Perceived and Induced Emotion Responses to Popular Music: Categorical and Dimensional Models
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Bucknell University Bucknell Digital Commons Faculty Journal Articles Faculty Scholarship 2016 Perceived and Induced Emotion Responses to Popular Music: Categorical and Dimensional Models Yading Song Simon Dixon Marcus T. Pearce Andrea R. Halpern Bucknell University, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.bucknell.edu/fac_journ Part of the Cognitive Psychology Commons, and the Music Commons Recommended Citation Song, Yading; Dixon, Simon; Pearce, Marcus T.; and Halpern, Andrea R.. "Perceived and Induced Emotion Responses to Popular Music: Categorical and Dimensional Models." Music Perception (2016) : 472-492. This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Faculty Scholarship at Bucknell Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Faculty Journal Articles by an authorized administrator of Bucknell Digital Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. 472 Yading Song, Simon Dixon, Marcus T. Pearce, & Andrea R. Halpern PERCEIVED AND INDUCED EMOTION RESPONSES TO POPULAR MUSIC: CATEGORICAL AND DIMENSIONAL MODELS YADING SONG,SIMON DIXON,& MARCUS T. P EARCE 2004). Because of the power that music has to express Queen Mary University of London, London, and induce emotion, much attention has been paid to United Kingdom research on music and emotion in the past few decades (Eerola & Vuoskoski, 2013). The ability to identify emo- ANDREA R. HALPERN tional content is established at a very early age (Dalla Bucknell University Bella, Peretz, Rousseau, & Gosselin, 2001), and people engage with music in different contexts (e.g., travel, MUSIC BOTH CONVEYS AND EVOKES EMOTIONS, everyday routines) and for different purposes (e.g., dis- and although both phenomena are widely studied, the traction, mood regulation) (DeNora, 2000; Sloboda, difference between them is often neglected. The purpose O’Neill, & Ivaldi, 2001; Juslin, Liljestro¨m, Va¨stfja¨ll, of this study is to examine the difference between Barradas, & Silva, 2008). However, the ways in which perceived and induced emotion for Western popular people recognize and experience emotion in music music using both categorical and dimensional models remain unclear. Kreutz, Ott, Teichmann, Osawa, & Vaitl of emotion, and to examine the influence of individual (2007) noted that perceived emotion refers to intellec- listener differences on their emotion judgment. A total tual processing, such as the perception of an intended or of 80 musical excerpts were randomly selected from an expressed emotion, whereas induced emotions reflect established dataset of 2,904 popular songs tagged with the introspective perception of psychophysiological one of the four words ‘‘happy,’’ ‘‘sad,’’ ‘‘angry,’’ or changes, which are often associated with emotional ‘‘relaxed’’ on the Last.FM web site. Participants listened self-regulation (Khalfa, Isabelle, Jean-Pierre, & Manon, to the excerpts and rated perceived and induced emotion 2002; Thayer & Faith, 2001). However, the distinction on the categorical model and dimensional model, and between perceived and induced emotion has not been the reliability of emotion tags was evaluated according broadly studied. Understanding the similarities and dif- to participants’ agreement with corresponding labels. In ferences between the two will provide us a clearer view addition, the Goldsmiths Musical Sophistication Index of the underlying psychological mechanisms involved in (Gold-MSI) was used to assess participants’ musical musical emotion (Juslin & Va¨stfja¨ll, 2008). expertise and engagement. As expected, regardless of In previous studies on induced and perceived emo- the emotion model used, music evokes emotions similar tion, Gabrielsson (2002) stated that induced emotion to the emotional quality perceived in music. Moreover, (also known as felt emotion) is the emotion experienced emotion tags predict music emotion judgments. How- by the listener whereas the perceived emotion (also ever, age, gender and three factors from Gold-MSI, known as expressed emotion) is the emotion recognized importance, emotion, and music training were found not in the music. Perceiving an expression of sadness in the to predict listeners’ responses, nor the agreement with music without necessarily being affected oneself is tags. mainly a perceptual-cognitive process and it should be distinguished from listeners’ emotional response to the Received: April 12, 2014, accepted April 4, 2015. music. In general, music seems to evoke emotions sim- ilar to the emotional quality perceived in music (Kalli- Key words: music and emotion, social tag, induced nen & Ravaja, 2006). Separating induced emotion from emotion, perceived emotion, emotion model perceived emotion is not straightforward and the dis- tinction is not always observed (Schubert, 2013). Other studies have also suggested that the rating level of USIC CAN CONVEY EMOTION AND EVOKE induced emotion is higher than the level of perceived feelings. Previous studies have shown that emotion in connection with positive valence, but lower M listeners’ primary motives for listening to in connection with arousal, positive activation, and music lie in its emotional functions (Juslin & Laukka, negative activation (Kallinen & Ravaja, 2006). Juslin Music Perception, VOLUME 33, ISSUE 4, PP. 472–492, ISSN 0730-7829, ELECTRONIC ISSN 1533-8312. © 2016 BY THE REGENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. PLEASE DIRECT ALL REQUESTS FOR PERMISSION TO PHOTOCOPY OR REPRODUCE ARTICLE CONTENT THROUGH THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS’S REPRINTS AND PERMISSIONS WEB PAGE, HTTP://WWW.UCPRESS.EDU/JOURNALS.PHP?P¼REPRINTS.DOI:10.1525/MP.2016.33.4.472 Perceived and Induced Emotion Responses 473 and Laukka (2004) distinguished the perception and sadness, fear, and anger (Ekman, 1992; Panksepp, 1998). induction of emotion in music from emotions induced On the one hand, the dimensional model has been crit- in everyday life, but the quantitative relationship between icized for its lack of differentiation when it comes to the two has not been examined. emotions that are close neighbors in the valence- Gabrielsson (2002) proposed and gave examples of activation space, one of the consequences of the low four possible relationships between perceived and dimensionality of the model. On the other hand, the induced emotion, namely positive relationship, negative categorical model itself is inadequate to describe the relationship, no systematic relationship, and no relation- richness of emotional effects of music. However, both ship. Those relationships were also discussed by Kