., (1999), "Formation and leaching of lead species from a sandy loam alluvial soil as related to pH and Cl: SO4 ratio of leachates", J. Agric. Res, 30, p. 391–401. Fytianos, K., Katsianis, G., Triantafyllou, P., and Zachariadis, G., (2001), "Accumulation of heavy metals in vegetables grown in an industrial area in relation to soil", Bull.Environ. ContaminToxicol, 67, p. 423–430. Geetanjali Chauhan, (2014), "Risk Assessment of Heavy Metal Toxicity through Contaminated Vegetables from Waste Water Irrigated Area of Rewa (M.P.), India", International Journal of Advanced Technology in Engineering and Science, 2, p. 444-460 Kennish, M. J. (1992), Ecology of Estuaries. Anthropogenic effects, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, p. 494. Muchuweti, M., Birkett J.W., Chinyanga E., Zvauya R., Scrimshaw M.D. and Lester J.N. (2006), "Heavy metal content of vegetables irrigated with mixture of wastewater and sewage sludge in Zimbabwe: Implications for human health, Agric",Ecosyst. Environ., 112, p. 41-48. Reemtsma, T., Gnirss R. and Jekel M., (2000), "Infiltration of combined sewer overflow and tertiary treated municipal wastewater ", Water Environ Res, 72(6), p. 644-650. Nazirl, R., Khan, M., Masab, M., Rehman, H.U., Rauf, N.U., Shahab, S., Ameer, N.,Sajed, M.,Ullah, M.,Rafeeq, M. and Shaheen, Z., (2015), “Accumulation of Heavy Metals (Ni, Cu, Cd, Cr, Pb, Zn, Fe) in the soil, water and plants and analysis of physico-chemical parameters of soil and water Collected from Tanda Dam kohat”, J. Pharm. Sci. & Res, 7(3), p. 89-97 (92). Satarug, S., Haswell-Elkins M.R. and Moore M.R., (2000), "Safe levels of cadmium intake to prevent renal toxicity of human subjects", British Journal of Nutrition, 84, p. 791-802. Nazif, W., Perveen, S. and Shah, S.A., (2006), "Evaluation of irrigation water for heavy metals of Akbarpura area", Journal of Agricultural and Biological Science, 1(1), p. 51-54 World Bank Group, (1998), Pollution Prevention and Abatement Handbook, USA, p. 219-222 40 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 PRELIMINARY PHYTOCHEMICAL SCREENING AND DETERMINATION OF ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITIES OF THE STEM BARK OF Dalbergia lanceolaria L.f. Shein Aung 1, Myat Lay Nwe 2 and Khaing Khaing Kyu 3

ABSTRACT In this research work, Dalbergialanceolaria was selected for phytochemical analysis. This plant is one of Myanmar indigenous medicinal plants, belonging to the family Fabaceae. The results of the preliminary phytochemical screening revealed the presence of alkaloid, glycoside, flavonoid, polyphenol, sugar, lipophilic, terpene, and saponin compounds. In addition, the antimicrobial activities of crude extracts from the bark of D. lanceolariawere tested by agar-well diffusion method on six microorganisms such as Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus pumalis, Candida albicans and Escherichia coli. Keywords: Dalbergialanceolaria, Fabaceae, phytochemical, antimicrobial

INTRODUCTION There is some truth to the old adage that the therapeutic use of natural products and their derivatives is as old as the human race. The ancient civilizations provided written evidences for the use of natural sources to treat various illnesses. In fact, the oldest description of medical document dated 4000 years ago, depicted on a Sumerian clay table with a list of the most valuable medicinal plants (Dahhamet al., 2015).It is estimated by the World Health Organization (WHO) that 80% of the developing countries population depends on plant derived medicines which have its own advantages like i.e. low or no adverse effects, poses minimum environmental hazards, easily available and affordable (Gossell, 2006; Melnik and Stoger, 2013). Natural products, such as plant extracts, either as pure compounds or as standardized extracts, provide unlimited opportunities for new drug discoveries because of the unmatched availability of chemical diversity. One of the most important areas of application of natural products is in the treatment of human and veterinary ailments. Currently, at least 119 chemical substances derived from 90 plant species can be considered important drugs that are in use in one or more countries (Newmanet al., 2000). Natural products open a new horizon for the discovery of new therapeutic agents (Cos et al., 2006). The better defended, more competitive plants have generated more progeny, and sothe capacity to produce and safely store such ecologically useful metabolites has become widely established in the plant kingdom (Croteauet al.,2000). And these also play an important role in plant defense against herbivore and other interspecies defenses (Stamp, 2003; Samuni- Blanket al., 2012). Humans use secondary metabolites as medicines, flavorings, and recreational drugs in the recent past.

1 Lecturer, Dr, Department of Chemistry, Kalay University 2 Associate Professor, Dr, Department of Chemistry, University of Kyaing Tong 3 Professor, Dr, Department of Chemistry, University of Mandalay

41 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 The aim of this research is to investigate the phytochemical constituents of bark of D. lanceolaria by test tube method and the antimicrobial activities of its extracts by agar-well diffusion method.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Sample collection In this research work, the stem bark samples of D. lanceolaria to be analyzed were collected from Kalaywa Township, Sagaing Region, Myanmar. The samples were cut into small pieces and allowed to air dry at room temperature. The dried pieces of sample were stored in a well-stopper bottle and used throughout the experiment. Chemical and reagent The organic solvents used in the present research work, are petroleum ether, 95% ethanol, and ethylacetate.The reagents used for phytochemical screening were Dragendorff‟s, vanillin, gelatin, 10% ethanolic KOH, 10% lead acetate, 10% NaCl, 5% FeCl3, 1% AlCl3. Preliminary phytochemical screening of the selected medicinal plants by test tube method The preliminary phytochemical screening of the stem bark of D. lanceolaria was done in the laboratory of Department of Chemistry, University of Mandalay.

Procedure Test for alkaloid The air-dried powder (50 g) was boiled with 1% hydrochloric acid for about 10 minutes and allowed to cool and it was filtered. The filtrate was divided into four portions and tested with Mayer's reagent, Dragendorff's reagent, sodium picrate solution and Wagener's reagent, respectively. Observation was made to see if treatment with alkaloid reagents finished alkaloidal precipitate (Tin Wa, 1972). Test for α-amino acids An aliquot portion of water extract was spotted onto filter paper using capillary tube and allowed to dry. Then the paper was sprayed with ninhydrin reagent and allow to dry at 100 ºC in an oven for about 5 minutes. Apparances of purple spot indicated the presence of amino acids (Marini-Bettòlo et al.,1981). Test for carbohydrate The water extract (2 mL) was placed into a test tube and a few drops of 10% naphthol was added and then shaken. This test tube was inclined at an angle of 45ºC and concentrated sulphuric acids (1mL) was slowly added along the inner side of thetest tube. The formation of red ring between two layers indicated the presence of carbohydrates (Tin Wa, 1972).

42 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 Test for flavonoids The powdered sample (50 g) was extracted with 100 mL ethanol and filtered. Concentrated hydrochloric acid 5-10 drops was added to the filtrate (5 mL). A few pieces of magnesium ribbon were added to the above mixture. Appearance of reddish- pink colour indicated the presence of flavanoids. (Tin Wa, 1972; Marini-Bettòlo et al., 1981). Test for steroids The powdered sample (50 g) was extracted with EtOH (100 mL x 3) for 3 days and the solvent was removed by evaporation under reduced pressure. Acetic anhydride (3 drops) was added and the mixture was manually shaken for 1 min. Then a few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid was carefully added and shaken. Observation was made to see if the solution turned to blue colour which indicated the presence of steroids (Tin Wa, 1972; Marini-Bettòlo et al., 1981). Test for terpenoids The dried powdered sample (50 g) was extracted with ethanol EtOH (100 mL x 3) for 3 days and filtered. The solution was added with acetic anhydride (2 cm3), followed by concentrated sulphuric acid (1 cm3). Red or pink colouration indicated the presence of terpenoids (Tin Wa, 1972). Test for glycosides The powdered sample (50 g) was boiled with distilled water (100 mL) for about 10 minutes and filtered after cooling at room temperature. 5 mL of filtrate was treated with 10% lead acetate solution. Observation was made to see if the solution turned turbid with white precipitates which indicated the presence of glycosides (Tiwari et al., 2011). Test for reducing sugar The water extract (2 mL) was tested with Benedict‟s solution. Brick-red precipitate indicated the presence of reducing sugar (Tin Wa,1972). Test for saponins A small amount of powder sample was introduced into a test tube and some distilled water was added. Then the mixture was vigorously shaken for a few minutes to see if the forthing took place. Appearance of forthing indicated the presence of saponins (Marini-Bettòlo et al., 1981). Test for phenolic compounds The powdered sample (50 g) was extracted with EtOH (100 mL x 3) for 3 days and then filtered. 5 mL of filtrate was treated with a few drops of 1% of FeCl3 and K3Fe(CN)6 solutions. Appearance of a deep green colour indicated the presence of phenolic compounds (Tiwari et al., 2011). Test for tannins 3 or 4 drops of 10% NaCl solution were added to the ethanolic extract of plant material, followed by filtration. About 3 mL of the filtrate was transferred to test tube and added 2-3 drops of 1% gelatin solution. Observation was made to see if precipitates were formed.

43 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 Test for starch The watery extract (2mL) was treated with a few drops of freshly prepared iodine solution. The appearance of deep blue coloration indicated the presence of starch (Harborne, 1988). Determination of antimicrobial activities of the selected medicinal plants by agar-well diffusion method Three portions of stem bark samples were placed in three glass bottles. Each of them were percolated with ethanol, ethyl acetate and n-hexane respectively and sent to DCPT (Development Centre of Pharmaceutical Technology), in Yangon. The samples were determined antimicrobial activities on six microorganism; Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonus aeruginosa, Bacillus pumilus, Candida albicans and Escherichia coli species (Figure 1).

Bacillus subtilis Staphylococcus aureus Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Bacillus pumilus Candida albicans Escherichia coli Figure 1. Photos of the antimicrobial activities of the crude extracts of D. lanceolaria

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Preliminary phytochemical screening of the selected medicinal plants by test tube method The results of phytochemical investigation of air-dried bark of D. lanceolaria showed that alkaloid, flavonoid, steroid, terpene, glycoside, reducing sugar, polyphenol, saponin, phenolic and lipophilic were found to be present while α-amino acids and starch were not detected.These results were summarized in Table 1.

44 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019

Table 1. Results of Preliminary Phytochemical Tests of the Stem Bark of D. lanceolaria No. Test Extracts Test Reagents Observation Results 1. Alkaloid 1%HCL Dragendroff‟s Reagent orange + Wagner‟s Reagent brown ppt + Mayer‟s Reagents white ppt + 2. α–Amino acids H O Ninhydrin reagent purple - 2 3. Carbohydrate H O 10% naphthol andconc: Red ring + 2 H SO 2 4 4. Flavonoid EtOH Mg turning, and Conc: reddish-pink + HCl colour 5. Steroid EtOH Acetic anhydride, conc: Green colour + H SO 2 4 6. Terpenoids EtOH acetic anhydride Conc; Reddish brown + H SO colour 2 4 7. Glycoside H O 10% lead acetate Palewhite ppt + 2 8. ReducingSugar H O Benedict‟s solution Brick red + 2 9. Saponin H O Distilled water, shake Frothing + 2 10. Phenolic EtOH 10% FeCl solution Brown colour + 3 11. Tannin H O 10% FeCl ,dil H SO Yellow brown + 2 3 2 4 12. Starch H O Iodine solution Deep blue - 2 (+) = presence of constituents, (-) = absence of constituents

Determination of antimicrobial activities of the selected medicinal plants by agar-well diffusion method In this research work, the ethyl acetate crude extract of the stem bark of D. lanceolaria responded activities on all tested microorganisms such as Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus pumilus, Candida albicans and E. coli. The ethanol extract showed low activities on all microorganisms and the n-hexane extract expressed low activity on them except Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Candida albicans. Hence, the ethyl acetate crude extract was valuable for the isolation of pure organic compound. These results were summarized in Table 2.

45 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019

Table 2. Results of Antimicrobial Activities on the Crude Extracts of D. lanceolaria Inhibition zone Sample Solvent B. S. P. B. C. E. subtilis aureus aeruginosa pumilus albican coli n-Hexane 13 mm 13mm _ 11mm _ 13mm (+) (+) (+) (+) D. EtOAc 11mm 17mm _ 15mm 17mm _ lanceolaria(stem bark) (+) (++) (++) (++) EtOH 12mm 11mm 12mm 13mm 13mm 13mm (+) (+) (+) (+) (+) (+) Ager well – 10 mm (+) - Low activity (10 mm ~ 14mm) (++) - Medium activity (15 mm ~ 19 mm) (+++) - High activity (20 mm above)

CONCLUSION In this research work, one of Myanmar indigenous medicinal plant Dalbergia Lanceolaria was chosen for preliminary phytochemical analysis. It was collected from Kalaywa Township, Sagaing Region, Myanmar. Accorrding to the preliminary phytochemical investigation, the bark of D. lanceolaria contains alkaloid, flavonoid, steroid, terpene, glycoside, reducing sugar, polyphenol, saponin, phenolic and lipophilic compound, respectively. In addition, the antimicrobial activities of n-hexane, ethyl acetate and ethanol extracts of the selected sample were tested by agar-well diffusion method on six selected organisms. In this study, it can be observed that ethanol extract gave low activities on six selected organisms. Although n-hexane extract has low activity on B. subtilis, S. aureus, B.pumilus and E.coli, no activity on the remaining two organisms P.aeruginosa and C.albican. Ethyl acetate extract of this sample gave medium activities on three selected organisms such as S. aureus, B.pumilus and C.albican while it has no activity on P. aeruginosa and E. coli.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my gratitude to Dr Than Than Khaing, Professor and Head, Department of Chemistry, Kalay University, for her precious suggestions and invaluable advices. I would like to mention my deepest gratitude to supervisor Dr Khaing Khaing Kyu, Professor, Department of Chemistry, University of Mandalay for her overall supervision and valuable suggestions in my research.

46 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 REFERENCES Cos, P., Vlietinck, A.J., Berghe, D.V. andMaes, L., (2006), "Anti-infective potential of natural products: how to develop a stronger in vitro 'proof-of-concept'", J. Ethnopharmacol, 106(3), p. 290-302. Croteau, R., Kutchan, T.M. andLewis, N.G., (2000), "Natural products (secondary metabolites)", Biochemistry & Molecular Biology of Plants, p. 1250-1318. Dahham, S.S., Yasser, M.T., Mohamed, B.K.A. and Majid, A.M.S.A., (2015), "Vivo anti-inflammatory activity of β-caryophyllene, evaluated by molecular imaging", Mol. Med. Chem., 1, p. 1-6. Fraenkel, G.S., (1959), "The raison d'ĕtre of secondary plant substances; these odd chemicals arose as a means of protecting plants from insects and now guide insects to food", Science, 129, p. 1466-1470. Gossell, W.M., Simon,O.R. and West,M.E., (2006). “The Past and Present use of plants for medicine”, West Indian Medicinal, 55, p. 217-218. Harborne, H.J., (1988), Phytochemical Methods A Guide to Modern Techniques of Plant Analysis. Chapman & Hall, New York, London. Marini-Bettòlo, G.B., Nicoletti, M. and Patamia, M., (1981), "Plant screening by chemical and chromatographic procedures under field conditions", Journal of Chromatography A, 213, p. 113-127. Melnik, S. and Stoger, E., (2013), “Green factories for biopharmaceuticals”, Curr. Med. Chem., 20, p. 1038-1046 Newman, D.J., Cragg, G.M. andSnader, K.M., (2000), "The influence of natural products upon drug discovery", Natural Product Reports, 17(3), p. 215-234. Samuni-Blank, M., Izhaki, I., Dearing, M.D., Gerchman, Y., Trabelcy, B., Lotan, A., Karasov, W.H. and Arad, Z., (2012), "Intraspecific directed deterrence by the mustard oil bomb in a desert plant", Current Biology, 22(13), p. 1218-1220. Stamp, N., (2003), "Out of the quagmire of plant defense hypotheses", The Quarterly Review of Biology, 78(1), p. 23-55. Tin Wa, (1972), "Phytochemical Screening: Methods and Procedures", Phytochemical Bulletin of Botanical Society of America Inc., 5 (3), p. 4-10. Tiwari, P., Kumar,B., Kaur, M., Kaur,G. and Kaur,H., (2011), "Phytochemical Screening and Extraction: A Review", InternationalePharmaceuticaSciencia, 1(1), p. 98-106. Zhao, J., Davis, L.C. andVerpoorte, R., (2005), "Elicitor signal transduction leading to production of plant secondary metabolites", Biotechnology Advances, 23(4), p. 283-333.

47 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 GEOGRAPHIC FACTORS AND URBAN SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL SYSTEM IN MEIKTILA, MANDALAY REGION Thet Khaing*1

ABSTRACT All of the urban areas today, whether large or small, are facing the disposal problems of wastes, both solid and liquid. The larger the urban area and the size of population, the greater are the problems of wastes. Meiktila is one of the largest and most populous towns in Mandalay Region, Central Lowland of Myanmar. It has undulating topography and enjoys tropical dry climate. Uneven topography makes the solid waste collection by garbage trucks more difficult and then it produces disposing the wastes haphazardly in open spaces along the road sides. Thus, open dumps appear throughout the urban area. Number of population is not very significant in disposal system but its concentration is more influential than the physical factors. Indiscriminate disposing of solid waste by the town's residents and commercial activities and improper management on disposal system of the town will produce undesirable results of urban wastes. All stakeholders in the waste stream are responsible for preventing the adverse effects resulted from the undisciplined disposal system of solid wastes.

INTRODUCTION Meiktila, located in Central Lowland of Myanmar, is one of the largest and the most populous towns of Mandalay Region. It is also located at the hub of motor roads connecting other large towns and cities of other States and Regions of Myanmar. Being a large town, it has also urban environmental problems like other towns and cities. Solid waste consists mainly of municipal solid wastes which include all solid wastes that enter the municipal solid waste stream. Disposal is defined as all actions concerned with placing waste and residues in their final resting place. In a view of physical geography, undulating topography of the study area and its resultant drainage condition are the major influencing factors on collection of solid wastes in the study area. Climatically, the study area has Tropical Steppe Climate with high temperature, scanty rainfall but occasional thunderstorms. Storm water runoff of torrential rain can carry solid wastes scattering throughout the residential area into the drains along the road sides. Then they have been blocked with the solid wastes. Rain water that leached out from the communal dumps along the roads becomes contaminated water and combines with waste water from residential areas. Due to the blockage of the solid wastes in the drains, over bank flow of contaminated waste water occurs along the roads in residential areas. Lithology and soil types of the study area have no direct effects to disposal of solid wastes but indirect to wastewater. As in social factors, total number of population has less significant influence on solid waste disposal system than population density. Moreover, public awareness about the urban waste and their participation are the most fundamental to the proper waste management system.

1* Professor, Dr, Department of Geography, Kalay University 48 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 Athough this paper cannot be regarded as a complete one, it will probably provide a large number of information to develop a good plan to manage the urban solid waste in Meiktila as well as other large urban areas. Aims and Objectives This research paper aims to know the relations between geographic factors and urban solid waste disposal system. Major objectives are to find out the facts to be taken into account in urban waste management of the town and to provide the geographic factors in developing the sustainable Integrated Urban Solid Waste Management System in either the study area or other towns or cities. 1. Physical Geographic Factors and Urban Solid Waste Disposal System Meiktila is situated in Central Low Land of Myanmar. It is the largest urban area of Meiktila District. It is located in the western central part of Mandalay Region. The town is located between 20°50‟37”N and 20°55‟05”N latitudes and between 95°49‟06” E and 95°54‟11”E longitudes. Meiktila has total area of 7.12 square miles including 4.51 square miles of land area. The town has star shape (Map 1). The town comprises fourteen wards (Map 2). Shape of the town will be a problem in collection and transportation of solid waste and selection of final dump site ore sites. Generally, Meiktila lies in Lowland of Central Myanmar. Undulating relief, however, covers Meiktila and its surrounding areas. Land surface of the town stands a little higher in the west, north, southwest and southeast while it is found to be relatively level in the east and northeast. Generally, Meiktila stands at an average elevation of 750 feet (228.6 m) above sea level. The highest point of the town is the Shwemyintin pagoda (859ft. or 261.8 m) in the southeast. Northern and northwestern part of the town reaches to a height above 850 ft. (or 259 m). The land surface slopes down toward the Meiktila Lake and then toward the east and southeast. The lowest parts of the town is at an elevation below 750 feet. (Map 3) Uneven topography of the town directly influences on collection of solid wastes. Steep slopes in Wunzin Ward (except along the Meiktila - Myingyan Road) and some parts of Thirimingalar and Aungzeyar Wards (except along the Yangon - Mandalay Highway) hinder the accessibility of garbage trucks to collect the solid waste regularly from the residential areas. Generally, it can be said that Meiktila has a good drainage condition due to its undulating relief. Except Pyithayar (S), Pyithayar (N), Chiset ward, western most part of Aungsan ward, and western most part of Yanmyoaung ward, all wards have uneven relief. Therefore, surface run-off of rainwater can readily flow into the lower level. (Map 3) The largest water body is Meiktila Lake, major fresh water source, which lies at the center of the town. It is located at an elevation below 750 feet above sea level. Sithu Canal, formerly a distributary canal of Meiktila Lake, is now used as wastewater drainage canal. This canal is the only one main canal to dispose polluted water from downtown area of the town. Most of the sewage ditches in downtown area connect to this canal. Although it was designated as wastewater canal, urban residents along the canal dispose off their solid wastes haphazardly into the canal or along the banks of it. Thus, banks of the canal looks like a road paved with refuse. Moreover, some residents along the ditch, especially along the lower reach, use the water for washing clothes and bathing without any treatment. (Photo 1)

49 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 Map (1) Location of Meiktila Township

94° E 98° E 97° E N 95° E 96° E MANDALAY DIVISION

KACHIN 26° 23° 23° 26° N N N STATE N

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Nyaunggan Leindaw Kantha Magyizu Mahlaing Township Ayardaw Shawpyu- gan Shande Thazi Township Kyaukpyugon Zaunggyangon Nyaungbinsho Kabyu Galongon Ohnton Gweaing MEIKTILA Tawma Nyaunggaing Tamongan Mezaligon Shwesitthe

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Natmauk Township INDEX District Boundary Kyaukpu Township Boundary Satpyagyin Village Tract Boundary Motor Road(Metalled) Motor Road (Unmetalled) Kywegan Railway 2 1 0 2 Miles Stream

Source: Department of Geography, Meiktila University

50 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 Map(2) Wards in Meiktila

y la a N d n a M o T T Pyitharyar (N) o Mahlaing

Pyitharyar (S) MEIKTILA LAKE (NORTH)

Kyidawgon Wunzin Ward Ward Yanmyoaung

Ward

A u ng Thirimingalar ze Ward ya r W Ashebyin a rd Ward Nandaw gon Ward Yadanamanaung Ward Chiset Myomalay Ward Ward

Paukchaung Ward INDEX Town Boundary Ward Boundary Aung san Water features Ward CANTONMENT AREA MEIKTILA LAKE ng T u o Y da (SOUTH) an pa gon uk ya K To

Table (1.1) Names of wards and their extents in Meiktila No. Name of Wards Area (Square Mile) 1 Aungsan 0.84 2 Paukchung 0.35 3 Nandawgon 0.35 4 Myomalay 0.11 5 Ashebyin 0.17 6 Yandanamanaung 0.13 7 Thirimingalar 0.1 8 Wunzin 0.47 9 Yanmyoaung 0.48 10 Kyidawgon 0.47 11 Aungzeyar 0.32 12 Chiset 0.22 13 Pyithayar (South) 0.28 14 Pyithayar (Noth) 0.22 Total 4.51 Source: Land Records Department, Meiktila

51 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 Map(3) Relief and Drainage of Meiktila and Its Environment

N

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Residential Area Cantonment Area T Water Bodies o Y a 2 50 Contour n g o Roads n Flow Direction of Urban runoff Source: UTM Map No. 2095- 13 and Field Observation (2011) In Wunzin Ward, there is a conduit (called Kaukkwe taw Myaung) from which water from Meiktila Lake (N) spill over throughout the year. Residents in northern part of Wunzin Ward, Yanmyoaung Ward and Pyithayar (N) and (S) use the water of this canal for washing and bathing and also discard their refuse into it. (Photo 2) Other town drains are the road side channels of the urban area. Except some parts of downtown area, almost all of the road side channels are earthen drains of various sizes and unsystematic. Some wards have no road side channels. Most of the road side channels are also blocked with solid waste. (Photo 3) Climatically, locating in Dry Zone of Central Myanmar Meiktila enjoys Tropical Steppe Climate (BSh). By the records of temperatures for 55 years period (from 1954 to 2008), the town receives average mean annual temperature of about 80.74°F, mean maximum temperatures of 93.29°F and minimum of 67.72°F. During the same period, average total annual rainfall amounted to 32.5 inches. In summer season, high temperature can make the solid waste in an open dump very dry and flammable. In hot, windy days, they are flown into the air. In rainy season, rain water percolating through the open dump can contaminate the surface runoff of rain water. If it is heavy rain, surface runoff can remove the solid wastes on the land surface on which they pass through and block the road side channels with them. Thus, flooding of dirty water will occur on the streets and yards of households in low lying areas 52 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 (Photo 3). The rainy days can disturb the daily tasks of waste collection by the garbage trucks .Besides, in the day after the rainy day, weight added problem will occur due to seepage of rainwater into the solid waste. In Meiktila, major soil types include red brown savanna soil and crushed stone soil in more elevated areas, meadow soil and meadow solonez soil in flat lowlands and alluvium along the streams and around the Meiktia Lake. In areas with poor drainage condition, due to impermeability of meadow soils, piles of solid wastes and water logged condition combined to produce more adverse impact on environment than the areas of good drainage. The natural vegetation, as a rule, is related to the climate and soil type. As being situated in Central Dry Zone with low rainfall, Meiktila has natural vegetation of xerophytic species. They cannot create some solid waste disposal problems but can produce the fluctuation of the amount of yard waste collection by seasons. Open burning of the yard waste can be seen throughout the urban area. Except some wards in downtown area, large amount of yard waste occurs in all wards. Up to now collection and disposal problems of yard waste cannot be solved by the municipal department. 2. Social Geographic Factors and Urban Solid Waste Disposal System In 2013, total population of the town was (94,969) persons including (42,959) persons of male and (52,010) persons of female. In general, the number of population can directly relate to amount of waste generation. According to solid waste quantification (2010 to 2013), average waste generation rate of urban residents was 0.343 kg/ capita/ day. Thus, total estimated generation rate of household waste was 32,574.4 kg (ca. 32.5 tons) per day. By comparing the number of male and female population, the gender ratio was 100:121 in 2013. In the field records of solid waste disposing along the routes of garbage trucks (2013), the proportion of female was 70 to 80 persons in every 100 persons who are directly involving in disposing activities. Without regard to number of population, the wards in downtown area (especially those lie in CBD area) generate large amount of solid waste (vehicle- survey on garbage trucks of municipal department). Ashebyin Ward and Thirimingalar Ward, which are in CBD area of the town, usually generate larger amount of solid waste than the Words of suburb area. Moreover, in some parts of Yanmyoaung Ward , parts of Paukchaung Ward and parts of Aungsan Ward, where there are many lodging activities for university students, generation of large amount of solid waste occur during school period( June to March). Another more important factor is concentration of families in residential area. In 2013, the total population was (94,969) persons formed (18,862) families. As compared to the number of population and the number of families they constitute, the average family size was 5 persons per family. Among the fourteen wards of Meiktila, the largest number of families (2,476) occurred in Aungsan Ward and the smallest number (550) in Chizet Ward (2013). The concentration of families in an area will be more important in storage and collection of solid waste and wastewater than the total number of families. If families will exist in concentration, there are less open spaces for dumpsites. Thus, almost all of the solid wastes they generate can be stored in a few number of

53 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 dump sites and can be efficiently collected by the waste collectors and garbage trucks within a short duration and in readily accessible area. Among the fourteen Wards of the study area, Thirimingalar and Myomalay Wards have highest concentration of families per unit area. In the wards with less concentration of families, the small heaps of solid waste are widely scattered in open spaces, roadsides and other unused lands. And then a large number of scattered small dumpsites occur. A garbage truck collects the solid waste in a long distance with longer time duration. The result of field observation is shown in the following table.

Photo(1) Disposing of Solid Waste into Photo(2) Disposing of Solid Waste into the the Sithu Canal Conduit from Meiktila Lake (N)

Photo(3) Flooding of gray water due to blockage of solid waste in road side channel

54 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019

Ward of High pop; Ward of Low pop; Density Density Loading capacity & 2 tons/ 5 collectors 2 tons/ 5 collectors number of labours Length of collecting 2 Miles 3 to 4 miles route Duration for solid 1.5 hours 2 hours waste collection Fuel consumption 0.75 gallon 1 gallon Actual collected load 2 tons and above 1.5 to 2 tons Estimated cost for 1 About 5000 Kyats/ton Above 6000 kyats /ton ton of solid waste Source: Field survey from 2011 to 2013

3. Current Urban Solid Waste Disposal System in Meiktila There are five functional elements in disposal system- (1) Waste Generation from various sources such as households, commercial activities, municipal services and etc. (2) Storage as in primary storage and secondary storage. (Photo 7 & 8) (3) Collection by garbage trucks of municipal department and scavengers. (Photo 9&10) (4) Transport only by garbage trucks of municipal department and (5) Disposing at final dumpsite and indiscriminate disposing. (Photo 11& 12)

Total tonnage Total tonnage Source of Collection by garbage trucks generation per day per day (Wet Weg) (Wet Weg) Households + 32.6 2.5 tons x 4 Trucks x 2 Routes 20 lodging 1.5 tons x 2 Trucks x 2 routes 6 Municipal 7.5 3 tons x1 truck x 2 ply 6 Services 1.5 tons x 1truck x 2 3 Food Shops 3.7 1.5 tons x 1 Trucks x 2 routes *3 43.8 38 Balance = 43.8 tons- 38 tons = 5.8 tons which cannot be collected by garbage trucks regularly. * Some food shops and economic activities dispose off their solid waste using their own vehicles.

55 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019

Photo (7) Primary Storage Photo (8) Secondary Storage

Photo (9) Collection by Garbage Truck Photo(10) Collection by Scavenger

Photo (11) Disposing at Final Damp Site Photo(12) Indiscriminate Disposal

All these functions in the study area have improper management. The current disposal system of the study area is simplified by the following figure.

56 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019

4. Conclusion and Suggestions Meiktila is located on undulating relief with good drainage conditions which is an obstacle to solid waste collection system. To overcome this problem there should be communal storage facilities or controlled dump for solid waste. To transfer the waste from these storage facilities well designed vehicles such as wheeled bins, hand carts or animal carts should be used. Spreading of solid waste from a dump can be caused by wind. Then the windblown waste will produce eyesore to immediate environment. When they are carried by surface runoff water and deposited into waste water channels, they can block the channels. Therefore communal dumps have to be controlled as a satisfactory storage. Although physical geographic factors can be overcome by the human innovations, social factors such as public participation and development of public awareness are more important than numerical factors. In some of primary storage containers such as plastic bags, old bucket and baskets are so-called containers. They are partially broken and leakage of dirty liquid from the solid waste directly expose to waste collectors. These unsatisfactory storage containers have to be replaced with a well conditioned one. Satisfactory storage containers can reduce the direct contact of waste collectors with hazardous waste and non hazardous solid or liquid waste. In the study area, all the secondary storage facilities are open communal dumps. Solid waste from these dumps can be spread out by scavengers and stray dogs over the road side and street surface. Although some concrete bankers were constructed at the dump sites, most people have not put their solid waste into the bankers. Instead, they left the waste beside or at some distance from the bankers.

57 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 Based on population factors, there should be establishment of storage facilities in residential areas. In collection system, sufficient labour force (waste collectors), effective collecting equipments, efficient transferring and transporting vehicles are required. From sanitation point of view, the waste collectors should be well equipped with some protections to handle the solid waste. The scavengers play an important role in collection of recyclable waste. But their activities to spread the solid waste out of a dump site must be prohibited. Like waste collectors, they should not handle the waste without any protections. To solve the solid waste disposal problems facing in the study area, the solid waste coming out from various sources must be managed through a number of activities such as waste prevention, recycling, compositing, controlled burning or landfilling. Combining of these activities is referred to as “Integrated Solid Waste Management”. Thus, an Integrated Solid Waste Management Programme (ISWMP) must necessarily be developed in Meiktila by carrying a more complete and fruitful research as further study. All of the urban residents or urban polluters are responsible for development of this programme.

REFERENCES Coffey, M. & Coad, A., (2010), Collection of Municipal Solid Waste in Developing Countries, UN- Habitat, Gutenburg Press,Malta. Cunningham, M.A & Cunningham, W.P., (2003), Principles of Environmental Science: Inquiry and Applications, Tata McGraw Hill Publication, New Delhi, 4th edition. Das, R.C. & D.K. Behera., (2008), Environmental Science: Principles and Practice, Prentice Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi. EPA(2002), Solid Waste Management: A Local Challenge with Global Impacts, US Environmental Protection Agency. Hardoy, Jorge E., Mitlin,D & Satterthwaite, D (1992), Environmental Problems in Third World Cities, Earthscan Publications Ltd, London. Kaushik, A. & Kaushik, C.P., (2008), Perspectives in Environmental Studies, New Age International Publishers, New Delhi. Mangizvo, R.V., (2010), An overview of the management practices at solid waste disposal site in African cities and towns. Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa, 12, (7), 233-238 UNEP (2005), Solid Waste Management, UNEP DTIE, International Environmental Technology Center, Osaka, Japan UNEP (2009), Waste Characterization and Quantification with Projection for Future, Developing Integrated Solid Waste Management Plan, Training Mannual, Volume1, 1-19 Khin Win,Ma., (2001), Improving the Solid Waste Collection And Disposal System in Yangon Cityn Area, M.ENV.E (Thesis) ,Unpublished,Yangon Technological Unicersity, Department of Civil Engineering. 58 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 GEOGRAPHICAL STUDY ON GENDER RATIO OF KALAY TOWNSHIP Tin Tin Phyo*1

ABSTRACT Kalay Township lies among the mountainous region. It stands at an average elevation of 152m-912m (500 feet- 3,000 feet) above sea level. Generally its western three-fifth lies on a flat plain, particularly slightly lowering from south to north. In Kalay Township, the population is unevenly distributed due to the variation of the physical bases of the township. Similarly the distribution of males and females population is unevenly distributed in Kalay Township. Population density also differed from one ward to another and from one village to another. Rural population is higher in number than that of urban population. According to John I.Clarke, the population of Kalay Township can be divided into three groups. They are infants and adolescents (0-14 years), adults (15-59 years), and the aged (60 and over). The indices of gender ratio of Kalay Township varied from 88 to 104. The mean value of gender ratio indices is 96 and standard deviation 3.5.The variation of gender ratio in different village tracts is mainly due to life styles and different opportunities of economic activities. Key words: Gender ratio, male and female

INTRODUCTION Kalay Township comprises Kalay Town and 40 village tracts. It has the total population of 373,745 in the year 2018. The numbers of males and females are 184,725 persons and 189,020 persons respectively. In Kalay Township, gender ratio varies according to age structure and occupational structure. Moreover, the gender ratios of urban and rural areas are also different in Kalay Township. That is why, the research paper attempts to assess the gender ratio of Kalay Township from the geographical point of view. Aim and Objectives The main aim of the research paper is to analyse the variation of gender ratio in Kalay Township. The objectives are; -to assess the gender ratio by age structure -to examine the gender ratio by occupational structure -to study the spatial variation of gender ratio in Kalay Township Study Area The study area, Kalay Township is located in the western part of Sagaing Region and is one of three townships in Kalay District. There are (40) village tracts with the urban area in Kalay Township. It is located between North latitudes 22° 36'

1* Professor, Dr, Department of Geography, Kalay University

59 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 and 23° 39' and between East longitudes 93° 58' and 94° 16'. It takes a north-south elongated rectangular shape. Kalay Township is bounded on the east by Mingin and Kalaywa Township, on the south by Hakha and Gangaw Township, on the west by Tiddim and Falam Township and on the north by Mawlaik, Tamu and Tunzang Township. (Map 1), (Map 2) The township lies in the mountainous region. It stands at an average elevation of 152m-912m (500 feet- 3,000 feet) above sea level. Generally its western three-fifth lies on a flat plain, particularly slightly lowering from south to north. The eastern portion is hilly. Being closer to the Tropic of Cancer and lying in the intermontane valley, Kalay Township suffers a hot and moderately humid climate. According to the 1981- 2010 data, Kalay Township has an annual mean temperature of 78.27°F (25.71° C) and annual rainfall of 66.72 inches (1695 mm). Materials and Method The primary data of the research were available from the field survey. The secondary data were collected from governmental offices and relevant associations. Qualitative and Quantitative methods are used in this research. Analysis on Gender Ratio In Kalay Township, the population is unevenly distributed due to the variation of the physical bases of the township. Similarly, the distribution of male and female population is unevenly distributed. In Kalay Township, the urban population was 130,064 persons with 62,776 persons of male and 67,288 persons of female in 2018. Thus, the gender ratio of urban area was 93:100 in 2018, the total population of rural area was 243,681 persons with 121,949 persons of male and 121,732 persons of female. Therefore, the gender ratio of rural area was 100:100. As a result, it can be found that the gender ratio of rural area was higher than the gender ratio of urban area in Kalay Township in 2018. According to John I.Clarke, the population of Kalay Township can be divided into three age groups. They are infants and adolescents (0-14 years), adults (15-59 years) and the aged (60 and over). According to table 2, (0-14) age group has the highest gender ratio of 132.26. In 2018, out of the total population in Kalay Township, working population is to be 216,104 persons. Of which 44,959 persons are working in various kinds of work. In Kalay Township, 13.69 percent or 6,156 persons of the labour force are working as government services (public sector) and 6.85 percent or 3078 persons are employing in private sector. Types of labour and gender population are shown in Table (3).

60 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 Map (1) Location of Kalay Township

61 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 Map (2) Village Tracts and Town Map of Kalay Township

Source: Land Records Department, Kalay Table (1) Town and Village Tracts of Kalay Township Town/Village Town/Village Town/Village Town/Villa No. No. No. No. Tracts Tracts Tracts ge Tracts 1 SawbwaYae 11 Maw Laik Ka 21 Kan Pale 31 Khon Doe Shin Lay MyoThar 2 Yazagyo 12 PyinKhonGyi 22 U Yin 32 Myauk See 3 Nannkyin 13 In DaingGyi 23 Kin Pun Chon 33 KyawYwa Saung 4 Khontha 14 Nat GyiKone 24 Hto Mar 34 Taung See 5 Kyat Hpa Net 15 Kyi Kone 25 Pauk Taw 35 Ah Shey See 6 KanGyi 16 KyaungTaik 26 Htauk Kant 36 Ywa Si YwaThar 7 Nan Saung Pu 17 Sin Ywa 27 Nat Myaung 37 Tin Thar 8 Pyin Taw U 18 Nat Gyi Kone 28 Inn Din 38 KokeKo 9 Kan Gyi 19 Sitkant 29 Nat Chaung 39 Yae Shin 10 Mauk Lin 20 Thar Si 30 NgaHpar 40 Kyauk Pyoke 41 Urban

62 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 According to 2018 data, KalayTownshop is settled by 373,745persons with 184,725 persons of males and 189,020 persons of females. Therefore, the total population of Kalay Township is composed of 49.43 % of males and 50.57 % of famales. The gender ratio (number of males to every 100 females) is about 97.72 in Kalay Township. The indices of gender ratio of Kalay Township varied from 88 to 104. The mean value of gender ratio index is 96 and standard deviation is 6. Based on mean and standard deviation, three groups of gender ratio can be divided as follow: High gender ratio (>100), medium gender ratio (between 92 and 100), low gender ratio (<92). (Map 3) There are seven village tracts in high gender ratio area that are found in the northernmost, southernmost and central part of the township. They are SawbwaYae Shin, Indainggyi, Natkyigone (ka), Kinmonchone, Pauktaw, Ywasiywatha and Kyaukpyout Village Tracts. According to the field survey, the most possible reasons for these greater variations in gender ratio may be attributed as following reasons: being existed as the area of labour demand (especially male) such as oil drilling(locally called YenanHmaw), being possessed by various works of raw material oriented which need greater amount of male labour etc. Consequently, these village tracts represent the areas of immigrant workers not only from nearby areas but also from far remote ones. This condition can contribute to the situation of greater in number of males over females. There are (31) village tracts in medium gender ratio areas that are scattered over the whole township. Gender ratio index ranges from 92 to 100.The number of employee in agriculture, livestock, fishery and forestry accounted for 53% of the total number of working population. In Kalay Township, low gender ratio areas are found slightly in the central part of the township. Index of gender ratio is less than 92 in these village tracts. These village tracts are Sitkant, Ngapha Village Tracts and Kalaymyo.

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Table -2 Gender Ratio of Kalay Township by Age Structure (2018) No. Age Group Total Male Female Gender Ratio 1 0-14 116831 56,805 60,026 94.63 2 15-59 216104 104,681 111,423 93.95 3 60 and over 40810 23,239 17,571 132.26 Source: Compiled by researcher

Table -3 Types of labour and Gender population (15-64 years) Grand Sr. Salary Daily Wages Percent Categories Owner Total No Total Male Female Total Male Female

1 Public 308 5749 1947 3802 407 303 104 6156 13.69 2 Cooperation 3 10 8 2 - - - 10 0.02 3 Private 904 1800 872 928 1278 1083 195 3078 6.85

4 General Worker - - - - 35715 22334 13381 35715 79.44

Total 1215 7559 2827 4732 37400 23720 13680 44959 100 Source: Department of Labour, Kalay Township

64 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 Map (3) Gender Ratio of Kalay Township (2018)

Source: Land Records Department, Kalay CONCLUSION In Kalay Township, the population is unevenly distributed due to the variation of the physical bases of the township. Similarly the distribution of males and females population is unevenly distributed in Kalay Township. The indices of gender ratio of Kalay Township varied from 88 to 104. The mean value of gender ratio indices is 96 and standard deviation 3.5. Among the village tracts of Kalay Township, it is the highest in Indainggyi Village Tract with 104:100 and the second highest in Kinmonchone and Pauktaw Village Tracts with 103:100. The lowest gender ratio is found in Setkant Village Tract with 88:100 and the area of second lowest gender ratio is urban one. The variation in gender ratio in different village tracts is mainly due to the life styles and different opportunities of economic activities. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank Rector Dr. Thar Htun Maung, Kalay University for permission doing this research. Another special thank also goes to professor Dr Thet Khaing, Head of the Department of Geography, Kalay University for encouragement, reviewing the manuscript and providing necessary suggestions. REFERENCES Clarke, Jone I.(1968). Population Geography. Oxford: Pergranum Press Ltd. Plane, David A &Rogerson, Pater A. Population Distribution and Composition, New York. Soe Soe Yee, Dr. (2015). Spatial Analysis of Physical Factors and their Effects on Crop Cultivation in Kalay Township, PhD Dissertation, Department of Geography, University of Mandalay. NrdKUe,ftaxGaxGtkyfcsKyfa&;OD;pD;Xme (2018)/ uav;NrdKUe,f\a'oqdkif&mtcsuftvufrsm; taxGaxGtkyfcsKyfa&;OD;pD;Xme?uav;NrdKU/

65 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 HEAVY MINERAL ANALYSIS OF THE OLIGOCENE UNITS EXPOSED IN TAUNGZIN– CHAUNGSHE AREA, NYAUNG-U TOWNSHIP Toe Toe Yi *1

ABSTRACT This paper is mainly focused on heavy mineral analysis for Oligocene units exposed inTaungzin – Chaung she area located in Naung-u Township, Mandalay Region. The study area that occurs as segment of Minbu Basin consists of Early Oligocene clastic sedimentary rocks, namely Shwezettaw Formation and Paduang Formation. In the study area, “Shwezettaw Formation” consists of buff to yellowish brown, hard and compact sandstone intercalated with pale to pinkish brown siltstone and shale. Padaung Formation is composed of concretionary clay intercalated with sandstone. The heavy minerals found in the study area are mainly zircon, rutile, tourmaline, garnet and hornblende. The minor amount of kyanite, hypersthenes, spinal, anhedral faint green olivine and hourglass zoning augite are found. On the basis of petrographic accounts, the sediments of the study area were derived from Wuntho Massif, Salingyi Uplift, Arakan Yoma and western marginal zone of Shan Plateau. Keywords: heavy mineral, Oligocene, Shwezettaw, Padaung, zircon, tourmaline, rutile

INTRODUCTION Location and Accessibility Taungzin – Chaung she area, in Naung-u Township, Mandalay Region, is located about 21 km,SSE of Nyung-u. The study area is represented in the one inch topographic maps of84 K/16 and 84 O/4or UTM maps 2194 16 and 2195 04 and bounded by latitudes 21° 00´ 00´´ N and 21° 04´ 00´´ N and longitudes 94°57´ 30´´E and 95°01´30´´ E. The study area is situated on the Kyaukpadung-Nyaung-u car road and Yangon-Mandalay Rail-way so it can easily accessible by car and by train throughout the year (Fig-1). Purpose and Methods of Study The main purpose of the research is to contribute the source rocks and area of the Lower Pegu Group during the Early Oligocene (33.9 -27.82 my ago). Before the field, preliminary study has been carried out.UTM maps 2194 16 and 2195 04were used as base maps. Poorlyconsolidated, fine to medium-grained sandstone samples were collected from the Shwezettaw and Pauang Formations of the study area. The samples were sieved at 0.125 mesh size. The sediments at 0.065mm to 0.250mm sized fraction were analyzed. The considerable differences in density between heavy and light minerals were determined by high density liquid bromoform (2.89 Sp.gr). Thin sprays of heavy mineral grains were mounted on glass slide in Canada balsam. The thin slides of heavy minerals were identified under petrographic microscope.

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1 *Associate Professor, Dr, Department of Geology, Kalay University

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Fig-1 Location Map of the Taungzin – Chaungshe Area, Nyaung-u Township (Map Source: Garmin)

Geographic Setting The prominent topographic feature in the study area is marked by NNW-SSE trending anticlinal ridge which is generally straight, but curved alignment in some places. They are made up of the interbeds of clay/shale (non-resistant) and sandstone (resistant) rock sequences. The heights of the ranges are 1423 ft to 1484 ft above sea level. From North to South, the study area possesses several short ranges of hills that are usually straight but sometimes curving in nature and always trending in NNW- SSE direction. So this area is revealing as ridge and valley topography that can be easily seen in both field and Satellite image (Fig-2).

Fig-2 Satellite Image of the study area (Map Source: Garmin)

67 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 The main streams are always flowing westward, crossing the regional structural trends. The overall drainage patterns which flow along and across the straight are dendritic and parallel. Regional Geologic Setting The study area occupies the eastern margin of Minbu Basin in which, the Cenozoic fluviatile to shallow marine sediments were mainly deposited (Chhibber, 1934 and Bender, 1983). The height of the study area is essentially represented by a NNW-SSE trending anticlinal ranges. The beds strike approximately N-S and dip 25° - 45°westward. The thrust faults had occurred along the crestal portion of the folds. This causes the rocks of Lower Pegu Group to juxtapose against the Alluvium on the eastern side of Taungzinn range (Fig-3).

Fig-3 Regional Geologic Setting Map of the study area and its environs (Map Source: Geological Map of Myanmar, 2014)

STRATIGRAPHY General Statement The study area that occurs as segment of Minbu Basin consists of Tertiary clastic sedimentary rocks. The lithostratigraphic units older than Oligocene age are not exposed in the present study area (Fig-4). The rocks of the study area can be differentiated into two lithostratigraphic units based on the lithology, faunal content and stratigraphic relationship. The stratigraphic units of the study area in ascending order from older to younger are: Shwezettaw Formation (Early Oligocene) and Padaung Formation (Early Oligocene).

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Fig-4 Geological map of the study area

Shwezettaw Formation

The type section is exposed in the vicinity of Shwezettaw hill (Latitude 20° 14 07´N and Longitude 94° 35´E). In 1969, Aung Khin and Kyaw Win revealed

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“Shwezettaw Formation” for the same lithostratigraphic unit. In the study area, 4 Shwezettaw Formation can be subdivided into two units of member rank. Lower member is essentially composed of buff to yellowish brown, thick bedded to massive, medium- to coarse-grained, hard and compact, micaceous and ferruginoussandstone. In this member, planar type cross-bedding, mud clast, straight and linguoid ripples, trough cross bedding, parallel lamination, burrow and lenticular structure are observed. This member is characterized by the alternation of sandstone and clay, and by the abundance of gypsum plates along the bedding planes and joint planes (Fig-5).

69 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 Upper member consists of buff to light grey, find-to medium-grained, hard and compact, thin to medium-bedded sandstone.Large scale planar cross beddings are well observed in this part (Fig-6). Reddish brown and yellowish brown thin-bedded moderately rounded and well sorted quartz pebble conglomerate bands can be occurred.Burrow structure in siltstone and iron concretion in thick bedded sandstone are found in this member.

Fig-5 Interebed of clay and Fig-6 Light grey, thick-bedded sandstone with gypsum of sandstone with swaley cross Shwezettaw Formation (Lat. bedding of Shwezettaw 21° 02´ 18.2´´ N and Lon. 94° Formation (Lat. 21° 02´ 22.8´´ N 59´ 08.4´´ E) and Lon. 94° 58´ 53.5´´ E)

Padaung Formation Padaung Clay was firstly named by Cotter (1912) for the dark bluish grey coloured clay unit containing a subordinate amount of grey limestone cropped out near Padaung Village (Latitude 18° 43´ N and Logitude 95°09´ E) in the Minbu Township, Magway Region. In 1969, the same lithostratigraphic unit was renamed as “Padaung Formation” by Aung Khin and Kyaw Win. In this formation, light yellow, massive clay interbedded with thin-bedded sandstone and light grey, thin- bedded shale intercalated with sandstone band are observed (Fig-7). In some places, light grey to buff, thick bedded, hard sandstone in interbedded with siltstone and intercalated with shale. Fossil, cone-in-cone structure and septarian nodules are rarely present. Mud clasts and efflorescent salts are also recognized in this unit. In this unit parallel lamination, mud clast, straight and liguoid ripples, trough cross bedding, burrow (Fig-8) and lenticular structure are locally found.Shales are variegated or mottled and show yellow, pink, red, white, brown, blue, purplish-red, etc. The overall colour of upper part is reddish brown color due to oxidation and weathering.

Fig-7 Light grey shale and buff to grey Fig-8 Burrow structure observed in grey thin-bedded sandstone intercala- sandstone of Padaung Formation tion of Padaung Formation (Lat. (Lat. 21° 01´ 29.2´´ N and 21° 01´ 47.9´´ N and Lon. 94° Lon. 94° 58´ 52.8´´ E) 58´ 26.1´´ E) 70 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 HEAVY MINERAL DETERMINATION AND INTERPRETATION General Statement The nature and occurrence of heavy minerals were used for the determination of source area weathering, significant gravity separation during transportation, deposition and diagenetic alteration, and tectonic activities of the provenance (Morton, 1985 in Biernacka, 2004; Pettijohn et al., 1972). The quantitative determination and interpretation of heavy minerals were made for determination of source rocks and source area.Heavy minerals are accessory minerals in sandstone containing about 1 % and have specific gravity (> 2.89 g/cm3). They were eroded from the source area, mechanical separating during transportation, and deposited in the present area. The diversity of heavy mineral suite is found in study area. Detrital heavy minerals of present study provide information for provenance that is complementing the modal analysis data of sandstone. The relative abundance of heavy minerals and their maturity reflect the weathering, depositional conditions, stratigraphic changes and their provenance. Description Garnet Garnet is the most stable found mineral in the study area. It occurs as colourless to pale pinkish varieties with subhedral, rounded grains traversed by branching cracks(Fig-9). It shows inclusion of quartz, rutile and mica. The particles of garnet vary from 0.2 mm to 0.25 mm. It is the metastable minerals and second most abundance of all heavy minerals. It shows high relief, uneven fracture. Some of the grain surface show pitted nature and etched border by transportation abrasion and chemical reaction with intrastratal solution. The etched garnet grains are abundant in the Lower Pegu Group. These features are most abundant in grayish garnet. The pitted surface is filled with iron. The abundance of garnet may have been caused by the peculiar provenance of the sediment with effective hydraulic sorting. Garnet is the typical mineral in metamorphic such as gneiss, schist and contact metamorphic rocks.

(a) (b) Fig-9 Garnet found in (a) Shwezettaw Formation and (b) Padaung Formation

Hornblende Hornblende displays green or yellowish brown colour with elongated, subangular and basal 6-sided of prismatic form (Fig-10). The mineral is slightly paleochroic, low relief and contain 1 set cleavage in longitudinal section and 2 sets perfect cleavage in basal section. The particle size varies from 0.1 to 0.25 mm. Hornblende is the most unstable minerals and exhibit the saw-teeth marked by intrastratal solution. The population of hornblende is relatively less abundant in the Padaung Formation. The typical source for hornblende is acid, and intermediate igneous rocks and their older regional metamorphic rocks.

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(a) (b) Fig-10 Hornblende found in (a) Shwezettaw Formation and (b) Padaung Formation Zirco n Zircon is colourless, grey, pale yellow, greenish, reddish brown and the grain shape is characterized by pyramidal good crystalline outline, broken euhedral and prismatic form (Fig-11). Rounded zircon is more common than euhedral form. Some grains show thick marginal zoaning and other contain gas, fluid and small euhedral zircon inclusion. The particle size of zircon varies from 0.1 mm to 0.2 mm. Most of zircon grains are smaller than rutile. The concentration of zircon is abundant in the Lower Pegu units of the study area. Zircon is the most common accessory minerals in igneous rocks especially the more acidic types and pegmatite and also a constituent of gneiss and other metamorphic rocks.

(a) (b)

Fig-11 Zircon found in (a) Shwezettaw Formation and (b) Padaung Formation Tourmaline Tourmaline is well observed throughout all stratigraphic succession. They comprise 5 to 10% of the total heavy minerals. The grains are yellowish brown, dark brown to black, green in color, high relief, strong paleochroism and parallel extinction. It occurs as trigonal form, subhedral prismatic grains and show striation parallel to the length of the grains (Fig-12). Well rounded and euhedral crystals are also observed in some sandstones.

(a) (b) Fig-12 Tourmaline found in (a) Shwezettaw Formation and (b) Padaung Formation Rutile Rutile occurs as subangular, subrounded, prismatic grains of deep brownish red to yellowish brown colour and long needle like prismatic yellow coloured grains (Fig-13). The crystal shows brilliant luster. Rutile is abundant in Pegu Group. The particles size varies from 0.1-0.25mm. It can be found as mineral inclusion in other minerals. Rutile grains is larger and fewer than zircon grains. Rutile is the accessory 72 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 minerals of granite and pegmatite veins, and their metamorphic derivatives gneiss and amphibolite. It can be found in high temperature-pressure metamorphic minerals of granulite and eclogite facies. Sphene Sphene occurs only in the Padaung Formation in the study area. The grains are usually wedge or four sided lozenge-shaped (Fig-14). Some grains show massive form. Colour is variable but in the Padaung Formation of the study area, they are pale yellow and brownish colour. As it is brittle, the fracture is the character of sphene. It shows extremely show high relief. Sphene occurs as a primany accessory mineral in calc-alkaline and alkali igneous rocks, and more abundant in contact metamorphosed limestone especially limestone.

(a) (b)

Fig-13 Rutile found in Fig-14 Sphene found in (a) Shwezettaw Formation and Padaung Formation (b) Padaund Formation Augite Augite is pale brown to colourless varieties with subangular subrounded and subhedral short prismatic grains. Most of the grains are highly altered. The interference colour is strong. Some grains show hourglass zoning texture as it is titaniferous (Fig-15) because of its derivative nature from alkali basalt. The grains are abundant in the Shwezettaw and Padaung Formations. The typical source for augite is basic igneous rock of gabbro, dolerite and basalt.

(a) (b) Fig-15 Augite found in (a) Shwezettaw Formation and (b) Padaung Formation Olivine Olivine is found as colourless to faint green, green, elongated subrounded grains with corona structure (Fig-16). The grain size varies from 0.1 -0.2mm. The interference colour is high. Olivine grains are abundant in the study area. The massive and compact grains are more abundant and show cracks. Olivine is common in basic igneous rocks and intermediate igneous rocks.

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(a) (b) Fig-16 Olivine found in (a) Shwezettaw Formation and (b) Padaung Formation Diopside It is characterized by colourless to pale green colour varieties with granular and short prismatic grains. It shows 2 sets of cleavages (meet at 87°) and fairly high relief (Fig-17). The particle size varies from 0.1-0.15mm. It is rare in the study area. Diopside is common in variety of metamorphic rocks, calcareous sedimentary and also occurs in basic igneous rocks.

(a) (b) Fig-17 Diopside found in (a) Shwezettaw Formation and (b) Padaung Formation Kyanite It is found only in the Shwezettaw Formation. The grains show well distinct bladed forms and subrounded elongated grains, colourless to pale blue colour and sometimes zoned from blue in the centre of crystal and colourless the margins. It contains 1 set of perfect cleavage with traverse fractures and high relief. Some grains show long thin bladed form (Fig-18). The particles range from 0.1-0.2 mm size. Kyanite is distinct metamorphic grains of schist and gneiss and their sedimentary particles.

Fig-18 Kyanite found inShwezettaw Formation

Epidote Epidote displays yellowish, colourless to pale green colour intensifying with increasing iron content, elongate crystals with pseudo-hexagonal and prismatic grains (Fig-19). Epidote shows high relief with faint paleochroism. Some of the grains have corroded edge. The grain size varies from 0.15mm to 0.25mm. Although epidote and garnet have similar chemical stability, epidote was destroyed before garnet (Friss, 1974. in Biernacka, 2004). So, epidote concentration is generally decreased and can be suggested increase effective weathering in Padaung Formation. It is less stable than garnet. The source for epidote is common in metamorphic rock.

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(a) (b)

Fig-19 Epidote found in (a) Shwezettaw Formation and (b) Padaung Formation Hypersthene Hypersthene occurs in the study area. The grains are mostly thin prismatic form with one set of cleavage. It shows colourless to pale green or pink, faint pleochroism and parallel extinction (Fig-20). Hypersthene is an essential constituent of many igneous.

(a) (b) Fig-20 Hypersthene found in (a) Shwezettaw Formation and (b) Padaung Formation Opaque minerals Opaque minerals were identified as magnetite, chromite and hematite. Magnetite is subangularto subrounded black color (Fig-21). Chromite shows 6 sided, subangular prismatic and dark color with purplish blue color reflectance at the border of grains. Hematite is subangular four sided reddish brown grains. Magnetite is formed by the magmatic segregation processes. Chromite is the common constituent of ultrabasic igneous minerals. Hematite is the alteration product of primary iron. Some of the grains were corroded. Opaque minerals are dominant in sandstone of the Pegu Group. Opaque mineral concentration is increasing to the upper part of each formation.

(a) (b) Fig-21 Opaque minerals found in (a) Shwezettaw Formation and (b) Padaung Formation Other accessory heavy minerals The accessory minerals are sillimanite, actinolite, muscovite, biotite, chlorite and spinel and contain about 0.45% of total concentration (Fig-22). Sillimanite shows colourless, light brown, thin slender and fibrous form. Some of the crystals are bent.

75 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 Sillimanite is high grade metamorphic derivatives. Most of the grains are deformed and folded. Anatase is always found as small, isolated and sharply developed crystals and prismatic form. Perfect cleavage is parallel to the faces of prismatic crystal. Anatase shows honey yellow to brown. Spinel shows colourless but usually shades of red, and brown. It is a metamorphic minerals and rare in mafic igneous rocks.

spinel anatase sillimanite spinel sillimanite (a) (b) Fig-22 Accessory heavy minerals found in (a) Shwezettaw Formation and (b) Padaung Formation

RESULT AND DISCUSSION Source Rock The heavy minerals found in the study area are mainly zircon, garnet and hornblende. These grains are subrounded and some have euhedral form. This associational characteristics indicate both plutonic and supracrustal sources. And minor amount of kyanite, hypersthenes and spinal suggests that they are derived from regional metamorphic terrain. The association of sphene, anhedral faint green olivine and hourglass zoning augite is important for their alkaline basalt origin. The nature and association of heavy minerals suggest the Peguian sediments in the study area were derived from plutonic source. The occurrence of rounded grains such as zircon, and rock fragments suggest that these sediments were also derived from a few outcrops of pre-existing sedimentary rocks. The presence of biotite, muscovite and slate rock fragments indicates that low grade metamorphic rocks were also present in the source area. Thus, the predominance of source rocks is likely to be the plutons associated with the low grade metamorphic rocks. Source Area The heavy mineral association of the sediments shows the nature of the source area.The most of the sandstones in the study area is poor to moderately sorted. According to Folk and Ward (1957), the sediments were probably derived from a proximal source. The presence of unstable heavy minerals also supports this fact. The occurrence of hypersthenes, sphene, anhedral green olivine, rutile, and hourglass augite together suggests basic igneous rocks source, at least, part of the source area: Thus it is probable that sediments from Taungzinn Area were derived mainly from the northern portion of Western Granitoid Belt, especially Wuntho Massif and Salingyi Uplift in the Northern Myanmar. The occurrence of metamorphic rock exposures at the source area is indicated by recognition of garnet, sphene, blue green hornblende and epidote (Milner et al., 1962). These minerals may be concluded that they were transported from Mogok Metamorphic Belt. 76 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 Heavy mineral association of euhedral and well rounded grains of zircon, garnet, tourmaline and rutile shows that the sediments were derived from the pre- existing metasedimentary rocks of Western Marginal Zone of Shan Plateau. The attendance of opaque minerals chromite, and magnetite as well as the presence of chert indicate the these sediments were derived from Arakan Yoma. The heavy minerals obtained from all units of the study area are generally similar in mineralogical aspects. Their percentage is slightly varied from each other. This appears to indicate the provenance has remained unchanged. It can be concluded

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42 that the sediments of all units were derived from northern part of this area, especially 41

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Silingyi Uplift, Wuntho Massif, Arakan Yoma and western marginal zone of Shan Plateau. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION The study area is situatedabout 21 km, south of Nyaung-U, Mandalay Region. It is bounded by North Latitude 21°00´00´´N to 21°04´00´´N and East Longitude 94°57´30´´E to 95°02´30´´E. It covers about 69 square kilometer in area extent. Geotectonically it is situated on the eastern limb of the Minbu Basin. This area is characterized by N–S trending anticlinal ridge. Rocks of Lower Pegu Group (Early Oligocene) are exposed and dipping towards west. The Peguian rocks in the study area are Shwezettaw Formation and Padaung Formation. These formations are exposed only in the central part and alluvium covers in the eastern and western parts of the study area Shwezettaw Formation is about 145m thick and divided into two members; Lower Alternation Member of sandstone and clay and Upper sandstone intercalated shale Member. On the basis of sedimentological evidences, the Shwezettaw Formation may be interpreted to have been deposited under deltaic or near shoreline of the shallow marine environment during Shwezettavian stage. Padaung Formation is about 80m thick and also divided into Lower Member and Upper Member. The lower member of the Padaung Formation is characterized by light yellow, massive and concretionary clay intercalated sandstone. The upper member is mainly composed of light grey, thin- bedded shale intercalated with hard and compact sandstone. Mud clast, ripples marks, trough cross bedding, fossil, burrow structure and lenticular structures are observed. On the basis of sedimentological evidences, the Padaung Formation may be interpreted to have been deposited under deltaic or near shoreline of the shallow marine environment during Rupelian stage. In this paper, only the Lower Pegu Group is emphasized on heavy mineral determination and interpretation. As a heavy mineral, garnet, olivine, zircon, and opaque minerals are mainly found. Beside Hypersthene, siliminite, epidote, diopside, spinel and sphene are found in the sediments of Padaung Formation in minor amount. The nature of frameworks and associated heavy minerals suggest the Padaung sediments in the study area were derived from pluton associated with the metamorphic rocks.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my sincere thank to Rector Dr U Thar Tun Maung, Kalay University for permission to do this research work. I am deeply indebted to Dr Yin Yin Latt, Professor and Head of Geology Department, Kalay University for the generous encouragement.

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REFERENCES Aung Khin and Kyaw Win, 1969. Geology and hydrocarbon prospects of Burma Tertiary Geosyncline: Union of Burma: Journal of Science and Techanology, v.2, n.2, p 52-73. Bender, F., 1983. Geology of Burma: Gerbruder Borntraeger Berlin Stuttuart, 293.P. Biernacka, J., 2004. Heavy mineral suite in Oligocene-Miocene sediments (Fore-Sudetic Monocline, SW Poland:) Provenance signals versus weathering alteration Institute of Geology, A. Mickiewicz University. Geologic Sudetica v.36, p.1-19. Chhibber, H.L., 1934. Geology of Burma., London, Mac Millan, 538.P. Cotter, G.P.de., 1912. The Pegu-Eocene Succession in the Minbu District, near Ngape. Geological Survey of India, v.41,4:221-239. Folk, R.L., and Ward, W., 1957. Brazos Riverbar; A study in the significance of grain size paramenters. Jour. Sed. Pet. v-27 p. 3-26. MGS, (2014). Myanmar Geosciences Society, Geological Map of Myanmar (2014), 1:2,250,000. Milner, H., Ward, A., and Highan, F.(1962). Sedimentary Petrography, Part VII, Principles and Application, 4th edit. The Macmillian Company, New York. 715 pp. Pettijohn, F.J., Potter, P.E., and Siever, R. (1972). Sand and Sandstone. 2nd edition: New York, Springer Verlag, 553 pp.

78 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 GRANITE RELATED TIN-TUNGSTEN MINERALIZATION AT PUTLETTO AREA, DAWEI TOWNSHIP, TANINTHARYI REGION Yin Mya 1, Ohn Thwin 2 and Day Wa Aung 3

ABSTRACT The study area is situated at the eastern part of Dawei Township, Tanintharyi Region. The study area lies in the southern portion of Central Granitoid belt and Western Tin belt of South East Asia Tin Province. There are two distinct prospects consist of Zaw Pho La and Zaw Pho Kyin. The research area is mainly composed of Late Mesozoic to Eocene age of igneous rocks and Late Carboniferous to Early Permian age of Mergui Group (sedimentary and metasedimentary), greisens and quartz vein. Mergui Group consists of sandstone, mudstone and quartzite, metagreywacke, and argillite. Tin-tungsten mineralization commonly occurs at the quartz veins in biotite-muscovite granite which intruded into the Mergui Group. Rock alteration features are observed in the study area. Especially, greisenization occurs at the margin of quartz vein in granite.

Key words : Central Granitoid belt, South East Asia Tin Province, Putletto, Mergui Group, prospects

INTRODUCTION The investigated area is lying at the eastern part of Dawei Township, Tanintharyi Region. It is about 72 km away from Dawei town. This area is bounded by vertical grids 43 to 46 and horizontal grids 56 to 58 on one- inch topographic map No. 95 J/8. It lies within latitudes 14º 03' 55"N to14º 04' 55" N and longitudes 98º 26' 05"E to 98º 27' 30" E.The study area can be reached by Dawei-Myitta car road, taking Heinda Pyin junction about 48 km of car road from Dawei in all season. Heinda Pyin junction is linked with Putletto village by stone- laid car road. From Putletto village to Kyit Paung Chaung village, it can be reached by car in dry season and by cart in rainy season. It is accessible by timber-carrying car in summer, on foot in rainy season (From Kyit Paung Chaung village to the study area). But the accessibility to the study area is limited due to the security. Dawei can be reached by car, train and air from Yangon in all season. The location map of the study area is shown in Fig.1. Purpose of Investigation The main purpose of the investigation is to explane the petrography of exposed rock units and occurrences of tin-tungsten mineralization from the study area. This can be a valuable aid for mineral explorations.

1Lecturer, Department of Geology, Kalay University 2Part -time Professor Dr, Department of Geology, University of Yangon 3Professor & Head Dr, Department of Geology, University of Yangon

79 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 Previous works In this area, the Zaw Pho La mine was operated as small mine during 1940- 1975. The broken rocks and tailings are occurred at near the old adit mine.The worker extracted the tin-tungsten from weathered quartz veins by monitors, carrying water from the high level areas and from deep hard quartz veins by underground mining method. But the production records cannot be found. In 1975, security of poor that area, lower price of wolframite caused the mine was stopped but now this mine is just opened to start production.

Fig.1 Location map of the study area

Methods of Investigation Investigation involves literature review, field observations and laboratory work including microscopic study.

Regional Geology Tanintharyi Region is composed of N-S trending, narrow mountainous, coastal stretch of the mainland part of Myanmar. The study area lies in the southern continuation of Shan Tanintharyi Block of Maung Thein (1983, 2000). It forms a part of the Tanintharyi granite belts which is Western Tin belt of South East Asia Tin Province of Mitchell (1977), Maung Thein (1983), Nyan Thin (1984) and Cobbing et al (1992). The study area lies in the southern portion of Central Granitoid belt.It is mainly composed of NNW-SSE trending Late Mesozoic to Eocene age of igneous rock and Late Carboniferous to Early Permian age of Mergui Group.

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Fig.2 Regional geologic setting of the study area and its environs (After Geosciences Society Geological Map of Myanmar, 2014)

Petrology The study area is mainly composed of igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks and low grade metasedimentary rocks (Mergui Group). Mergui Group consists of sandstone and mudstone, light grey colour quartzite, greenish to light grey colour metageywacke, argillite. The igneous rocks are porphyritic granite, biotite- muscovite granite (two mica granite), greisen and quartz vein.

81 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 Table 1 Rock Sequence of the study area Igneous Rocks -Greisen and quartz vein -Biotite- muscovite granite Late Mesozoic to Eocene -Porphyritic granite, Mergui Group Metasedimentary rocks - Quartzite, metagreywacke and argillite Late Carboniferous to Sedimentary rocks - Sandstone and mudstone Early Permian

Fig.2 Geological map of the Putletto Area, Dawei Township, Tanintharyi Region

Mergui Group Sedimentary rocks Sandstone Field and megascopic study Reddish colour sandstones are well exposed along timber carrying car road from Kyit Paung Chaung village to Zaw Pho La mine. Sandstone is light grey to reddish colour on fresh surface and dark reddish colour on weathered surface. They are medium to thick bedded. Quartz veins intruded along the sandstone bedding (Fig.3). Sandstones are highly jointed and small granite veins occur along the sandstone bedding plane (Fig.4).

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Fig.3 Quartz vein intruded into Fig.4 Small granite(Gr) veins in highly sandstone unit (14˚ 04' 24" jointed reddish sandstone.(14˚ 04 ' N; 98˚ 27'13" E) 28" N; 98˚ 27' 22" E)

Mudstone Field and megascopic study It is well exposed along the Kyit Paung Chaung village to Zaw Pho La mine timber carrying car road.It is fine-grained, fresh colour is bluish grey and reddish colour on weathed surface due to oxidation (Fig.5).

Fig.5 Reddish colour mudstone (Mud) at 14˚ 04' 21"N ; 98˚ 27' 00" E, Facing: SW

Metasedimentary rocks Quartzite Field and megascopic study This unit is well exposed at the northern and northwestern part of the study area. The best exposure is observed in the stream section which is formed as waterfall. It shows fine grained, highly jointed,thick bedded and massive body nature. Fig.(6,7). Contact of quartzite and biotite-muscovite granite is clearly observed at Putletto Chaung water fall.(Fig.8) In some areas, it is highly weathered. Weathered colour is dark grey on visible surface and bluish light grey colour in fresh. Contact of quartzite and weathered biotite-muscovite granite unit is also founded at 14˚ 03' 45"N, 98˚ 26' 59.1"E.(Fig 9).

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Fig.6 Highly jointed nature in Fig.7 Grey colour massive quartzite quartzite at Putletto Chaung. at 14˚ 04' 21" N; 98˚ 27 ' 02" E, (14˚ 04' 10" N; 98˚ 26 ' 50" E, Facing, NE. Fig.6 Facing NE)

Fig. 8 Contact of quartzite(Qtz) and Fig. 9 Contact of quartzite (Qtz)and biotite-muscovite granite weathered biotite-muscovite (Gr)at Putletto Chaung (14˚ granite(Gr). (14˚ 03' 45" N; 98˚ 04'10" N; 98˚ 26' 50" E, 26' 57" E, Facing due E) NE)

Metagreywacke Field and megascopic study Metagreywacke is well exposed at the northern and eastern part of the area. The best exposures are observed along the timber carrying car road from Kyit Paung Chaung village to Zaw Pho La mine camp. It is thick bedded to massive, highly jointed, and intercalated with minor argillite. Fig.10 and some are also occurred highly close jointed nature. Fig.11. Generally, the exposures are trending NNW-SSE. The rock is characterized by its dark colour, firmly indurated matrix. It is fine to medium-grained, hard and compact. It shows light grey colour on weathered surface and grey colour on fresh surface.

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Fig.10 Medium to thick bedded, highly Fig.11 Closely space highly jointed jointed metagreywacke of Mergui nature of metagreywacke Group (14˚04' 23"N; 98˚ 27' (14" 03' 56"N; 98˚ 26' 59"E, 04"E, Facing EW) Facing SE)

Argillite Field and megascopic study This unit is fairly exposed at the eastern part of the study area. The best exposure is observed at contact of quartzite along the timber carrying car road from Kyit Paung Chaung village to Zaw Pho La mine camp. It is fine grained, hard, brecciaed, closely jointed nature and interbedded with quartzite.Fig.12. In some area, it is also observed as intercalated with metagreywacke.

Fig.12

Fig.12 Contact of highly brecciaed argillite(Arg) and quartzite(Qtz) unit (14˚ 04 ' 20.8"N; 98˚ 27' 02" E, Facing, SE)

Igneous Rocks Porphyritic granite Field and megascopic study It occurs in the southern part of the study area (Zaw Pho Kyin prospect).Most exposures are occurred as massive body.Fig.13. This unit is highly weathered in most places. This weathered granite shows conspicuous features as their reddish colour, weathered characters and massive body in some areas .So it is look like lateritic appreance. Fig.14. Megascopically, light grey to dark greenish grey colour is noted on weathered surface and whitish grey colour fresh surface. It is medium to coarse-grained and the phenocrysts are exclusively alkali feldspar and quartz which are randomly oriented. Granular quartz, feldspar and biotite can be seen.

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Fig.13 Exposure of porphyritic granite in Fig.14 Reddish colour highly the study area (16˚ 50' 17" N; weathered granite at Zaw Pho 98˚ 11' 50" E) Kyin prospect (14˚ 03' 56 "N; 98˚ 26' 58" E) Biotite - muscovite granite Field and megascopic study This granite is the most abundant igneous rock of the study area. Good exposure is occurred at the Putletto Chaung. This unit can be seen as large massive body and contact between this unit and quartzite is also found at 14˚ 04' 12" N; 98˚ 26' 49" E .Ore bearing quartz veins intruded into the biotite –muscovite granite unit (Fig.15).These granites are hard, compact and moderately jointed. Megascopically, it is medium to coarse- grained texture, light reddish grey to dark reddish grey on weathered surface and light grey colour on fresh surface. Granular quartz, feldspar and muscovite mica flakes are easily marked on hand specimens. In some areas, it is highly weathered.

Gr

Qtz zz Gr

Fig.15 Ore bearing quartz (Qtz) vein intruded into biotite-muscovite granit(Gr) (14˚ 04' 13" N; 98˚ 26' 48" E)

Greisen and quartz vein Field and megascopic study Greisen is mostly occurred at adjacent ore bearing quartz veins in this area, especially at old mine adits.It is found together with quartz vein(Fig.16).It is coarse- grained texture crystalline rock and mainly composed of quartz and muscovite mica. It is reddished purple grey colour on weather surface and grey colour on fresh surface. It also shows a glittering appearance because of high mica content. It has a sharp contact with the enclosing porphyritic granite and a relatively sharp texture and mineralogical transition into the unaltered granite. 86 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019

Fig.16 Glittering appearance greisens at adjacent ore bearing quartz veins in old mine adit (14˚ 03‟ 55.9” N; 98˚ 26‟ 59.2” E)

Quartz veins Various sizes and forms of many quartz veins are observed in the study area. They are found in various directions and intruded into country rocks of the study area, especially occurred in the old mine adits. Quartz vein which is composed of quartz crystals intruded into the biotite-muscovite granite. It is occurred associated with greisens .The ore bearing quartz veins are observed in the old mine adits (Fig.17). Quartz veins occur as various sizes and the general trend of quartz veins are NW-SE direction.

Fig.17 Various sizes and forms of ore bearing quartz vein

Alteration and mineralization Mineralization Tin- tungsten mineralization is located at quartz veins in granitic rock which intruded into the Mergui Group. Although mineralized quartz veins into granite and quartzite, the width of quartz veins in granite are wider than the width of quartz vein in quartzite. Fig.18 (a, b). Wolfram (tungsten) is the major economic mineral than cassiterite (tin) in this area. At upper part of the granite with quartz veins are highly weathered. So, old workers had easily done tin- tungsten production by hydraulic monitoring. The whole research area is mostly covered by granite.

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Wolfram

a

b

Fig.18 (a) wolfram bearing quartz vein in two mica granite (b) Ore bearing small quartz vein in quartzite at old adit

Alteration In this area, the significant alteration types are (1) silification (2) sericitization (3) chloritization (4) argillic alteration. In this area, the argillic alterations are more distinct observed in the field. (1) Silification This alteration commonly occurred in the two mica granite of intrusive body. Quartz vein lets are found in the matrix of igneous rock (Fig.19 (a, b)). (2) Sericitization Most of the sericitized alterations occur beside of ore bearing quartz veins. Some are alter from feldspar to kaoline minerals. However, that sericitization zone is narrow down condition. (3) Chloritization In the study area, chloritized alteration is also observed in the igneous body. It is altered from biotite of granite body (Fig. 19 (c)) (4)Argillic alteration This alteration is found at the underground adit of present operation area. It is 1 m width and closely related to greisenization zone (Fig. 19(d)).

Fig.19 ( a,b.c,d) Silification, chloritization and argillic alteration occur at old mine adit (14˚ 03‟ 55.9” N; 98˚ 26‟ 59.2” E)

88 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 Mineralogy Major Cassiterite, arsenopyrite, wolframite, bismuthinite, pyrite, pyrrhotite Minor Chalcopyrite, sphalerite, tetrahedrite, bismuth, galena, rutile, molybdenite Gangue Quartz, fluorite Ore microscospic study

(a) (b) (a) (c) (a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig.20

Fig. 20 Pyrite (Py), Cassiterite (Cst), Wolframite (Wf), Bismuth (Bi), Pyrrhotite (Po), Quartz (qz), Arsenopyrite (asp)

Mineral Association and Texture Tin-tungsten ores occur as open-space hydrothermal vein fillings, commonly formed from several stages of mineralization. The earliest stage is dominated by quartz and cassiterite but may also contain considerable tourmaline, bismuthinite, arsenopyrite, apatite and wolframite. The following stage typically contains pyrrhotite, sphalerite, chalcopyrite and may also contain considerable tourmaline, bismuthinite, arsenopyrite, sphalerite, chalcopyrite. Later stages of vein development involve the alteration of pyrite, marcsite, and siderite, minor deposition of sphalerite, and the formation of hydrous phosphates .Fig. (20). Paragenesis sequences of ore minerals are shown in (Table 2).Textures of ore minerals such as disseminated texture, replacement texture, cavity filling texture , deformation texture, substitution texture, mesh texture and book shelf structure are observed on the polished section under ore microscope Fig(21). Ore texture

(a) (b) (c) (d)

(e) (f) (g)

Fig. 21 Ore texture; (a) Disseminated form of tungsten (b) Replacement texture (c) Cavity filling texture (d) Deformation may take place after Pyritization (e) Substitution of arsenopyrite (f) Mesh texture may occur after deformation (g) Book shelf structure

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Table (2) Paragenesis sequences of ore minerals in the study area

Minerals Early Middle Late Pyrite Cassiterite Molybdenite Bornite Bismuth Bismuthinite Chalcopyrite Wolframite Sphallerite Galena Gangue Minerals Fluorite Calcite Quartz Fluorite

CONCLUSION The present research is mainly focused on petrological approach of Late Mesozoic to Eocene age of igneous rocks and Late Carboniferous to Early Permian age of Mergui group (sedimentary and metasedimentary rocks) in the study area. According to field evidence and petrographic study, the study area may be a magmatic origin, shear fault zone, fracture filling vein type mineralization and hydrothermal origin. As economic possibility, the present study area is a very interested area for tin- tungsten mineralization associated with quartz vein intruded into the biotitic- muscovite granite. The width of quartz vein in granite is wider than the width of quartz vein in quartzite. So, the study area may be considered to become a more attractive area to extract the wolframite.

90 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I am deeply grateful to Rector Dr. Thar Tun Maung, Kalay University, for his encouragement and expression to carry out the present research. I would like to express my sincere thank to Dr. Yin Yin Latt, Professor and Head of Geology Department, Kalay University for the generous encouragement. I am deeply indebted Professor Dr.Phyu Phyu Lwin, (Retired), Head of the Department of Geology, Dagon University for accompanying with me during field investigation, guidance for the field study, invaluable advices and suggestions. I am deeply grateful to all geologists from Zaw Pho La Mine for their helps during my field trip and research work.

REFERENCES Augustithis.S.S., 1973. Atlas of the textural Patterns of Granites, Gneisses and associated rock types, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co., p.29-52, 63-68, 81-84, 97-366. Bender.F., 1983.Geology of Burma, Gebruder Borntraeger, Berlin,p. 293. Best, M.G. 1999. Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology, CBS Publisher and Distributors, 4596/1A; Darya Ganj, New Delhi-110 002(India). Brown, J.C and Heron, A.M., 1923. The Geology and ore deposits of Tavoy District, Memoris of the Geological Survey of India, Burmese National Committee of Internal Geological Correlation Programme, 1977. The geological map 1 inch: 1 mile of part of Tanintharyi Division Region, Unpublished explanatory brochure: 33-p. Chhibber.H.L, 1934. The Geology of Burma, Machillan & Co.Ltd., London. Cobbing, E.J, P.E.J. Pitified, D.P.E. Derbyshire and D.J.J. Mallik, 1992. The granite of the South-East Asia tin belt. Overseas Memori, British Geological Survery, London, no 10, 369 P. Dan Marshall, C.D. („Lyn) Anglin and Hamid Mumin,2004.Ore Mineral Atlas, Geological Association of Canada, Mineral Deposits Division, p. 241-243. Khin Zaw, 1990. Geological, petrological and geochemical characteristics of granitoid rocks in Burma: with special reference to the associated W-Sn mineralization and their tectonic setting. Journal of Southeast Asian Earth Sciences.vol.4. Maung Thein, 1974. A Preliminary synthesis of the geological evolution of Burma with reference to the tectonic development of Southeast Asia. Geol Soc. Malaysia Bull. 6:87-116, Maung Thein, 2000. Summary of the geological history of Myanmar, Unpublished paper, p.8 Nyan Thin 1984, Some Aspects of Granitic Rocks of Tenasserim Division, Unpublished paper Rau, Rao Bahadur S. Sethu Rama, 1930. The Geology of the Mergui District. Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India.Vol 55, pt-l. Read, H.H., 1970, Rutley’s elements of mineralogy , 26 th Edition. Win Swe, 2012. Outline geology and Economic mineral occurrences of the Union of Myanmar. Journal of the Myanmar Geosciences Society, Special Publication No. (1), p. 120-125.

91 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 BADON REGION IN MONYWA TOWNSHIP Mya Mya Win*

ABSTRACT There are evidences that explain how Alon became known as Badon. Alon that had been an important centre for military purpose since Bagan Period became an important place for the country's security and administration. Buddha-sasana had flourished in and around Alon since Pyu Period, and monastic education gradually developed. Monasteries were of two kinds: where both secular and religious lessons were given and where only secular lessons were taught. Pwe-kyaung monasteries played important roles in the country's security, traders and military officers. These facts show that Alon stood as an important place in the history of Myanmar.

INTRODUCTION Badon, which was also known as Alon, was a town with its long history, and is now in the area of Monywa Township in Sagaing Division. It is located six miles north to Monywa, on the east bank of Chindwin River, and Monywa- YeOo Highway and a railway meet there.During the reign of Myanmar kings, Badon (Alon) was well known with its name "Badon". Maung Wain, the fourth son of King Alongmintaya of Konbaung, was the Myo-sar of Badon, and when he became a king in 1782, he was known as King Badon or King Bodawphaya. A new name "Alon" was given to Badon in 1782 for the name "Alon" literally meant "safe", and it is still called Alon Township. Badon region in Pyu period Pyu migrated into Myanmar in 1st Century B.C, 2nd Century B.C, 3rd Century B.C, and established Maing-maw and Bi-tha-noe during the period between 1st Century B.C and 2nd Century B.C. They also established Hanlin City in 1st Century B.C and Tha-ye-khit-taya in 2nd Century B.C. Historians say that the tribe of Pyu was mixed with Myanmar who migrated into the region in A.D. 9th Century since both tribe had close similarities in belief and language.1 A new history of Chinese Tang Dynasty mentions that there were nine Pyu forts and thirty-two towns in Myanmar in A.D.1060, and those regions were where the people of Pyu lived. Historians were able to locate twenty towns out of thirty- two.2 Badon or Alon was known as Pu-wu-to which still exists near modern Alon in

* Associate Professor, Dr., Department of History, Kalay University 1 Toe Hla, Dr., Myae-paw-myae-auk Kyauk-sar-hmat-tan-mya-ka-pyaw-thaw Shae-haung Myanmar- naing-ngan, Yangon, Mayan Talin Publication, 2004, 1st publication, p. 6-7 (Henceforth: Toe Hla, 2004) 2 Win Maung, "Pasat-sagar-hte-ka Ba-tha-gywe-hnint Badon," Alon Shwe Myae magazine, Yangon, Aung Thein Than Press, 2017, p.43 (Henceforth; Win Maung 2017). 92 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 Monywa.1Historians believe that Badon was a town on the route linking Hanlin city and Pho-win-taung region where Pyu lived. Chinese records support the fact that Badon (Alon) was a northern Pyu city. This is also supported by a legendary history that Pyu kings from Hanlin visited Pho- win Mountain, through Hlay-ku, across the Chindwin River. And the fact is confirmed when Pyu coins were found in the region.2 Badon region during Bagan Period There were many well known towns and villages in Thunaparanta during Bagan Period. They included Kalay, Kawlin, Khanti, Khanpat, Sagaing, Sar-hton, Tant-se, Dipeyin, Mintainbin, Monywa, Monywe, Shwebo, Wuntho, Thaung-thwut, Hanlin, Amyint, Alon (Badon), Alakappa, and Uruse Village. Therefore, the name Alon was well known during Bagan Period. Badon was a well known Tike during early Bagan period. The area of Badon Tike during Bagan period covered up to Mu River in the east, Banghi Tike in the west, Chaung-U and Amyint border line in the south, and Dipeyin Tike and Kani Tike in the north.3 King Anawratha of Bagan, on 12 February 1033, established forty-three guard-towns at the same time, including Kaung-sin, Kaung-ton, and Shwe-gu, etc. in order to keep Shan-ywun separated in the areas between Kamboza State of Maw Shan and Tampawady State of Myanmar. He also established, throughout the country, Thein-pyu towns, Thaung-pyu Town, Shit-yar-pyu towns, Lay-ya-pyu towns, Thon- ya-pyu towns, Hnit-ya-pyu towns, Tit-yar-pyu towns, Shit-se-pyu towns, Nga-se-pyu towns, Thon-se-pyu towns, and Hnit-se-pyu towns. Badon was one of the twenty Lay-ya-pyu towns.4 Here, the discussion will highlight on a history of Badon that has been well known until present days. It is inevitable that the description of Badon begins with King Ba-tha-gywe who was also known as the founder of Badon or Alon Bodaw-gyi Nat that is still respected by many people. Badon Tha-gywe Prince was wealthy and also generous. The people of Badon respected him, and called him Ba-tha-gywe. Historical records say that Ba-tha-gywe became a Nat (spirit) with the name Bodaw-gyi when he died.5 Festivals have been held every year in the name of Bodaw-gyi Nat on 8th waning moon of Tabaung.

1 Than Tun, Dr., Myanmar Htwe-htwe-ya-ya Thamiang, Yangon, Kon Tha Ya Press, 2005, 1st publication, p. 28 (Henceforth: Than Tun, 2005) 2 Win Maung (History), Thamaing-hte-ka Mon-ywa, Yangon, Thiri Pitaka Press, 2009, 1st Publication, p. 30, 31, 32 (Henceforth: Win Maung, 2009) 3 Takkatho Aung Chit, "Htin-shar-pyae-sone Myo-Alon", Monywa Township 100th year Anniversary Magazine, Yangon, Zayya Maung Press, 1989, p. 94 (Henceforth: Aung Chit, 1989) 4 Nandar-Min-Lwin, Badon Thamaing Shar-pon-daw, Alon Shwe Myae Magazine, 50thYear Golden Anniversary of the establishment of State High School (1) in Alon, Yangon, Aung Thein Than Press, 2017. p.35 (HenceforthNandar-Min-Lwin, 2017) 5 Win Maung, 2017.

93 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 He was the youngest son of King Datusena of Sri Lanka who was contemporary to King Anawratha of Bagan. King Datusena had two sons, and the eldest son was the Crown Prince of the country. The king also gave reasonable positions to the youngest son who was unhappy with his father's decision. The prince, along with his faithful servants, left Sri Lanka and came into Myanmar through Patikkaya region. He took an oath of allegiance to Myanmar king. He was known to Myanmar as Patikkaya Kalar or Badda Tha-gywe.1 Kavilakkhana That-pon kyan, a book composed in 1751, mentioned, "Patikkaya, Kalar-lu-gyae, Ba-tha-gywe-ka-kyi, Badon-myo Ti-thi" (Patikkaya, a clever kalar, also known as Ba-tha-gywe, established Badon).2 The name "Patikkaya" appeared in Dhammaraja stone inscription dated 8 October 1196. It is the name of an old city at the foot of a hill in Tipperah District in India. This city had been a centre of Buddhism until Muslims invaded India. Ba-tha- gywe seemed to have been there, and then only he came to Myanmar. The stone inscription does not mention anything about Ba-tha-gywe, but a record dated 1751 mentioned his name.3 It is said that during the reign of King Narasihapatae (Tayoke-pyae-min), the king gave the people he could trust the titles of Nagathaman and Nagavaddana, and appointed them as the commanders of his body-guard troops, and the founders of Badon, Nagathamangyi and Nagathaman-nge4 received those titles. 5 Shwe-nan-thon Wohara Abhidan composed by U Maung Maung Tin mentioned Ba-tha-gywe. "During the reign of Tayoke-pyae-min, the king of Bagan (1256-1287), in 1256, Ba- tha-gywe, a Kalar, established a city and made himself a king. King Tasishin Thihathu (1308-1322), the founder of Vijarapura City, defeated Ba-tha-gywe in 1312, and Ba-tha-gywe was drown in Thmlawady River."6 Badon Tha-gywe Prince was wealthy and also generous. The people of Badon respected him, and called him Ba-tha-gywe. Historical records say that Ba-tha-gywe became a Nat (spirit) with the name Bodaw-gyi when he died.7 Festivals have been held every year in the name of Bodaw-gyi Nat on 8th waning moon of Tabaung. Badon during Pinya Period There is a stone inscription dated A.D 1302, during the reign of King Tasishin Thihathu of Pinya. The stone inscription recorded that Saturangabo and his son and

1 Nanda Min Lwin, 2017, p. 35-36. 2 U Hla Paing, Mon-ywa Hmat-tan, Mandalay, Pyi-thu-kyae-hmon Press, 1947, p. 41 (Henceforth: Hla Paing, 1947) 3 Win Maung, Thamaing-hte-ka Monywa, Yangon, Thiri Pitaka Press, 1st publication, 2009, p.35 (Henceforth; Win Maung, 2009) 4 Maha Zayya Thinkhaya, Woharalinattadipani, Yangon, Hanthawady Press, 1960, p. 279 (Henceforth: Maha Zayya Thinkhaya, 1960) 5 Win Maung, 2009, 35. 6 Maung Maung Tin, U, Shwe-nan-thon Wohara Abhidan, Yangon, Rapyae Press, 2005, p. 209 (Henceforth: Maung Maung Tin, 2005) 7 Win Maung, 2017. 94 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 the minster, Min Athinkhaya, donated a piece of land to a monk known as Shwe Gyuntaung in Amying Township.1The stone inscription reads: "Ba-tha-gywe, a kalar, whose title was Nagathaman and who ruled Badon during the reign of King Tayoke-pyae, donated 300 acres of garden (to grow vegetables and betel nuts, etc) in Talyae Village."2 The stone inscriptions that belonged to Sagaing period also mentioned the name Patum (Badon). Badon Region during Sagaing Period The earliest available stone inscription was Mahavirarasudhamma Shwe Kyaung stone inscription that belonged to Sagaing period was dated 1334. This place is located in the north of Nangaing pagoda in Sagaing. The inscription was the record of the donations of Sagaing king, Tarapyagyi. It reads, "The names "Lay-ku (Hlay-ku)" and "Patum (Badon)" was found together with the names "Kan-ni (Kani)" and "Pin-ki-se-tike (Bangyi-tike, on the west bank of Chindwin River)". The name Badon appears in some stone inscriptions of Innwa period." Badon Region during Innwa Period The name "Patum" appears in Yatana-ceti-kyaung stone inscription dated 1388 which recorded the donations of Innwa king, Mingyi-swa-saw-ke and queen Shin Saw Gyi. It reads, "Min Thinkathu, Min Ussana, Yamethin Min, Ein Patum Min, Sagaing Min, Nyaung Yan Min, Pin Le Min, Kain-tin-gyi Min, etc. This stone inscription gives the names of successive kings during Innwa period. The stone inscriptions inscribed during the period from Bagan, through Pinya and Sagaing, to mid-Innwa period used the names – "Baton", "Badon", "Pudam", "Patum", "Batum", "Badum", and finally those names changed to "Badon (Alon)". Therefore, it can be said that, in mid eighteenth century, the name "Badon (Alon)" came from the name "Padum". When the time was closer to the end of Innwa period, Badon became a well known big city. Kavilakkhana-that-pon-kyan composed by Sinta-kyaw-thu U Aw, and completed on 20 August 1750 reads, "Thamlar-myit-son, Myo-badon, Monywa-hnint Maway".3 Thus the name "Badon", the town where town-governor had the office, appears together with a well known city "Monywa". Therefore, at the end of Innwa period, in mid eighteenth century, Alon probably became the most developed city. Alon was more well known than the nearby contemporary cities – Monywa, Khin-

1 Nanda Min Lwin, 2017, p. 36, 39. 2 (a) Win Maung, 2009, p. 40-41. (b) Win Maung, 2017, p 43. 3 U Awe, Kavilakkhana That-pon Than-pauk Hnint A-toe-kauk, Yangon, Han-thawady Press, 1967, p.9 (Henceforth; U Aw, 1967)

95 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 mon, Liy Thaung (Lesin), Kyan-tu (Amyint), Kyan-tu (Anaint), Thipeashin (Dipeyin), Klokka (Kyauk-ka) and Thasi, etc. Badon during Konbaung Period Alon has been an important centre of politics. It also plays important roles in administration and military affairs. King Anawratha (1044-1077) organized Htaung-pyu towns, Ya-pyu towns and Se-pyu towns. Alon was one of the town among 43 Kin towns, and it was also a four- hundred-pyu towns out of twenty-two Ya-pyu towns. In the royal armies of Myanmar kings, only when an infantry wins ten battles, it can form a cavalry. Only when a cavalry wins ten battles, it can form an elephant regiment; only when an elephant regiment wins ten battles, it can form a boat regiment; and only when a boat regiment wins ten battles, it can form a four-hundred-pyu town. Therefore, Badon was surely an important town formed with skilled soldiers.1 The town-chief and town-governor were directly appointed by the king. They were chosen among the men who the king could trust in military affairs and administrations. This custom continued through ages.2 The first Mingaung of Innwa appointed his son, Prince Thihathu, as a town- chief of Badon for the prince defeated the army of Prince Banya Dhammaraja, the son of King Rajadharaj of Mon, in 1417. Moreover, King Bayint Naung Kyaw-htin-naw- ratha of Taung-ngu appointed Asankhaya, the ruler of Siputtara, the nephew of the local chief of Moe-hnyin, as a town-chief of Badon for Asankhaya could defeat the rebellion in the northern parts of the country.3 King Bagyidaw (King Sagaing) appointed U Myat Thin, the native of Shin- nga-se Village in Alon, as a town-chief of Badon in 1823, with the title "Siridhammasoka", since he defeated Jawjitsin, the elder of Majitsin of Manipur who rebelled against the power of Myanmar king. In the same way, the king also appointed Maung Yit, the native of Ngapayin in Alon, as a Myo-wun of Alon, with the titles of Mingyi Mahabandula and Nay-myo-thura Yekhaung, in 1825 since he wun the battles in Manipur and Asam. Thus, under the command of Alon town-governor, there are Sit-ke- = two souls (second-in-command of a military unit during the time of Myanmar kings) Nataw-khan = two souls Myo-sar-yay = two souls Yazawat oak = eight souls Kwan-pho-htain wun = one soul Kin oak = one soul town-chief = one soul and village-chiefs = sixty six souls.

1 Nanda Min Lwin, 2017, 35. 2Nanda Min Lwin, 2017, p. 35-39. 3 Nanda Min Lwin, 2017, p. 64. 96 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 Therefore, there were eighty-one men serving under the command of Alon governor. The governor of Alon had the authority to give judgment in civil law cases that was worth 1000 kyats. were also judges who had the authority to give judgments in crimes and minor civil law cases. was responsible for collecting taxes; he had to oversee the tax activities to be fair.1Many forts with brick walls around them that were built before Konbaung period are still seen around Sunaparanta State. Those cities were built during or late Bagan period. It can be said that forts were important places of that time. It means that when centralize administration was strong, forts service front line protections to the capital.2 The forts in Sunaparanta State were listed below. Table (1) Forts in Sunaparanta State forts Tar* the number of men Kani 534 400 Kukangyi (Pakan) 500 400 Kyauk-myaung - 70 Ngarane 300 70 Sagaing 653 - Ta-ohn (South) 200 80 Ta-ohn (North) 42 70 Dipeyin 437 400 Badon - 400 Male 440 30 Mote-soe-bo - 200 Myae-du 400 400 Myin-mu - 40 Thawatthi 530 - Hintha - 70 Amyint - 400 Original source: Toe Hla, 1995, p. 37-38

1 (a) Maung Maung Tin, 2005, 277-279. (b) Win Maung, 2009, 50. 2 Toe Hla, 1995, p. 37. *Tar = unit of distance measure (equal to four cubits).

97 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 Not many forts were built during Konbaung period as it used to be in early periods. It means that centralize administration became stronger in Konbaung than before. Dipeyin, Alon and Banchi Unit service guard-towns in Sunaparanta State.1 According to the revenue inquests collected in 1783, there were 9684 houses in service among 17418 houses in Alon that was formerly known as Badon. Therefore, it can be called a city of the servants or the military township. Those houses had to serve in the royal armies when it was necessary. For this reason, Alon was an important region during the reign of Myanmar kings. It was the place of servants who service the royal guards. When Bodaw was a prince, he fief Badon. When he became a king, the name Alon became his title, "King Badon". The name Badon was changed to Alon since the latter name was interpreted as "a safe place". King Badon collected revenue inquestses, the first time in 1783 and the second time in 1802.2 Those revenue inquestses gave reasonably good information of population of that time. The revenue inquestses categorized the houses as "Athi" and "Sucha". Athae were ordinary tax- payers who were not in the service of the kings while Sucha were in royal service. According to the revenue inquests collected in 1783, Alon region had 7734 Athi and 9684 Sucha, altogether there were 17418 houses. King Badon especially trusted Badon (Alon) where he ruled before he became a king, and the people of Alon were loyal to him, too. King Badon chose healthy young men from villages within Alon region and appointed them as six interior security guard forces. He had atwin chauk-su that service the royal capital city to safe guards the king and his palace3at the (1) Myauk-dawe (2) Taung-dawe (3) Myauk 150 (4) Taung 150 (5) Myauk-marabin, and (6) Shwe-pyi-hman-kin.4 Myauk-dawe, Taung-dawe, Myauk-marabin and Shwe-pyi-hman-kin were formed with the men chosen from the villages in Alon. The men to served in Atwin-chauk-su were selected by the governor of Alon, and they were sent to the royal city. The men selected by the governor of Alon are listed below.

1 Toe Hla, 1995, 38. 2 Toe Hla, 1995, p. 43, 44. 3 Win Maung, 2009, 48-49. 4 Maung Maung Tin, 2005, 279-280, 281. 98 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 Table (2) The men from Alon region who served in Atwin Chauk-su-ko-yandaw- ahum-htan Regiments No. of Soldiery No. of Night Sentinels Myauk-dawe 672 134 Taung-dawe 672 134 Myauk-150 879 143 Taung-150 562 112 Myauk-marabin 931 186 Shwe-pyi-hman-kin 698 140 total 4414 849 Original Source: Toe Hla, 1995, 45 Chauk-su royal guards served during the period between King Mindon (1852- 1878) and King Thibaw (1878-1885). A record of the numbers of men serving as Atwin Chauk-su royal guards during the reign of King Thibaw is available, and the payment for them is also seen. Table (3) A Record of the numbers of Men Serving as Atwin Chauk-Su Royal Guards monthly payment Regiments the number of men village (total) Myauk-dawe 685 18 7840 Taung-dawe 675 15 7730 Mauk-150 633 18 7720 Taung-150 547 16 6285 Myauk-marabin 799 15 9228 Shwe-pyi-hman- 672 25 6285 kin 4011 107 45085 original source: Maung Maung Tin, 2005, 280-282. Thus the villages in Alon had played important roles in the security of the royal palace and the country's protection since King Badon. During the reign of King Badon, the Manipur Kathae local chief rebelled against the Myanmar king. Myanmar army marched to Manipur in 1813. The troops from Alon among twenty troops of Myanmar soldiers were listed below. 1. the governor of Alon Thiridhamma-thaw-ka 1 troop 2. the governor of Kani Nay-myo-thiha-yegaung 1 troop 3. the governor of Bangyi Ye-kyaw-naw-ratha 1 troop 4. the governor of Amyint Ye-htin-kyaw-swa 1 troop 5. the governor of Mingin 1 troop, and 6. the governor of Dipeyin Nay-myo-thura-yegaung (Bandula) 1 troop.

99 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 The troop of Alon governorThiridhamma-thaw-ka, and the troop of Dipeyin governor Nay-myo-thura-yegaung (Bandula) marched together in the "Khwe-pu- kyaung column".1 Thus, it is obivious that Alon which was also known as Badon played important roles in the country's administration and military's affairs. The revenue inquestses collected by King Badon in 1781 and 1802 showed that there were 9684 Sucha (houses in service) and 7734 Athae (houses who were not in service), and therefore there were altogether 17418 houses in Alon. Therefore, it can be seen that Alon was the second largest city and played important roles.2 Alon was not only important for administration and military affairs, it was also an important port that helped the trading smooth. A biography of Hlay-thin-atwin-wun U Chain (the native of Monywa) reads: Since it was a place, among the villages in Alon region on the bank of Sallawady Chindwin River, where traders on carts and boats load or unload their goods or rest, ...3 Therefore, Alon was a centre for businesses where traders came on land or by boat. Chinese and Indian traders who migrated to the region and had their businesses could also be seen. During the reign of King Thibaw, Chinese traders controlled salt trading. Nga Shwe Hla Gyi, Nga Cho Nar and Nga Set Sint, Chinese traders, paid the king 2400 kyats as the tax for their salt trading. A contract was made that they would sell the salt with the price of 12 kyats 5 mu per a hundred viss for three years.4 On 19 October 1884, during the reign of King Thibaw, Nga Baka and Mamet Hoesin, two Sulati Indians, engaged in a fight, while they were on business in Mandalay, at Nga Nyunt's residence. Nga Nyunt sued Nga Baka for a theft case at the Hlut-taw. Nga Baka's deposition reads: "I lived at Mon-ywa port in Alon selling iron items. I have come to Mandalay to buy some iron items and alcoholic drinks."5 According to his deposition, it can be seen that Chinese and Indian traders lived around Monywa port running their businesses. The communication to Alon from other regions was so easy that it developed as a port. Traders from towns and villages from Alon Myo-wun-su, Kani Myo-wun-su and Ban-kyi Tike-wun-su had their businesses at the Alon port and the total trading value in 1885 was as follow:

1 Maung Khit Tun, Sit-thu-gyi Mahabandula, Second publication, Yangon, Seit-ku-cho-cho Press, 2011, p. 43-44 (Henceforth: Khit Tun, 2011) 2 Nanda Min Lwin, 2017, 67. 3 Win Maung, 2009, 55, 56. 4 Taw Sein Kho, 1960, p. 76. 5 Taw Sein Kho, 1960, 121. 100 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 1. Towns and villages in Alon Myo- wun-su ... 568800 kyats 2. Towns and villages in Kani Myo- wun-su ... 66000 kyats 3. Towns and villages in Ban-kyi Tike-wun-su ... 755000kyats Therefore, the total value of trading was 1389800 kyats (almost one million and four hundred thousand kyats).

CONCLUSION In brief, it can be said that Alon and the regions around it had existed along the history. Alon was a royal city during Bagan Period. Since Bagan Period, it has been an administrative area. The area was under the administration of town governors and town wuns who were responsible for collecting men to serve in the royal armies. There is Mu River in the east, Chindwin River in the west, Dipeyin in the north, and Amyint Township and ten Chaung-U villages in the south. It is a place accessible by both land and water route, and it played an important role in the history. The move of the age is the history. The knowledge in history enables one to participate in the move of the age. The lessons learn from the history make one mature, wise, and considerate. Therefore, it should be said that one will know himself how important Alon was throughout the history.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my gratitude to the rector, Dr. Thar Tun Mg, Kalay University, for permitting me to undertake this research paper. I am thankful to Dr. Maw Thi Shein, Professor/Head of Department of History, Kalay University and Dr. Myo Myo Swe, Professor of Department of History for giving me to present this paper in this research journal and to all of the faculty members of Department of History, Kalay University for their kind supports to me.

REFERENCES Secondary Sources Published Books in Myanmar Toe Hla, Dr., Myae-paw-myae-auk Kyauk-sar-hmat-tan-mya-ka-pyaw-thaw Shae-haung Myanmar- naing-ngan, Yangon, Mayan Talin Publication, 2004, 1st publication. Than Tun, Dr., Myanmar Htwe-htwe-ya-ya Thamiang, Yangon, Kon Tha Ya Press, 2005, 1st publication. Win Maung (History), Thamaing-hte-ka Mon-ywa, Yangon, Thiri Pitaka Press, 2009, 1st Publication. U Hla Paing, Mon-ywa Hmat-tan, Mandalay, Pyi-thu-kyae-hmon Press, 1947. Maha Zayya Thinkhaya, Woharalinattadipani, Yangon, Hanthawady Press, 1960. Maung Maung Tin, U, Shwe-nan-thon Wohara Abhidan, Yangon, Rapyae Press, 2005. Maung Khit Tun, Sit-thu-gyi Mahabandula, Second publication, Yangon, Seit-ku-cho-cho Press, 2011. Taw Sein Kho, Hlut-taw-hmat-tan, Yangon, Government Press, 1960. U Awe, Kavilakkhana That-pon Than-pauk Hnint A-toe-kauk, Yangon, Han-thawady Press, 1967

101 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 Magazine Nandar-Min-Lwin, Badon Thamaing Shar-pon-daw, Alon Shwe Myae Magazine, 50th Year Golden Anniversary of the establishment of State High School (1) in Alon, Yangon, Aung Thein Than Press, 2017 Nanda Min Lwin, Tha-main-khit-a-set-set Badon-myo-sar Myo-won-mya, Alon Shwe Myae Magazine, Yangon, Aung Thein Than Press. Takkatho Aung Chit, "Htin-shar-pyae-sone Myo-Alon", Monywa Township 100th year Anniversary Magazine, Yangon, Zayya Maung Press, 1989 Win Maung, "Pasat-sagar-hte-ka Ba-tha-gywe-hnint Badon," Alon Shwe Myae magazine, Yangon, Aung Thein Than Press, 2017

102 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 BEGINNING OF EDUCATION IN CHIN STATE Khan Linn*

ABSTRACT This paper attempts to study the education of British colonial administration in the Chin State during the period 1900-1925. It tries to trace the background history of the Chin people. It also describes the Brithish administration of the Chin State throughout the colonial period. The Chin people were very conservative and merely live for the present. Nevertheless, social and cultural change among the Chin people came in two ways: one was development of education in the Chin State through British rule; the other was through the Christian Missionary efforts. Key Words: Education, Chin, 1900-1948

INTRODUCTION This paper briefly discuss on the beginning of education in the Chin State, especially in the northern Chin State. This paper attempted to point out the fact that who were the people they tried the Chin people to be able to read and write and what organization led them to do so. In generally, this paper also discuss on the changes of societies of the Chin people after the opening of the Christian Mission School.

EDUCATION IN THE CHIN STATE As the Chin people were absolutely independent people before the British rule, the local chiefs exercised unbounded power. Surrounding Countries or Kingdoms never conquered the Chin people and their land. As results, Buddhism, Islam and Hinduism never reached the Chins. Thus, “Animism” was the primitive culture and the prevailing religion, which become as the traditional religion of the Chin people. There was no sign of Buddhism in Northern Chin State, although Buddhism in Southern Chin State already existed before Myanmar got independence from the British colony. Buddhism arrived in Northern Chin State just after the end of the Second World War. Major W.G Hughes first used the term “Chin” to be written as “CHIN” in 1891 in his military report. D.J.C Macnabb, a British political officer of Hakha, the inventor of Hakha literature, also used the term “Chin” in 1891, and then by Newland in his book: “ The Image of War” in 1894, and the conventional spelling for the name became legalized as the official term by The Chin Hills regulation in 1896. On 21 February 1886, a troop of 75 men from the British mercenary led by Lt. Iortin and Jamedar Mahmmed Ali reached Mindat Region, Southern Chin Hills as the territory investigation forces. It was the first entry of the British to Mindat Town, after they had occupied Upper Myanmar.

* Lecture, Deparment of History, Kalay University

103 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 After the British completely occupied the Hills, Sir Frederic Fryer, Chief Commissioner, visited the Chin Hills in March 1896. He met some of the Chin chiefs at Tiddim, Falam and Hakha. The British consolidated their rule over most of the Chins and the Chin Hills remained peaceful for over a decade until the Thado- Hakha rebellion began in 1917. Five months after Fryer‟s visit to the Chin Hills an important dealing with the administration of the Chin hills, the Chin Hills Regulation, 1896, was passed into law on 13 August 1896. B.S Carey. Who was the first Superintendent of the Chin Hills District, drafted it. He was appointed first as Political Officer in 1890, and promoted to Superintendent when the Chin Hills was formally annexed in 1896. The Chin Hills Regulation, 1896, approved and promulgated by the British government, was the basic constitution of the entire administration of Chin Hills during the colonial period. Each part of the Chin Hills was put under the administration of their respective occupying military command until 1898, when the civilian administration became effective. However, beginning from 1927-28 the British occupied Matupi Township. After the promulgation of the Chin Hills Regulation, 1896, the British government paved the way for the coming of Christianity into the Chin Hills. The British colonial officer Captain Dury invited the Carsons to come to their newly occupied colony and work in the Chin Hills in what is now known as the Chin State in Myanmar. As the request of Captain Dury, the American Baptist Mission appointed Arthur Carson and his wife Laura Carson as the first missionaries to the Chins. The Carsons were from Columbus City. Iowa, United States. They arrived in Hakha on 15 March 1899. The Chins did not know at first the difference between the British soldiers and American Christian Missionaries. The Carsons were ofter mistaken for agents of the British soldiers. Therefore, the Carsons could not at first find a local teacher to teach them the Chin language. However, it was an Indian called Mr. Joseph, who taught them the Chin dialect. Much later, two Chins, Chia Khawm and Tum Kir, became their teachers. In order to provide education, the American Baptist Mission established a Mission School at Hakha in Northern Chin Hills in 1900. In June 1900, the Carsons opened a Mission School in Hakha with Saya San Win as the teacher. Unfortunately, the Mission School was closed due to a piece of wrong information given by Sergeant that a Buddhist school would give them food and clothes if they would attend the Buddhist School although no such school existed at that time. The Mission School at Hakha was reopened in June 1901 with seven boys. In 1905, the Mission School began at Zokhua of Hakha Subdivision with the Kayin teacher Maung Kya in charge. In 1908, another mission school was opened at Thantlang Village of Hakha Subdivision and Saya Maung Kya was appointed as teacher. When the American Baptist Mission opened several new village schools, one of the great obstacles was the use of Myanmar as the medium of instruction. In 1923, the Mission School at Hakha was raised to a full middle school. Nevertheless, the Mission suffered a serious loss when its school building and all equipment at Hakha were burnt down. Education was not popular at first, and it was necessary to require each village to send its quota of boys to school. The chiefs and headmen showed great reluctance in sending their sons to the mission schools probably for fear of conversions. Moreover, some parents feared that their sons, after a few years at school, would give up working the field. However, when the chiefs and the headmen later realized that education was a thing of importance, and sent their own sons to schools, the ordinary people followed their example. 104 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 The educational activities of the Chins developed after the establishment of British rule. Before the coming of British, there was no system of writing among the Chin people. It was only after the British came that the Chins came to know how to read and write. The fact that the administrative system under the chiefs did not develop was partly due to the lack of art of writing. If the Chins knew the art of writing, they could have recorded their traditional customs and songs in order to educate their youths. The development of the Chins might have started earlier if they had known the art of writing since the days of the chiefs. It was only in the later period as they became literate, that their outlook became broader and they looked forward to development. In order to have literature, the British government invented and the Americian Baptist missionaries formulated the Chin writings adopting the Roman alphabets. It is clear that the Chin had no original writing. However, the Chins now have their own written forms of some dialects. According to the study, it is showing that the British government and the American missionaries led a hard life of Chin literature. Because not only the British officers but also the American missionaries were not the Chins, so that firstly they needed to learn the Chin language. After getting that, the British government invented and the Missionaries taught and developed the written form not only by means of preaching the gospel of Christianity but also by means of translating the Bible as well as hymns and Sunday school lessons from English in the Chin Hills. As a result, many Chin dialects have been found in written form in today. Some are still struggling for having a written form of their own dialects. The Copes, American Christian Missionaries, arrived in Hakha on 12 December 1908. Rev. Cope learned Hakha, Laizo (Falam) and Kamhau (Tiddim) dialecats while they were in Hakha. In fact, he was the one who transcribed the Kamhau and Laizo dialects into a written form. In 1910, Mrs.Carson published a primer in the Hakha dialect for use in the schools. It was reported that literacy made rapid strides in the Northern Chin Hills because the Romanized Chin script was so easy to learn that a large number read and wrote it without attending school. As the Chin Hills were very backdated in all aspects, Rev. Arthur Carson and wife not only did the missionary work but also tried to change the life-style of the Chins. After the Anglo-Chin conflict of 1919, the British government decided to adopt the Chin language as the medium of instruction in schools all over the Northern Chin Hills because they wanted to prevent further rebellion of the Chins. The introduction of formal education and the establishment of schools in the Northern Chin Hills were launched with the arrival of the Christian missionaries who were sent by the American Baptist Mission. Up to 1925, education in the Northern Chin Hills was in the hands of the American Baptist Mission, which had opened a few village schools. In that year, however, the schools were taken over by the British government, and more schools were opened from time to time as funds permitted. The village schools were all forth-standard vernacular (Chin) schools, and the chief educational center was consequently situated in the Town. The British government also founded primary school at Hakha for the sons and daughters of the chiefs, but commoners were not allowed to attend this school. Some youths did not have permission to attend the school though they wanted to. It was due to the limitation of the student population. The educational policy of the British government was to produce only a few educated persons who would serve their administration. The schools founded in the Chin Hills were vernacular schools

105 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 teaching in the Myanmar language. In 1913, the Hakha Mission Primary School, which taught in the Myanmar language, was upgraded to a middle school, but it was degraded to a primary school teaching in the Chin language in 1925. The first village school in the Tidim subdivision owned their inception to the American Baptist Mission, but in 1925, all such mission schools were taken over by the British Government. In addition other Government village schools were opened some of which, notably Lennacot and Haicin in the Kamhau tract and Suangphei Village School, had only short terms of life and were ultimately closed down as it was realized that the people in these areas were not ready to appreciate the advantages of education. In 1902, a new Misssion School in Tidim was opened, but the school was a failure due to the weakness of the teachers. The Tidim School was reopened in June 1903 with Saya Po Ku as the teacher. In 1904, Saya Shwe Zan was sent to Khuasak Village of Tidim Subdivision in order to open a new school. In 1905, with the request of Chief Hau Cin Khup, the American Baptist Misssion opened a school at Tonzang Village of Tidim Subdivision with Saya Po Ku as teacher. The chief offered a school building and a house for the teacher. In 1908, the Mission opened a new Myanmar Vernacular School at Theizang. The teacher was a Chin known as Thuam Hang. Thus, he was the first northern Chin to become a teacher in mission school. A Government Vernacular School at Tidim was opened on 25 June 1909. The buildings were erected entirely at the expense of the Chins. The school at Lennacot of Tidim Subdivision was opened on 1 May 1921. Another government school at Tonzang was opened at the end of 1921. In 1924, the school at Lennacot was closed, and then removed to a better center at Suangphei that was reopened on 2 February 1924. In 1924, the Mission Middle School at Khuasak and the primary school of Tiddim subdivision were taken over by the British government. The position in 1940 was that one Anglo- Vernacular School at Tidim teaching up to the seventh and nine Vernacular Village Schools teaching up to the fourth standard served the subdivision. These village schools were located at Tidim, at Tonzang in the Kamhau Tract, at Thuklai, Khuasak and Voklak in the Siyin Valley, and at Mualbem, Kaptel, Phunon and Vanglo- Vernacular and in the number of Tidim boys either holding posts under government in the Hills or employed elsewhere in Myanmar exemplified Vernacular Village Schools. After 1940, the newly opened schools which were located at Haicin, Zampi, Mualpi, Hiangsing, Kelta, Camngai, Sialthaw, Tuithang, Mualnuam and Laitui in the kamhau Tract at Saizang and Heilei in the Sukte Area and at Bolluang and Theizang in the Siyin Tract. The British government founded several schools in Falam subdivision. A Government Vernacular School in Falam was opened in 1906; no fees were taken at any of the schools. The Deputy Inspector of Schools held the annual examination. Nevertheless, the average daily attendance gradually decreased. This was entirely because a number of boys had to be turned away from the school because their parents did not arrange to supply them with food. However, there was no longer that difficulty, as from I January 1909. Government sanctioned an allowance for food of two rupees per month for each by attending the school. Based on the records of Christian Mission, the lists of schools, students, and teachers, and provided the funds by the Government and public in 1900- 1924 were shown as follows: 106 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019

Schools opened 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 Year Students 1 1 2 2 3 4 6 5 5 5 5 Teachers(Men) 1 1 2 2 3 4 6 7 - - - Teachers(Women) - - - - - 1 - - - - - Students(Boy) 7 7 20 56 38 137 197 220 220 211 211 Students(Girl) - 1 ------Total of Students 7 8 20 56 38 137 198 227 232 231 2 Funds(Rupee) - - - - - 105 20 41 - - - Government Funds(Rupee) ------37 23 194 74 74 Public

Schools 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 Opened Year Students 6 2 2 3 3 3 4 1 6 6 6 6 7 6 Students 161 50 86 84 84 84 108 70 200 160 270 150 150 210 (Boy) Students 19 10 11 14 14 12 10 5 20 15 10 16 0 10 (Girl) Total of 180 60 97 98 98 120 155 75 220 115 280 166 150 220 Students Funds - - 275 320 320 330 366 163 - 166 633 600 1013 833 (Rupee) Government Funds 35 - 50 34 34 179 166 191 268 383 445 438 420 455 (Rupee) Public Total 35 - 325 354 354 409 532 354 268 549 1078 1038 1453 1288

The lists of increase of Hakha Government Primary Schools in 1925-35 were shown as follow:

107 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 Government 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 Station Schools Tiddim, Falam 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 Haka Government 11 ? 21 22 25 - 27 30 - - - Primary School

CONCLUSION Social development under the British administration was better than that under the Chin chiefs. Following the military occupation of the Chin Hills, the British imposed a colonial administration. The basis of this administration was provided by the Chin Hills Regulation promulgation in 1896. According to the Administrative Reports, although the first task of the British administration in the Chin Hills was to instill a desire for a higher standard of living, there was no improvement in the economic conditions of the Chin State during their rule because there were no good communications throughout the district, and other sectors. Thus, their only hope was education, but in this, there was the great obstacle of the reactionary conduct of the chiefs. The difficulty in the way of educational progress was not altogether one of funds. There was strong consensus of opinion that the use of Myanmar as the medium of instruction was the chief obstacle. On the other hand, there was the great variety of dialects, which made it difficult to use the Chin language for replacing Myanmar. The Chin people came to know how to read and write under British administration. With the avent of British rule and American missionary education in the Chin Hills there emerged middle class in the traditional Chin society.

REFERENCES Carey, B.S and Tuck, H.N, The Chin Hills, Vol. 1, Rangoon, Government Printing, 1896 Crosthwaite, Sir Charles, The Pacification of Burma, Landon, Repainted, Frank Cass and Company Limited, 1912 Fitz Gerald, C.P, Chain A Short Cultural History, Landon, The Cresset Press, 1953 Head, W.R, Handbook on the Hakha Chain Customs, Rangoon, Union of Government Printing and Stationary, 1955 Hre Kio, Dr. Stephen, ZahreLain of Burma, 6828 Creekwood Drive, Douglasville, Published by the author, 2008 Johnson, Rev. Robert G, History of the American Baptist Chain Mission, Vol. I, Valley Forge, Published by the author, 1988 Lian Tial, Chin pyin-ne-a-che-khan pyin-nya-yee-tamaing (1900-2014) (History of the Basic Education of Chin State, 1900-2014), Hakha, 2014 Mahasadamazawtikakaza TakkatuShinthiri, Phythawngsutaiyintadohihyuya yin kyehmuhdalehthungsanmya: Chin Mon, Rakhaing, Shian, Alung, Yangon, U TunMyaAung published, 2008 Sakhong, Lian H, Religion and Politics among the Chin People in Burma (1896-1949), Uppsala, Swediswh Institute of Missionary Research, 2000 Sakhong, Lian H, In Search of Chin Identity, Thailand, NIAS Press, 2003 Woodman, Dorothy, The Making of Burma, London, The Cresset Press, 1962 108 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 FIBONACCI NUMBERS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS Cho Cho Lwin*

ABSTRACT Fibonacci sequence of numbers found in nature is first presented. And then some properties of Fibonacci numbers and the associated golden ratio are studied. Finally, we express applications of Fibonacci numbers in solving a geometric puzzle, stock trading and coding. Keywords: Fibonacci numbers, Golden ratio, Trading, Encryption, Decryption

INTRODUCTION Fibonacci numbers were first introduced by an Italian mathematician Fibonacci (Leonardo Pisano) in his book, Liber Abaci, in which he presented his famous rabbit problem: On the first day of a month we are given a new born pair of rabbits. It is assumed that no rabbits die, that they begin to bear young when they are two months old, and that they produce one pair of rabbits on the first day of each month thereafter. How many pairs of rabbits will there be exactly one year later? The solution of this problem is given by the recurrence relation

Fn+2 = Fn+1 + Fn, n=1,2,3,… with the initial conditions

F1 = 1, F2 =1.

The numbers Fn are called Fibonacci numbers. Thus the sequence of Fibonacci numbers is 1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34,55,89,144,233,377,610,987,1597,2584,…. Hence Fibonacci sequence is a sequence in which both the first and second term are 1, and each of the other terms is the sum of the two numbers preceeding it. The twelfth number of the sequence is F12 = 144 which is the number of pairs of the rabbits at the end of the twelfth month. Hence there will be 233 pairs of rabbits one year later.The ratios of two consecutive numbers in the Fibonacci sequence converge very close to  which is called the golden ratio.Fibonacci numbers and the golden ratio are widely used in many fields of science including architecture. At present Fibonacci numbers play an important role in coding theory. 1. Fibonacci Sequence in Nature The numbers in the Fibonacci sequence appear frequently in nature. For instance, the number of petals of a flower is often a Fibonacci number. Next, the human body has 2 hands each of which has 5 fingers. The thumb has 2 knuckles and each of the other fingers has 3 knuckles. All of these numbers fit into the sequence.

* Associate Professor, Dr, Department of Mathematics, Kalay University

109 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 Fibonacci numbers can also be seen in the family tree of a male bee as described in Figure (1). Within a colony of bees, only the queen produces eggs. The male bees, known as drones, are hatched from unfertilized eggs and the female worker bees are hatched from fertilized ones. Thus a male bee has one parent (female) while a female bee has two parents. In Figure (1), the symbolrepresents the female bees and the symbol represents the male bees.

13

8

5

3

2

1 Figure ( 1) Family tree of a male bee

2. Some Properties of Fibonacci Numbers

(i) For n2 , we have

2 n 1 Fn F n 1  F n 1  (  1) . (1) We prove this by mathematical induction.

2 2 1 For n2 , we have F2 F 1  F 3   1  (  1) , and hence Equation (1) is true for .

Suppose it is true for nk .

2 k 1 So Fk F k 1  F k 1  (  1) .

Since FFFk 1 k k 1 , we have

Fk 2 F k  1  F k  2 F k  F k  1 .

2 2 2 2 Thus Fk1 FF kk2    F2FF k  kk1   F k1   2FFF k  kk1 

2 2 2 FFFFFFFk1 kk2     k  kk1   k1  2  FF(FF)   k k 1 k k 1 2  FFFk  k 1 k 1 k2 ( 1) . 110 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019

Hence it is true for n k 1 , and so Equation (1) is true for all n2 . (ii) The Fibonacci numbers can be found in the Pascal‟s triangle. By arranging the m coefficients in the expansion of (1 x) (m 0,1,2, ) , we obtain the Pascal‟s triangle .We see that the diagonal sums of this triangle are the Fibonacci numbers as shown below.

1 1 2 1 11 3 5 11 1 2 1 8 13 1 2 1 1 3 3 1

1 3 3 1 1 4 6 4 1

1 4 6 4 1 1 5 1 0 1 0 5 1

1 6 1 5 2 0 1 5 6 1 Figure (2) Pascal‟s triangle Figure (3) Fibonacci numbers and Pascal‟s triangle 3. The Golden Ratio

The golden ratio, denoted by  , is a special number found by dividing a line into two parts so that the whole length divided by the long part is equal to the long part divided by the short part. It is also known as the golden mean, or the golden section.

a b If we denote the long part by a and the short part by b, then the requirement is

a b a    , which implies ab

2 aa  1  0 . bb

a 1 5 Hence     1 .6 1 8 0 3 3 9 . b2 We can find the golden ratio in the proportions of human body. For example, the ratio of a person‟s total height to the distance from the navel to the bottom of the feet is roughly equal to  . The golden ratio can be found in the Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt. The height of the pyramid is 481 feet and its base is nearly a square with side 756 feet each. We sketch as follows:

111 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019

h

a igure ( 4 )

b

Figure ( 4 )

756 In Figure ( 4 ), h 4 8 1 feet, b 3 7 8 feet. Applying Pythagoras 2 a theorem, we obtain a 6 1 1 .7 5 5 7 feet and hence  1 .6 1 8 4 , which is nearly equal to b the golden ratio. Furthermore, there is a connection between the golden ratio and Fibonacci numbers. The ratios of the two consecutive numbers in the Fibonacci sequence are as follows:

1 2 3 5 8 1 3 2 1 1,  2,  1.5,  1.66667,  1.6,  1.625,  1.61538, 1 1 2 3 5 8 1 3

3 4 5 5 8 9 1 5 9 7 1.61905,  1.61765,  1.61818, ,  1.61803, . 2 1 3 4 5 5 9 8 7

Hence the ratios converge to a value very close to the golden ratio  . 4. A Geometric Puzzle

There is a geometric proof that 6 4 6 5 . We first subdivide a 88 square into four parts as shown in Figure ( 5). Then we put the four parts together to form a 5 1 3 rectangle as shown in Figure ( 6).

5

3

8

Figure ( 5 ) Figure ( 6 )

112 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019

Fn F n2 Fn1 Fn F n1 F Fn1 n1 F n1 Figure ( 7 ) Figure ( 8 )

Since the area of the square is 64, we have that 6 4 6 5 . The resolution of the puzzle is that the four pieces do not quite fit together in the rectangle as shown.

If instead of a 88 square we take a FFnn square, we may divide it into 4 pieces as shown in Figure (7) and resemble them inside a FFn 1 n 1 rectangle as shown in Figure (8). There is a gap (or overlap) in the form of a thin parallelogram. The difference between the areas of the square and the rectangle is

2 n 1 Fn F n 1  F n 1  (  1) by Equation (1). If n is odd (or even), there is a parallelogram overlap (or gap). In any case the difference in areas is always 1, which is small compared to the areas when n is large.

Now let us take a square of side xy and subdivide it into four parts as shown in Figure (9). We then put these parts together in the rectangle of side x and 2 x y as shown in Figure (10) and insist that the parts fit together exactly without 2 any gaps or overlaps. That is, ( x y )  x (2 x  y ) which implies that

xx2 x ( ) ( ) 1 , so that , the golden mean. yy y Looking again the situation with gaps shown in Figure (7) and Figure (8), if x we take xF n1 and y Fn2 , will be the ratio of successive Fibonacci numbers, y F namely n1 which will be close to the golden mean if n is large. Fn2

y x xy y y x x x y y

Figure ( 9 ) Figure ( 10 )

113 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 5. Fibonacci Sequence in Stock Trading One of the main applications of Fibonacci numbers outside the realm of mathematics is in the area of stock market analysis. Many investors use what is called the Fibonacci Retracement Technique to estimate the action that the price of a particular stock will take. In technical analysis, a Fibonacci retracement is created by taking two extreme points on a stock chart and dividing the vertical distance by the key Fibonacci ratios (which are also called the retracement levels) of 23.6% , 38.2%, 50%, 61.8% and 100%.

F 55 The 0.618 ratio comes from n , for example,  0 .6 1 8 . Fn1 89

F 21 The 0.382 ratio comes from n , for example,  0 .3 8 1 8 . Fn2 55

F 34 The 0.236 ratio comes from n , for example,  0 .2 3 6 1 . Fn3 144 The 50% retracement level does not come from the Fibonacci sequence, but it is an important level. Traders tend to read when a price is near half of the previous swing, so they added it to the retracement. Figure ( 11 ) shows how these Fibonacci levels line up on a chart.

Figure ( 11 ) Fibonacci Retracement A trader would then use these estimates to buy stock when the value decreases to one of these percentages and sell stock as it peaks at another of the percentages. 6. Fibonacci Sequence in Coding Now we describe application of Fibonacci sequence in Cryptography. In the encryption method, there are two levels: (i) converting plain text to cipher text and (ii) converting cipher text to Unicode symbols. (i) Plain text to cipher text Let us consider a message to be encrypted and send through an unsecured channel as “MATHS”. Then any one character is chosen as a first security key to 114 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 generate cipher text. The characters in the cipher text depend on the security key chosen, and the Fibonacci numbers generated. For instance, let the first security key chosen be x. Plain Text: MATHS Characters: xyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabc Fibonacci: 1235813 Cipher Text:xy z b e Since the selection of the characters depends on the Fibonacci numbers, it provides more security for the system, and any unknown person cannot decode the message easily. (ii) Cipher text to Unicode symbols In the second level of security, the ASCII code of each character obtained from the cipher text plus the ASCII code of its previous character, and next character is added to the ASCII code of the equivalent character in the original message. Here, ASCII codes of four characters are used as a security key to further encode the characters available in the cipher text to Unicode symbols. For instance, Cipher Text: x y z b e

100(d) 101(e)  102(f)  83(S)  386

97(a) 98(b)  99(c)  72(H)  366

121(y) 122(z)  123({)  84(T)  450

120(x) 121(y)  122(z)  65(A)  428

119(w) 120(x)  121(y)  77(M)  437 . The decimal numbers obtained are converted into hexadecimal values to find its equivalent Unicode symbols. These symbols are saved in a text file which can be sent to recipient through an unsecured channel. By looking at the symbols in a text file no unknown persons can identify what it is and the message cannot be retrieved unless the retrieval procedure is known. The decryption process follows the reverse process of encryption with the help of two keys. At the recipient end, from the received text file each symbol is extracted and mapped to find the equivalent hexadecimal value to find out the plain text using the key. Without the knowledge of the key, an unknown person cannot even suspect the existence of any secret message in these decimal numbers. Key( chosen to encrypt) : x Characters : xyzab c d efghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabc Fibonacci : 1235813 Obtained Decimal Numbers: 437,428, 450, 366, 386 To extract the original plain text, ASCII code of each character from the cipher text plus the ASCII code of its previous character and the next character is subtracted from each obtained decimal number. The remainder is the ASCII code of

115 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 character in plaintext, the accumulated characters form the original plain text. For instance,

437 (119(w)  120(x)  121(y))  77(M)

428 (120(x)  121(y)  122(z))  65(A)

450 (121(y)  122(z)  123({))  84 (T)

366 (97(a)  98(b)  99(c))  72(H)

386 (100(d)  101(e)  102(f))  83 (S).

CONCLUSION Fibonacci numbers appear everywhere in nature and they are widely used in many fields. Fibonacci retracement is a popular tool among technical traders. Fibonacci retracement levels are the bases for Fibonacci trading and they are the important parts of technical and stock market analysis. At present security in communication system is an interesting topic. In this paper, we presented a secure way of message communication using Fibonacci sequence.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to convey our gratitude to Rector Dr.Thar Tun Maung, Kalay University for his permission to conduct this work. I am greatly indebted to Dr. Win Min Aye, Professor and Head, Department of Mathematics, Kalay University, for her kind permission to perform this research work. I also thank Professor Dr.Khin San Kyi, Department of Mathematics, Kalay University, for her suggestion and encouragement.

REFERENCES Bortner, C.W.., and Peterson, A. C.,(2016), “The History and Applications of Fibonacci Numbers”, UCARE Research Products, 42. Raphael, A.J., Sundaram,V.,(2012), “ Secured Communication through Fibonacci Numbers and Unicode Symbols”, International Journal of Scientific and Engineering Research, Vol 3(4). Rose, N.J.,(2014), “ The Golden Mean and Fibonacci Numbers”,p 20-28. Sinha, S.,(2017) “ The Fibonacci Numbers and its Amazing Applications”, International Journal of Engineering Science Invention, Vol 6(9), p 07-14. Scott, T.C., Marketos, P., (2014), “On the origin of the Fibonacci Sequence”, Mac Tutor History of Mathematics, p 5-12. Stakhov, A., (1989), “The golden section in the measurement theory: Computers and Mathematics with Applications”, 17, p 613-638.

116 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 METHOD OF SEPARATION OF VARIABLES FOR VIBRATING STRING PROBLEMS Pa Pa Lwin*1

ABSTRACT In this paper, superposition principles which are the basis for separation of variables in partial differential equations are presented. Moreover, some vibrating string problems are solved for three initial displacement functions by using method of separation of variables.

1 Linearity and Superposition Separation of variables is one of the most fundamental techniques for solving partial differential equations. It is a method that can by itself yield solutions to many initial boundary value problems; in addition, it is the basis for more advanced techniques that must be used on more complicated problems. Separation of variables is applied to linear partial differential equations. A partial differential equation (PDE) is said to linear if it is linear in the unknown function and all its derivatives (but not necessarily in the independent variables). For example, the most general linear second-order PDE for a function u ( x , y ) of two independent variables

2u  2 u  2 u  u  u a(x,y) b(x,y)  c(x,y)  d(x,y)  e(x,y)  f(x,y)  F(x, y); (1) x22  x  y  y  x  y it is a linear combination of u and its partial derivatives, the coefficients being functions of only the independent variables x and y. Linear PDEs may be represented symbolically in the form

L u F , (2) where L is a linear differential operator.

2  2  2   L a  b  c  d  e  f . x22  x  y  y  x  y Operator L is said to be linear because it satisfies the property that for any two functions u ( x , y ) and v ( x , y ) , with continuous second partial derivatives, and any constants C 1 and C 2 ,

LCu 1 Cv 2  CLu 1   C 2  Lv  . (3)

When F ( x , y ) 0 in (1), the PDE is said to be homogeneous; otherwise it is said to be nonhomogeneous.

1 * Associate Professor, Dr, Department of Mathematics, Kalay University

117 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 The study of linear ordinary differential equations is based on the idea of superposition. When solutions to a linear, homogeneous ODE are added together, new solutions are obtained. These same principles are the basis for separation of variables in PDEs. We set them forth in the following two theorems. 1.1 Theorem (Superposition principle I)

If uj ( j 1, 2 , , n ) are solutions of the same linear, homogeneous PDE, then so also is any linear combination of the u j ,

n u c u c co n stan ts  jj, j . j1 Furthermore, if each satisfies the same linear, homogeneous boundary and/or initial conditions, then so also does u. Proof: Suppose the satisfy the homogeneous linear partial differential equation L u 0 . We can use property (3) to write

n L u L c u  jj j1

n  L c u   jj j1

n  c L u  jj  j1

n  c0  j   j1

 0 . A proof for homogeneous linear boundary conditions is similar when they are represented in the form B u 0 .

Suppose that y1 ( x , t ) and y2 ( x , t ) are solutions of the one-dimensional wave  yy equation tt x x and the boundary conditions y (0 , t ) 0 and y ( L , t ) 0 . Then  y ( x , t ) c1 y 1 c 2 y 2 must also satisfy the PDE and boundary conditions for any constants c 1 and c 2 . For the PDE,

22y  c1 y 1 c 2 y 2  tt22

22 yy12 cc12 tt22 118 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019

22  yy12   cc12  xx22  

2  c1 y 1 c 2 y 2  x 2

2 y  . x 2 For the boundary conditions,

y(0,t) cy (0,t) c y (0,t) 1 1 2 2  0,

y(L,t) cy (L,t) c y (L,t) 1 1 2 2  0.

Thus, y ( x , t ) satisfies the same linear, homogeneous PDE and boundary conditions as y 1 and y 2 . Superposition principle I states that linear combinations of solutions to linear, homogeneous PDEs and linear, homogeneous subsidiary conditions are solution of the same PDE and conditions. Superposition principle II addresses nonhomogeneous PDEs. It states that nonhomogeneous terms in a PDE may be handled individually, if it is desirable to do so. 1.2 Theorem (Superposition principle II)

If uj ( j 1, , n ) are, respectively, solutions of linear, nonhomogeneous PDEs

n n L u F uu L u F j , then  j is a solution of  j . j1 j1 Proof: Verification requires only property (3),

n n n L u L u  L u  F j  j  j . j 1 j  1 j  1

For example, if U1 ( x , y , t ) and U2 ( x , y , t ) satisfy the two-dimensional heat conduction equations

U 22 U  U k k   g ( x , y , t ) 22 1 , t  x  y 

U 22 U  U k k   g ( x , y , t ) 22 2 , t  x  y 

respectively, then U(x,y,t) U12 (x,y,t) U (x,y,t) satisfies

119 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019

U 22 U  U k k   g(x,y,t)  g(x,y,t) 22  12 . t  x  y  This principle can also be extended to incorporate nonhomogeneous boundary conditions. To illustrate, we consider the boundary value problem

22VV F ( x , y ) , 0 x L , 0 y L  , xy22

V (0, y ) g1 ( y ) , ,

V (L , y ) g2 ( y ) , ,

V ( x , 0 ) h1 ( x ) , ,

 V ( x , L ) h2 ( x ) , for potential in the rectangle of Figure (1). The solution is the sum of the functions

V1 ( x , y ) , V2 ( x , y ) and V3 ( x , y ) satisfying the PDEs in Figure (2) together with indicated boundary conditions.

y

V h2 ( x ) L 

V g1 ( y ) V g2 ( y )

x 0 L V h1 ( x )

Figure (1)

y

V0 y 1 V22 h ( x )

V01  V01  V02  V02 

x x 0 0 V h ( x ) L V01  L 21 22 22 VV VV 22 11 0 F ( x , y ) 22 22 xy xy

(a) (b)

120 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019

y

V03  L 

V31 g ( y ) V32 g ( y )

x

0 V03  L

22VV 330 xy22

(c) Figure (2)

We will solve the following initial boundary value problem for vibrations of a taut staring with fixed ends at x = 0 and x = L. The string has initial displacement (at time t= 0) of f(x) and zero initial velocity. 22uu c2 , 0  x  L , t  0 (4-a) tx22 u (0,t) = 0, t > 0, (4-b) u (L,t) = 0, t > 0, (4-c) u (x,0) = f (x), 0 < x < L, (4-d)

ut (x,0) = 0, 0 < x < L. (4-e) We will solve the problem for three initial displacement functions.

 x xx2 (a) 3 s in (b) 3 sin sin (c) x() L x . L LL

0 L x

By searching for separated functions that satisfy the linear homogeneous PDE, the linear homogeneous conditions (4-b), (4-c) and the linear homogeneous initial condition (4-e). We do not consider initial condition (4-d); it is nonhomogeneous. As a general principle, separated functions are sought to satisfy only linear and homogeneous PDEs, boundary conditions and initial conditions.

When we substitute a separated function u(x,t) X(x)T(t) into PDE (4-a),

121 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019

XT  X T c2 X  T   , X c2 T where the  on X  indicates derivatives with respect to x, whereas on T  , it represents derivatives with respect to t. By the separation principle, we may set each side of this equation equal to a constant, say  , which is independent of both x and t. This results in two ODEs for X ( x ) and T ( t ) ,

X   X  0 , T   c2 T  0 . (5) Homogeneous boundary condition (4-b) implies that

X (0 )T ( t ) 0 , t0 .

Because T ( t ) 0 , it follows that X (0 ) 0 . Similarly, homogeneous boundary condition (4-c) and initial condition (4-e) require

X ( L ) 0 and T (0 ) 0 .

Thus, X ( x ) and T ( t ) must satisfy

X   X  0 , 0 x L , (6-a)

X (0 ) 0 , (6-b)

X ( L ) 0 . (6-c)

2 T   c T  0 , t0 , (7-a) T (0 ) 0 . (7-b) We do not consider nonhomogeneous condition (4-d) at this time.

Solutions of ODEs (6) and (7) depend on whether  is positive, negative or zero. A positive or zero value can be eliminated, for in these cases the time dependence of u is given by

c t  c  t T ( t ) A e B e and T ( t ) A t B , respectively, and these certainly do not yield oscillatory motions.

Alternatively, for positive  , a general solution of ODE (6-a) is

X ( x ) A ec x B e  c  x , and boundary conditions (6-b), (6-c) imply that A B 0 , and this in turn implies that u ( x , t ) 0 . Therefore, cannot be positive.

For 0 , we obtain X ( x ) A x B , and the boundary conditions again imply that .

Because must therefore be negative, we set     2 ( 0 ) and replace systems (6) and (7) with

X  2 X  0 , , (8-a) 122 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019

X (0 ) 0 , (8-b)

X ( L ) 0 . (8-c)

T  c22  T  0 , t0 , (9-a)

T (0 ) 0 . (9-b) Boundary conditions (8-b), (9-c) on the general solution

X(x) Acos  x  Bsin  x of (8-a) yield

0A , 0 B sin L .

Since we cannot set B0 (else X ( x ) 0 ), we must therefore set sin L 0 , and this implies that Ln   , where n is an integer. Thus,

nx X ( x ) B sin . L Condition (9-b) on the general solution

n c t n c t T(t) Fcos Gsin of (9-a) yields LL

nc 0 G  G  0 . L We have now determined that the separated function

n x   n c t  u(x,t) X(x)T(t) Bsin   Fcos  LL   

n x n c t  b sin c o s LL (10) for an arbitrary constant b and any integer n, is a solution of (4-a) and conditions (4- b), (4-c), (4-e). The initial displacement condition (4-d) requires b and n to satisfy

nx f ( x ) b sin , 0 x L . (11) L

We now consider the three cases for the initial displacement f ( x ) following  x x   2 x  (4-e), namely, 3 sin , 3 sin  sin   , and x ( L x ) . L LL   

 x When f ( x ) 3 sin , condition (11) becomes L

x n x 3 sin b sin , . LL

Obviously, we should choose b3 and n1 , in which case the solution of initial boundary value problem (4) is

123 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019

x c t u(x,t) 3sin cos . LL This function is drawn for various value of t in Figure (3). The string oscillates back and forth between its initial position and the negative thereof, doing so once 2L every seconds. c

y t0 L 3 t  8c L 2 t  4c 3L t  1 8c L t  2c

0 L L x 2

Figure (3)

 x We have shown, then, that when the initial position of string is 3 sin , L separation of variables leads to the solution of problem (4).

x   2 x  When f(x) 3sin  sin   , condition (8) is LL   

x 2  x n  x 3sin sin bsin , 0 x L . LLL It is not possible to choose values for b and n to satisfy this equation. In other words, the solution of (4) is not separable when

.

Does this mean that we must abandon separation? Fortunately, the answer is no. Because PDE (4 a), boundary conditions (4 b), (4-c) and initial condition (4-e) are all linear and homogeneous, superposition principle I states that linear combinations of solutions of (4-a), (4-b), (4-c), (4-e) are also solutions. In particular, the function

n x n  c t m  x m  c t u(x,t) bsin cos dsin cos . LLLL satisfies (4-a), (4-b), (4-c), (4-e) for arbitrary integers n and m and any constants b and d. If we apply initial condition (4-d) to this function b, d, n and m must satisfy

x 2  x n  x m  x 3sin sin  bsin  dsin , . LLLL 124 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019

Clearly, we should choose b3 , d1 , n1 and m2 , in which case the solution of problem (4) is

x  c t 2  x 2  c t u(x,t) 3sin cos sin cos . LLLL This is not a separated solution; it is the sum of two separated functions. The x   c t  motion of the string has two terms, called modes. The first term 3 sin  c o s   LL    is called the fundamental mode; it is shown in Figure(3). The second mode is 2 x   2 ct   sin  co s   ; it is illustrated in Figure (4) for the same times. Oscillations LL    of this mode occur twice as fast as those for the fundamental mode. The addition of these two modes gives the position of string in Figure (5).

y L t  2c 3L t0 t  L 8c t  L 8c t  4c 0 L L x

2

Figure (4)

y t0 L t  8c L 3L t  t  4c 8c L L L x t  2c 2

Figure (5) Finally, we consider the case in which the initial displacement in the string is parabolic, f ( x ) x ( L x ) . It is definitely not possible to satisfy condition (8),

nx x ( L x ) b sin , 0 x L , for any choice of b and n. L

125 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019

nx Furthermore, no finite linear combination of terms of the form b sin  L can satisfy this condition. Does this mean the ultimate demise of separation of variables? Again the answer is no. We superpose infinity of separated functions in the form

 n x n c t u(x,t) bsin cos  n , (12) n1 LL

where the constants b n are arbitrary. No advantage is gained by including terms with negative values of n, for if we had a term in  n (n positive), say

nx X ( x ) b sin nn, L we could combine it with

nx Xnn ( x ) b sin L

n x n x and write Xn X n  b n  b n sin  Bsin n LL

which is of the same form as Xn ( x ) .

Initial condition (4-d) requires the b n in representation (12) to satisfy

 nx x ( L x ) b sin 0 x L  n , . (13) n1 L

This equation is satisfied if the are chosen as the coefficients in the Fourier sine series of the odd extension of x ( L x ) to a function of period 2L. According to formula

L 2 n x bn  x(L x)sin dx , LL 0 and integration by parts leads to

n1 4 L2  1 1   b n  . n 33 Substitution of these into representation (12) gives displacements of the string when the initial position is f ( x ) x ( L x ) :

2 n1  4 L 1 1 n x n ct u(x,t) sin cos  33 n1 n L L 126 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019

8L2  1 (2n1)x  (2n1)ct    sin co s . (14) 33 n1 ( 2 n 1) L L Each term in this series is called a mode of vibration of the string. The position of the string is the sum of an infinite number of modes, lower modes contributing more significantly than higher ones. As a final consideration in this example, we show that the series solution can be expressed in closed form, d‟Alembert‟s solution. Using a trigonometric identity, we may write

2 n1  4 L 1 1 1 n(x  ct) n(x   ct) u(x,t) sin sin .  33  n1 n 2 L L Because the above calculation showed that

2 n1  4 L 1 1 nx f(x)x(Lx)   sin ,  33 n1 nL it follows that

1 u(x,t) f(x  ct)  f(x  ct)  . 2 This is d‟Alembert‟s form of the solution.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to convey our gratitude to Rector Dr.TharTunMaung, Kalay University for his permission to conduct this work. I am greatly indebted to Dr. Win Min Aye, Professor and Head, Department of Mathematics, Kalay University, for her kind permission to perform this research work. I also thank Professor Dr. Khin San Kyi, Department of Mathematics, Kalay University, for her suggestion and encouragement.

REFERENCES Harberma, R., “Applied Partial Differential Equations with Fourier Series and Boundary Value Problems”, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 2004. Trim. D. W., “Applied Partial Differential Equations”, http://16811-aiedpartial differential equations.pdf.

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1 odef;azjrifh? 1998? 42/ 2 - ,if; -? / 3 - ,if; -? 53/ 130 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 [k ZmwfaqmifuHxkduf\ tajympum;jzihf yHkazmfxm;onf/ þtzGJUt& pD;yGm;a&; tqifrajyjzpf&jcif;rSm "e&SifNrD;&SifwkdYaMumifh[k a'gojzpfrdykH? xkda'go\ aphaqmfrI aMumifh rMuHpnfoifhfonfudk MuHpnfrdykH udkvkdeDacwfqif;&Jom;wdkU\ b0jyóemtcuf tcJ ajz&Sif;&mwGif enf;vrf;rSm;ykHwkdYukd awGU&Sd&ygonf/ a&eH0w¬KwGif udkvlwkwfonf ulvD&Gmüaeaomvuform;q&mjzpfykH? om;jzpfol ausmf&if pmzwf&eftwGuf a&eHr&SdaomaMumifh *dka'gifrS a&eHcdk;,lcJhykH? okdYaomfvnf; *dka'gifapmifhOD;rkef;rSm rSm;,Gif;tpGyfpGJcH&ykH? rdrdaMumifh jyóemjzpf&onf[k a'gojzihf a&eHrsm; oGefypfcJhykHjzihf Zmwfvrf;ukd tqkH;owfxm;onf/ 0w¬KwGif rdrdwkdUudk,fwkdif a&eHwl; tvkyform;rsm;jzpfaomfvnf; a&eHr&Sdí rdD;rxGef;EdkifjzpfcJh&yHkudk ighom; pmzwfzkdUa&eHqDr0,fEdkifbl;? igwkdUuvnf; uHw,fqkd;wmudkk;? igtvkyfvnf; 'Davmufvkyf&ufom;eJU aMuG;b,fawmhrSvnf; rajy bl;? 'D0#fub,fawmhuRwfygrvJaemf 1 [lí Zmwfaqmifudkvlwkwfnnf;nLaompum;jzihf yHkazmfxm;onf/ xkdtzGJUt& udkvdkeDacwf a&eHajrtvkyform;wkdUb0onf yifyef;qif;&JpGmtvkyf vkyfMu&aMumif;? xdkufoifhonfh tusdK;cHpm;cGihfr&&SdaMumif;? rdrdwdkYajrrSxGufaom a&eHudkyifavmufiS atmif oHk;pGJEdkifjcif;r&SdaMumif; ponfh a&eHajrtvkyform;wkdU\ b0tajctaeudk awGU&Sd &ygonf/ xkdtajctaewkdYaMumifh udkvlwkwfonf BuH&mr&jzpfum wkdYajruGufuxGufwJh a&eHudk wkdUykdifrSmaygh/ bmjzpfvdk i&JBuD;rvJ/ wdkU[mwdkU jyef,lwmyJ/ cdk;r,f/ cdk;r,f 2 [lí Zmwfaqmifudkvlwkwf\ tawG;0ifvmykHukd wifjyxm;onf/ þtzGJUt& rlvu ½dk;om;MudK;pm;aom udkvlwkwf\ pdwftrlt&m? ukd,ftrlt&mwkdY ajymif;vJvmykH? udkvdkeDacwf\ pepfqkd;aMumifh oDvcsdK;azmuf&ykH? tlrawmifhrS oDvapmifhqkdouJhokdY 0rf;pmrjynfhí qif;&Jom;wdkU\ &mZ0wfrI usL;vGefcJh&ykHwkdYukd rD;armif;xkd;jyxm;onf/ rif;wdkifyif0w¬KwGif OD;zdk;ul;onf ajrykdif&SifolaX;BuD;jzpfykH? aiGukef aMu;uscHí rif;wkdifyiftrwf&mxl;udk &,lcJhykH? xkdYaemufvTwfawmfwuf&ef &efukefjrdKUokdUa&muf&SdykH? armifbwif\ wdkufwGef;rIaMumifh vlpDcifcifESifhawGUqHkcJhykH? xkdUaemuf OD;zdk;ul;onf r,m;BuD;a':a&Twkwf&SdvsufESihfyif vlpDcifcifudk r,m;i,ftjzpfESihf rdrd&GmokdU ac:aqmif cJhykH? OD;zkd;ul;onf bk&m;w&m;arhum vlpDcifcifESifhom tcsdefukefcJhykH? aemufqHk;wGif pD;yGm;ysufjyD;a&m*g&um xkda&m*gESihfyif b0ed*Hk;csKyf cJhykHwkdYudk wifjyxm;onf/ þ ]]rif;wkdifyif}} 0w¬Kwdkü udkvdkeDacwf EkdifiHa&;avmuwGif aiGoHk;av;axmif tukefcHvdkufawmh csufcsif;ta&;ydkifxufawmif BuD;wJh rif;wkdifyiftrwfBuD;&mxl; &vmwmyJ 3

1 odef;azjrifh? 1998? 233/ 2 - ,if; -/ 3 - ,if; -? 60/

131 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 [lí OD;zdk;ul;uJhokdY &mxl;tmPmukd aiGESihf0,f,lcJhMuykHwkdYukdodapygonf/ udkvdkeDacwf wGif aiGwwfEdkifygu &mxl;pnf;pdrf&EdkifykH? okdY&mwGif twwfynmr&Sdí trSm;trSef rcGJjcm;EdkifykH? OD;zdk;ul;uJhokdY b0Zmwfodrf;rvSykHwkdYukd oifcef;pm,lzG,f od&ygonf/ rif;wkdifyiftrwfwkdY wufa&muf&onfh vTwfawmftpnf;ta0;wGif trwf toD;oD;wkdY jyKrIvkyf&Sm;yHkjrifuGif;udk tcsdKUaomtrwfwdkUvnf; wpfOD;ESihfwpfOD; pum;ppfxdk;aeMuavonf/ tcsdKUvnf;pma&;jcif;jzifhtvkyfayGaeavonf/ aemufwpfusdyfESpfOD;tzGJU0if ZD;uGufOD;aygu vufoD;vuf&kH;wef;í tqdkudk uefUuGufavonf/ ZD;uGufOD;aygajymaecdkuf tpdk;&buftrwfrsm; onf Ouú|udkacgif;nGwfí tpnf;ta0;jyifzufokdU xGufoGm;jyefavonf/ 1 [lí ay:vGifatmif wifjyxm;onf/ þtzGJUt& vTwfawmftrwfrsm; wpfOD;ESifhwpfOD; pum;ajymaeMuyHk? wpfOD;u vTwfawmfrS tqdkudkuefUuGufaepOf tjcm;trwfrsm;u vTwfawmftjyifokdU xGufoGm;yHkponfh vIyf&Sm;rIukd jrifa,mifaponf/ þokdY tjyKtrlrsm; jyKrlykHukd ukdvkdeDacwf EkdifiHa&;orm;wkdY\ obm0tjzpf awGU&onf/ udkvkdeDacwf rif;wkdifyiftrwfrsm;onf rdrd&mxl;tmPmESifh roifhavsmfonfh tpnf;ta0;wGif pnf;urf;r&Sd xif&mpdkif;MuyHkjrifuGif;udk awGU&Sd&ygonf/ wpfzef vlBuD;a&G;cs,f&mwGif wkdif;jynftusdK;&Sd&efxuf rdrdESpfoufjcif; &Sdr&Sday: rlwnfí rJay;avh&SdykHukd rif;wkdifyiftrwfBuD; OD;zdk;ul;onfum; wpfusdyfESpfOD;tzGJUudk vnf; aumif;?a'gufwmomausmftzGJUudkvnf;aumif;? wl;wl;cg;cg; rkef;xm; &GHU&Smoljzpfojzifh qmata*stzGJUudk rMunfndKonfhwdkifatmif ¤if;wdkU tm; udk;vkdUuefUvefUvkyf&vQif awmfjyD[laom oabmjzifh qmata*s udk axmufcHavonf/ 2 [lí OD;zkd;ul;\jyKrlvIyf&Sm;ykHjzihf rD;armif;xdk;jyxm;onf/ þtzGJUt& wkdif;jynftusdK;ukd a&SU½Ijcif;r&SdbJ tjyKoabmxuf tzsufoabmaqmifaom ukdvkdeDacwf EdkifiHa&;orm; wkdY\ pdwf"mwfESihfvkyf&yfukd ay:vGifatmifazmfjyxm;aMumif; awGU&onf/ wpfzef rif;wkdifyiftrwf OD;zkd;ul;onf rMuHKzl;aom tawGUtMuHKrsm;udk awGU& aomtcg udk,fusifhw&m;ysufjym;ykH? rxkdufwefonfh &mxl;tmPm t&Sdeft0gukd tvGJtokH;csykH? taomuftpm; taysmftyg;zufum ajr;t&G,f vlpDcifcifESihf aygif;zuf um taysmfMuL;cJhykHukd- vlpDcifcifudk xyfrHawGUvkd\/ xyfrHtwlwlum;pD;vkd\/ xyfrHí [dkw,fwufvkd\/ aomufavaomufav rufrajyonfh qm;iefa& qkdaom wPSm&m*ab; a&mifh&Jjcif;auseyfjcif;udk rdwfrzGJUtodrvkyf? ykxkZOfpdwfxm; wPSm&m*üum; arGUbd\/ 3

1 odef;azjrifh? 1998? 64/ 2 - ,if; -? 65/ 3 - ,if; -? 75/ 132 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 [lí OD;zkd;ul; taysmftyg; taomuftpm;zufykHjzifh wifjyxm;onf/ þtzGJUt& udkvdkdeDacwf tkyfcsKyfol? tmPm&SdoltcsdKU rdrd&mxl;udk Aef;jyjyD; udk,fusihfw&m; ysufjym; ykHtjzpf awGU&onf/ ]]a&yGufyrm}} 0w¬KwGif Zmwfaqmifarmifpdk;xGef;\ ZeD; nTefUuG,fvGefykH? ZeD; uG,fvGefonfukd 0rf;enf; &efxuf wkdif;jynfta&; aqmif&Guf&eftcGifhta&;[k xifrdykH? xkdYaMumifh a,mu©r\ txifvGJjcif;cH&ykHukd wifjyxm;onf/ þa&yGufyrm 0w¬KwGif ZeD;onf\ psmyewGif a,mu©rESifh Zmwfaqmifpkd;xGef;wkdY tcsif;rsm;ykHukd uRefawmfwkdU jrefrmqif;&Jom;awG[m aeUrtm;nrtm; ezl;uacR; ajcrusatmif tvkyfvkyfMu&w,f/ yJpkjym;pk pkjyD; tcGefawmfudk aqmifMu&Smw,f/ olwdkUrSmawmh toufeJUudk,fjrJzkdU&m renf;BuD; MudK;pm;&SmMu&w,f/ qif;&Jom;awG[m a':a':wkdUvcBuD;orm;awG aysmfaysmfcefUcefUaejyD; cefUcefUaozdkU 'ku©cHMu&wm 1 [lívnf;aumif;? t&dyfaeae tcufcsdK;csdK; tom;xJuavmufxGufqkdwm cifAsm;wdkUrS tppfAs? usKyfxif&m oGm;aewmr[kwfbl;? jrefrmEkdifiHvHk;qkdif&m wkdUArmtpnf;ta0;BuD; jzpfajrmufatmif vkyf&w,f/ onf;cHvsuf awmfvSefjcif;qkdwJh *ED¨wkdUenf;udkvdkufjyD; trsdK;om;twGuf axmifus cHcJh&w,f/ 2 [lí vnf;aumif; ZmwfaqmifESpfOD; tjyeftvSefajympum;jzihf wifjyxm;onf/ Zmwfaqmifarmifpdk;xGef;\ ajympum;rsm;t& udkvdkeDacwfu OpömjynfhpkHonfh t&m&Sd rsm;\ psmyetcrf;tem;wGif taqmifta,mifrsm;jzihf crf;em;opfvGifpGm jyifqifxm; aMumif;? crf;em;pGm aea&;aoa&;twGuf qif;&Jom;rsm;u tcGefawmfudk yJpkjym;pk pkkíaqmifMu&aMumif; paomvlwef;pm;tajctaerwlnDykH? ukdvkdkeDacwf acwfaMu;rkHukd awGU&onf/ ]]qdkopöm}}0w¬KwGif cspfolESpfOD; bk&m;zl;&if; rEÅav;NrdKUokdY a&muf&SdykH? txifu& jzpfaom usHK;? jrdKU½dk;? eef;awmf wdkUudk jrifa,mifjyD; wpfcsdefu udk,hfxD;? udk,fheef;? udk,fhMuiSef;ESihf aexdkifcJhMu&onfhtjzpfukdawGUjrifcJhykH? xkdYaemufukdvkdeDacwf olYuRefb0 \ edrfhusykHukd owdjyKrdykH? cspfolarmifu tcspfa&;xuf wkdif;jynfa&;ukd OD;pm;ay;vkdí opömjyK&ef jiif;y,fykHwkdYukd azmfjyxm;onf/ xkd ]]qkdopöm}}0w¬KwGif cspfolrdef;uav;u opömqkd&ef ajymqkdykHESihf cspfolarmifu opömqkd&ef jiif;y,fykHukd tausmha&- tausmhudk udkudkcspfwmawmhtrSefyJuG,f/ okdUayr,fhopöm qkdvdkU rjzpfEdkifawmhbl;? udkudkeJUausmhvnf; aygif;&r,fvdkUrxifbl; 3 [lívnf;aumif;?

1 odef;azjrifh? 1998? 113/ 2 - ,if; -? / 3 - ,if; -? 120/

133 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 udkudkav a[m[kdueef;awmf? a[mf[dkuusHK;? a[m[dkubkef;awmf BuD;ausmif;? 'Dbufu ppfwef;vsm;awGjrifjyD;awmh rsdK;cspfpdwfawG wzGm;zGm;aygufjyD;vmw,f/ jrefrmjynfBuD; uRefb0ork'´&mrSmarsm aewmudk u,fwifcsifw,f/ tcsdef&Sdwkdif; wdkif;a&;jynfa&;udkvkyf csifw,f/ 1 [lí vnf;aumif; ZmwfaqmifESpfOD;\ tjyeftvSef ajympum;rsm;jzifh wifjyxm;onf/ þtzGJUt& cspfolarmifonf wkdif;jynfta&; aqmif&Guf&ef cspfolukdvrf;cGJvkdaMumif; cspfoludkvufrxyfvdkaMumif;? rdom;pkta&;xuf wdkif;jynfta&;ukd OD;pm;ay; aqmif&Gufvkdonfh ukdvdkeDacwf vli,fwkdY\ tawG;tjrifukd acwfaMu;rkHtjzpf awGU&onf/ jcHKiHkoHk;oyfcsuf þpmwrf;onf odef;azjrifh\ ighvifESihfighaiG? rif;wkdifyif? a&eH? a&yGufyrm? qkdopöm 0w¬Kwkdrsm;wGif xif[yfaeaom ukdvkdeDacwf\ pD;yGm;a&;? vlrIa&;? EkdifiHa&;qkdif&m acwfaMu;rkHwkdYukd avhvmwifjyxm;ygonf/ q&modef;azjrihfonf txuftnm aus;vufZmwdrS vlaerIb0tajctaeukd tajccHí ighvifESihfighaiG 0w¬KwkdwGif ukdvdkeD acwf pD;yGm;a&;tajctae t&yf&yfukd azmfxkwfwifjyxm;onf/ xkdokdY wifjy&mwGif vifESihfr,m;wkdY\ obm0? NrD;&SifESihfajriSm;? aiGacs;olESihf aiG,lolwkdY\ oabmp½kduf trltusifhwkdYukd obm0usus a&;om;xm;onf/ rif;wkdifyif 0w¬KwkdwGif ukdvdkeDacwf ynmrJhtmPm&SdwkdY\ obm0? &mxl;tmPm Aef;jyí ukd,fusifhw&m; ysufjym;ol? ukd,fusdK;pD;yGm; &SmolwkdY\ oabmp½kdufukd Zmwfvrf;ESihf tH0ifcGifusjzpfatmif a&;om;um ukdvdkeDacwf EkdifiHa&; tajctaeukd rD;armif;xkd;jyxm;EkdifaMumif; awGU&onf/ a&eH 0w¬KwkdwGif vkHYvxkwfoavmuf tusdK;cHpm;cGihfr&aom ukdvkdeDacwf qif;&Jom; vufvkyfvufpm;wkdY\ vlrItajctae? tlr rawmifhí oDvrapmifhEkdifaom b0taxGaxGukd acwfaMu;rkHtjzpf awGU&Sd&ygonf/ a&yGufyrm 0w¬KwkdwGif &mxl;&mcH aiGaMu;Opöm&SdolwkdYtwGuf qif;&Jom;eif;jym; wkdYu aoG;acR;ESihf&if;í tvkyftauR;jyK ay;qyf&ykH b0tajctaeukd xif[yfjyEkdif aMumif; awGU&onf/ qkdopöm 0w¬KwkdwGif rdrdwkdY\tcspfa&;? tdrfaxmifa&;ukd pGefYvTwfum wkdif;usdK; jynfjyK aqmif&Gufvkdaom vli,fwkdY\ cH,lonfhpdwf"mwfoabmxm;ukd ay:vGifatmif azmfaqmifxm;aMumif; awGU&onf/ xkdYaMumifh odef;azjrifh\ 0w¬Kwkdrsm;onf ukdvkdeD acwf\ pD;yGm;a&;? vlrIa&;? EkdifiHa&; tzkHzkH acwfaMu;rkHwkdYukd Zmwfvrf;? Zmwfaqmif? umva'oaemufcH0ef;usifwkdYjzihf tcsdK;nDnD tcsdwftqufrdatmif wifjyxm;EkdifaMumif; awGU&Sd&ygonf/

1 odef;azjrifh? 1998? 120/ 134 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 ed*Hk; þpmwrf;onf odef;azjrifh\0w¬Kwdkrsm;rS pD;yGm;a&;? EdkifiHa&;? vlrIa&;ponfh udkvdkeD acwftajctaeudkwifjyxm;aom pmwrf;jzpfygonf/ udkvdkeDacwfwGif aus;vufae jynfolrsm; yifyef;qif;&JpGm vkyfudkifpm;aomuf&yHk? todÓPfr&Sdí trSm;trSef rcGJjcm; EdkifyHk? tkyfcsKyfa&;wGifvnf; xif&mpdkiff;ítkyfcsKyfyHk? jynfolrsm; udkvdkeDb0rS vGwfajrmuf &ef MudKyrf;vdkpdwf&SdyHkwkdUudk wifjyxm;ygonf/ usrf;udk;pm&if; ausmfatmif? OD;ESihftrsm;/ (2010)/ jrefrmpm? jrefrmrI/ &efukef? pdwful;csdKcsdKpmay/ MuD;armif? OD;ESifhtrsm;/ (1979)/ 0w¬Kwdkpmwrf;rsm;(y)wGJ/ &efukef? pmayAdrmef yHkESdyfwdkuf/ ol&d,uEÅd /(1967)/ 0w¬Ka&;vdkaomf ('k)Mudrf/ &efukef? vif;,kefpmayjzefUcsDa&;/ odef;azjrifh/(1998)/ 0w¬Kwdkaygif;csKyfopf/ &efukef? &mjynfhpmtkyffwdkuf/

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* a'gufwm? wGJzufygarmu©? jrefrmpmXme? uav;wuúokdvf/ 1 okwarmif? 1962? 282-291/ 136 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 ygrif;xHwGif oGm;a&mufqufoonf/ [Hom0wDrif;u baxG;awmfowkd;rif;acgifxH wGif a&Tawmif&mZausmfbGJUukday;í oHawmfqifhtjzpfjzifh xrf;&Gufaponf/1 1113ckESpfü tif;0ysufaomtcg pOfhukdifbk&ifcHvnf; [Hom0wDokdYygoGm;onf/ okdY&mwGif OD;MoESifhwuG tdrfawmfom;wdkYonf rdrdwkdY\ocifukd &efolwkdYvuf rSckd;,lMuonf/ atmifjrifaomtcg [Hom0wDukdjyefvnfwkdufckduf&ef BuHpnfMuonf/ ouú&mZf 1115ESpftwGif; ]]a&Tawmif&mZausmf}}bGJUcH OD;Mo\ t&Sifocif&if; jzpfaom awmifil&mZmonf rkd;aumif;ykdedrfhykdjrifht&yfwGif [Hom0wDa&muf rif;w&m;BuD;ukd u,fraqmif,l&ef ol&Jolcufpkaqmif;ckdufwGifvGefcJh\/ xkdpOftcgu a&Tawmf&mZausmf vnf;awmifil&mZmESifhyif&Sdaeonf/ aemufouú&mZf 1116ckESpfwGif [Hom0wDa&muf rif;w&m;BuD;tm;wvkdif;wkdY a&csuGyfrsufaMumif; Mum;od&jyefaomtcg a&Tawmif &mZausmfonf pdwfysufvufavQmhum &wemodCFokdY0ifavonf/ ouú&mZf 1119ckESpf ESpfOD;avmufwGifrS a&Tawmif&mZmausmfbGJUcHOD;Moonf tavmif;rif;w&m;BuD;\ bkef;awmf&dyfukdckdvIH[ef vu©Pm&Sdavonf/2 tavmif;rif;w&m;BuD;u a&Tawmif&mZausmftm; ajr§mufpm;awmfrlíaqmifyg;? &wka&;&müvnf; vGefpGm ESpfNcdKufawmfrlaomaMumifh pdEÅausmfolbGJUukd ay;tyfum om;awmf y'kHNrdKUpm;owkd;rif;vSa&TawmifxHü pmqkdtjzpfjzifh vnf;aumif;? tBuD;awmf tjzpfjzifhvnf;aumif; cpm;xrf;&Gufapavonf/ xkdYaMumifhvnf; ]]pdEÅausmfolOD;MobGJUESifh pmacgif;xkd;vsuf&SdMu&aom &wkykd'fpkHtrsm;ukdMunfhvQif ouú&mZf 1119ckESpfrS tpjyKíom pmacgif;xkd; vsuf&SdaMumif;awGU&onf/ ouú&mZf 1133 ckESpf touf 35 ckESpfwGif OD;Mo tedpöa&muf&onf/ pdEÅausmfolOD;Mo\ pmayvuf&mwkdYrSmu0dvu©PowfykHoHaygufusrf;? rif;quf&mZ0if vuFm? Mo0g'xl;ysKdU? ukef;abmifr*Fvmvl;wm;ESifh &wkyk'fa& rsm;pGmwkdYjzpfygonf/

2/ &wk oabmobm03 &wkuAsmrsm;wGif &moDOwktaMumif;ukd zGJUqkdavh&Sdygonf/ &moDOwkaMumifh jzpfay: vmaom obm0\ ESpfoufbG,f? vGrf;qGwfbG,f? MunfvifbG,f? tcrf;tem; tajctaewkdYukd &wkuAsm rsm; tjzpfzGJUEGJUavh&Sdygonf/ okdYjzpfí ]]&moDOwk}} [laom rlvteuf&if;wGif xyfavmif;í &wk\t"dyÜm,fukd wkd;csJUum ]]ESpfoufbG,f? vGrf;qGwfbG,f? MunfvifbG,f? tcrf;tem;? tajctae}}[k teufjyefqkdonf/ xkdYaMumifh rnfonfhtaMumif;t&m rqkd &wkpnf;rsOf;ESifhtnD ESpfoufvGrf;qGwf? MunfvifbG,ftcrf;tem;tajctaewkdYjzifh zGJUqkda&;om;vQif ]]&wk}}[lí yif ac:a0: Muygonf/ xkdrSwpfzef &moDOwkbGJUr[kwfaom bkef;awmfbGJU? armifbGJU?r,fbGJU? NrKdUbGJU? jynfbGJU ponfrsm;ukdyif &wkuAsmenf;pepftwkdif; ESpfoufbG,f? vGrf;qGwf bG,f? MunfEl;bG,f pyfqkdvQif ]&wk}[k t"dyÜm,fukd wkd;csJUac:Mujyefonf/ &wktzsm;csrsm;wGifvnf; ckdifñGefYcufjzm 7vkH;? rPdqHusif 9 vkH;? tmom0wD 0wfqH 11 vkH;? rPdOD;jynf; 15 vkH;? aZmfwpfckdifvHk; 19 vkH; ponfjzifh tzsm;cspmvkH; ta&twGuf oD;oefYxm;vsuf&Sdonf/ pdEÅausmfolOD;Mou u0dvu©P owfykHoHaygufwGif ]&wkcsbG,f? toG,foG,f? ajcmufq,fud&d,m}4 [k pyfqkdxm; ygonf/

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1 Mo? OD;? (pdEÅausmfol)? 1959(1)/ 2 - ,if; -? / 3 - ,if; -? / 4 - ,if; -? / 5 - ,if; -? / 6 - ,if; -? (2) / 7 - ,if; -? (2) /

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1 Mo? OD;? (pdEÅausmfol)? 1959? (2) / 2 - ,if; -? (3) / 3 - ,if; -? / 4 - ,if; -? / 5 - ,if; -? / 6 - ,if; -? / 140 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 pmqkd pdEÅausmfol OD;Mou ]cspfíac:&m}} csD tvkduf&wkjzifh a&TNrdKUawmfom; cspfolarmif\ zdwfac:rIukd rvkdufEkdifao;aMumif; cspfolr,fav;u jyefvnfajzMum;[ef wifjyxm;ygonf/ &wkyxrtykd'fwGif- ]]cspfíac:&m? vkdufcsifygvnf;? aemfZma&TukH;? wpfckdif½kH;ukd? vkH;vkH;r,faxG;? rykdifao;cJh}}1 [laomtzGJUjzifh &wemodCF ukef;abmifa&TNrdKUawmfokdY vma&muf&ef a&TNrdKUawmf om;armif\ zdwfac:jcif;cH&aom &yfa0;ae cspfolr,fav;u cspfolarmif apwemjzifh zdwfac:aomaMumifh r[meE´muefawmfukd vma&mufMunfh½Icsif ygonf[k ajzMum;[efzGJUqkdonf/ okdY&mwGifvnf0,fqifjref;tyfonfh aemfZma&TukH;uJhokdY ESpfoufzG,faumif;aom r,fav;rSm rdbwkdY\ tkyfxdef;rIatmufwGif Akdif;aumif;ausmufyd ae&oljzpfygonf/ rdbtkyfxdef;jcif; ruif;aom r,fav;onf rdrdvkyfcsif&mukd vkyfykdifcGifhr&Sdyg/ ukd,fhukd,fukdrykdifoljzpfí vma&mufMunhf½IEkdifcGihfr&Sd[k jyefvnfí ajymqkdcJhygonf/ xkdYtwl ]]ra0;bl;qkd? NrdKUajrmuf[kdwGif? jrif;rkd&fawmifavmuf? uefaygifarmufESifh}}2 [laomtzGJUjzifhf &wemodCFa&TNrdKUawmf\ ajrmufbufreD;ra0;wGif tavmif;rif;w&m;BuD;qnfzkdYawmfrlaom r[meE´m uefwnf&SdykHukdazmfjyonf/ xkduefawmfBuD;\ uefabmifrSm jrifhrm;rkdYarmufaeygonf/ uefaygif½kd;\ jrifhrm;ykHukd ]]jrif;rkd&fawmifavmuf}}[laom tzGJUjzifhazmfjyxm;onf/ wpfzef ,ifaomuf½kHrQ? jrLrusom;? csrf;jra&Munf3[laomtzGJUonf r[meE´muefawmftwGif;&Sd a&\Munfvifat;jrykHukdazmfjyonf/ ,ifaomuf½kHrQ jrLrIefte,fyif r&SdykHukd jrifa,mifrdygonf[k zGJUqkdxm;ygonf/ qufvufí- Mumig;rnfvnf;? awmrnf[if;&rf;? NyKd;ajymuf>yrf;vsuf? qGwfvSrf;rvG,f? ukH;oDoG,fokdY4 [laomtzGJUonf r[meE´muefawmftwGif;ü MumrsKd;ig;yg;wkdYjzifh wifhw,fvSyykHukd azmfjyonf/ pmqkdpdEÅausmfol OD;Moonf r[meE´muefawmf\ BuD;us,fcrf;em;ykHukd azmfjy&mü obm0usus pD&ifa&;zGJUxm;onf/ a&ESifhMumonf tNrJ,SOfwGJaeaom t&mjzpfonf/ wpfckr&SduusefwpfckrSm rjynfhpkHonfhoabmukdjrifEkdifonf/ xkdYaMumifh uefawmf\ tvSukd MumrsKd;ig;yg;jzihf wefqmqifzGJUqkdonf/ xkdMumrsKd;ig;yg;ukdyefqifvkdol vnf0,f&pfqGJqifjref;vkdolwkdYukd tvG,fwul cl;qGwfvSrf;,l&efrSmrvG,faMumif; azmfjyxm;onf/ xkdYaMumifh-]vGrf;zG,fom,m? uefawmfrSmonf? a&mufcgjrif&ayvdrfhrnf}5[laom tzGJUjzifhf a&TNrKdUawmffom; cspfolarmifMunfh½I&ef zdwfac:onfh r[meE´muefawmfBuD;\ crf;em;BuD;us,fykHukd &wem odCFukef;abmif a&TNrdKUawmfokdY r,fav; vma&mufonfh tcsdef jrifawGU&rnf[k ,kHMunfrdygaMumif;ukd ajymqkdonf/ &wk'kwd,tykd'fwGif - ]]epfíay:vSm? pnfawmfomESifh? c&m'kHrif;? apmif;jiif;a>yESJ? a&vkH;oJrQ? tyGJyGJatmif? &mrif;aemifvQif? azmifouú'gef? orÁmeful&Gyf? rsOf;pyfrxif? vufoifavSmfum;? tjcm;jcm;wd? rif;om;rif;nD? bufNydKifcsDí? atmif;eD0SJ0SJ? pHa&yGJukd? BuHKcJawmif;yif? Munhfygcsif\}}6 [laomtzGJUjzifh r[meE´muefawmfwGif usif;yjyKvkyfonfh tavmif;rif;w&m;BuD;\ a&eef;obiftcrf;tem; pnfum;okdufNrdKufaysmf&TifzG,faumif;ykHukd azmfjyonf/

1 Mo? OD;? (pdEÅausmfol)? 1959(1)/ 2 - ,if; -? (1) / 3 - ,if; -? / 4 - ,if; -? / 5 - ,if; -? / 6 - ,if; -? /

141 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 ZrÁKoajyoD; a&xJus&mrS ay:vmonfhtoHrsKd;ukdwkyí wD;cwfonfh oajypnf awmfoH\ om,mykH? c&m? 'kHrif;? apmif;? yavG? ESJ ponfh wl&d,m ig;yg;wkdY\ toHjzifhyJhwifxyfum tkwfatmfaomif;oJ jzpfaeykHukd Mum;a,mifvmatmif zGJUqkdxm; onf/ xkduefawmftwGif; a&yGJobifü tavmif;rif;w&m;BuD;onf rif;nDrif;om; rª;rwftaygif;wkdYNcH&Hum ]]ouú'gefavS? orÁefavS? ul&GyfavS? vufoifavS? avSmfum;avS}} tp&Sdaom avSawmfazmifawmf trsKd;rsKd;ukdavSmfcwfapNyD; a&obifyGJawmf qifETJaMumif; azmfjyxm;ygonf/ xkduJhokdYcrf;em;qef;jym;um tHhMozG,fpkHaeonfh a&obifyGJawmfonf BuHKawmifhBuHKcJvSonfh yGJawmfwpfckjzpfygonf/ okdYygí r,fav;rSm tvGefyifMunfh½Icsif ygaMumif; jyefvnfajymMum;[efzGJUqkdonf/ wpfzef rdcifb0wf? cGihfrvGwfcJh? rkd;ewfaysmf&m? qumrmonf? ajcmuf&Gmxif&ayvdrfhrnf/1 [laomtzGJUjzifhf xkdokdY uefawmfa&obifyGJukd Munhfcsifygaomfvnf; r,fav;rSm rdcif zcifwkdYukdjyKpk&rnfh 0wå&m; &SdaeonfhtwGufrdrdqE´twkdif; jyKvkyf&ef tcGifhr&ao;yg/ r[meE´uefawmf\ wifhw,fvSyom,mrItaygif;ukd a&TNrdKUawmfom; armifur,fav;tm; jynfhjynhfpkHpkH aoaocsmcsmrajymjyEkdifay/ okdYaomfvnf;r,fav;\ pdwfwGif rSef;qumuefawmf\ om,mykHukdawG;awmjrifa,mifapygonf/ xkdYaMumifh r[meE´muefawmfwnf&Sd&m &wem odCFukef;abmifa&TNrdKUawmfBuD;rSmewfjynfajcmuf&Gmyrm wifhw,fcrf;em;vdrfhrnf[k xifjrifrdygaMumif; ajymqkd[efazmfjy xm;onf/ &wkwwd,tykd'fwGif - [pfíaMumfum? ac:oHomESifh? MuKd;Mum&pf0J? 0rf;bJvl;vm? [oFmwkHYy,f? ,ufuef;&S,fokdY? a&0,fqGwfvTm;? Mum0,f em;vsuf? aysmfpm;onfukd? armifrqkdvnf;? r,fhvkdukd,fxkl;? MunhfcsifOD;yif2 [laomtzGJUjzifh r[meE´muefawmfBuD;twGif; bmombm0aysmfjrL;aeMuonfhaus;iSuf wkdY\ toGifukdazmfjyonf/ BudK;Mum? 0rf;bJ? [oFmponfh a&aysmfiSufaus;om&umtaygif;wkdYonf uefawmftwGif; yGihfvef;aeonfh MumrsKd;ig;yg;wkdYwGif vl;vmacgufwkHYysHum0Jumjzifh 0wf&nf0wf&ufwkdYukd pm;okH;um aysmfyg;aeMuonf/ a&xJwGif ukd,fukdqGwfum epfumjzifh aysmf&TifpGmaeMuykHukd ]],ufuef;&S,fokdY}}[lí jrifa,mifvm atmifzGJUqkdonf/ xkdodkY a&ESihfMum? MumESifh aus;iSufwkdY\ obm0ukd armifurajymaomfvnf; r,fav;pdwfwGif rSef;umMunfhvkdYjrifvkdY &ygaMumif;ajymjy[efzGJUqkdonf/ tqkH;wGif- aus;Zl;&Sifu? cGifhr&cJh? ewf&GmrSeful? eE´m[lvnf;? rwlyav? ½Iwkdif;a0rQ? rsufajcxifxif? wpfcgjrifu? rdcifbXmef? arhuseftdrf&m? MunfazG&Smonf? ajrmufrSm&Tif&ayvdrfhrnf/3 [lía&;zGJUxm;ygonf/ cspfolarmifvma&mufMunhf½I&efzdwfac:onfh om,mrItaygif; ESifhjynfhpkHonfh r[meE´muefawmfBuD;okdY r,fav;ukd,fwkdif vma&mufMunhf½I csifygaomfvnf; aus;Zl;&SifrdbESpfyg;xHrS cGihfjyKcsufr&aomaMumifh &wemodCF ukef;abmif a&TNrdKUawmfqDokdY rvma&mufEkdifao;yg/ okdYygaomfvnf; r,fhtaejzifh r[meE´muefawmfomukd wpfcgwpfacguf vma&mufMunhf½IcGihf&ygrl rdrdZmwd&yf&Gm tdrfukdyif jyef&ef arhavsmhEkdifygvdrfhrnf/ xkdrQom,mrnfjzpfaMumif; ,kHMunfrdygonf/ ewfjynf ajcmuf&Gm &Sdonfh ewfom;ewforD;wkdY\ rSefulozG,fjzpfaom eE´muefESifhyif

1 Mo? OD;? (pdEÅausmfol)? 1959(2)/ 2 - ,if; -? (3) / 3 - ,if; -? / 142 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 rwlatmif tvGefwifhw,fcrf;em;onfh r[meE´muefBuD;ukd rsuf0g;xifxif jrif&rnfjzpf ygonf/ xkdtcg rdb&Sd&mXmeukdyif arhavsmhum &wemodCFukef;abmifa&TNrdKUawmf\ ajrmufbufwGif wnf&Sdonfh r[meE´muefawmfBuD;rSmyif aysmf&TifpGmaevdrfhrnfjzpfaMumif; ajymqkd[efzGJUxm;ygonf/

NcHKikHokH;oyfcsuf pdEÅausmfolOD;Moonf tavmif;rif;w&m;BuD;\ om;awmfA'HkjrdKUpm;(bkd;awmfbk&m;) xHü tBuD;awmftjzpf cHpm;xrf;&GufpOf þ]]cspfíac:onf}} csDESihf ]]cspfíac:&mcsD}}? ]]r[meE´muefawmfbGJU}} tcHvdkuf&wkwkdUudk qufoGif;cJhygonf/ A'HkjrdKUpm;ESihf cspfol rvGef;r,f(zdzk&m;acgif;)wkdU tjyeftvSefay;ydkUonftaejzifh qufoGif;onfh arwåmbGJU &wkvnf;jzpfygonf/ þtcHvdkuf&wkwkdUonf toHwlteufwlvdkufí a&;zGJUxm;onfh tcsDnDtcsnD ydk'fpHk&wkrsm;jzpfygonf/ &wktqHk;cs tydk'fütu©&mckESpfvHk;jzifh tqHk; csxm;&m cdkifnGefcufjzmcsenf; toHk;jyKxm;aMumif; awGU&onf/ &wemod,FjrdKUwnf eef;wnf tavmif;rif;w&m;BuD;vufxuf bkef;wefcdk;tiftm;jzifh qnfzdkUawmfrlaom r[meE´muefawmfBuD;\ om,mwifhw,fyHk? xkduefawmfBuD;twGif;&Sd crf;em;qefjym;um tHHhMozG,faumif;avmufatmif BuD;us,fonfh a&obifyGJawmf usif;yyHkwdkUudk azmfusL; xm;ygonf/ tavmif;rif;w&m;BuD;onf rkqdk;zdk&Gmudk &wemod,F[korkwfum xD;opf eef;opf wnfaxmifpdk;pHjyD;aemuf wdkif;usdK;jynfjyK aqmif&Gufonhftaejzifh txuftnm a'o&Sd acsmif;&dkk;udk;q,fhudk;&dk;rSwdkUrS aygif;,SufpD;qif;vmonhf a&wkdUudk qD;qnfo,fzdkUí r[meE´muefawmfudk wnfaqmufcJhygonf/ xkdodkUwnfaqmuf &mwGif rdrdbkef;awmf&dyfwGif cdkdvIHonfhjynfoltaygif;wkdU\ tiftm;udktoHk;jyKum tdrfaxmif wpfck? rdom;wpfpkvQif wpfwmEIef;jzifhqnfzdkUap&m uefawmfBuD;\tus,ft0ef;rSm wmaygif; wpfodef; (wmq,faomif;avmuf) rQ&Sdawmfrlonf/ xkdUaMumifh tavmif;rif;w&m;onf jynfhtiftm;onf jynfwGif;rSmom&Sdonfudkodol? xkdokdU rif;ESihfjynfol cspfMunfjzLum wdkif;usdK;jynfjyKaqmif&GufrIudk oufaoxlaeonfrSm þr[meE´uefawmfyifjzpfonfudk aemifvmaemufom;wkdU twk,lzG,ftjzpf pmqkdu wifjyvdk[efwlayonf/ txl;ojzifhxdkr[meE´uefawmf r*FvmtwGif;0,f rif;nD rif;om;rSL;rwfAkdvfygjcH&Hvsuf rif;w&m;BuD;udk,fwdkifyg0ifqifETJjyD; avSobifyGJawmfudk jcdrfhjcdrfhoJrQusif;yjcif;onf/ rif;w&m;BuD;\ bkef;wefckd;tmPmpufxD;uJhokdU jzefUvTm; tkyfjcHKEdkifyHk? tavmif;rif;w&m;vufxufü &wemod,Fukef;abmifaejynfawmfBuD;rSm ab;rJYjidrf;csrf;onfh wdkif;jynfBuD;jzpfyHkudk rD;armif;xkd;jyaeayonf/ xdkoabmudk pmzwfoljrifvmap&ef &wemod,Fukef;abmifaejynfawmfudk odMum;rif;pH&mwm0wðom ewfjynf? tavmif;rif;w&m;BuD;udk wm0wðom\t&SifocifodMum;rif;? rif;w&m;BuD; wnfaxmifqnfzdkUonfh r[meE´muefudk odMum;rif; aomufawmfcsdK;awmfrlonfh eE´muefESihfwifpm;um tavmif;rif;w&m;BuD;\ bkef;awmfudk tvdIif;wBuD; csD;y zGJUqdkxm;aMumif; awGU&ygonf/ xkdokdUzGJUqdk&mwGif pmqkdu y&d,foHk;um ]]cspfíac:onf}}csDESifh cspfíac:&m tvkduf&wkwkdUjzifhwifjycJhygonf/ ]]cspfíac:onf}}csD tcH&wkonfarmifu cspfolr,fav;tm; &wemodCFukef;abmifaejynfawmf&Sd r[meE´muefawmfa&yGJobifrSm tavmif;rif;w&m;BuD;udk,fawmfwkdif yg0ifqifETJonfh

143 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 yGJawmfjzpfívkdufygMunhf½Iapvkdojzifh a&yGJobif\tcif;tusif;ESihf omawmifhom,m zG,fjzpfonfh tajctaeukdajymjyí zdwfac:[efwifjyxm;onfh ]armif}tac: &wkjzpfaMumif;awGU&ygonf/ ]]cspfíac:&m}}csDtvkduf&wkonf cspfolr,fav;u rdrdukd cspfcifMuifemíac:qkdonfh cspfolarmifwkdY\ &wemodCFukef;abmif aejynfawmf&Sd r[meE´muefawmfa&yGJobif\ om,mcif;om,mzG,f&Sdaom tcif;tusif;wkdYukd Mum;od&í vkdufygvkdpdwfjzpfrdaMumif;? rdbtkyfxdef;jcif;ruif;onfh jrefrmrdef;uav; wpfOD;jzpfonfhtwGuf vufxyfxdrf;jrm;jcif;rjyK&ao;aom trsKd;om;ESifh vkdufygcGihf r&SdaMumif;? jrefrmrdef;uav;wpfOD; apmihfxdef;&rnfh£a`E´? vkdufem&rnfhpnf;urf;? apmihfMuyf&rnfh ukd,fusifhodu©mwkdYukd jrwfEkd;wefzkd;xm;ojzifh rvkdufygEdkifygaMumif; jiif;qkd[efzGJUqkdxm;onfh ]r,ff}tjiif;&wk jzpfaMumif;awGU&ygonf/ pmqdk\ ta&;tzGJU twiftjyydkifEdkifrIaMumifh? jrefrmwdkU tpOftvmwefzdk;xm;xdef;odrf;aom ,Ofaus;rI"avh xHk;pHomru wkdif;jynftkyfcsKyfol tavmif;rif;w&m;BuD;\ bkef;wefcdk;tmPmpuf jzefUusufEdkifyHk? jynfoltay:&if0,fom;uJhokdUoabmxm;umwkdifa&;jynfrIudpöt00udk pDrHaqmif&Gufay;EdkifyHkwdkUrSm ay:vGifxif&Sm;vm&ygawmhonf/ ed*kH; þpmwrf;onf ukef;abmifacwfpmqkd pdEÅausmfol OD;Mo\ ]]cspfíac:onf}}csDESifh ]]cspfíac:&m}}csD tcHtvkduf&wk ykd'fpkHESpfyk'fukd avhvmwifjyxm;aom pmwrf;jzpfyg onf/ xkdtavhvmcH &wk ESpfykd'fukd &wkpmayqkdif&m oabmw&m; enf;emrsm;ESifh csdefxkd;avhvmwifjyxm;ygonf/ þpmwrf;onf &wkpmayoifMum;ol? &wkpmay zwf½Iol? avhvmolESifh pdEÅausmfol OD;Mo\ &wkwkdYukd okawoe jyKvkdolwkdYtwGuf taxmuftuljyKrnf[k ,kHMunfygonf/ usrf;udk;pm&if; aZmf*sD/ (1976)/&opmaytzGihfESifh ed'gef;/&efukef? a&Ttkd;pmay/ wif? OD;? 0efaxmuf? yk*H/ (1968)/ uAsmAE¨om&usrf;/&efukef? v,fwDr@dKifyHkESdyfwkduf/ azarmifwif? OD;/ (1987)/ jrefrmpmayorkdif; /&efukef? py,fOD;pmay/ okw? armif/(1962)/ pmqkdawmfrsm; tw¬KyÜwdå/ &efukef? ½Ir0yHkESdyfwkduf/ Mo?OD;?(pdEÅausmf)/ (1959)/ pdEÅausmfolOD;Moqkd &wkrsm;/&efukef? bm;rm;ykHESdyfwkduf/ Mo?OD;?(pdEÅausmf)/ (1967)/u0dvu©PmowfyHkoHaygufusrf;/ &efukef? [Hom0wDykHESdyfwkduf/

144 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 PROPER WAY OF LIFE Khin Myat Mar *

ABSTRACT Every person is facing social problems in their daily life. So it is necessary to know and practice the proper way of life. This research is an attempt to highlight the importance of proper way of life in society. The research problem is why we should realize and practice proper way of life to live harmoniously in a society. It is because that by understanding and practicing proper way of life, it will have thoughtful and satisfying social relations in society. Descriptive method is used to describe some ways of life and evaluative method is used to evaluate that the knowing of proper way of life is very important to construct a good society. This paper could contribute to the knowledge that understanding of how the essential of proper way of life should be practiced by a Golden Middle Way. Key words: way of life, Golden Middle Way, society

INTRODUCTION Ethics is a branch of philosophy and it is requirement for human life. Because it is the study of human conducts with respect to right or wrong, good or bad. It is also the study of moral or morality. The society would completely collapse without morals and ethics. A society without clear ethical values and norms will naturally experience more conflict in concerning “mental problems of human life”. So, it is very important for every society. Life means our particular way of living and the experiences that we have. And the way of life is meant that a typical way in which a person or group lives. A society is a group of individuals involved in persistent social interaction. There are many social problems in social relationships among friends, colleagues, families, society and nations. In the various social phenomena of every society, the doctrine “way of life” occupies the foremost position. Human life would be effectively unmanageable without proper way of life. There is no place to hide and escape from social problems. Hence it is need to know ethics and proper way of life to live harmoniously in very problematic situations. Proper way of life is emotional state to be struggled for everyone. When we know and practice the proper way of life, we can get the spiritual strengths in everywhere we operate. That‟s why the proper way of life may be called “spiritual quality of human life”. When we have this very proper spiritual quality within us, it will make us good experience more joy and lightness and this can also affect others around us. In this research, proper way of life which is discussed by Buddha and Aristotle will especially emphasize as the essential way for moral and social affairs in a society. In fact, proper way of life can also be applied in other fields such as politics, economics, religion, education etc. Both Buddha and Aristotle are also

* Professor, Dr, Philosophy Department, Kalay University

145 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 interested in social life and discussed concerning ways of life. Therefore in this research, Buddha and Aristotle views on way of life will be discussed as the proper way of life or the middle way or Golden Mean. Buddha’s View on Way of Life Buddhism is one of the major religions in the world. It began around 2500 years ago in India. The Buddha expected all his followers not to take his words as true, but rather to analyze the teachings and determine for themselves. Therefore each person decides for themselves and takes responsibilities for their own actions and understanding. This makes Buddhism less of a fixed concept of beliefs which is to be accepted in its whole, and more of teachings in which each person learns and uses in their own way. Buddhism can be comprehended and tested by anyone. Buddhism teaches that the answers to our problems are within us not outside of ourselves. Moreover, Buddhism is a guide towards eliminating suffering through the eightfold path that is guided by the five main moral codes and the Four Noble Truths such as the Truth of Dukkha, Samudaya, Nirodha, and Magga. Buddhist way of life regards that one must stand by the five precepts, which are do not kill, do not steal, do not engage in sexual misconduct, do not lie, and do not overdo in any mind altering substances. Becoming aware of these principles on a daily heart is a most important aspect of self-awaking and is the foundation of the Buddhist proper way of life. Every individual that is a part of the Buddhist community tries hard towards perfecting these principals. Moreover, Buddhism is the way of practice and spiritual development leading to insight into the true nature of life. The Buddha‟s correlation to experience can be seen as the core of his Middle Way. The Buddha preached through personal experience of the middle way which leads him to achieve enlightenment. It is one of the basis and main doctrine of Buddha. The eight fold path is a set of eight principal teachings to eliminate suffering in one‟s life. In other word, it is the proper way of life recommended by Buddha which consists of eight steps. This gives in a nutshell the essentials of Buddha ethics and open to all and leading to the cessation of suffering and the achievement of self-awakening. Buddhism is a religion with high moral values and it is concerned with the relationship between thought and behavior and the relation between behavior and its consequences. To refrain from the extremes and to practice the right way, the Buddhists follow the noble eightfold path which was discovered by Buddha previous to his enlightenment. The eightfold path is based on the Four Noble Truths. It is the fourth of the Buddha‟s Noble Truths. The middle way or the noble eightfold path is: - Right understanding (understanding the four noble truths which can remove the ignorance) - Right thought (right determination against destroying, killing and harming others) - Right speech (no lying, no back-biting and refraining from the evil speech) - Right action (unselfish action- not killing, not stealing, not committing adultery) - Right livelihood (earning a living that in no way harms anybody and avoiding such wrong livelihood as fisherman) - Right effort (striving to discard whatever demerit and to prevent the arising of unwholesome states) 146 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 -Right mindfulness (being never forgetful about doing good things that are meritorious and practicing the four foundations of mindfulness) -Right concentration (concentration of one‟s thought on a single object and attainment to the four trances) So, it is the right way for everyone and the basic guiding principle. It is a way to take a middle ground between two extremes of self-indulgence and self- mortification. It is meant that we have to free from two extremes of excess and deficiency. It is the right way to be followed by every person who wants to achieve the best situations in their society and in which we can apply this way to solve our daily life problems. Therefore, the middle way or the noble eightfold path may be described as the proper way of life. Where there is no noble eightfold path, there are no noble ones. If a person who possesses the noble eightfold path, he defeats the pride, removes lust, hatred and delusion, and abandons wrong view. And there is no unwholesome deed due to wrong view. Just as a guesthouse is for all people coming from various places, so also is this right way or proper way of life for understanding and developing in our society. It is the way leading to the cessation of suffering and the rejection of extremes which is called as the middle way. Aristotle’s View on Way of Life Aristotle is one of the greatest ancient Greek Philosopher. Aristotle accepted that his view on Golden Mean as Golden Middle Way. Many people would recognize that middle way as simply doing things no more than halfway. But it‟s really meaning is that neither too much nor too little, that is, just right. According to Aristotle, it is the desirable middle between two extremes, excess and defect. In other words, it means the right way. The middle way also means a way of understanding between the extremes of doing too hard and too loose. It is a way of searching the extremes and avoiding them. For him, Golden Mean or Golden Middle Way is a guide to how we could identify a virtuous quality. A practical virtue is found mid-way between the excess and the deficiency of a quality. In the Aristotle view, courage is a good quality, but if taken to excess would manifest as recklessness, and in deficiency, cowardice. Cowardice is fear too much. Courage is fear what ought to be feared, when it ought to feared, and for the proper reason. Thus, Aristotle named it as the Golden Mean or Golden Middle Way. Aristotle explained a virtue ethics with the well-known Golden Mean as a guide to how we could identify a virtuous quality. He also believes that we should develop our rational virtues, which supports us judge whatever we encounter. Moreover, we should also cultivate our practical virtues, which are gained through practice and involve a balance between excess and deficiency. But, right values are developed by applying what we have learnt, even though doing that requires practice as well as theory. For Aristotle, The Golden Mean or Golden Middle Way is a quality of mind that can provide man to be a good person. There is Aristotle‟s famous saying, “man is naturally a community animal”. Man cannot live alone and he has to communicate with others for his survival. Man is also a rational animal on ethical and social animal. As he live in society, his ways of life are bound to impact others.

147 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 Human beings are in trouble for being excessive as well as for being defective in their relation to their environment. So, if we live accordance with the middle way by controlling our passions, we will obtain thoughtful and enjoyable social relations among people in a proper way. By understanding and practicing the middle way is the result of the rational control of the passion or by living in accordance with the Golden Mean. And it is very important to know and practice the middle way to be a good life because it can solve the problems we face in our daily life. Thus, we have to control our passion and desire with the Golden Middle Way or Golden Mean not to reach the extremes because our facing problems are the results of our extreme desires and actions. So, for Aristotle it is the proper way of life.

CONCLUSION Ethics is an attempt to clarify how people ought to live. It elucidates the nature of a good person and good life, telling us how to live well and it characterizes the obligations we have, enabling us to identify what we must do. It is the wide ranging study of right and wrong as well as good and bad, insofar as these pertain to conduct and character. Likewise, Buddhism is also a religion based on morality and it has many high moral values. It lays great emphasis on human thought and action in dealing with in daily life problems. Buddha is one who is able to insight all the aspects of life problems. To live well in a society, Buddha preached the middle way as the guiding principle. Aristotle also discussed the Golden Mean or Golden Middle Way as a quality of mind that is a way of searching the extremes and avoiding them. This way can support man to live cautious and virtuous in a society. In Buddha‟s Middle Way and Aristotle‟s Middle Way, the resemblances are conspicuous. Therefore, understanding and practicing the essential of proper way of life as a Golden Middle Way like discussed by Buddha and Aristotle will support to live cautiously and harmoniously in a society. This proper way of life is said to be excellent because it is the right or ideal way of conduct towards living beings. This way can be provided the right answer to all situations arising from social relations. It is the great remover of tension, the great diplomat in social conflicts and the great cure of sore suffered in the struggle of existence. It can be embraced all living beings without exception. It is very important in everyday life just to see how we create our own suffering with the demands we are making. Here the proper way of life is the world‟s supreme need today. One can cultivate this proper way of life and be a blessing to oneself and all other without respecting of religious beliefs because this proper way of life is emotional states to be strived for everyone. By practicing and developing the proper way of life or the desirable emotions, we will have a peaceful and enjoyable daily life practice. In today society, there are many advanced intellect and very bright philosophers, scientists and religious persons and so on. In spite of all these great persons, there is no place and happiness in the world. It shows that there is something lacking. That is proper way of life. Moreover, when all our actions are experienced with proper way of life, we can be expected the more better daily life and society. So, it is the vital way in changing negative behaviors in irrational actions. 148 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 The Buddha has said that “helping other is helping yourself, helping yourself is helping others”. Hence, we could notice there is no difference between ourselves and others. If you treat others in proper way of life, others will treat you in proper way. We should not expect other persons to treat us proper way first, but we should start by ourselves treating them in proper way. Encouraging the performance of wholesome actions is very important in Buddha‟s teachings. Therefore, cultivating the mind of proper way or right way as wholesome action will control anger, hatred, aggression, jealously etc. and from these sequences. Some regarded the present wealth is the goal of life because if we were rich, we can fulfill the basis needs. But it is needed to be analyzed whether the idea that wealth alone is the true goal of life or not. Actually, to live well in a society it is necessary to have not only wealth but also ways of life. As the time went on, the way of thinking, the way of behaving and the way they define such social ideals are also changed through the development. But this sense and practice of proper way of life should ever stay in the heart of every person for it is fundamental idea in the development of human society. If a person practices this proper way of life, he or she will be achieved good result. So everyone ought to act this way which is to be bringing about good results which will impact on their community. In Myanmar society, it is regard that knowing and practicing this proper way of life is one of the characters of a good person. The purpose of this research is to describe this way in which human beings play out their everyday lives, the steps to take towards achieving good situations and ways in which we can apply this belief to our daily life. Therefore, the idea of proper way of life should instill in the heart of every person because the moral, intellectual and spiritual goodness are involved in this proper way of life.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my respect to Rector Dr. Thar Tun Maung for his leading advice and I would also like to express my gratitude to professor and head of department of Philosophy, Dr. Thida Htwe for being so kind gives me her general guidance.

REFERENCES Maung,U Aye. (2016). Buddha and Buddhism. Yangon: Yan Aung Publishing House. Pruthi, R.K. S. Ram, ArchaChaturvedi. (2011). The Buddhist Way of Life. New Delhi: Commonhealth Publisher Pvt.Ltd. Srinivas,K. (2012). A Dictionary of Philosophy. New Delhi: APH Publishing Corpation. Stumpf, Samuel Enoch. (1993). Socrates to Sartre: A History of Philosophy. New York: McGraw- Hill Inc. Titus, Harol. H. (1966). Ethics for Today. New Delhi: Eurasia Publishing House. Madam, G.R. (1999). Buddhism: Its Various Manifestations. Mittal Publications, New Delhi. Spiro,Melford E. (1982). Buddhism and Society: University of California Press (second expanded edition), London. Nyanawara.U,Dr. (2018). The Noble Eightfold Path in the Pali Scriptures: Fujiyama Press, Myanmar.

149 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 ALVIN TOFFLER’S VIEW ON SOME SIGNIFICANT FEATURES OF THIRD WAVE Khin Maung Htay*

ABSTRACT Third wave is final destination of human society. It can be considered that some features are synthesis of the first wave and the second wave. The aim of research is to expound some significant features of third wave. The problem of this research is why historical changes depend upon knowledge and technology? The finding of this research is that de-massify in every realms is discovered as a radical concept to transform from old society to a new one.To solve this research problem, descriptive method and evaluative method are used. It would contribute to be aware the conditions of third wave society. Key words: Histrorical changes, De-massify, and Society

INTRODUCTION History is ever changing process. Civilization or culture is also transforming because of various periods. Alvin Toffler (1928) also described about civilizations from his own point of view. Alvin Toffler recognized that the First Wave is agricultural society, the second Wave is industrial society and the Third Wave is the post-industrial society. Most countries are moving away from a Second Wave society into a Third Wave society. He coined many words to describe the Third Wave such as information age or knowledge age. This wave is based on mind, not on muscle. While the Third Wave is powerfully driven by information technology, it has co-drivers as well among them social demands worldwide for greater freedom and individualism. Manufacturing took birth out of the agricultural era and industrial era. Thus, it may be assumed that information is also can help manufacturing. It is essential for our society. It is impossible to improve for a man who has lack it. It is also indispensable for a country. In future people would need world information order such as new world economic or political orders because globalization is impact on every country. In the world, no country can stand alone. Every country must connect with others, for, in the Third Wave civilization, the most basic raw material of all is information. With information becoming more important than before, the new civilization will restructure education, and recognize the media of communication. The Third Wave civilization will rest on interactive de-massified media, feeling extremely diverse and highly personalized imagery into and out of the mind-stream of the society. The centralized computer and mobile phone will be supplement by many chips of insights, embedded in one from another in every home, hospital, hotel and vehicle. The electronic environment will converse with people. Thus, the Third Wave societies will need those who were capable of discretion and resourcefulness. To prepare those people school will shift away from present method, which is used in the

* Lecturer, Dr, Department of Philosophy, Kalay University 150 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 second wave. The most striking change in the third wave civilization will be the shift of work from both office and factory back into the home. Some Significant Features of Third Wave According to Alvin Toffler, third wave is information age or knowledge. So information technology is a radical one. Knowledge is power to develop for an individual or a society. New synthesis Nowadays new factories are being built for the civilization that made the factory into small ones. And young men and women are driving through the right into the heart of the emergent third wave civilization. One task will be joined their quest for tomorrow. Thus, Alvin Toffler said that if we could pursue them to their destination, where would we arrive? And if we were planning a similar expedition into the future, how would we prepare our maps? It is easy to say the future begins in the present. But which present? The present is exploding with paradox. Furthermore, our children are more sophisticated about drugs and sex. Some know more about computers than their parents. Yet educational test score plummet. Divorce rates continue climb but so do remarriage rates. Feminist arise at the exact time that women win rights. Gays also demand their rights. Face with such contradiction, how might we see behind the trends and counter trend? No one has any magic answer to that question. In the end we must embrace the contradictions, hunch, imagination, and daring synthesis. If we must do more than identify major trends, we must resist the temptation to be seduced by straight lines. Most people conceive of tomorrow as a more extension of today. They reverse direction. They stop and start because something is happening now or has been happing for three hundred years is no guarantee. We shall watch for precisely those contradictions, conflicts that make the future a continuing surprise. We will research out the hidden connection among events. It may be little good to forecast the future of energy or future family, if the forecast springs from the premise that everything will remain unchanged. For, nothing will remain unchanged. The future is fluid, not frozen. It is constructed by our shifting and changing daily decision and influences all others. Second wave civilization placed on extremely heavy emphasis on our ability to dismantle problems into their components. Most people are more skilled as analysis than synthesis. This is one reason why our images of future are so fragmentary and wrong. Our job will be to think like generalists, not specialist. Today we are standing on the edge of a new age of synthesis. Mass media versus De-massifying media The espionage agent has been one of the most powerful metaphors. No other figure has so successfully captured the contemporary imagination. Government, meanwhile spend billions on espionage. The Spy is hardly new to history. There is however, a reason for the rise of spy. The spy is basic business of information. The information has become the world fastest growing and most important business. The spy is living symbol of the revolution new sweeping the info-sphere. An information bomb is exploding in our midst showering us with a shrapnel of images and changing the way each of perceives and acts upon our private world. In

151 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 shifting from a second wave to a third wave info-sphere, people are transforming their own psyches. They create in their skull a mind model of reality. Some of these are visual, others auditory, even tactile. Some are only percepts. Other is linkages that define relationships such as two words mother and child. Some are simple, other are complex and conceptual. Together such images add up to the picture of the world in which we locate in, time and space and network of personal relationship. Before the advent of mass media, a first wave child built his model of reality out of images received from a tiny handful of sources. There are no televisions or radios in the home to give the child a chance to meet many different kinds of strangers from many different of like and from different countries. Their choices were more limited. The images of their world built up by the village. The children were extremely narrow in range. The second wave multiplied the number of channels from which the people drew their picture of reality. The child no longer received imagery from nature or people alone but from newspapers, mass magazines, radio and television. The mass media was used across regional ethnic, tribal, and linguistic lines to standardize the images flowing in society‟s mind-stream. The third wave is changed by information or information technology. With regard it Alvin Toffler said as follows; The third wave is altering all this. As change accelerates in society, it forces a parallel acceleration. New information reaches us and we are forced to revise our image file continuously at a faster and faster rate. Older image based on past reality must replace for unless we update them, our action become divorced from reality and we become progressively less competent.1 This means that images grow more and more temporary. It is difficult to know exactly how the image is changing. For the third wave does more than simply accelerate our information flow. It changes the deep structure of information on which daily actions depends. The de-massified media Through the second wave era the mass media grew more and more powerful. Today a startling change is taking place. As the third wave thunders in the mass media far from expanding their influence are suddenly being forced to share it. They are being beaten back on many fronts at once by de-massified media. The older of the second wave, mass media, and newspaper are losing their readers. By 1973 U.S. newspaper had reached a combined aggregate circulation of (63) million copies daily. However, 1975 instead of adding circulation have begun to lose it. It is due to the rise of television. The mass circulation dailies forces increasing competition from a burgeoning flock of mini circulation weeklies, biweeklies and shoppers that serve not the metropolitan mass market. The big city mass circulation is in deep trouble. De-massified media are snapping at its heels. From the mid-1950s hardly a year has passed without the death in the United State of a major magazine such as Life, Look, the Saturday, Evening post. Each went to its grave, later to undergo resurrection as a small circulation. The de-massified magazine is rapidly

1Alvin Toffler, 1980, The Third Wave, New York; Bantam Book, division of Random House.p.159

152 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 taking place. For the third wave communication media are the dominances of the second wave media lords on broad front. Video cassette players and recorder are spreading rapidly as well. All these different developments have one thing in common. They slice the mass television public into segments and each slice not only increases cultural diversity, it cuts into the power of the network. The mass media are under attack. De-massified media are proliferating, challenging and replacing the mass media in all second wave societies. The third wave begins a new era. It is the age of the de-massified media. A new info-sphere is engaging the new techno-sphere. And they will have an impact on the most important sphere of all. With regard it, Alvin Toffler has compared as follows. During the second wave era the continual pounding of standardized imagery pumped out by mass mind. Today instead of masses of people all receiving the same massages, smaller de-massified groups receive and send large amount of their own imagery to one another. As the society shifts toward third wave diversity, the new media reflect and accelerate the process.1 Therefore, de-massifiecation of the civilization brings with it an enormous jump in the amount of information. Hence people and organizations crave more information and the system begins to connect with higher and higher flows of data. By forcing up the amount of information and the speeds of which it must be exchanged, the third wave shutters the framework of overloaded second wave info- sphere and constructs a new one to take its place. The impact of computer Many people of the world believed that behind the physical reality of things lay sprits. The key revolutionary advance is the computer. A combination of electronic memory with programs that tell the machines how to process the stored data, computer well still a scientific curiosity in the early 1950s. Between 1955 and 1965, however, the decade when the third wave began its surge in the United States, they began to seep into the business world. All first they were standalone units of modest capacity, employed chiefly for financial purposes. Soon machines with huge capacity began moving into corporate hindquarters and were deployed for a variety of task. This dispersion of computer intelligence is moving ahead at high speed. Outside the confines of industry and government moreover, a parallel is under way based on the home computer. The number home computer was negligible. These machines are already being used for everything from doing the family taxes to monitoring energy use in the home, playing game and serving us smart typewriter. Anyone can communicate with anyone with computer. And Bridge, Chess, plagues can play games with someone a thousand miles distant. Users can send private messages to one another of people at once. It can store all correspondence in electronic memory. It is easy to create electronic communities. It can share message

1 Ibid. p.165

153 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 for the people. People can receive their comments from the electronic memory by data. Computer represents another advance in the construction of an intelligent environment. Many people are excluded from the job, market because they are illiterate. Even the simplest jobs demand people capable of reading form pay check, job instructions. In the second wave, the world the ability to read was the most elemental skill required by office. Literacy is more than a job skill. It is the way to a fantastic universe of imagination and pleasure. But in an intelligent environment, literacy could turn out to be less paycheck linked than it has been for the past. Computers are not supermen. They make errors. Sometimes they can make dangerous ones. There is nothing magical about them. Computers are not spirit or soul, in our environment. But computer remain among the most amazing and unsettling of human achievements, for computer enhance our mind power. Hence, intelligence, imagination, and intuition will continue in the foreseeable decades to be for more important than the machine. Nevertheless, computers can be expended to deepen the entire cultures view of causality, heightening our understanding of the interrelatedness of things and help to synthesis meaningful whole out of the disconnected data. The computer is one antidote to blip culture. At the same time, the intelligent environment may begin to change not merely the way we analyze problems and integrate information. However, the de-massificatin of media and the concomitant rise of the computer together change social memory. In the beginning human groups were faced to store their shared memories in the same place, they kept private memories such as the minds of human. They carried these memories with them in the form of history, myth and transmitted them to their children through speech, song and example. The second wave civilization smashed the memory barriers. It spread mass literacy. It kept systematic business records. It built many libraries and museums. Today, we are about to jump to a whole new stage of social memory. The radical de- massification of the media, the invention of new media, the mapping of the earth by satellite, and the monitoring of hospital patients by electronic sensor the computerization of corporate files are developed in third wave. However, shift to a third wave social memory is more than just quantitative. We are also imparting life to our memory. Concerning social memory Alvin Toffler wrote as follows; When social memory was stored in human brain, it was being eroded, refreshed, and stirred about combined and recombined in new way. It was dynamic. It was alive, when industrial civilization moved of social memory outside the skill that memory becomes objectified embedded in artifacts, book, newspaper, photographs and films. But symbol once inscribed on a page, a photo once, captured 1 on film, a newspaper one printed remained passive or static. In previous societies, the info-sphere provided the means for communication between humans. The third wave multiplies these means. It also provided powerful facilities for the first time in history, for machine to machine communication and for conversation between human and intelligence environment. The constructing a new civilization is racing forward on many levels at once.

1 Ibid. p.177

154 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 Customized production The essence of second wave manufacture was the long run of many of identical, standardized products. By contrast, the essence of third wave manufacture is the short run of customized products. It is conventional knowledge that the percentage of worker employed in manufacturing in the advanced nation has declined. The shrinkage of manufacturing has accelerated in the industrial world, more and more routine manufacturing has been farmed out to the developing countries. Thus, the most backward second wave industries are exported from the rich nation to the poor. The rich nations cannot afford to surrender manufacturing altogether and they will not become service societies or information economics. The image of rich world living off nonmaterial production, while the other world engages in the output of material goods is highly oversimplified. The rich nations are continuing to manufacture the key goods. The fewer workers are need. Even in military production, most people still think in terms of mass but the reality is de-mass. In fact the vast bulk of what a modern military establishment need is not mass produced at all. The shift toward customization is best symbolized by a computer based laser gun introduced into the clothing industry. Before the second wave brought mass production if a man wanted a piece of clothing made he went to a tailor sewed it. In any case, it was done on a handcraft basis to his individual measure. All sewing was essentially custom tailoring. After the second wave it begins to manufacture identical clothes on a mass production basis. As some industries move from mass to small batch production others are already moving beyond that toward fall customization on a continuous flow basis. Another significant change brings the customer more directly than ever before into manufacturing process. The electronic cottage The advance of a new production system is a potential for social change. Therefore Alvin Toffler has been said as follows; Apart from encouraging smaller work units, apart from permitting a decentralization and de- urbanization of production, apart from altering the actual character of work, the new production system could shift many jobs out of the factories and offices into the home. If this were to happen every institution would be transformed..1 Alvin Toffler assumed that in the three hundred years ago, only a modern would have dreamed that the time would soon come when the fields would be depolluted, when people would crowd into urban factories to earn their daily food. Today the biggest factories and offices may reduce to use as warehouse into living space. Doing Homework The three hundred years ago, people would never move out of the home and field to work in factories. After all, they had labored in their own cottage or home and the nearby land. The structured of family, the process of child rearing and the whole

1 Ibid. p.187

155 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 system of property and power, the culture, the daily struggle for existence were all bound to the hearth and the soil by many invisible chains. But these chains were slashed in order to appear a new system of production. Today that is happing again and a whole group of social and economic forces are converging to transfer the place of work. In the shifting from second wave manufacturing to third wave manufacturing, the number of workers who have to manipulate physical goods were reduced because of in the manufacturing sector, an increasing amount of work is being done and given the configuration of telecommunication and other equipment could be accomplished anywhere, including one‟s own living room. Corporate and government employer will discover that shifting work into the home. The smaller the central offices and manufacturing facilities become the smaller the real estate bill and the smaller the costs of heating, cooling, lighting, policing, and maintain them. The transfer of the work and reduction of commuting will also reduce pollution. Environmentalist become to pay for pollution, the more incentive, will to shift to low pollution activities and therefore from large scale centralized workplace to smaller work center into the home. The fight for electronic cottage is part of the larger supper-struggle between the second wave and the third wave future. The home centered society If the electronic cottage were spread, a chain of consequences of great importance would flow through society. According to Alvin Toffler, there are four characters that impact on society. (A) Community impact; work at home could mean greater community stability. If employee can perform some of their work tasks at home, they do not have to move every time they change jobs. They can simply play into a different computer. This implies forced mobility on the individual man relationship, and greater participation in community its member are reluctant join neighborhood organization, to make deep friendship, to engage in local politics. The electronic cottage could help restore a sense of community belonging, and touch off a renaissance many voluntary organizations, such as churches, women‟s groups, clubs, and youth organizations. (B) Environmental impact; the transfer of work, into the home could not only reduce energy requirement but could also lead to energy decentralization. Instead of requiring highly concentrated amount of energy in office and therefore requiring highly centralized energy generation the electronic cottage system would spread out energy demand and make it easier to use solar wind, and other energy technologies. Smaller scale energy units in each home could substitute for some of the centralized energy required. It can also reduce in pollution. (C) Economic impact; some business would shrink in such a system and other grow. The electronic computer and communication industries would flourish. By contrast, the oil companies, the auto industries and commercial real estate developer would be hart. A whole group of small scale computer stores and information services would spring up. Most service industries and white color industries would benefit. If individual came to own their own electronic equipment they would become independent entrepreneurs rather than employee. All sorts of new relationship and organizational forms become possible. (D) Psychological impact; most people will work at home part time and outside the home as well. Some people will went out home for months or years then 156 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 switch to an outside jobs and then switch back again. In turn the characteristic problem of industrial society from unemployment to grinding monotony on job, to over specialization to the callous treatment of the individual, the low ways may be unresolvable within the second wave production system. Today the electronic cottage will become the norm of future. Therefore, Alvin Toffler predicts that it is not possible to see in relationship to one another a number of the third wave changes examined in isolation. It can be seen a transformation of technological system and energy base into a new techno-sphere. This is occurring at the same time that people are de-massifying the new media and building an intelligent environment, thus, revolution of the info- sphere as well. These were giant currents flow to system to change the deep structure of the production system, carrying toward the transfer of work back into the home. The third wave does alter second wave patterns of synchronization. It attacks other basic features of industrial life. The invisible economy During the first wave most people consumed what they themselves produce. They have neither producers nor consumers in the usual sense. They might be called prosumers. Industrial revolution drives a wedge into society. It separated the two functions, producers and consumers. Agricultural society based on production for use whereas an industrial society based on production for exchanges. However, the actual situation was more complicated. During the first wave a small amount of production for exchange. In the second wave, a small amount of production for self-use was existed. According to Alvin Toffler, there are two economic sectors Sector (A), comprises all that unpaid work done directly by people for themselves, their families and communities. Sector (B), comprises all the productions of goods, or services for sale or exchange through market. During the first wave sector-A was enormous while sector-B was minimal. The production of goods and services for market was developed. But the second wave economists forgot the existence of sector-A. The economy was defined to exchange all forms of work or production not intended for the market and the procumer become invisible. Concerning invisible economy, Alvin Toffler mentioned as follows; All the unpaid work done by women in the home all the cleaning, scrubbing , child-rearing, the community, organizing was contemptuously dismissed as non- economic, even though sector –B, the visible economy could not have existed without the goods and services produced in sector-A the invisible economy. If no one were at home minding the children there would be no next generation of paid workers for sector-B and the system would full of its own weight.1 Today, second wave society suffers their terminal crisis. So, politicians and experts still bandy about economic statistic based on sector-B, transection. They worry about decline growth and productivity. But they ignore sector-A and megard it

1 Ibid. p.267

157 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 as outside the economy. It needs to look not only at services, but at goods to show the long-range future development. Prosumer life style The rise of the prosumer leads to the new work styles and life arrangements. It we permit ourselves to speculate, bearing in mind some of the shifts described the move toward de-synchronization and part-time paid work, the possible emergence of the electronic cottage or the change structure of family life. Thus, people are moving toward a future economy in which very large numbers hold full-time paid jobs. In the third wave, context, new life-style based half on production for exchange, half on production for use, because practical such life style were common in the early day of the industrial revolution. For a long traditional period most of people worked part time in factories and part-time on the land, growing their own foods, buying some of their necessities. This pattern still prevails in many parts of the world. Twenty first century technology for goods and food production enhanced self- help methods for the production of many services. It saw that it may become some day for the customer to program his own specifications into the auto manufacturing process from computer and telephone. But there is another way in which the customer can participate in producing an auto. It is to know how far the shift of activity from exchange in sector (B), to presumption in sector (A).The balance between these sectors will vary from country to country. What is certain is that any significant change in the balance between production for use and production for exchange will set off depth charges under economic system and values as well. Economy in Third Wave The second wave brought with it more than steam engines and mechanical looms, it brought with it a huge change. Today it can see this shift occurring among populations moving form first wave to second wave societies. In the third wave, production moves back the sector (A), and the customer is drawn back into the sector (B), production process. As the third wave has begun to restructure the world economy, the economics profession has been savagely attacked for its inability to explain what is happening. Its most sophisticated tools, including computerized models and matrices seem to tell us less and less about economy really works. Many economists are concluding that conventional economic thought both Western and Marists is out of touch with a fast-changing reality. One key reason may be that more and more changes of great significance lie outside sector (B). Third wave economist will need to develop new models, measure, and indices for describing processes in sector-A, and will harm to rethink many root assumptions in the light of the rise of the prosumer. The End of Marketization The human race has been busy constructing a worldwide exchange network. In second wave, this process has roared forward at very high speed. Second wave civilization marketed the world. Today, this process is coming to an end. This cannot be appreciated unless people are clear about what a market or exchange network is. The first merchants and mercenaries of second wave civilization spread around the world. The market expanded in another way. As society and the economy 158 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 grew more complex, the number of transactions required for, says a single bar of soap of the pass from producer to consumer multiplied. Today all these forms of market expansion are reaching their own limits. A few populations still remain to be brought into the market. Only a handful of the remotest people remain untouched by the market. The relationships between sector-A and sector-B are complex and many of the activities of prosumers depend on the purchase of materials from the market. But the rise of self-help in particular and the de-marketization of many goods in services suggest that the end of the process of marketization may be in sight. Lastly, the increasing elaborateness of the pipeline, the growing complexity of distributions, and the interpolation of more and more middlemen appears to be reaching point of no return. Therefore, Alvin Toffler presented that the third wave will produce history‟s first trans-market civilization. According to him, trans-market does not means a civilization without exchange network, that a world thrown back into small isolated, completely self- sufficient communities unable to trade with one another. It means that a civilization is dependent on the market but is no longer consumed by need to build extend, elaborate, and integrate this structure. A civilization is able to move to a new agenda because the market has already been laid in place. The third wave of historical change represents not a straight-line extension of industrial society but a radical shift of direction. It adds up to nothing less than a complete transformation at least as revolutionary as industrial civilization was three hundred years ago. Furthermore, what is happening is not just a technological revolution but the coming of a whole new civilization in the fullest sense of that term. According to Alvin Toffler, every civilization operates in and on the biosphere and reflects or alters the mix of populations and resources. Every civilization has a characteristics techno- sphere that an energy base linked to a production system which is linked to a distribution system. Every civilization has a socio-sphere consisting of interrelated social institution. Every civilization has an info-sphere that channels of communication though which necessary information flows. And every civilization has its own power-sphere. In addition every civilization has a set of characteristics relationship with the outside world. Every civilization has its own supper ideology. The third wave is bringing revolutionary and self-reinforcing changes at all these different levels at once. The consequence is not merely the disintegration of the old society but the creation of foundation for the new. The third wave civilization unlike its predecessor must draw on an amazing variety energy sources such as hydrogen, solar, lighting discharges etc. The third wave civilization will rely on a far more diversified technological base as well, spring from biology, genetics electronic, materials, science as well as on outer space and under the sea operation. While some new technologies will require high energy inputs, much third wave technology will be designed to use less, not more energy. For third wave civilization, the most basic raw materials of all is information, including imagination. With information becoming more important, the new civilization will restructure education, redefine scientific research and recognize the media of communication. Today‟s mass media both print and electronic are inadequate to cope with

159 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 communication load and to provide the requisite cultural variety for survival. So, third wave civilization will rest on inter-active, de-massified media, feeling extremely diverse and often highly personalized imagery into and out of the mind-stream of the society. The fusion of the third wave energy forms, technologies and information media will speed revolutionary changes in the way people work. In the third wave civilization, the factory will no longer serve as a model for other types of institutions. It relies on advanced method such as holistic production. It will ultimately use less energy, waste less raw material, employ fewer components and demand for more design intelligence. Most of its machines will be directly activated not only workers but at a distance by consumers themselves. Those who do work in third wave factories will perform far less brutalizing or repetitive work. They will not be paced by mechanical conveyor belts. Workers will come and go to hours convenient for them. The actual workplace will be far more humane and individualized. Third wave factories will increasingly be found outside the giant urban metropolises. Similarly the third wave office will no longer resemble the office of today. Conclusion There were various kinds of views about the historical changes of a society. Here, there is a radical question, that what the historical changes of a society is based on? Various answers about this question are given by different philosopher of history. In the first wave, he deliberated about agriculture. Land was basic of economy and family structure. Goods were normally made by handcraft method. Production was created one at a time on a custom basis. In communication, first wave people used towers. Later, the horse taxis ran a form of pony express service. All these channels are reserved for the rich and powerful only. Commerce is also existed. The first wave economy occupied two sectors. In the first sector, people produce commodities for their own use. In another sector, people produce for trade or exchange. Most work is performed in the fields or at the home. Work life and home life were fused and intermingled. Division of labor was very primitive. In the second wave, industrial revolution took place. Technology, sensory organs, creating machines was appeared. The second wave brought machines together in interconnected system under a single roof, to create the factory. Industrialism was more assembly lines. It was a social system that touched every aspects of human life. As industrialization required mobility from people, the nuclear family becomes a significant feature of all second wave society. When industrial societies turn out many of identical products, the standardization become the familiar of the second wave feature. The more second wave eliminated diversity in language, leisure and life style, the more it needed diversity in the work. Thus the second wave replaced the specialist and the worker who did only one task. Therefore, specialization is great principle of second wave societies. All industrial nations developed centralization into a fine art. But for Alvin Toffler, all societies require a mixture of centralization and decentralization. Furthermore, industrialism broke society into many of interlocking parts. It also broke knowledge into specialized discipline. It broke jobs into fragments. In the third wave, new factories are built the civilization that made the factory into small ones. Third wave people are driving through the right into the heart of the 160 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 emergent civilization. One task will be joined their quest for tomorrow. Most people do realize tomorrow as a more extension of today. They reverse direction. They stop and start because something is happening now or has been happing since past. Therefore no jobs are guarantee for future. Besides, the information has become the world fastest growing and most important business. New information reaches us and we are forced to revise our image file continuously at a faster and faster rate, because third wave is altering all this. Thus, it may be said that third wave is changed by information or information technology. The role of media becomes an important sector of the third wave. In the second wave mass media grew. The second wave multiplied the number of channels. The mass media was used regional ethnic, tribal, and linguistic lines to standardize the images of society. Third wave thunders are suddenly being forced to share the mass media. They are being beaten back on many fronts at once by de-dassified media. Mass media, newspaper are losing their readers. The mass circulation dailies forces increasing competition from a burgeoning flock of mini-circulation weeklies, and biweeklies. Thus, de-massified media are developed quickly. Another key revolutionary advance of third wave is the computer. It is the most useful thing. Anyone can communicate with anyone with computer. And users can send private message to one another of people at once. It can store all correspondence in electronic memory. It is easy to create electronic communities. It represents another advance in the construction of an intelligent environment. In the intelligent environment, it may be seen that many people are excluded from the jobs, market because they are illiterate. Even the simplest jobs demand people who are capable of reading from pay check, job instruction. Literacy is more than a job skill. Thus enhancing brain is the essential one of the third wave. The important point is that the nature of society is significantly altered by the impact of new technology. Thus, some educated people lives are modified to use the technology. Technology and information is most crucial thing of third wave or twenty-first centuries. At present day, information revolution is inevitable issue of every country. On the basic of information, in economies, politics, social relation, education, and so on were being running towards their goals. For Alvin Toffler, society or human history alters wave by wave. He recognized that first wave is agriculture civilization, second wave is industrial civilization, and third wave is information technology. Transformation of wave to another wave is not random, but forms of sharp, clearly visible pattern. Changes are cumulative process. It adds to big transformation. Changes come in waves. Therefore, Alvin Toffler considered history as a succession of rolling waves of change. It is important that historical change must lead to welfare of global society. It is not considerable that material life only is progress but spiritual life of society is under developed. Only if, material life and spiritual life of global society is developed integrally, world history can be arrived at destination which is appropriate it. And then, global society will be continuing alive. Therefore, everyone who live global planet must endeavor to survive the world eternally because man are prime factor of historical change and also master of it. It is certain that history is ever changing. In conclusion, it can be draw that human history is changing depending upon the development of human knowledge and human needs as the historical principle. On

161 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 the basic of Alvin Toffler‟s wave theory, it can be give historical prediction that the whole process of the world history will be driven by cooperation of first wave agriculture, second wave industrial revolution and third wave information technology in the post-third wave. For, everyone cannot abandon their agriculture to work in the factories. To survive human race, agriculture is continuously being worked. To replace utterly mechanics behalf of animals and man in the agriculture is impossible. Energy of animals and man is required. Standardization and synchronization of the second wave will be existed constantly. And then, information technology of third wave is also essential in global society. Therefore, it can be said that the world history will be driven by three waves in the post-third wave or in the future.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my sincere thanks to Rector and Pro-rector (Kalay University) for their encouragement and suggestions. I would like to express my gratitude to Dr.Thida Htwe, Professor and Head of Department and Dr. Khin Myat Mar, Professor, Kalay University for their guideance and valuable suggestions

REFERENCES DrayWilliam 1960, Laws and Explanation in History, London; Oxford University Press. Toffler, Alvin1970, Future Shock, New York; Random House. Toffler, Alvin1980, The Third Wave, New York; Bantam Book, division of Random House. Toffler, Alvin 1990, Power Shift, New York; Bantam Book, division of Random House.

ONLINE REFERENCES Friedman, Thomas, L The World is Flat, a Brief History of Twenty First century. http:// www.ywhe. Net. Thomas L.Friedman http://www. Google.com/m?q=c.p.Snow. http://www.en.m.wikepedia. Org/wikei/Voltaire http://www.google.com/m?=jessie Bernard

162 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 ESTIMATION OF RADIATION FROM POTASSIUM CHLORIDE (KCl) SAMPLE Khin Maung Htwe1, Tin Htun Naing2 and Hla Win Aung3

ABSTRACT In the present work, we study the benefits and side effects of potassium chloride and the properties of radiation. Many people need to restrict the amount of sodium in their diets. The commonly purchased salt substitute is potassium chloride. Because potassium is a natural radioactive element, type of radiation emitted from it is determined by using GM counter. From the measurement result, we can easily see that these data are consistent with a source that emits primarily beta radiation (26.7% passes through). The amount of radiation given off by this salt substitute is small; it can be detected at levels slightly above background. Key words: Radiation, GM counter, Potassium Chloride (KCl)

1. INTRODUCTION All potassium has a naturally-occurring radioactive isotope, Potassium K-40 (40K). It is a primordial isotope, meaning that it was formed a few billion years ago through the various stellar processes that created most of other isotopes. Since it has a 1.3 billion year half-life, it is long-lived enough to survive to the present day, but there is only one K-40 nucleus out of every 8,500 potassium nuclei (most potassium is K-39 (93%) and K-41 (7%)). In fact, K-40 gives us an estimated 7% of our total background radiation dose. Even though K-40 is so rare, this is balanced out by the high abundance of potassium in the world - potassium is found in high amounts in minerals, soil, and organisms. Our bodies contain about 140 grams of potassium at any given time. Exposure from K-40 is about 0.17 millisieverts per year on average, or about 7% of the average person's total natural background dose of 2.4 mSv/year. Many people need to restrict the amount of sodium in their diets. The commonly purchased salt substitute is potassium chloride. As previously mentioned, naturally occurring potassium contains the radioactive isotope potassium-40, at a natural abundance of 0.0118%. Thus, potassium chloride salt substitute contains a small percentage of this isotope. The specific activity is 7.0 mCi per gram of potassium K-40. This leads to a specific activity for a salt substitute sample of 4.410- 4µCi per gram of pure KCl. Potassium chloride is used to prevent or to treat low blood levels of potassium (hypokalemia). Potassium levels can be low as a result of a disease or from taking certain medicines, or after a prolonged illness with diarrhea or vomiting. Potassium chloride is mainly used to treat and prevent potassium deficiency in the body. Potassium is an essential element concentrated in every cell of the body and necessary to regulate the heart. It is also essential to maintain normal calcium balance in the

1 Lecturer, Dr, Department of Physics, Kalay University 2 Lecturer, Dr, Department of Physics, Shwe Bo University 3 Lecturer, Dr, Department of Physics, Yadanabon University

163 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 body, control blood pressure, activate enzymes needed for energy production, protein synthesis and maintaining healthy nervous and muscle systems. Given the important roles that potassium plays in the body, low potassium levels (hypokalemia) can result in serious health conditions. The symptoms of a potassium deficiency include fatigue, muscle cramps or general weakness, feeling dizzy, being thirsty all the time, and changes in the heart rate or rhythm. Potassium chloride has many benefits within the body. Potassium plays an important role in maintenance of a healthy muscular, cardiac, nervous and metabolic system, and potassium chloride is an excellent way of supplying it to the body. Potassium chloride is mainly used as a treatment for potassium deficiency, although it can be used to help with other conditions such as osteoporosis, heart disease, high blood pressure and muscle fatigue. In 1998, a study conducted at the Harvard School that of Public Health and published in the American Heart Association Journal demonstrated potassium could significantly lower blood pressure. The supplement works by regulating the heartbeat and, thus, helps to slow the heart in cases of high blood pressure. Osteoporosis is characterized by depletion of body calcium leading to weakening of the bones. The kidneys are responsible for the regulation of potassium and calcium levels in the blood. Potassium helps in the re-absorption of calcium from urine in the kidneys. Potassium plays a major role in the functioning of the heart, helping maintain a normal heartbeat. Hypokalemia is a medical condition which results from lower potassium levels in the blood. Potassium helps in the metabolism within the body‟s cells. It also helps to relieve muscle weakness and cramps. The side effects of excess (amount of 2.5 g/ kg) potassium chloride are; (1) Stomach upset, (2) Low blood pressure levels, (3) Hyperkalemia, (4) Allergic reactions (5) Kidney Problems. The aim of this project, we study the benefits and side effects of potassium chloride and the properties of radiation.

2. MATERIALS AND METHOD 2.1 Study Area In the present paper, Potassium chloride sample was collected from the local chemical equipment market. 2.2 Sample Collection and Preparation Potassium chloride sample was collected from the local chemical equipment market. The sample was ground to fine powder by using motor. The powder sample was weighed by using digital balance. The weight of potassium chloride is 200 g. The composition by weight of potassium in potassium chloride is 50.98%. The powder sample of potassium chloride is shown in Figure (1). 164 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019

Figure (1) Potassium Chloride Sample 2.3 Experimental Set-up In this experiment, the following equipments are used. They are ST-360 box, Geiger-Muller tube, poly ethylene sample container, tube stand and fine powder potassium chloride. Firstly the power supply was plugged into any normal electricity outlet and into the back of the ST-360 box. The GM tube was placed in vertical position on the top of the sheet stand and the BNC connector up. The BNC cable was attached to the GM tube and ST-360 box. The power switch was turned ON and the switch button at the back of the ST-360 was set to the ON position. The operating voltage of the GM tube is about 800 volts. This voltage is fixed for all measuring time is 300 seconds (5 minutes). The experimental set-up used in this research is shown in Figure (2). The measurement condition of G-M counter is shown in Table (1).

GM Tub e

Sources

Potassium chloride ST-360 Scalar Box

Figure (2) Measurement condition for experimental set-up

Table (1) Measurement Specification for Geiger-Muller Counter (ST-360) 1 Type of Counter G-M counter 2 Operating Voltage 800 V 3 Operating Temperature Room Temperature 4 Counting Time 300 second each 5 Type of sample Potassium chloride powder sample

165 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 Table (2) The Measured Counts and Percent of Emitted Radiation Count Above the Percent of Statistical Sample Counts Rate background uncover Uncertainty (cpm) (cpm) sample Background 365 19.10 733.82 - - KCl (uncover) 443 21.04 884.21 15  0.3 100% KCl + Paper (0.1 µm) 388 19.69 773.93 4  0.11 26.7% KCl + aluminium 237 15.39 473.07 Lower Bkg Lower Bkg (3.1 mm) KCl + Lead (6.47 mm) 226 15.03 453.0 Lower Bkg Lower Bkg

2.4 Method of Radiation Measurement from Potassium Chloride (KCl) Before making measurement with sample, the background measurement was first made. The collection time was 300 seconds. The polyethylene container was cleaned by methyl sprit and tissues paper. The potassium chloride powder sample was placed in polyethylene container. The sample was measured at 300 seconds. The sample container is covered with 0.1µm thickness of white paper and measured at 300 seconds. Then the same procedure was made by covering with 3.1mm of aluminium sheet and 6.47mm of lead. For each procedure, three-time measurements were done. The number of given counts were recorded at each time. This experiment was performed at Nuclear Physics Laboratory, Department of Nuclear Physics, Yadanabon University.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION In the present work, we have studied the basic concept natural radiation, the benefits and side effects of potassium chloride. And then we have studied the construction and operation of Geiger-Muller counter. Furthermore; we have experimentally studied on the measurement of radiation potassium chloride. A Geiger counter (Geiger-Muller tube) is a device used for the detection and measurement of all types of radiation: alpha, beta and gamma radiation. According to this measurement, the counts, statistical uncertainty, count rate (cpm) and the emission type of radiation percentage was present in Table (2). From the measurement results, we determined about figuring out what kind of radiation was coming from the potassium chloride. The three kinds of radiation are shielded in different ways. If radiation is primarily alpha particles, a sheet of paper should stop them. Since the radiation is not attenuated very much (26.7% passes through), we can conclude that the radiation is not primarily alpha particles. If radiation is primarily beta particles, aluminium absorber should be placed at the top of the sample container, to reduce the attenuation. Also, lead absorber is placed at the top of the sample container; the net counts are lower than the background counts. It can be seen that, the thin sheets of metal will not attenuate gamma-rays very much. The energy loss of beta particles is passing through that 166 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 thickness of metal. We can easily see that these data are consistent with a source that emits primarily beta radiation, where the betas have energy in the hundreds of keV.

4. CONCLUSION The amount of radiation given off by this salt substitute is small; it can be detected at levels slightly above background. Many people need to restrict the amount of sodium in their diets. The commonly used salt substitute is potassium chloride. Therefore, it is very important to try to know the amount of this salt required in our daily food.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to express our gratude to Dr. Thar Htun Maung, Rector of Kalay University and Prof. Dr. Ahmar Kywe, Head of Department of Physics, Kalay University, for their encouragement. We are also grateful to my colleagues, Physics Department, Kalay University for their suggestions in this research.

REFERENCES B.L.Therja, "Modern Physics", S.CHAND & COMPANY LTD. (NEWDELHI), (16th Revised Edition 2008) Ghoshal S.N; "Atomic and Nuclear Physics ", Chand S, and Company Ltd, New Delhi (1998) N.Tsoulfanidis, “Measurement and Detection of Radiation”, Toylar & Francis, USA (1995) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiation measurement from potassium chloride http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Uses and side effects of potassium chloride

167 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 DETERMINATION OF WATER STATUS OF ALOE VERA LEAVES ON BETA ATTENUATION TECHNIQUE Lay Thi Tar Oo*1

ABSTRACT The study of interaction of beta particles with the materials has become major area of interest in the field of radiation science. Beta particle attenuation yields fundamental information on material composition such as thickness, water content etc. This present paper was intended to determine the water content in Aloe Vera Leaves based on (i) beta attenuation technique using beta emitter (Sr-90 source) and a portable radiation counter (ST-360) with a Geiger-Muller survey meter and (ii) direct weighing. Moreover, there was two parts of the experimental work in this study. Firstly, the estimation of linear and mass attenuation coefficients was carried out by measuring transmission of β-particles through the fresh and completely dry leaves. Secondly, the relation between the changes in the linear attenuation and water content of a single fresh leaf was also studied by using oven method. From these two parts, the percentage of water content values was calculated and was compared. In oven experiment, these water content values of both two methods were varied with the values of linear attenuation. The calculated results were shown as an appreciable evidence of radiation absorption characteristics with conclusion of this research paper. Keywords: Attenuation coefficients, aloe vera, Sr-90 radioactive source, water, GM counter

1. INTRODUCTION Radiation is the part of our environment. It comes from both natural and manmade sources. Radiation is also a form of energy. That energy can be released in different forms: alpha particles, beta, gamma rays and neutron. A beta particle, also called beta ray or beta radiation (symbol β) is a high energy, high-speed electron or positron emitted by radioactive decay of an atomic nucleus during the process of beta decay. Leaves, in particular, tend to have water composing a large percentage of their structure and beta attenuation method provides quantitative information of water content in leaves. These coefficients play an important role in agriculture, industry and forestry sciences. Aloe Vera L. (Aloe barbadensis miller) is an important medicinal plant belongs to the family Liliaceae. It has larger demands and is traded in medicinal drug markets of the world for flavouring liquid and a source of ' a loin". Aloe Vera has been used for medicinal purpose in several cultures for millennia: Greece, Egypt, India, Mexico, Japan, and China. Water is an essential and important constituent of plants and trees. Accurate water content estimation is needed to make irrigation decisions and predict crop yield in the field of agriculture.

*1 Lecturer, Dr, Department of Physics, Kalay University 168 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 In the present paper, the theory of the used method was discussed and the method of determination of water content in aloe vera leaf samples was also presented with the attenuation of a collimated monoenergetic beam of beta radiation. Theoretical Background The attenuation of beta radiation is due to the effect of all the energy exchange mechanisms such as photoelectric effect, pair production and Compton Effect. The intensity of attenuated beta radiation through a fresh plant leaf If, is given as,

If=Ioexp (-µftf) (1) where, Io is the intensity of the unattenuated beta radiation, tf is the mass per unit area of fresh leaves, µf is the mass attenuation coefficient of fresh leaves for a fresh leaf, (2)

For a completely dry leaf, (3) where, td is the mass per unit area of dry leaves, Id is the intensity of dry leaves, µd is the mass attenuation coefficient of dry leaves for water content of Leaves, tw=tf-td (4) where, tw is the mass of water per unit leaf area The percentage water content is determined by the formula: (5)

For direct water content, (6)

MATERTALS AND METHODS Sample Collection and Preparation In this paper, Aloe Vera Leaves were collected from the Myingyan Township, Mandalay Region. The selected leaves were washed and dried. The dimensions (4cm x 4cm) of fresh leaves were cut into pieces of various thicknesses. All samples were precisely measured by using Digital balance and Vernier Caliper and these data was recorded. Experimental Set Up and Procedure This present work was used as a portable radiation counter (ST-360) with a Geiger-Muller survey meter and a Strontium-90 (Sr-90) beta particle source (0.1µCi, 546keV, 28.8 yr) to study the attenuation of beta radiation. Firstly, source to detector distance was fixed 11 cm and counting time 60s and operating voltage 900V in the whole research. Then, the fresh leaf sample was inserted between the source and the detector. The source-absorber-detector geometry was centrally aligned. The photograph of Aloe vera leaf and the measurement condition in the present work were shown in figure (1).The number of fresh leaves was increased successively by placing one above the other and the transmission study was done till the apparatus showed sensitivity to the counts, and then each measurement was recorded for ten times. For dry leaves samples, the fresh leaves were dried for about one month in the sunshade until complete dryness (when it‟s weight reached a constant value). The

169 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 transmission of beta particles was again measured through these dry leaves. The same procedure was used to find the mass attenuation coefficient of dried leaves. For the second part of this paper (using oven method), a single fresh leaf was used under the same geometry and records the data. Then, the leaf was exposed to heating (50°C) by placing it in an electric oven for 5 minutes. The measurements were again performed after this exposure time 5 minutes. The above procedure was repeated for some duration till the samples attained their oven dried state. So, the second section deals with the determination of linear attenuation coefficient and water content for the leaf samples. Every measurement was taken weights of leaf samples to calculate the water content of the samples.

Figure (1) The Aloe vera leaf and the measurement arrangement in present work RESULTS AND DISCUSSION In this present paper, the variation of transmitted intensity and linear attenuation coefficients as a function of fresh and dry leaf thickness was shown in tables (1) and (2) and the corresponding figures were (2) to (5). It is found that as the transmitted intensity decreases exponentially with increase in leaf thickness. Then, a comparison plot of water content characteristics of fresh and dry Aloe Vera leaves was shown in table (3). In oven experiment, the variation of transmitted intensity and linear attenuation coefficients as a function of only one leaf thickness was shown in table (4) and the corresponding figures were (6) to (7). It is found that as the transmitted intensity also increases exponentially with decrease in leaf thickness. Then, a comparison plot of water content characteristics was shown in table (5) by using oven method. Table (1) The variation of transmitted intensity and linear attenuation coefficients as a function of fresh leaf thickness Fresh Leaves Sr.No Thickness Net Transmitted Ln Linear attenuation Mass (g) 2 -1 (g/cm ) Intensity (I0/I) Coefficient (cm ) 1 19.78 1.236 152± 12 2.732 2.082 2 41.04 2.565 101± 10 3.141 1.198 3 65.05 4.066 51± 7 3.824 0.942 4 87.10 5.444 22± 5 4.665 0.858 5 105.82 6.614 14± 4 5.117 0.760 Mean Linear attenuation Coefficient 1.168

170 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 Table (2) The variation of transmitted intensity and linear attenuation coefficients as a function of dry leaf thickness Dry Leaves Sr.No Thickness Net Transmitted Ln Linear attenuation Mass (g) 2 -1 (g/cm ) Intensity (I0/I) Coefficient (cm ) 1 0.60 0.061 676± 26 0.292 2.656 2 1.27 0.113 512± 23 0.570 2.689 3 1.98 0.181 386± 20 0.932 2.930 4 2.63 0.246 278± 17 1.260 3.214 5 3.23 0.307 213± 15 1.526 3.233 Mean Linear attenuation Coefficient 2.944

Table (3) A comparison plot of water content characteristics of fresh and dry Aloe Vera leaves Water Content (%) Mean Thickness Mean Sr.No 2 Beta Attenuation (g/cm ) Direct Weighing Intensity Method 1 0.649 99.024 96.967 414.000 2 1.339 98.344 96.905 306.500 3 2.123 97.777 96.956 218.500 4 2.845 97.535 96.980 150.000 5 3.460 97.278 96.948 113.500

Table (4) The variation of transmitted intensity and linear attenuation coefficients as a function of leaf thickness (by using oven method) Thickness Transmitted Linear attenuation Sr.No Mass (g) Ln (I /I) (g/cm2) Intensity 0 Coefficient (cm-1) 1 10.97 0.686 109 2.414 2.568 2 9.62 0.663 131 2.230 2.506 3 8.56 0.636 163 2.012 2.453 4 7.42 0.615 184 1.890 2.424 5 5.09 0.381 277 1.481 2.389

171 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 Table (5) A comparison plot of water content characteristics of a single Aloe Vera Leaves (by using oven method) Mean Water Content (%) Linear attenuation Sr.No Thickness Beta Attenuation -1 2 Direct Weighing Coefficient (cm ) (g/cm ) Method 1 0.463 64.993 76.390 2.568 2 0.452 63.813 73.077 2.506 3 0.438 62.248 69.743 2.453 4 0.427 60.957 65.094 2.424 5 0.311 37.062 49.116 2.389

Figure (2) The variation of transmitted intensity Figure (3) The variation of transmitted intensity as Function of fresh leaf thickness as Function of dry leaf thickness

Figure (4) The variation of relative transmitted Figure (5) The variation of relative transmitted intensity as a function of fresh leaf intensity as a function of dry leaf thickness thickness

172 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019

Figure (6) The variation of transmitted intensity Figure (7) The variation of Linear attenuation as a function of Aloe Vera leaf coefficient as a function of Aloe Vera thickness (by using oven method) leaf thickness (by using oven method)

CONCLUSION The objective of the present study is to determine the water content of Aloe Vera leaves by using beta attenuation. It is found that the transmitted intensity decreases exponentially with increase in leaf thickness for fresh leaves and dry leaves. By using oven experiment, the same result was also found. The mass attenuation coefficient values of fresh and dry Aloe Vera leaves were 0.461 and 5.051 cm2/g. The linear attenuation coefficient values of these leaves were 1.168 and 2.944 cm-1. The larger value indicates that dry leaves are more opaque in comparison to fresh leaves. The percentage of water content values, calculated by beta attenuation method and by direct weighing method is in close agreement with each other. In oven experiment, these water content values of both methods were varied with the values of linear attenuation. And then, as the thickness of the leaf increases, its water content increases which leads to increase in the absorption of radiations. Lower value of leaf water content indicates the weak health of plant and demands that extra attention should be given to that plant. Thus, the water content in the leaves plays a vital role in attenuation of radiations hence the “Leaves” of various trees act as “natural absorbers”. The present experimental findings would be very important in agricultural sector and will provide valuable information to other investigators.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all, I would like to express my sincere thank to Prof. Dr Thar Tun Maung, Rector of Kalay University and Professor Dr Ah Mar Kyawe, Head of Department of Physics, Kalay University, for their kind permission to carry out this work.

REFERENCES G.F.Knoll, Radiation Detection and Measurement, Third.ed, Wiley, New York, (2000). W.R. Lee, "Techniques for Nuclear and Particle Physics Experiments", Springer-Verlag, Germany, (1994). N. Tsaulfanidis, "Measurement and Detection of Radiation", Second ed, University of Missouri-Rolla, Taylor & Francis, (1995).

173 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 A CRITICAL STUDY OF VAṀSA TEXT Myint Myint Kywe*

ABSTRACT Vaṁsa is a Pāḷi word. It means refuge, dwelling, continuous becoming, previous tradition.1Vaṁsa is vasa dhātu or vasa dhātuis suffixed with sa or sak. From the original vanadhātu van is used in Myanmar language. Among the vaṁsa texts, it is described that there are nine vaṁsas. There are Buddhavaṁsa, Anāgtavaṁsa, Mahāvaṁsa, Dīpavaṁsa, Mahābodhivaṁsa, Daṭhadhātuvaṁsa, Nalaṭadhātuvaṁsa, Chakesadhātuvaṁsa and Dhātuvaṁsa. It is described that the MahāvaVatthu translated by Kyithe Layhtat Sayādaw contains nine vaṁsas. Keywords: Buddhavaṁsa, Anāgtavaṁsa, Mahāvaṁsa, Dīpavaṁsa, Mahābodhivaṁsa, Daṭhadhātuvaṁsa, Nalaṭadhātuvaṁsa, Chakesadhātuvaṁsa Dhātuvaṁsa

AIMS AND OBJECTIVE This aims to make the nine vaṁsas and vaṁsas not vanish, to make the dissolute law disappear and virtue law spread out, to make the Buddhasānā reach out to the people and make sure to endure. INTRODUCTION Vaṁsa is a Pāḷi word. It means saṁpatti (taking refuge) nivāsa (dwelling), anvayasantāna (continuous becoming), tantipavenī (previous tradition).2Vaṁsa is vasa dhātu or vasa dhātu is suffixed with sa or sak. From the original vanadhātu van is used in Myanmar language. There are two kinds of vaṁsa – alphabet collection of vaṁsa and text collection of vaṁsa. All vaṁsa alphabet collections of vaṁsa is called vaṁsa alphabet. There are 6 kinds of vaṁsa alphabet.3 Just as there are many kinds of vaṁsa alphabets, there are also many text collections of vaṁsa called vaṁsanta. Among the vaṁsa texts, it is described that there are nine vaṁsas. It is described that the Mahāva Vatthu translated by Kyithe Layhtat Sayādaw contains nine vaṁsas.4 Mahāvaṁsa text begins with four gathā such as Paṇāmapubbakaganthārambha. Mahāvaṁsa text is also called “Pajjapadoruvaṁsa”. It is expounded in Mahāvaṁsa Ṭīkā as “Pajjapadoruvaṁsa tisaṅkhepadosa virahitatthā sukhaggahakohoti.” Mahāvaṁsa Pāḷi which shows the history of kings and the history of Buddhism describes that there are 133 successions of kings beginning with King Vijaya to King Sirivikkamarājasīha in Ceylon. U Kelāsa Mahāthera of Sāsanā Jotipala

* Dr, Associate Professor, Department of Oriental Studies, Kalay University 1. Abhid, 528 2. Ibid, 528 3. Sute, 543 4. Ibid 174 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 Kyaung of Pakhukku Mahāvisukārāma Taik transliterated the Sinhalese alphabets into Myanmar alphabets. The Mahāvaṁsa text was compiled by Venerable Mahānāma Thera at the request of General Dīghasanta of Anurādha town in Ceylon. The body of Mahāvaṁsa text contains the accounts of the descendants of the Gotama Buddha and the propagation of Buddha Sāsanā in Ceylon. In the conclusion of Mahāvaṁsa text it is described as “Padyapadoruvaṁsa gantoniṭṭhito”. Thaton Mahāvaṁsa text is also named “Padyapadoruvaṁsa”. This is the text which expounds with gāthābandha the Gotama Bodhisatta who was the descendant of the Mahāsamata, the first king of the world at the commencement of Vivaṭṭhāayī kappa.1 1. The Name of Mahāvaṁsa Text Mahāvaṁsa text is one of the texts included in vaṁsa text. The native saṁgha scholars of Ceylon compiled many texts under the name of vaṁsa text. Pāḷi word “vaṁsa” is the same as the Sanskrit word “vaṁga”. In giving the ten meanings in Avagga Part (1) in Pāḷipada piṭaka, it pertains to the fifth meaning (a) quality - lineage, (b) race – lineage.2 In Myanmar literature, the text showing the successive Myanmar kings who ruled the country is called Yarzawunkyan. The lineage of the Sāsanā is called Sarthanarwunkyan. Wun is the same as vaṁsa. In modern parlance it is called history text. Therefore any history text is included in vaṁsa text. The kind of text akin to vaṁsa existed in the Vedic age.3 The Vaṁsabrahmaṇa text which shows the lineage of Brahmaṇa teachers appeared in the Vedic age. There were also other vaṁsa texts such as Brahmaṇa text, Āraññaka text, Upanishad text, etc. in addition to Vaṁsabrahmaṇa text. Vaṁsa texts are also found in Piṭaka Pāḷi. Buddhavaṁsa text in Khuddaka Nikāya of Suttanta Piṭaka is included in the vaṁsa text. In the world of Pāḷi classical literature, the word “tanti”4 is used in the place of “vaṁsa” in describing the succession of kings and the succession of Mahātheras.5 The succession of kings is called Rājavaṁsa.6 The succession of Buddha‟s descendants is called Buddhavaṁsa. The succession of teachers is called Ācāriyaparampara,7 or Theraparamparā. On studying the vaṁsa texts, the texts record all the three kinds of lineage or one kind of lineage. The vaṁsa text compilers embellished exercising their intellectual power in describing the different kinds of lineages. These teachers cleared the way for texts akin to lineage. The nature of the vaṁsa takes their roots in the Pāḷi texts of Pāḷi

1. Mahāv, (cha-ta) 2. Pāḷi p (b), 521 3. Vedic age. 4. Mahāvaṁmi, 227 5. Vin. A. I 6.Vin. A. I 7. A History of Indian lecture

175 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 Piṭaka and their Aṭṭhakathā texts. Texts such as Buddhavaṁsa, Cāriya Piṭaka, Nidāna Kathā, etc. which are akin to vaṁsa texts give much support to the text compilers. The two texts, Cūḷavagga and Samantapāsādika of the Vinaya Piṭaka were much useful to the vaṁsa text compilers. The two vaṁsa texts in verse that thrived first were Dīpavaṁsa and Mahāvaṁsa texts. 2. The Nature of Mahāvaṁsa Texts The persons who compiled the vaṁsa texts variously expressed their dispositions. The Sinhalese monk scholars not only expounded the Aṭṭhakathā texts but also recorded the historical accounts of the Sāsanā. Although the Vaṁsa texts in Pāḷi classical literature are not included in the Piṭaka, they are of great value. Among the vaṁsa literatures, the two texts - Dipavaṁsa and Mahāvaṁsa are outstanding works of the Sinhalese scholar monks. When these two texts are critically observed from the historical aspect, it cannot be definitely said that all the facts are accurate. According to Winternitz,1 the compiler of Indian Literature, the two texts are not called true historical texts.2 They are named historical verses.3 The legendary tales and historical facts4 are mixed in the presentation. The compilers of Mahāvaṁsa test, wishing to show the mutual friendly relationship between India and Ceylon, mixed the legendary tales and historical facts and presented.5 The monks who compiled the Mahāvaṁsa text introduced the history with the Buddha‟s travel to Ceylon through the sky with the intention of spreading the Sāsanā in Ceylon, and then subdued the impediments of the Sāsanā such as ogres, Nagās, etc. Similarly the accounts of King Asoka and his son Mahinda are described amazingly. Although legendary events are included in the description, they are not entirely tales. The tales are found to be decreasing as the time for compiling the history of Ceylon was approaching near. Based on these observations, the two vaṁsa texts cannot be said to have been compiled by selecting true historical facts. But as the two texts take their sources from the ancient texts and Aṭṭhakathā texts, they are true in origin to a certain extent. How much these two texts are valuable for the history of India cannot be said. These two texts should not be looked down because of the history of Ceylon. As the succession of Sinhalese kings is given with their reigning years, they might be credible evidences. These records are important facts regarding to the early history of Buddha Sāsanā in India. Not only fundamental information regarding the religious affairs of India, but also the shining of Buddha Sāsanā in Ceylon, and building of religious edifices in Ceylon can be known from these two texts. There were cultural relationships between India and Ceylon in the ancient time. The political affairs, economic affairs and social affairs of Ceylon can be glimpsed from these two vaṁsa texts.6

1.P.T.S 2. AHistory of Pāḷi Literature 3. P.T.S 4. Mahāvaṁni 5. P.T.S 6. Mahāvaṁni, 229-31 176 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 3. Texts Closely Related to Mahāvaṁsa Text The Mahāvaṁsa text describes an entire account of Gotama Buddha‟s relatives. There are also other history texts related to Gotama Buddha. Among them the vaṁsa text known as Nine Vaṁsas is as follows. Those nine vaṁsa texts are related to the Gotama Buddha by one mean or another. (1) Buddhavaṁsa Text This text describes the succession of Buddhas. Buddhavaṁsa texts exist as Pāḷi text, Aṭṭhakathā text, Ṭīkā text and Myanmar translation. The Myanmar word Buddhavaṅ is derived from Pāḷi word “Buddhavaṁsa.” Venerable Buddhattha expounds Buddhavaṅ in Buddhavaṁsa Aṭṭhakathā as: “Itoheṭṭhā kappasata sahassa dhikesu catūsu asaṅkheyyesu uppandanā pañcavisatiyā buddhanā uppannakappādi paricchedavasena paveṇivittayakathā buddhavaṁso namātiveditabbo”. (The twenty- five Buddhas who appeared during the four asaṅ khyeyyas beyond the one hundred thousand kappas from this kappa the word that shows the precedents of other Buddhas with the power of discrimination).1 Buddhavaṁsa Pāḷi is the 14th text in Khuddaka Nikāya. The form of composition is in verse. The brief biographical accounts of the twenty-five previous Buddhas from Dipaṅkarā Buddha to Gotama Buddha are described in gāthābandha. The BuddhavaṁsaPāḷi comprises a total of 998 gāthās.2 (2) Anāgtavaṁsa Text This is the text that shows the succession of the Buddhas to appear in future. This is the text that gives the account of the Arimetteyya Buddha who will appear in the future. The original version of Anāgtavaṁsa is not yet decided. There are three Myanmar versions of Anāgtavaṁsa texts. (a) The first version is composed in prose and verse the usual form of discourses. This text does not show the life events of Arimetteyya Buddha. It expounds the dangers that will fall on the Saṁgha. It is presented in the form of a dialogue between the Buddha and Venerable Sariputta. At the end of the text the titles of the ten future Buddhas who will be possessed of Sabbaññuta-ñaña are described. (b) The second version contains ten chapters. It composes the accounts of the ten Buddhas who will appear in the future. (c) The third version contains 142 verses on the life account of Arimetteyya Buddha. This version is considered to be the original version of Anāgatavaṁsa text.3 (3) Mahāvaṁsa Text This is the text that shows the life accounts of the Buddha and his relatives. (4) Dīpavaṁsa Text This is the text that shows the chronicle of Ceylon Island. This is the Sāsanāvaṁsa text of Ceylon that appeared before the appearance of the Aṭṭhakathā texts compiled by Mahābuddhaghosa. This text contains two parts. Buddha‟s three

1.Buddhavaṁ. A, 3 2. BuddhavaṁVatthu, 155 3. Mahāsa, 4-5

177 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 visits to Ceylon, the sacred relics of the Buddha, the visit of the sacred relics of the Buddha to Bodhi tree, the arrival of Theravada Buddhism in Ceylon, etc. are described in the first part of the text.1 Mingyi Mahathiri Zeyyathu describes in Piṭakattaw Thamaing that the text was compiled by an unknown Thera residing at Mahāvihāra Kyaungtaik in the south of Anuradha town in Ceylon.2 The mixed accounts of the Sāsanā and the kings from the reign of King Mahāsena in 819 B.E. to 2480 B.E. are described in the second part of the Dīpavaṁsa text. AdhipatipanḍitaVimalakittiThera residing at Ambarukkharāma Kyaungtaik in Wetali village in Ceylon compiled the Dīpavaṁsa text in three parts.3 (5) Mahābodhivaṁsa Text This is the text that shows the succession of the Bodhi tree under which the Buddhas appeared. This text was compiled by inspired Arahant Sinhalese Theras in Sinhalese language. Venerable Mahā Upatissa residing in Ceylon rendered this text into Māgadha language.4 Mahābodhivaṁsavatthu contains full descriptions of Mahābodhi tree, the dimensions of Aparājita throne, Bodhi tree and the throne being worthy of veneration, King Sīridhammasoka paying homage to Mahābodhi tree, the arrival of Bodhi tree in Ceylon, Kalaṅga Jātaka, donation of Bodhi tree by crossing to Ceylon during the reign of King Anawratha, the growing of Bodhi trees by King Bagyidaw of Amarapura and King Mindon, the founder of Mandalay Ratanapon city and the convenor of the Fifth Saṅgāyanā. (6) Daṭhadhātuvaṁsa Text This is the text which shows the accounts of the sacred relics and eyeteeth of the Buddha or Arahats. The body of this text was compiled by Sarattadīpanī ṭīkacandaka who resided at Pulatti town founded by King Sīrimahā Parakkamabhuja who reigned in Ceylon contemporary to King Narapatisithu who ruled Pagan Kingdom called Arimaddana in Tampadīpa region. This text written in Sinhalese language was rendered into Magadha language by Venerable Dhammakitta who compiled Cancikaṭīka, Anguttaraṭīkathitgyi, Vinaya, Sa³gaha, Saṅgahagandi, etc.5 (7) Nalaṭadhātuvaṁsa Text It is the history of the Buddha‟s Asambhinnadhātu frontlet. This is the Dhātuvaṁsa text which conveys the meaning of the diversity of the distribution of the sacred relics.6

1. Pakh, 1-2 2. Pitak, 153-155 3. Pakh, 2 4. Bodhi, 1 5. Pitak, 155-6 6.Pakh, 4 178 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 (8) Chakesadhātuvaṁsa Text This is the text that expounds the six strands of the Buddha. The Pāḷi text was compiled by an unknown composer. The Nissaya of this text was compiled by Monywe Jetavan Sayadaw called Ariyavaṁsa Adiccaraṁsī Mahāthera.1 (9) Dhātuvaṁsa Text This is the text which expounds the enshrining of the sacred relics of the Buddha and the Arahats. This text was compiled by KakusandhaThera residing in Ceylon. This text was written in Pāḷi language and Singhalese language. This text contains the accounts of Buddha‟s three visits to Ceylon, the Parinibbāna of the Buddha, Buddha‟s funeral, Malla Kings‟ enshrinement of sacred relics, the distribution of the sacred relics by Brahmin Soṇa, the history of Buddha‟s frontlet, the history of SomāvatiCetiya, and enshrinement of the right eyetooth obtained from the Kingdom of Nagas in SomāvatiCetiya. Moreover, Nikāyasaṇgaha text, Kalyaṇīvaṁsa text, Rāmaññavaṁsa text, and Syamsāsanāvaṁ texts in Sinhalese language are also included as Dhātuvaṁsa text. All available texts which are related to vaṁsa texts are thus presented.2 4. The Compiler of Mahāvaṁsa Text and the Period Text of Compilation Mahāvaṁsa is a valuable text that deals with the history of kings and the history of religion. The Singhalese ancient publication of Mahāvaṁsa contains 101 parts. The later publication of Mahāvaṁsa contains 99 parts. The Mahāvaṁsa Pāḷi text was successively compiled by scholars such as Venerable MahānamaThera. After the compilation of Mahāvaṁsa text by Venerable MahānāmaThera, the remaining parts were compiled by later Theras as follows:- (1) Venerable MahānāmaThera compiled the first part of Mahāvaṁsa text during the reign of King Dhātusena who ascended the throne in 943 B.E. (2) Venerable Dhammakitti Mahāthera compiled the second part of Mahāvaṁsa text during the reign of King Panḍita Dutiya Parakkamabāhu who ascended the throne in 1719 B.E. (3) Venerable Buddharakkhita Thera continued to compile the Mahāvaṁsa text during the reign of King Kittisīrirājasīha who ascended the throne 2230 B.E. Mahāvaṁsa text contains the accounts of kings and the account of Sāsanā from the first year of Buddhist Era to 2340 years of Buddhist Era.3 It is described in Pakhukkū Sāsanāvaṅ text that 21 parts of Mahāvaṁsapacchima4 were continued to be compiled by Yagiralapaññananda Thera from 2340 to 2479 B.E. The distinctive texts compiled based on Mahāvaṁsa text are as follows:-

1. Mahāv.ÑÑ 2. Pakh, 6 3. Sīh. 152-3 4. Pakh, 2-3

179 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 The old Mahāvaṁnissaya text was compiled by Kavindābhisa ddhamma- dhara dhaja mahā dhammarāja guru title recipient Sayadaw.1Mahāvaṁsa ṭīkā Pāḷi was published by the Government at Colombo in B.E.2438. The Mahāvaṁsa Pāḷi, and ṭīkā Pāḷi were compiled by Venerable MahānāmaThera at the request of Minister Dīghasandasenāpati.2 36 parts and 50 gāthās up to the reign of King Mahāsena who ascended the throne in 819 B.E. were compiled by MahānāmaThera. Dipavaṅ text is also concluded with King Mahāsena.3 It is found in Mahāvaṅ text together with the succession of kings that Paṭisambhidāmagga Aṭṭhakathā was compiled by Mahānāma Thera in 1060 B.E. during the reign of King Kumāradhātusena. The date and the compiler of the Nissaya of Mahāvaṁsa text body are not mentioned. That Nissaya text was compiled by Maingkhaing Atwinwun and translator. Mahāvaṅ ṭīkā is known to have no compilation of Nissaya.4 Thus the renowned compilers of the Mahāvaṁsa text which are within reach are presented. 5. Subject Matter Included in Mahāvaṁsa Text The beginning with the election of Mahāsammata by the primeval men and the succession of the twenty-four previous Buddhas called Buddhavaṁsa or Buddhaparaṁpara are presented explicitly. The succession of King Suddhodhana and his descendants (Rājavaṃsa or Buddhaparaṁpara) are fully described. The life of Siddaṭṭha as a prince, his enjoyment of kingly life, forsaking of kingly life, attainment of Buddhahood and Parinibbāna are fully described. After describing Buddha‟s three missionary visits to Ceylon, the holding of three conventions of Buddhism by the Mahātheras is described. The succession of Theras beginning with Upāli and ending with Mahinda is shown with a list in Mahāvaṁsa text. As Prince Vijaya, the son of King Sihabāhu of Vaṅga King, was banished from the kingdom because the country people were dissatisfied with him as he oppressed the country people. Prince Vijaya and his followers came to Ceylon on a raft. Overcoming of the ogres and the founding of a new country are described elaborately. Then the sending of the son Mahinda and the daughter Saṁghamittā to Ceylon by King Asoka to carry out missionary work during the reign of King DevānaṁpiyaTissa who was contemporary to King Asoka is also accounted in detail. After the chapter of sending mission to Ceylon, the history of Ceylon is introduced. In introducing the history of Ceylon, the subject matters which bridged Ceylon with mainland India are included. As the main objective of the compiler MahānaṁThera was to compile the history of Ceylon, he introduced the text with the history of India. After describing the thriving Buddhism in Ceylon, the unsettled condition of Ceylon is described. During the reign of Duṭṭhagāmaṇi, the country was troubled by Damiṭṭha Indians and also due to rivalry in wresting the throne in the

1. Ibid 2. Pitak, 153 3. Mahāv, ṃ 4. Pitak, 218 180 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 royal court. When military affairs are peaceful during the reign of King Duṭṭhagāmaṇi, the king‟s endeavor to carry out religious work by building Mahāthūpācetī is described amazingly. These accounts can be found in full detail in Chapter (10) of Mahāvaṁsa text. These accounts are described with 13 gāthās in Dīpavaṁsa text. During the reign of King Vaṭṭagāmaṇi, the Piṭakas, which were traditionally committed to memory, were accurately committed to palm leaf inscription. Both the Mahāvaṁsa text and Dīpavaṁsa text show the sequential succession of Sinhalese kings starting from fourth century A.D. to King Mahāsena. MahānāmaThera, after describing the later history of King Mahāsena made an end of the text with King Mahāsena. The subsequent history of Ceylon is described in Cūḷavaṁsa text which is a supplementary text of Mahāvaṁsa text. As the facts described in Mahāvaṁsa text contain true factual data which are contrary to history, it is a highly valuable text for the scholars. It is said that the thirty- six chapters of the early part (Pariccheda) of Mahāvaṁsa text are well known.1

CONCLUSION In every race there are biographies which record one‟s lineage with embellishment or accurately record the true events. All such written accounts are called vaṁsa. Those who read the vaṁsa texts will feel love and respect of their race. There will arise the national spirit, admiration and emulation. The accounts of Mahāvaṁsa described in this paper are related accounts of the Buddha. Although Mahāvaṅ is a text which describes mainly about the history of Ceylon, it also contains the accounts of the Sāsanā. Therefore Mahāvaṁsa text can also be considered as an historical test of the Buddha Sāsanā. Although the paper on the account of Mahāvaṁsa is mainly based on Mahāvaṁsa text, the natures of other vaṁsa texts are presented in relation with history. Other Vaṁsa texts such as Buddhavaṅ, Anāgatavaṅ, Chakesadhātuvaṅ, Daṭhadhātuvaṅ, Nalaṭadhātuvaṅ, etc. contain the account of Sabbaññuta Buddha and the accounts of sacred relics of the Buddha which are objects of veneration. Therefore the sage stated “The more one knows more about the Buddha, the more is one‟s veneration and devotion to the Buddha.” It is believed that those who read vaṁsaa texts will have more faith, veneration and devotion in the Buddha. Although Mahāvaṁsa and Dīpavaṁsa texts describe giving preference to the history of Ceylon, they contain a large amount of information on Buddhism, and so they are the texts which we can study valuable facts pertaining to the history of the Sāsanā. Although Mahāvaṁsa is not a text that describes true historical accounts only and is not free from legendary tales, the research scholars of history owe a great gratitude to those Mahātheras who endeavored to realize such an outstanding work.

1. Mahav.

181 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 REFERENCES Canonical and Commentary (The State Buddha Sāsanā Council's Version) Majjhima Nikāya Majjhimapaṇṇāsa Pāḷi 1958 Vinaya Pitak Pārājika 1966 Palipadaavagga Vol.II, 1972

General Text 1. Buddhadattha, Sayādaw, Buddhavamsaatthakatha, Sudhamma Press, Yangon. 1967. 2. Giger, Willem. The Mahavamsa, P.T.S. London, Oxford University press, 1908. 3. Jagharabuddhi, Sayādaw, Siholin Young Chi, Sammata Press, Mandalay, 1317. 4. Kekarsa, Sayādaw, Pakhukku Satanavin, Department of Religious Affairs Yangon, 1967. 5. Kyithaelaythap, Sayādaw, Mahavanvatthu, Department of Religious Affairs Yangon, 1989. 6. KhinKhinHlong, Daw, Mahāvaṃsa Nidan, University Journal, Vol.2 (4), 1967. 7. Law, B.C. A History of Pali Literature, Vol.II. Kegan Paul, Tench and Trubner, 1933. 8. Law, B.C. A History of Pali Literature, Vol.II. Kegan Paul, Tench and Trubner, 1933. 9. Mahasirijeyasu, Mingyi, Pitakatawsamain, Soemoe Press, Yangon, 1989. 10. No name, BuddhavanVatthu, Hansavati Press, Mandalay, 1930. 11. No name, BodhivanVatthu, Hansavati Press, Mandalay, 1930. 12. Obhasa, Sayādaw, sutesanasayutpyaabhidhan, Sudhamma Press, Yangon. 1967. 13. Paragu, U, Mahasammata, Jonpoint Press, Yangon, 2002. 14. Subhuti, Sayadaw, Abhidhanappadipikasuci, Jamumit shwe Press, Mandalay, 1319. 15. Winternitz, Maurice, A History of Indian Kiterature, Vol.II, Calcutta University of Calcutta, 1933.

182 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 INTERPRETATION OF WHAT IS SAID IN THE VERSE IN PAṆḌITAVAGGA OF THE DHAMMAPADA Hla Ohnmar Htun*

ABSTRACT The Dhammapada is the second text is Khuddaka Nikāya of Suttanta Piṭaka. The Dhammapada is an anthology of verses preached by the Buddha. The text is composed of 423 gathas which are collected into 26 vaggas. The Dhammapada contains many discourses preached by the Buddha for the secular welfare. It also contains discourses pertaining to supramundane welfare. Regarding the secular welfare there are instructions for the purity of body, mind and speech. Therefore, the Dhammapadagāthās preach discourses for becoming persons of good conduct and character. In addition, they show the path leading to magga, phala and Nibbāna which is the ultimate goal of every Buddhist. In Paṇḍitavagga, on studying the nature of Paṇḍita and their superior quality of compositions. Loka Paṇḍita and the The Buddha Paṇḍita are distinguished.

INTRODUCTION The Dhammapada is the second text is Khuddaka Nikāya of Suttanta Piṭaka. The Dhammapada is an anthology of verses preached by the Buddha. The text is composed of 423 gathas which are collected into 26 vaggas. The Dhammapada contains many discourses preached by the Buddha for the secular welfare. It also contains discourses pertaining to supramundane welfare. Regarding the secular welfare there are instructions for the purity of body, mind and speech. Therefore, the Dhammapadagāthās preach discourses for becoming persons of good conduct and character. In addition, they show the path leading to magga, phala and Nibbāna which is the ultimate goal of every Buddhist. In Paṇḍitavagga, on studying the nature of Paṇḍita and their superior quality of compositions. Loka Paṇḍita and the The Buddha Paṇḍita are distinguished. The Paṇḍitavagga is situated between Bālavagga and Arahattavagga. It is the sixth vagga in the Dhammapada. The Paṇḍitavagga comprises 14 gāthās from Gāthā76-39 of the 423 gāthāsof the Dhammapada. The Paṇḍitavagga deals with the qualities of the virtuous, the deeds they perform, their habitual conducts, their mental disposition, and the training and concentration of the wise. In other words it may be called a collection of dhammas of the wise. Interpretation of what is said in the Verse in PaṇḍitaVagga Gāthā No.76-89 No.(1) Gāthā (76) In this world people are doing things. There are good deeds which are profitable. There are deeds which are unprofitable. There are profitable deeds but not free from fault. Sometimes although some deeds are not free from fault, one does not see them as misdeed's. Therefore it is advantageous for committing deeds that should not be done, People do not like to be admonished by punishment. They think it is good when they are praised or flattered. In fact, admonition by stating the faults, one

* Associate Professor, Dr., Oriental Studies Department, Kalay University

183 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 will know one's mistakes to correct and improve. It requires a long time to train a man to be good. But it takes a few seconds to become a bad man. Therefore we must respect the wise who can guide you the right path. We should seek who admonishes to be good. We should not let loose the anger. We should cultivate only happiness. Therefore the Buddha preached, "One should seek a man of Samādhi and wisdom, one who is knowledgeable to set one on the right path to Nibbāna, one who practices dhutaṅga, just as the moon constantly follows the orbital path of constellation."1 Seeking the wise is to make one know what is improper to know and to develop the sīla of those who already knows. Therefore one who shows the right path must be considered as one who shows the buried gold pot. The buried gold pot can only be unearthed only when one knows. If one does not know, the buried gold pot would be overlooked. One who can unearth the gold pot accrue much valuable happiness. The wise may be compared to the one who dispels the darkness of ignorance or who gives the light to dispel darkness. By seeking the wise one will be able to know the true benefits. According to the import of the Gāthā 76, one will be able to reach the destination by observing the guidance of the wise and avoiding the obstacles. No.(2) Gāthā (77) The wise never perform conducts which are unbeneficial to others. The wise wish for the wellbeing of the others. They are in the habit of admonishing other in anticipation of other's good results. They tend to admonish before the evil deed is done. When the misdeed is done, they tend to admonish the evil doer showing his faults. The alajjīs are displeased with the wise who tend to admonish and prevent the evil deeds. The people needs parents and good teachers who are able to admonish them how to conduct life on the right path starting from the beginning of the life. Theworld would be populated with fools if there were no men of wisdom who tend to admonish people. In this world, the wise and the virtuous are rare to find. Therefore Minister Caturaṅgababla stated that there are not wise men in every place. Those who are in search of knowledge have to go to the place where there are wise men with great diligence. The wise only dwell in the midst of virtuous. They do not dwell in the place frequented by fools. An accomplishment of a hundred fools can be achieved by a single wise man. In a crowd of fools who know no value of education, the wise wills not be able to show their knowledge well. Just as it is of no avail to give jewels to the monkeys who do not know the value of jewels, it is useless to show knowledge to those who are ignorant of the value of knowledge. Therefore we should seek and take refuge in the wise with great respect. No.(3) Gāthā (78) Man is not in the habit of living alone. He associates with family members, relatives, friends and acquaintances. Thus man needs friends and associates to live in this world. Therefore it is of great importance to associate with good friends and to have good friends to associate. If one associates with wicked friends one may be misled, and will be engulfed in the round or rebirths. Therefore every man in the

1 Dh. 44. 184 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 world needs kalyānamitta trusty upright friends for the material progress in life. Those who are indulgent in physical misdeeds are wicked friends. Those friends should not be sought for. The Buddha preached "Paṇḍitanañcasevanā"1 which means "The wise should be sought and take refuge in them." This is a blessing approved by the Buddha. Therefore Mingun Sayadaw also preached four factors for one's progress.2 Of these four factors having good friends is one of the factors. This is included in the discourse of Pattakamma Sutta.3 Therefore having good friends or associating with the wise ensure 100 percent attainment of special dhamma of Magga, Phala and Nibbāna. When the fragrant rhododendron flowers are wrapped with the leaves of parrot tree (Buteamonosperma), the leaves become fragrant. In the same manner, ones who associates with the wise, get the good conducts and behaviours of the wise.4 Therefore the associating with the wise is not only beneficial in the mundane world but also in the supramundane world as well according to the Gāthā 78. No.(4) Gāthā (79) There are wholesome and unwholesome dhammasin the worldly dhammas. Because of wholesome and unwholesome dhammas living beings have to pass through the Saṃsāra. The wholesome and unwholesome mental factors are arising in the continum of the living beings. Therefore they cannot be escaped from the three kinds of sphere.5When the Buddha appears they listen to the dhamma for liberation from the Saṃsāra. They practice these dhammas. They are liberated because of these dhammas. These dhammas are called adhisīla, adhicitta and adhipaññā or bodhipak- khiya.6These dhammas are present in the Buddha Sāsana only. These dhammas are not present in other Sāsanas. Bodhipakkiya are the associates of the magga-ñāna. They are the dhammas through which one attains enlightenment. One who is endowed with wisdom is delighted in Bodhipakkhiyadhamma which should be known by the Ariyas such as the Buddha. The wise, having drunk the nectar of the dhamma, is happy with conscience clear mind. He feels rapture of dhamma. Dhammapīti is the tasting with body and mind of the flavours of the nine kinds of lokuttarādhammas.7He penetratively knows the Ariyasaccā such as dukkha.

1 Sn, 319; SnA. II, 12; Khp, 3; KhpA.108.

2 Dāna, Peyyavacca, Atthācariya, Samānattatā

MA.III, 227.

3 AI,376; AA.I,312

4 It, 241; It.A, 230; Sn.A. II,13; CpA, 26.

5 Kāmabhūmi, Rūpabhūmi, Arūpabhūmi

6 Vin. II, 318.

Belonging to enlightenment

Satipaṭṭhāna-4, sammappadhāna-4, iddhipāta-4, indre-5, bala-5,bojjhaṅa-7, maggaṅa-8.

7 magga-4, phala-4,Nibbāna-1.

185 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 That person stays happily with four deportments of bodily postures. The one with clear conscience tends to know generatively the taste of the dhamma. The wise comprehends all the worldly phenomena. He is the one who practices the virtuous dhammas by eradicating attachment, craving and lust. No.(5) Gāthā (80) People make articles of use out of the things that naturally occur. In this loka nothing naturally occurs in forms that can be used. We have to improve to get a perfect article of use. The lifeless nature can be improved to one's liking by making use of one's intelligence. In the same way it is required to tame one's mind to be able to distinguish between right and wrong. The farmers get the water to cultivate their fields by building channels to guide the water from stream and lake to their fields. The fletchers straighten the crooked bamboo into straight arrows by heating the crooked bamboo with fire and straightening. The carpenters also make the desired pieces furniture by cutting timber, planning them and by hammering with nail into desired shapes. In the same way, the wise tame their minds in the inner continuum to bend towards wholesome citta.1 The mind is leading the world of living beings. All the living beings follow the leading mind. Mind can travel to a distant object. It also stays alone. It has no material form. It has no substance. It is light and fleeting in nature. It fleetingly moves to the object of desire. It is not easy to tame it. But it is not hard to tame it. The Buddha preached the living beings to tame mind. Therefore the Buddha preached, "It is the mind only to tame". If the mind is not guarded, it tends to do unwholesome deeds. If the mind is guarded well, it will be secure from committing misdeeds. Tamed or cultured mind brings happiness. The Buddha preached that the well trained mind can make oneself elevated more than the parents and the relatives can achieve. The virtuous and the wise train their mind in concentration, morality and wisdom and practice meditation in order to attain Sotāpattifrution, etc. They are perfectly cultured when they reach to the stage of Arahattaphala. No. (6) Gāthā (81) The Buddha preached, "There is no one who is free from blame in this loka. There was no one who was totally free from blame before. The habit of blame is not the habit that begins now. It is present since the past time."2 Man is not free from blame. All the worldlings are shaken and frightend when they are faced with the eight vicissitudes of life. Although people likes praise, they do not like blame or dispraise. The wise isunshaken by nor dispraise. Although he is faced with blame, he is not angered. Therefore the Buddha preached "As a mountain of unhallowed rock is unshaken by wing from the four directions, the wise are unperturbed by blame or praise. They are unperturbed with the power of Paṭighānusaya-anger inherent in animate things. The wise, the virtuous do not feel sorrowful, happy or disappointed even though they are faced with the eight vicissitudes of life. They are steadfast with serene

1 Dh, 25.

2 Dh A I, 61; Dh A II, 211. 186 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 mind. This mental state is similar to a mountain which is unshakable by wind however strong they may blow according to Gāthā 81. No. (7) Gāthā (82) The wise, after hearing the Buddha's dhamma, being purified of defilements, is clear in mind with magga-ñāna. It is like the big waves of the ocean cannot make the deep ocean water muddy. Beneath the ocean the water is shaken with the movement of the fish. At the surface of the ocean it is turbulent with the waves. The water in the middle remains unperturbed. The deep water, for lack of disturbance, remains clear and unturbid. Dust as a deep lake remains unturbid although the lake surface is disturbed with waves, the wise are able to bear the waves of the worldly affairs. The wise possessed a serene mind which is well tamed and well trained. The fool like a pot which is not filled with water full is agitated. The mind of the wise is serene like a deep placid lake. Having listened to the Buddha's dhamma, the mind is lucid being bereft of defilements with the power of sotāpatti-magga. The mind is particularly clear on becoming an arahat as shown in Gāthā 82 in Paṇḍitavagga. No. (8) Gāthā (83) The Buddha's Paṇḍitas are the virtuous ones who have no attachment to the five aggregates.1 They discard them. They do not talk of desire for objects of sense. They do not talk about sensuous objects to others. The virtuous never talk or cause to lalk about sensuous things. They discard chandarāga with the power of magga-ñāna. They cultivate sucaritadhamma by abandoning ducaritadhammas in order to gain Nibbāna. They search dhammas for escaping from the defilements. Thus they abandons all defilements without leaving a trace. The worldlings are sad and depressed when they are faced with poverty. They are down hearted. They are rejoiced when they are met with many attendants and fame. This is the usual mental attitude of the ignorant worldlings. The ones who are endowed with wisdom and sense of reasoning are able to solve by adopting a right attitude towards realities. The wise and the virtuous, when they are faced with lokadhammas, they do not show rejoice or sorrow on their face. There is no perturbation in mind.2 Therefore the Buddhapreached "Phuṭṭhassalokadhammehi, cittaṃyassanakammati"3 (It is an auspiciousness to be unperturbed and unshaken by conditions of life). The five aggregates, in reality, is a burden. The living beings are carrying this burden. According to the Buddha's dhamma, the body is analysed into five aggregates. Of the five aggregates, the mental factor called saṅkhāra is very important. Every action or deed is led by mind. Thus saṅkhāra is creating the good effects and bad effects. Moreover it can condition volitional actions. Man is a living being which is constituted of the five aggregates. The attachment to the five

1 MI, 78; MA I, 291; D II, 239; DA. II, 373.

2 Th, 326; Th A. II, 297.

3 MaṅgalaSutta. Khp, 3; Khp A, 106.

187 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 aggregates prolongs the round of rebirths. Therefore the wise and the virtuous who are able to discard the burden of the five aggregates are able to enjoy true happiness. No. (9) Gāthā (84) The wise and the virtuous are used to think of good deeds. They talk of good deeds. They perform only good deeds. They are not in the habit of behaving physically, verbally and mentally to have good impression on others. They are free from lobha, dosa and moha. They are replete with pure mind and good-heartedness. They, exercising wisdom avoid misdeeds which bring sufferings in the present as well as in future lives. As they are afraid of the evils they never do any evil deed for oneself and for others. Being endowed with sīla, smādhi and paññā, they practice noble dhamma. Just as one does not like taking one's possession unjustly, one does not like to take other's possession unjustly. They know that one's wealth at the expense of other people's misery is evil. By placing oneself on the place of another person, the wise avoid doing misdeeds. They want no possession by unfair means. According to this Gāthā 84, the wise are used to carrying out one's affairs putting wisdom at the forefront with a fair means for one's own welfare or for one's social status. No. (10) Gāthā (85) and (86) Living beings are mostly attached to their existence. They cling to the life. The living beings who are overwhelmed by ignorance do not know the Path which leads to liberation from the suffering of the round of rebirths. They do not make effort to know the Path. They do not comprehend the bliss of serenity of the Nibbāna. They have little desire to gain it. They think worldly happiness is the true happiness. Being misplaced in conception, they take the dhamma for liberation from Samsāra is dukkha. They are being swept along in the steam of Samsāra for not making effort to know the dhammas of the virtuous. Therefore there are very few persons who can cross to the other shore of the Samsāra, who can reach the Nibbāna. Other beings, being attached to Sakkāyadiṭṭhi,1 are running up and down on this side of the shore. Such beings are numerous. Therefore the Buddha took the simile of the dust paticles on a thumb-nail and the dust particles of the earth and said that the living beings about the number of dust particles on the thumb-nail reach the Nibbāna. According to the Buddha's dhamma-the Law of Causality, the Avijjā (ignorance) and taṇhā (craving) are the root causes of the Saṃsāra- the round of repeated births. The limit of Saṃsāra is liberation. It is also called "vimutti." At the end of the Saṃsāra is the only real santisukha. Therefore it is required to discard avijjā and taṇhā to be liberated from the Saṃsāra. In such discarding, they can be eradicated with the right way of magga. The Maggaṅ ga means sīla (morality), Samādhi (concentration) and paññā (wisdom). In overcoming with the eight constituents of magganga, it must be done with Satipaṭṭhāna practice. Only then the eradication of samudaya-saccā, analytical knowledge of dukkha-saccā, cultivation of magga-saccāand realization of nirodhasaccā can be simultaneously accomplished. Thus the Buddha preached, "Those, who practice according to the well expounded Dhamma, will reach the other

1 A I, 484; AA II, 352. 188 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 shore (Nibbāna), by having passed the Samsāravaṭṭa of the three realms which is very difficult to cross." No.(11) Gāthā (87), (88) and (89) Men in their natural way desire true happiness-santisukha. Accordingly they search for it. The root cause that prevents the acquirement of santisukha is found to be unability to eradicate taṇhā (craving). After becoming the Buddha, the Buddha expounded the santisukha as nirodhasaccā, the course of practice leading to nirodhasaccā as the magga-saccā, the loka as the dukkha-saccā and the taṇhā, the real cause of loka as the samudaya-saccā. The Buddha expounded his course of practice as the Majjhimapaṭipadā- the Middle Way. He caused his disciples to practice the Majjhimapaṭipadā to realize Santisukha. In Theravāda Buddhism, there is only one goal. The only one goal is liberation from the Saṃsāra –the round of rebirths. Apart from Nibbāna, all dhammas are the means of reaching Nibbāna, the routes and the articles of use. Therefore to reach the goal of Nibbāna, one needs the right vada, the right view and the right dhamma. Nibbāna is the nature of cessation of rūpa, nāma, saṅkhāra, vaṭṭa. This nature cannot be thought of and discerned. It is profound. It cannot be discerned with the natural intelligence. It is an asaṅkhataparamatthadhamma that can be discerned only by the wise who are possessed of magga-ñāna and phala-ñānathrough the right practice of insight meditation. Moreover, Nibbāna is the uprooting of the taṇhā or cessation of taṇhā which is the root cause all dukkhas". It is called as "Taṇhakkhaya". A wise and virtuous one discards the dark evil deeds and cultivate the pure sucaritadhammas. He should seek great delight in solitude aiming for Nibbāna where taṇhā ceases. He gives up sensual pleasures and take delight in three vivekas without any worry. The wise, clinging to nothing should clesnse himself of all impurities of the mind. He should cultivate the seven factors of Enlightenment for attaining arahattamagga-ñāna. The wise, having rid himself of all craving, should rejoice in his abandonment of attachment. Moreover, such men, with all moral intoxicants eradicated and powerful with the light of arahattamagga-ṇāna can realize the Nibbāna called Santisukha according to the gāthās 87, 88, and 89.

CONCLUSION According to the Paṇḍiavagga of the Dhammapada, on studying the nature of the term "paṇḍita", a person who is possessed of special wisdom and morality are called paṇḍitas. Moreover persons who are learned in literature are generally called paṇḍitas. According to the Buddha, a person who is merely keen in learning for his whole life cannot be praised as a paṇḍita. One who does not do evil deeds for himself and for others, one who does not want properties by evil means, one who is possessed of morality, wisdom and righteousness is a true paṇḍita. On the whole, the person who is worthy of calling a Paṇḍita is the one who give guidance wishing the welfare of others, a person who is able to think rationally, who knows the measure of the fore and aft, who urges to associate with the virtuous, who himself associates with the virtuous, and avoids the company of the wicked, who clear conscience and who is able to tame one's own mind and body. Furthermore a Paṇḍita is one whose mind is steadfast and unperturbable like a solid mountain, and who is able to withstand the

189 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 ups and downs of life. A Paṇḍita is one who is able to dispel one's want, who is devoid of lobha, dosa and moha, who does not to evil deeds for oneself or for others. A Paṇḍita is one who guards his samādhi and knows the Four Ariya Truths and who is training himself to realize Nibbāna. Paṇḍita is a person who is learned and is able to think rationally. According to the Buddhaa Paṇḍita is one who is able to be liberated from the Saṃsāra. In Paṇḍitavagga of the Dhammapada, loka Paṇḍita and the Buddha Paṇḍita are distinguished. The loka Paṇḍita ultimately becomes the Buddha paṇḍita. The Buddhacould improve for the lokī and lokuttarā affairs. The Buddha does not call a person who has book knowledge a paṇḍita. Paññā is insight knowledge, analytical knowledge, ability to make decision and presentation of the truth. Lokapaṇḍitas perform beneficial deeds in this loka and are able to solve the problems by assessing with paññā and enjoy happiness. The Buddha Paṇḍita are the virtuous ones or the Ariyas who are seeking and practicing for the wellbeing of the mundane world and supramundane world. The Gotama Buddha who was Sakramuni, preached discourses which are able to bring forth benefits for the present and the next lived starting from the time of attaining Sabbaññuta-ñāṇa to the time of Parinibbāna. Among these discourses, the Dhammapada Pāḷi plays a significant role. In dispensing the dhammas for 45 years, the Buddha preached dhammas according to the trait of character and intellectual level of the dhamma listeners. The human beings, the celestial beings and Brahmas were able to enjoy the bliss of liberation according to their degree in the maturity of paramī. The Dhammapadagāthās preach discourses for becoming persons of good conduct and character. In addition, they show the path leading to magga, phala and Nibbāna which is the ultimate goal of every Buddhist. Thus the Gāthāa are guidances to the mundane and supramundane affairs. REFERENCES Canonical and Commentary (The State Buddha Sāsanā Council‟s Version) 1. AṅguttaraPāḷi (Paṭhamobhāgo) Aṅguttara Nikāya, 1961 2. AṅguttaraPāḷi (Dutiyobhāgo) Aṅguttara Nikāya, 1961 3. Mahāvagga (DīghaNikāya) Dīgha Nikāya, 1979 4. Dhammapada Khuddaka Nikāya, 1962 5. Itivuttaka Khuddaka Nikāya, 1992 6. Khuddakapāṭha Khuddaka Nikāya, 2001 7. Kathā Vatthu Pāḷi Abhidhamma Piṭaka, 1959 8. Mþlapaṇṇāsa Majjhima Nikāya, 1954 9. Suttanipāta Khuddaka Nikāya, 1930 10. Thera Gāthā Khuddaka Nikāya, 1981 11. Pācitya Vinaya Piṭaka, 1981 12. Mahāvagga Vinaya Piṭaka, 1981 13. Buddhaghsa, Mahāthera, Ashin Aṅguttara Aṭṭhakathā, 1958 14. Buddhaghsa, Mahāthera, Ashin Dhammapada Aṭṭhakathā, 2002 15. Dhammapada Aṭṭhakathā (Vol. I), 1958 16. Dhammapada Aṭṭhakathā (Vol. II), 1958 190 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 INVESTIGATION ON LIFE CYCLES OF Antigastra catalaunalis (L., 1758) and Acherontia styx (W., 1903) ON SESAME, Sesamum indicum L. IN HTANAUNG WIN VILLAGE, MONYWA TOWNSHIP Cho Cho Win*

ABSTRACT The present study was carried out from July 2017 to May 2018 at Htanaung Wing Village, Monywa Township. In this study the life cycles of Lepidopteran moth species consisted of Antigastra catalaunalis and Acherontia styx. The life cycles of A. catalaunalis and A.styx under laboratory conditions at (25 HC- 32 HC) were investigated. A. catalaunalis and A. styx have five larval stages and pupa stage in their life cycles. The survival rates were different among these pests species. The survival rate of A. catalaunalis is 100% and that of A.styx is 80%. The life cycles of Antigastra catalaunalis completed in 26 to 30 days and Acherontia styx lasted about 50-60 days. Key words: insect, pest, sesame

INTRODUCTION Insects are cold-blooded creatures. Many insects have unusually features of structure, physiology, or life cycle, but probably the most interesting things about insects are what they do (Borror, 1992). The orders of insects exhibiting metamorphosis are often divided into two main groups: simple metamorphosis and complete metamorphosis. Insects undergoing complete metamorphosis have very different looking, larva and adult stages. Larvae and adults are often so different that they do not eat the same the food and need different habitats (Gullan and Cranston, 2010). The adult emerges and often eats a different food and lives in another area returning to the larval feeding site only lay eggs. For this reason species with complete metamorphosis are managed differently according to life stage (Paul, 2007). The genus Sesamum belongs to the flowering plant family Pedaliaceae. The plants are annual herbs with edible seeds. It is a high value food crop which is an important source of edible oil. The seed oil ranges from 50-60% protein, 40% unsaturated and 14% saturated fatty acids. Sesame is a good source of vitamin E and minerals such as calcium and phosphorous (Kress, 2003). Since sesame crops are of economical importance throughout the world, this crop is widely grown in Myanmar. Sesame is mainly grown in Htanaung Wing Village, Monywa Township. The crops were seriously infested with larvae and nymph of pests. By considering this, it is of importance to understand the life-history of some pest species.

* Associate Professor, Dr, Department of Zoology, Kalay University

191 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 The local workers, Yin Yin Kyaw (2016) studied on incidence and abundance of insect pests on sesame in Myinmu Township. Myat Myat Moe (2017) described some insects associated with sesame in Ywaton Village, Monywa Township. However, the life cycles of these insect pest species were not described in their studies. Therefore, the present study was undertaken with the following objectives: - to investigate the life cycles of A. catalaunalis and A. styx - to compare the life cycles of the studied moth species

MATERIALS AND METHODS Study area and Study period Htanaung Wing Village is located in Monywa Township, Sagaing Region (Plate 1). The study area was conducted in (0.4046) hectare sesame field in the study area (Plate 2). An investigation of both insects was started from July 2017 to May 2018. The field trips were conducted at the study area in the evenings fortnightly. Captured larvae and nymph were kept in plastic bags before they were transformed into plastic boxes (18×13×6.5cm) containing the fresh leaves. The larvae of A. styx were bred in plastic boxes with 5 cm of earth soil. The emerged adults were reared in breeding cage and provided with cotton wool soaked in honey solution. Identification of the specimens The insects were identified following Hampson (1894), Pol, Belfied and Martin (2010) and Crowson (2012). The classification suggested by Borror, Triplehorn and Johson (1992) was used in the present study.

Plate 1 Location map of study area Plate 2 Sesame field of study area

RESULTS In present study, the life cycles of the two sesame insect pest species were studied and these insects were bred in the plastic boxes. From the study, five larval stages of Antigastra catalaunalis and Acherontia styx in their life cycles were observed (Plate 3 A to L and Plate 4 A to K).

192 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 Life cycles of Antigastra catalaunalis on sesame plant Mating Pairs Adults mate on wings in the morning. The mating lasted for about 30 min to one hour and 20 min. Mating pair usually seek shaded place rested under the leaf of a sesamum plant (Plate 3 A). Egg laying After mating, the female laid about 10 eggs singly on young leaves or on flowers. The female soon died after laying the eggs. The male also died soon after mating (Plate 3 B). Eggs Eggs were oblong, the colour changed from greenish white, through yellow, grey and finally to red before hatching. Incubation took 2-4 days. The diameter is 0.36 to 0.40 mm in length (Table 1 and Plate 3 C). First larva Head was black and slender body with pale yellow. The body tapers to both ends. It consisted of 12 segments (3 thoracic segments and 9 abdominal). This larval stage lasted for 1-2 days. The young larvae roll together a few top leaves and feed them. It‟s measure in length is 1 to 2 mm (Table 1& 4 and Plate 3 D). Second larva The body is long and slender. Head is black. Black spots appeared along the abdominal segments but indistinct. The anterior of the body was pale green and posterior yellow. As the first larval stage, the young larvae rolled up the leaves thus cannot be seen externally. This larval stage lasted for 1-2 days. The young larvae roll together a few top leaves and feed them. It measured 4.9 to 5.5 mm in length (Table 1 & 4 and Plate 3 E). Third larva Head capsule was darker black. On the dorsal surface of the body, mid-line was seen from thorax to the posterior body end. Everybody segment posses a single black spot present on either side. The body bears 12 segments. The prothorax is with a flat black marking. From the third stage to the fifth stage, the larvae bore and eat the young flowers and fruits. This larval stage lasted for 2-3 days. It measured 6.5 to 8 mm in length (Table 1& 4 and Plate 3 F). Fourth larva Head is black, one black spot, two black spots and three black spots appear on the prothorax, mesothorax and metathorax, respectively. Along the abdomental segments, three black spots marked laterally. The black spots were observed as the marked difference at successive stage. A green mid-line was on the dorsal. This larval stage lasted for 3-4 days. It measured from 10 to 11 mm in length (Table 1 & 4 and Plate 3 G & H). Fifth larva The body is covered with fine hairs sparsely. The whole body was darker green. At the beginning of moulting the colour changes lighter black from green and at the end of this process the body is clear yellow. This caterpillar was similar to the

193 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 preceding stage except the fine hairs. At flowering, larvae feed inside the flowers and on capsule formation, larvae bore into capsule and feed on developing seeds. This larval stage lasted for 5-6 days. It measured from 12 to 14 mm in length (Table 1 & 4 and Plate 3 I & J). Pupa The body of pupa covered by a continuous cuticle and it is green in colour. The anterior of the pupa possessed a small black spot and taper towards posterior. The colour changed from green to light yellow gradually. In this stage, larva did not feed and entered the pupal stage. This pupal stage lasted for 8-9 days. It measured from 9 to 10 mm in length (Table 1& 4 and Plate 3K). Adult The eyes are large and black. Forewing with the veins was orange-red trace of a spot and the discocellular spot, the marginal area orange-red, pure white at tips. Hindwings are reddish towards outer margin. The life span of the adult moth was about 7-11 days. It measured from 13-15 mm in length, width 1 mm, wing expanse 14-20 mm (Table 1& 4 and Plate 3 L). A female A. catalaunalis laid about 10 eggs singly on tender leaves or on flowers, the eggs changed from greenish-white, to yellow, grey and finally to red before hatching. Incubation took 2-4 days. The larva was white when first hatched, but later turned green with small black spot. There were five larval instars. The survival rate of Antigastra catalaunalis was (100%) . The duration of the whole life cycle of A. catalaunalis was average 26-30 days (Table 2 and Table 4). Life cycles of Acherontia styx on sesame plant Mating Pairs Mating pairs were not observed during the study period (Plate 4 A). Egg laying Laid singly on the surface of leaves and flowers about 10-15 eggs. Eggs Eggs were spherical in shape; changes from yellowish to green just before hatching. Incubation took 3-5 days. The diameter was 1-2 mm and a mean of 1.73 mm in length, width 1.2 mm (Table 3, 4 and Plate 4 B). First larva After incubation period, larva hatched out, cream-colour to yellow, horn black, long, straight, bifid. The newly emerged larva hatches and devoured the eggs shell as its first meal. Gradually, the body turned green, and the horn to whitish yellow. The larvae feed on the leaves and defoliated the plant. This larval stage lasted for two to three days. It measured from five to 10 mm and a mean of 7.15 mm in length, breadth 1.5 mm, horn 5-7 mm (Table 1 & 4 and Plate 4 C). Second larva Head and body bluish-green, dotted with white; seven lateral oblique stripes, horn purple on dorsal surface; green on ventral. In this stage, the thorn-like tubercles adorn the dorsal surface of the thoracic segments. The cylindrical body consisted of 13 segments. Each thoracic segment bears a bar of fleshy prologs. This larval stage 194 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 lasts for 5-6 days. It measured from 17 to 22 mm and a mean of 19.35 mm in length, breadth 2mm, horn 6 to 7 mm (Table 1 & 4 and Plate 4 D & E). Third larva Head and segment 2 to 4 becomes green. The rest of body was bluish green, 7 oblique strips white more strongly marked and edged above with dark green. The body becomes large size. This larval stage lasted for five to six days. It measured from 35 to 40 mm and a mean of 37.45 mm in length, width 5 mm, horn 7 to 9 mm (Table 1 & 4 and Plate F & G). Fourth larva Head and segment 2 to 4 are apple-green. The rest of the body was yellowish green in dorsal area, bluish-green in lateral and ventral, the oblique strips turns to yellow, the horn was green to yellow covered with pointed tubercles. The 8 spiracles become distinct and the larva was darker with shades of green than the preceding larva. This larval stage lasted for 5-6 days. It measured from 50 to 60 mm and a mean of 25 to 54 mm in length, width 8 mm, horn 5 to 6 mm (Table 1 & 4 and Plate 4 H). Fifth larva Head is rather square in shape, vertex rounded. Body is smooth and dull and nearly cylindrical, tapering slightly from segment 7 to frontal. The blue oblique stripes is added to white and yellow, horn is tapering evenly to a sharp point, basal half curved gently downwards and distal half gently upwards. The larva fed voraciously on foliage and caused a great damage to plant. This larval stage lasted for 8-9 days. It measured from 70 to 90 mm and a mean of 97.5 mm in length, width 10 mm, horn 5 to 6 mm (Table 1 & 4 and Plate 4 I). Pupa The fully-grown larva enters into the soil to pupate. The head of pupa was stout broadly rounded. The surface is smooth and shining. In this stage the insect stops feeding and enters the resting stage. This pupal stage lasted for 20 to 25 days. It measured from 40 to 60 mm and a mean of 52.8 mm in length, width 14 mm (Table 1& 4 and Plate 4 J). Adult The upperside of the body has the skull-mark on the thorax. The fore wing tawny-russet streaks and a patch of the same colour beyond the grayish-white discal lines. The longevity of the adult moth is about 3 to 10 days. It measured from 50 to 60 mm and a mean of 55.5 mm in length, width 12 mm, wing span 120 mm (Table 1 & 4 and Plate 4 K). The percentage of development stages of A. styx on sesame crop was 80% (surval rate) and the mortality rate was 20%. The duration of the whole life cycle of A. styx was average 55.5 days (Table 3 and 4). The comparison of survival rate of Antigastra catalaunalis was (100%) and Acherontia styx was 80%. The duration of the life cycle of A. catalaunalis was 26 days and A. styx was 55.5 days at the same temperature (Table 2, 3 & 4 and Fig. 1).

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Table 1 Length on the eggs, larvae, pupae and adults stages of Antigastra catalaunalis and Acherontia styx (n = 10) Antigastra catalaunalis Acherontia styx Temp No Stages Range (mm) Mean ± SD Range Mean ± SD HC 1 Egg 0.36 - 0.40 0.38 ± 0.05 1.5 - 2 1.73 ± 0.19 25-30 2 1st larva 1.00 - 2.00 1.60 ± 0.42 5 - 10 7.15 ± 1.89 25-30 3 2nd larva 4.90 - 5.50 5.14 ± 0.22 17 - 22 19.35 ± 1.66 25-30 4 3rd larva 6.50 - 8.00 7.54 ± 0.59 35 - 40 37.45 ± 1.82 25-30 5 4th larva 10.00 - 11.00 10.57 ± 0.41 50 -60 54.25 ± 4.80 25-30 6 5th larva 12.00 - 14.00 12.94 ± 0.83 70 - 90 82.5 ± 7.40 25-30 7 Pupa 9.00 - 10.00 9.75 ± 0.38 40 - 60 52.8 ± 7.97 25-30 8 Adult 13.00 - 15.00 14.14 ± 0.77 50 -60 55.5 ± 4.15 25-30

Table 2 Survival of successive life stages of Antigastra catclaunalis on Sesame (From June, 2018 to August, 2018)

Number of Survival Life stages No. No. Adult rate (%) of of total 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th egg larva pupa Male Female larva larva larva larva

10 10 10 10 10 10 10 4 6 10

(100%)

Table 3 Survival of successive life stages of Acherontia styx on Sesame (From June, 2018 to August, 2018)

Number of Survival Life stages No. No. Adult rate (%) of of total 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th egg larva pupa Male Female larva larva larva larva

10 10 10 8 8 8 8 3 5 8 (80%)

196 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 Table 4 Duration of life cycle of Antigastra catclaunalis and Acherontia styx (n = 10) Stages Antigastra catclaunalis Acherontia styx Eggs 2 - 3 days 3 - 4 days Mean 2.5 ± 0.5 days 3.5 ± 0.5 Larvae period 12 - 17 days 26 - 31 days Mean 15.5 ± 0.5 28.5 ± 0.5 days Pupal period 8 - 9 days 20 - 25 days Mean 8.5 ± 0.5 23.5 ± 0.5 days Whole life cycle 23-30 days 49-60 days Mean 28.5 ± 0.5 days 58.5 ± 0.5 days

Fig. 1 Comparison of the life cycle of A. catalaunalis and A. styx

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(A) Antigastra catalaunalis (B) Eggs on the shoot (C) Eggs on the leaf

(D) 1st lava (E) 2nd larva (F) 3rd larva

(G) 4thlarva (H) Feed on pod (4thlarva) (I) 5th larva

(J) Feed on pod (5th larva) (K) pupa (L) A.catalaunalis(adult) Plate 3 Life cycles of Antigastra catalaunalis on sesame plant

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(A) Acherontia styx(Female) (B) Egg on the leaf (C) A.styx (1stlarva )

(D) A.styx 2nd larva (E) Feed on pod (2nd larva) (F) A.styx 3rd larva

(G) Feed on pod (3rd larva) (H) A.styx 4th larva (I) A.styx 5th larva

(J) A.catalaunalis (pupa) (K) A. catalaunalis (adult)

Plate 4 Life cycle of Acherontia styx on sesame plant

199 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 DISCUSSION In this study, the young larva that hatches from an egg is quite different from the adult in structure and mode of life. The larva feeds moves, molts, and grows, and then it passes into quiescent stage, the pupa which is different from both the larva and the adult. Finally the adult is emerged from the pupa. This form of development is termed complete metamorphosis (Gullan and Cranston, 2010). The studied sesame moth pest species, sesamum leaf-roller Antigastra catalaunalis and Death‟s head moth Acherontia styx passed five larval stages. Sesame webworm, the larvae of Antigastra catalaunalis feed on leaves and young shoots. In this study, five larval instar observed in their life cycle. According to Ahirwar et al. (2010), the species A. catalaunalis female lays about 20 eggs. In the present study, A. catalaunalis female lays about 10 eggs, the incubation period was two to four days, the larval period was 12 to 17 days, the pupal period was eight to nine days, the whole life cycle was about 22 to 30 days. The survival rate of A. catalaunalis is 100%. Variation in the duration of various life stages may be probably due to differences in temperature and humidity. Gebregergis et al. (2016) described that Antigastra catalaunalis larva feed on both young and full grown sesame crops and can be very destructive. In this present study, it was found that the leaf-roller Antigastra catalaunalis infested on the field in the throughout growing season. The larva webs the top leaves and starts feeding from inside until it reaches the last larva, sometimes even boring the capsules of buds and feeding of the crop was observed. Kanaburgi (2011) studied biology, seasonal incidence and management of Acherontia styx on sesame. She described that small light yellow colored eggs were laid individually on all parts of the plant. From the result of their life cycle, 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th larval stages prefer feeding on the leaves of sesame plants and total life cycle completed about 45 to 60 days. In the present study, the moth laid eggs to the surface of leaves. The incubation period was three to five days. The larval period was 25 to 35 days, the pupal period was about 20 to 23 days. So the whole life cycle lasted for 50 to 61 days at 25 HC to 32 HC. The survival rate of A. styx is 80%. The results of the present study were similar to the above observation. In this study, the comparison of life cycles of Antigastra catalaunalis and Acherontia styx were different in the larval and pupal stages because the pupation of these two pest species were observed in the different places. Antigastra catalaunalis pupated in the webbing leaves and the plant debries while A. styx pupated in the soil. So, the duration of pupal stages varied according to their environmental condition and the temperature of climatic condition. In the present study, the larvae of moths feed and pierce the leaves and pods of sesame. A large number of pest larvae attack sesame pods from seeding stages to maturity and cause economic loss. The pest larvae damage to the major plant parts of sesame plants severely affects the productivity of sesame seeds. Thus, the life cycle of these two insect species were studied in this study site. Since all larval stages attacked the sesame and vegetables crops, these recorded insect pests species were important species.

200 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 CONCLUSION From above results it can be concluded that, local sesame cultivators should be able to recognize important insect pest‟s life cycles on sesame plants. Some cultivators could not differentiate the damage caused by the various larval stages of insect pests. The results of this study will be provided the information on the studied both insect pest species (Antigastra catalaunalis and Acherontia styx) and their life cycles will also give additional information on the cultivators indeciding the judicious use of insecticides on the sesame plants, and to provide useful information on seeking of the effective management. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am deeply indebted to Rector Dr Thar Tun Maung, Kalay University for accepting this research paper. May I extend my profound gratitude to Professor Dr Khin Soe Win, Head of Zoology Department, Monywa University, for providing all the deparmental facilities with kind encouragement. I am also grateful to Dr Hla Hla Win, Professor, Department of Zoology, Monywa University for suggestions and encouragements. I am also indebted to Dr Ye Ye Cho (Professor/ Head) and Dr Ni War Lwin (Professor), Department of Zoology, Kalay University for accepting this research paper.

REFERENCES Ahirwar, R.M., Gupta, M.P., Banerjee, S., 2010. Bio-Ecology of leaf roller / capsule borer Antigastra catalaunalis Duponchel. Advances in bioresearch, 1(2): 90-104. Borror, D.J., Triplehorn, C.A., Johnson, N.F., 1992.An introduction to the study of insects.Sixth edition. Saunders College Publishing, New York. P. 875. Crowson, R.A., 2012. Handbooks for the identification of British insects.Royal Entomological Society, England.P. 134. Gebregergis, Z., Assefa, D., Fitwy, I., 2016. Assessment of incidence of sesame webworm Antigastra catalaunalis (Duponchel) in Western Tigray, North Ethiopia. Journal of Agriculture and Ecology Research International, 9(4): 1-9. Gullan, P.J., Cranston, P.S., 2010. An outline of Entomology.In: The insects. 4th ed. John Wiely& Sons limited .P. 564. Hampson, G.P., 1894. The fauna of British, India, Cyelon and Burmese moths.Vol. II. Taylor and Francis, London. P. 608. Kanaburgi, K., 2011. Biology, seasonal incidence and management of Acherontia styx Westwood on sesame.MSc thesis, Department of Agricultural Entomology, College of Agriculture, Dharwad University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad. Kress,W.J.Deflipps, R.A., Farr, E., Yin YinKyi., 2003. A checklist of the trees, shrubs, herbs, and climbers of Myanmar.Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC. Myat Myat Moe, 2017. Some insects associated with sesame, Sesamumindicum L. in Ywaton Village, MonywaTwonship. M.Sc thesis, Department of Zoology, MonywaUnivesity. Paul, A.V., 2007. Entomology.In: Insect pest and their management. Indian Agricultural Research Institude, New Delli. P. 68. Pol, C., Belfield, S., Martin, R., 2010.Insects of upland crops in Cambodia.Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra. P. 132. Yin Yin Kyaw, 2016.Incidence and abundance of insect pests on some sesame, Sesamum indicumL. in Myinmu Township.M.Sc thesis, Department of Zoology, Monywa University.

201 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 STUDTY ON GONADOSOMATIC INDEX AND CONDITION FACTOR OF FEMALE Macrognathus aral ( Bloch & Schneider, 1801) FROM THIRIYADANAR MARKET, MONYWA Nwe Ni Saw*1

ABSTRACT The gonadosomatic index and condition factor of Macrognathus aral was conducted from December 2017 to September 2018. The specimens were collected from Thiriyadanar market, Monywa. A total of 180 fish were collected during the study period. During study period, the mean ganodosomatic value range of 0.26 – 13.70 was observed. The peak value of GSI was found in July 2018 (13.70  4.81) and the lowest value was observed in December 2017 *0.26  0.13). The range of K values was 0.38 – 0.45 and highest value was found in March 2018 (0.45  0.07) and lowest in July (0.38  0.05). Key words: Gonadosomatic index, condition factor

INTRODUCTION Freshwater resources are used to meet the day-to-day requirements of human settlement, for production of hydropower and most important of all, for agricultural fisheries and industrial needs (Rafique et al., 2002). Fish constitutes almost half of the total number of vertebrates in the world. They live almost all can conceivable aquatic habitats. 21,723 living species of fish have been recorded out of 39, 9000 species of vertebrates (Jayaram, 1999). Fishes are the keystone species which determine the distribution and abundance of other organisms in the ecosystem they represent and are good indicators of the water quality and the health of the ecosystem (Moyle and Leidy, 1992)." In all periods and at all levels of technological progress, fish has usually played an essential part in man's diets. Fish is more susceptible to spoilage than certain other animal protein foods, such as meat and eggs. Fish were one of primitive man's main foods in his earliest days as a food gather. The value of fish and fish waste as a fertilizer and as an animal food was known in early time (Cutting, 1999). Inland fisheries are most accessible and inexpensive source of protein for Myanmar people, it is thus important to the socio-economic and rural development of Myanmar (Department of Fisheries/ Myanmar, 2006). Fish and fish production are crucial to Myanmar people. Whilst it is certainly recognized that fish is second only to rice in the diet of Myanmar, there are a little information available on the pattern of consumption. Most species of fish are valuable sources of high-grade protein and other organic products. They occupy a significant position in the socio-economic fabric of the South and South East Asia countries by providing the population not only the

*1 Associate Professor, Dr, Department of Zoology, Kalay University 202 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 nutritious food but also income and employment opportunities (Talwar and Jhingran, 1991). Some of the parameters of fish biology includes gonadosomatic index (GSI), and condition factor (K) and they are used to assess the reproductive condition of fish. Monthly variation of GSI provide the reasonable indicator of reproductive seasonality for fish. The seasonal timing of reproduction, spawning time is often identified from changes in the gonadosomatic index (GSI), which determine reproductive season (Arruda et al., 1993). Condition factor (K) is quantitative parameters of the well-being state of the fish and reflects feeding condition. This factor varies according to influence of physiologic factors, fluctuating according to different stages of the development. Differences in the condition factor have been interpreted as a measure of historical events such as fat reservation, adaptation to the environment and gonadal development. Further, the condition factor (K) is the important biological parameters which indicate the suitability of a specific water body for growth of fish (Le Cren, 1951). The objectives of this study are: - to evaluate the gonadosomatic index (GSI) and - to investigate the condition factor of Macrognathus aral

MATERIALS AND METHODS Study Site The specimens were collected from Thiriyadanar market, Monywa. It is situated between Latitude 22º 06' 41.83'' North and Longitude 95º 07' 48.08'' East. Study Period This study was conducted from December 2017 to September 2018. Collection of Specimens A total of 180 fish was used in this study. During the study period, thirty fish were collected in each month from Thiriyadanar market, Monywa. Among these only females were used for this study. Identification of Specimens Species identification was conducted according to Talwar and Jhingran (1991) and Jayaram (1981, 2013). Collection of Data The body weight of specimens was measured to be as exact as possible. Then ventro-lateral dissection was made and ovaries were taken out and then weighed to be as exact as possible by using electronic balance. Analysis of Data The monthly changes in the gonadosomatic index (GSI) were calculated using the formula given by Wingfield and Grimm (1977).

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Gonad weight G S I 1 0 0 B o d y w eig h t The condition factor (K) values were calculated according to Salem and Davies (1994).

B o d y w e ig h t K 1 0 0 L e n g h t 3

Plate 1 Map of the study site (Source: Google Earth, 2017)

RESULTS A total of 180 specimens of female Macrognathus aral belonging to family Mastacembelidae was used in this study. Systematic Position of Study Species Phylum - Chordata Class - Actinopterygii Order - Synbranchiformes Family - Mastacembelidae Genus - Macrognathus Lacepede, 1800 Species - M. aral (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) Gonadosomatic Index (GSI) Monthly changes in GSI values of females found are presented in Table 1. In females Macrognathus aral, the lowest was observed in December 2017 (0.26 ± 0.13) and the highest was found in July 2018 (13.70 ± 4.81). Condition Factor (K) Monthly variations of the condition factor in female are shown in Table 1. The lowest K values of females was observed in July 2018 (0.38 ± 0.05) and the highest in March 2018 (0.45 ± 0.07). 204 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019

Table 1 Monthly means of the Ovary weight, Gonadosomatic Index (GSI ) and Condition Factor (K) in female Macrognathus aral from December 2017 to July 2018

No. of Fish Months examined Range Mean ± SD Range Mean ± SD Range Mean ± SD

Dec., 17 25 0.01 - 0.26 0.10 ± 0.06 0.04 - 0.59 0.26 ± 0.13 0.36 - 0.51 0.44 ± 0.03

Jan.., 18 12 0.04 - 0.50 0.13 ± 0.13 0.09 - 0.59 0.32 ± 0.16 0.39 - 0.51 0.43 ± 0.04

Feb, 18 25 0.02 - 0.26 0.08 ± 0.06 0.10 - 0.75 0.34 ± 0.15 0.34 - 0.50 0.43 ± 0.05

Mar., 18 27 0.01 - 0.48 0.13 ± 0.14 0.04 - 0.60 0.29 ± 0.15 0.33 - 0.61 0.45 ± 0.07

Apr., 18 27 0.34 - 4.65 1.09 ± 1.01 0.81 - 12.40 3.44 ± 2.63 0.30 - 0.51 0.43 ± 0.04

May., 18 23 0.34 - 4.55 1.45 ± 1.25 0.77 - 12.43 5.08 ± 3.76 0.34 - 0.46 0.42 ± 0.04

Jun., 18 20 0.65 - 5.59 2.64 ± 1.38 3.36 - 19.79 10.91 ± 5.19 0.34 - 0.56 0.42 ± 0.05

Jul., 18 21 0.18 - 7.50 3.33 ± 1.61 0.83 - 22.69 13.70 ± 4.81 0.32 - 0.53 0.38 ± 0.05

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3 .5 0

3 .0 0

2 .5 0

) g 2 .0 0 ( W O1 .5 0

1 .0 0

0 .5 0

0 .0 0 D e c ., 1 7 Ja n ., 1 8 F e b ., 1 8 M a r., 1 8 A p r ., 1 8 M a y ., 1 8 Ju n ., 1 8 Ju l., 1 8

M o n th s

Fig. 1 Monthly variation in ovary weight of Macrognathus aral during study period

1 6 .0 0

1 4 .0 0

1 2 .0 0

1 0 .0 0 ) (% I 8 .0 0 S G 6 .0 0 G S I (F )

4 .0 0

2 .0 0

0 .0 0 D e c. , 1 7 Ja n ., 1 8 F e b ., 1 8 M a r. , 1 8 A p r. , 1 8 M a y ., Ju n . , 1 8 Ju l. , 1 8 18 M o n t h s

Fig. 2 Monthly variation in GSI values of female Macrognathus aral during study period

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Fig. 3 Monthly variation in K values of Macrognathus aral during study period

(A) Macrognathus aral (B) Ovary in the body cavity Plate 2 The female Macrognathus aral and its ovary

DISCUSSION

The gonadosomatic index is a suitable indicator of the gonads development 119 that can be used for determination of fish reproductive period, when increasing GSI

values are associated with maturation and decreasing values with gamete extrusion or absorption (Le Cren, 1951). Monthly variation of GSI provides the reasonable indicator of reproductive seasonality for fish. The seasonal timing of reproduction, spawning time is often identified from changes in the gonadosomatic index (GSI) which determine reproductive season (Arruda et al., 1993). Lavanya and Sharma (2002) studied the biology of one-stripe spiny eel, Macrognathus aral from the ponds in lower Krishna Irrigation system, India. They observed ripe males from August to middle September and immature gonads from November to December. Female with maturing gonads appeared from August to September.

207 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 In the present study, monthly variations in GSI values were observed and higher values occurred during April to July (peak in July) and the value decreased in December. Abujam (2011) revealed that the peak values of males were attained during May and August for females in his study on the reproductive biology of spiny eel, Macrognathus aral from upper Assam. He also noted that the fish have only one breeding season during summer. Moreover, Banerjee and Dutta (2016) found that the peak value of gonadosomatic index in female observed during June (13.94)% and in male during July (1.44)%. They all stated that the fish is an annual breeder. The finding of GSI values in this research work is similar to that of Banerjee and Dutta (2016). A little deviation from other researchers may be due to different climatic conditions and environmental factors. Condition factor (K) is quantitative parameters of the well-being state of the fish and reflects feeding condition. This factor varies according to influences of physiologic factors, fluctuating according to different stages of the development. Differences in the condition factor have been interpreted as a measure of historical events such a fat reservation, adaptation to the environment and gonadal development (Le Cren, 1951). The condition index (K) was used as a simple indicator of physical and physiological status of the fish. It is also known that a close relationship exist between physiological status, condition and reproductive stage. The value of K is influenced by age of fish, sex, season, stage of maturation, fullness of gut, type of food consumed, amount of fat reserve and degree of muscular development (Encina and Granado-Lorencio, 1997). Banerjee and Dutta (2016) studied the condition factor of M. aral in West Bengal. They observed that the condition factor of males ranged between 0.32-0.38 and females ranged between 0.34-0.42. In the present study, condition factor (K) value ranged between 0.38 – 0.45. The findings are similar to the finding of Banerjee and Dutta. Nikos (2004) reported that fish sufficiently fed would have K equal or greater than 1 while undernourished fish will express a K value of less than 1 (cited by Shakir et al., 2010). Therefore, the environmental conditions of studied species may be considered unfavourable for well growth and for thriving of this species. Moreover, it can be assumed that, the overall low value of condition factor suggests scarcity of food in the environment.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express heart-felt thanks to Rector Dr Thar Tun Maung, Kalay University for his permission to carry out this paper. I would like to express my indebtedness to Professor Dr Yee Yee Cho, Head of the Department of Zoology, Kalay University, for her permission and valuable advice to complete this research work. I am also greatly indebted to Dr Ni War Lwin, Professor, Department of Zoology, Kalay University, for her suggestions and encouragement.

208 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 REFERENCES Arruda, L.M., Azevedo, I.N., Neto A.I., 1993. Abundance, age structure and growth and reproduction of gobies in the Riade Avciro Lagoon (Portugal). Estuarinc, Coast and Shelf Sc. 37: 509-523. Abujam, S.S., 2011. Studies on the reproductive biology of spiny eel, Macrognathus aral from upper Assam. J. Environ. Biol. 32: 635-639. Banerjee, S., Dutta, D., 2016. Study on length –weight relationship, condition factor and hepatosomatic index of one stripe spiny eel Macrognathus aral in West Bengal. International Journal of Scientific and research publications. 6(8): 2250 – 3153. Cutting, C.L., 1999. Fish processing and preservation. Agro Botanical Publishers, New Delhi. Department of Fisheries, Myanmar., 2006. Inland fishing gears and methods in Southeast Asia: SEAFDEC/ Training Department, Thailand. 184. pp. Encina, L. and Grnado-Lorencio C., 1997. Seasonal variations in the physiological status and energy content of somatic and reproductive tissues of club. T. Fish. Biol., 50: 511-522. Fish Base, 2017. Freshwater Fish Species. Available from: http://en.bdfish.org/ 2011/04/ bronze- featherback-notopteru-notopterus-pallas-1769 (Accessed 18 January 2017). Jayaram, K.C., 1999. The freshwater fishes of the Indian Region. Narendra Publishing House, New Delhi. pp. 56-220. Jayaram, K.C., 2013. The freshwater fishes of the Indian Region. 2nd edit. Zoological Survey of India. Lavanya, A., Sharma, S.V., 2002. On the biology of the one stripe spiny eel, Macrognathus aral from the ponds in lower Krishna Irrigation System. Department of zoology, Nagarjuna University, India. pp 271-273. Le Cren, D.E., 1951. The length-weight relationship and seasonal cycle, gonad weight and condition in the perch, Percafluviatilis. Journal of Animal Ecology, 20: 201-219. Moyle, P.B., Leidy, R.A., 1992. Loss of biodiversity in aquatic ecosystems: evidence from fish faunas. In: Conservation biology: The theory and practice of nature conservation, preservation and management. P.L. Fiedler and S.K. Jains (eds.), Chapman and Hall, New York. pp.127-169. Rafique, R.M., Mahboob, S., Ahmao, M., Saleem, S., 2002. Seasonal limnological variations in Mangla reservoir at Sukhian, Mirpur (Azad Kashmir). Int. J. Agri. Biol. 4(2): 2002. Salem, A., Davies, P.M.C., 1994. Body composition of northern Pike (Esox Lucius L.) in relation to body size and condition factor. Fisheries Res. 19: 199-204. Shakir, H.A., Qazi, J.I., Hussain, A., Ali, S., 2010. Growth coefficient and condition factor of three carp species reared under semiintensive culture. Punjab Univ. J. Zool. 25(1-2): 13-20. Talwar, P.K., Jhingran, A.G., 1991. Inland fishes of India and adjacent countries. Vol.I and II. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi.1158 pp. UNDP,1995.Census report. Available from http://www.undplao.org/ Projectfact/ fact.htm. Wingfield, J.C., Grimm, A.S., 1977. Seasonal changes in the plasma cortisol level in Plevronectsplatessa L. Gen. Comp. Endocrimol. 31(1): 1-11.

209 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 OCCURRENCE OF FISH SPECIES IN THE SEGMENT OF MYITTHA RIVER BETWEEN PYINTHAR VILLAGE AND KYIGONE VILLAGE, KALAY TOWNSHIP Htay Htay Kyi1, Nandar Lin2

ABSTRACT Collection of fishes was conducted from June, 2017 to May, 2018. A total of 46 fish species belonging to 33 genera, 19 families and eight orders were recorded from Myittha River segment between Pyinthar and Kyigone villages, Kalay Township, Sagaing Region. During the study period, Order Cypriniformes was represented by 19 species, belonging to twelve genera and two families. Order Siluriformes was represented by thirteen species, belonging to nine genera and six families. Order Perciformes was represented by eight species, belonging to six genera and six families. Order Synbranchiformes was represented by two species, belonging to two genera and only one family respectively. According to data recorded, the highest species composition was found in Order Cypriniformes (41.30%), followed by Siluriformes (28.26%), Perciformes (17.39%), Synbranchiformes (4.35%) and Osteoglossiformes, Mugiliformes, Beloniformes and Tetraodontiformes with (2.17%) each during research work. They were widely distributed throughout the year in Myittha River Segment and commercially important for local fishermen and a food supply for local people. Keywords: occurrence, species composition, fishes, Myittha River segment

1. INTRODUCTION The Union of Myanmar geographically has many important mountains, rivers, streams, lakes and a very long coastline. Myanmar with a total land area of 676,577 km2 is the largest country on the mainland of Southeast Asia. Kalay Township is situated in the northwestern part of Sagaing Region of Myanmar. It is surrounded by hills and mountain ranges. Most of the streams take their source from Chin Hills. The major rivers, Myittha and Manipu join near the Khone-toe-myotha village and continue as the Myittha River flows south to northwards through Pyinthar and Kyigone villages and finally drains into the Chin- Dwin River in Kalaywa Township (Ferraris, 1997). The rivers, streams and creeks are the sources of fishes and fish products of Kalay Township. Fish provides a staple diet and protein supplement for many people. Myanmar is considered to have some of the richest inland fishery resources in the world. Inland capture fisheries provide a valuable contribution to food security in Myanmar (FAO,1999). Therefore, to fulfill the above requirements, occurrence of fish faunas was conducted in Myittha River segment of the study area. The objectives of this study were:  to identify and record the fish species in Myittha River  to seek the occurrence and species composition of fishes in Myittha River

1Lecturer, Department of Zoology, Kalay University 2Assistant Lecturer Dr, Department of Zoology, Kalay University 210 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 2. MATERIALS AND METHOD Study Area and Study Sites Kalay Township is situated in the southwestern part of Sagaing Region of Myanmar. It lies between 23°11' and 23°14' N and 93° 5' and 94°9'E. Myittha River flows south to northwards through the eastern part of Kalaymyo. Fish specimens for the study were collected between Pyinthar and Kyigone villages. Study Period The present study was conducted from June, 2017 to May, 2018. Specimen Collection and Preparation Collection of the specimens was made once in a month from the local fishermen. All specimens were preserved in 10% formalin but larger specimens were injected with 10% formalin into the abdomen. Identification of Collected Specimen Identification of fish specimens were made according to Day (1878), Jayaram (1981), Talwar and Jhingran (1991) and Ferraris (1997). The classification and nomination of fishes was followed afterTalwar and Jhingran (1991) and Jayaram (2013).

Figure 1. Location map of study area (Source: UTM 2294_04)

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RESULTS A total of 46 fish species belonging to 33 genera, 19 families and eight orders were recorded from Myittha River segment during June, 2017 to May, 2018 (Table 2). Species Composition of Fish A total of 46 species was recorded during the study period. These fish species were belonging to 33 genera, 19 families and eight orders. Order Cypriniformes was represented by 19 species, belonging to twelve genera and two families. Order Siluriformes was represented by thirteen species, belonging to nine genera and six families. Order Perciformes was represented by eight species, belonging to six genera and six families. Order Synbranchiformes was represented by two species, belonging to two genera and only one family. Lastly from the order Osteoglossiformes, Mugiliformes, Beloniformes and Tetraodontiformes represented by a single species belonging to a single genus and family in each. According to the data recorded, the highest species composition was collected in Order Cypriniformes with 41.30%, followed by Siluriformes with 28.26%, Perciformes with 17.39%, Synbranchiformes with 4.35%, Osteoglossiformes, Mugiliformes, Beloniformes and Tetraodontiformes with 2.17% each in during research work. (Table 1)

Table 1. Percent composition of fish species in different orders of the Myittha River during June 2017 to May 2018

Species Number of Number Number of Sr. Order composition family of genus species No. % 1. Osteoglossiformes 1 1 1 2.17 2. Cypriniformes 2 12 19 41.30 3. Siluriformes 6 9 13 28.26 4. Mugiliformes 1 1 1 2.17 5. Beloniformes 1 1 1 2.17 6. Synbranchiformes 1 2 2 4.35 7. Perciformes 6 6 8 17.39 8. Tetraodontiformes 1 1 1 2.17 Total 19 33 46 100

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Table 2 List of fish species collected from Myittha River segment during June 2017 to May 2018 Sr. No. Order Family Sr. No. Scientific Name Common Name Local Name 1. Osteoglossiformes Notopteridae 1. Notopterus notopterus Grey feather back Nge-phe 2. Cypriniformes Cyprinidae 2. Aspidoparia morar Aspidoparia Nga-phyin 3. Raiamas guttatus Burmese trout Nga-la-war 4. Esomus altus Burmese barb Nga-maw-tawt 5. Amblypharyngodon mola Molar carplet Nga-phyu 6. Osteobrama belangeri Manipur osteobrama Nga-phat-wine 7. O. cunma Cunma osteobrama Nga-phant-zup 8. Puntius chola Swamp bark Nga-khon-ma 9 P. sarana Olive barb Nga-khon-ma-toke 10. P. sophore Spotfin swamp barb Nga-khon-ma 11. Cirrhinus mrigala Mrigal Nga-gyin-phyu 12. C. cirrhosus Mrigal carp Nga-gyin-lone 13. Catla catla Bighead-carp Hin-ngan 14. Labeo boga Boga labeo Nga-lu 15. L. calbasu Kalbasu Nga-net-pyar 16. L. rohita Rohu Nga-myit-chin Cobitidae 17. Botia histrionica Burmese loach Nga-shwe-thwe

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Table 2 Continued Sr. Sr. Order Family Scientific Name Common Name Local Name No. No. 18. Lepidocephalichthys Sand loach Nga-tha-le-doe berdmorei 19. L. thermalis Loach Nga-tha-le-doe 20. Acantopsis choirorhynchos Spotted horseface loach Nga-shwe-thwe 3. Siluriformes Bagridae 21. Sperata aor Long whiskered catfish Nga-gyaung 22. Mystus cavasius Gangetic mystus Nga-zin-yaing-phyu 23. M. pulcher Pulcher mystus Nga-zin-yaing 24. M. gulio Long whiskered catfish Nag-yway 25. M. leucophasis Sittang mystus Nga-pet-let Siluridae 26. Ompok bimaculatus Indian butter catfish Nga-than-nu 27. O. pabo Pabo catfish Nga-than-nu 28. Wallago attu Boal Nga-bat Schilbeidae 29. Silonia silondia Silonia vacha Nga-myin Amblycipitidae 30. Amblyceps mangois Indian torrent catfish Nga-gyee Sisoridae 31. Gagata dolichonema Blackfin sisorid catfish Nga-saw-kyar 32. Bagarius yarrelli Goonch Nga-maung-ma Heteropneustidae 33. Heteropneustes fossilis Stinging catfish Nga-gyee

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Table 2 Continued Sr. Sr. Order Family Scientific Name Common Name Local Name No. No. 4. Mugiliformes Mugilidae 34. Rhinomugil corsula Corsula mullet Nga-zin-lone 5. Beloniformes Belonidae 35. Xenentodon cancila Freshwater garfish Nga-phaung-yoe 6. Synbranchiformes Mastacembelidae 36. Macrognathus aral One-striped spiny eel Nga-mwe-doe 37. Mastacembelus manipurensis Tire-track spiny eel Nga-mwe-na-gar 7. Perciformes Ambassidae 38. Parambassis ranga Indian glassy fish Nga-zin-zup Badidae 39. Badis ferrarisi Ferrari badis Nga-byay-shut Gobiidae 40. Glossogobius giuris Tank goby Nga-lone Anabantidae 41. Anabas testudineus Climbing perch Nga-byay-ma Belontidae 42. Colisa labiosus Thick-lipped gourami Nga-phyin-tha-let Channidae 43. Channa orientalis Brownsnakehead fish Nga-yant-gaung-to 44. C. punctata Green snake head fish Nga-yant 45. C. striata Striped snake head fish Nga-yant-kyar 8. Tetraodontiformes Tetraodontidae 46. Tetraodon cutcutia Ocellated pufferfish Nga-si-pu

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2 cm 1 cm

Notopterus notopterus Aspidoparia morar

1 cm 2 cm

Raiamas guttatus Esomus altus

2 cm 2 cm

Amblypharyngodon mola Osteobrama belangeri

1 cm 2 cm

O. cunma Puntius chola

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2 cm 2 cm

P. sarana P. sophore

2 cm 2 cm

Cirrhinus mrigala C. cirrhosus

2 cm 2 cm

Catla catla Labeo boga

2 cm 2 cm

L. calbasu L. rohita

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2 cm 2 cm

Botia histrionica Lepidocephalichthys berdmorei

2 cm 2 cm

L. thermalis Acantopsis choirorhynchos

2 cm 2 cm

Sperata aor Mystus cavasius

2 cm 2 cm

M. pulcher M. gulio

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2 cm 2 cm

M. leucophasis Ompok bimaculatus

2 cm 2 cm

O. pabo Wallago attu

2 cm 2 cm

Silonia silondia Amblyceps mangois

2 cm 2 cm

Gagata dolichonema Bagarius yarrelli

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2 cm 2 cm

Heteropneustes fossilis Rhinomugil corsula

2 cm 2 cm

Xenentodon cancila Macrognathus aral

2 cm 2 cm

Mastacembelus manipurensis Parambassis ranga

C

2 cm 2 cm

Badis ferrarisi Glossogobius giuris

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2 cm 2 cm

Anabas testudineus Colisa labiosus

2 cm 2 cm

Channa orientalis C. punctata

2 cm 2 cm

C. striata Tetraodon cutcutia

221 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 DISCUSSION During the study period, Notoperus notopterus, Aspidoparia morar, Puntius chola, Catla catla, Labeo rohita, Sperata aor, Mystus cavasius, Mystus leucophasis, Wallago attu, Silonia silondia and Glossogobius giuris were dominated species in this study area. According to this data recorded, order Cypriniformes contains four species and Siluriformes contains five species in this study area (Table 1). They were widely distributed throughout the year in Myittha River segment and commercially important for local fishermen and food supply for local people. Nandar Lin, 2016 recorded a total of 47 fish species were recorded in three study periodsfrom June 2012 to May 2015. In the present study, the species recorded were similar to those of Nandar Lin, 2016, but seven species namely: Cirrhinus cirrhosus, Mystus pulcher, Amblyceps mangois, Macrognathus aral, Badis ferrarisi, Rhinomugil corsula and Channa striata were not reported in her research work. According to the present data, Cirrhinus cirrhosus, Amblyceps mangois and Badis ferrarisi were new findingsand newly recorded in the Myittha River segment during this research work. It was observed that the family Cyprinidae belonging to order Cypriniformes were most abundant in Mittha River segment during the study period. This result is similar to the result of Talwar and Jhingram (1991) because Cypriniformes is the largest finding in it. In this study, cyprinid fish is the largest species and widely distributed in Myitha River. Thus, they may be commercially important for local fishermen for food supply because their finding in Cypriniformes is the largest one in it. Man Tint Maw et al. (2004-2006) collected 45 species, 18 families and seven order of fish fauna in Kalay Myoma Market from Kalay Township. Among them, 30 species, 16 families and six orders of fishes were similar to the present finding. Therefore, the study area provides economically important food supply and income for local people in Kalay Township area.

CONCLUSION The freshwater fish species were widely distributed throughout the year in Myittha River segment and commercially important for local fishermen and a food supply for local people, so there is a need to maintain and preserve the habitat.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I deeply grateful to Rector, Dr Thar Tun Maung, Kalay University for his permission. I would like to thank Professor Dr Yee Yee Cho, Head of Zoology Department, Kalay University, Professor Dr Ni War Lwin and all staff for their kindly support to complete this research work.

222 Kalay University Research Journal, Vol.9, No.1, 2019 REFERENCES Day, F, 1878. The fishes of India a Natural History of the fishes known to Inhabit Seas and Freshwaters of India, Burma and Ceylon.Vol.I& II. Today and Tomorrow Book Agency, New Delhi. FAO, 1999. Management guidelines for Asia flood Plain Rivers. Fishery Technical Paper. Ferraris J.C.J., 1997. Identification Guide to the commercial Inland Fishes of Myanmar. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. Rome. Jayaram, K.C, 1981. The freshwater fishes of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma and Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka. Sri Aurobindo Press, Calcutta, India. Jayaram, K.C, 2013. The freshwater fishes of the Indian Region. (2nded.) Narendra Publishing House, Delhi, India. Man Tint Maw, Kyi Kyi Soe, Kan Shein, Myint Myint Kyi, Aye Aye Thant, Ko Ko Zaw, Htay Htay Kyi, Maung Maung Aye, Nwe New Khaing, Thin Thin Khaing, Win Win Mar, Ame Aung, Kyi Naing, Soe Soe, Theingi Swe and Than Naing Oo, 2006. Taxonomic study of some fishes of Kalay Myoma Market. Research paper, University of Kalay. NandarLin, 2016. Seasonal occurrence and diversity of fish species in a segment of Myittha River between Ooyin village and Pyinthar village, Kalay Township. PhD Dissertation, University of Mandalay. Talwar, P.K and Jhingran A.G, 1991. Inland fishes of India and Adjacent Countries. Vol.I and II. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt, Ltd., New Delhi.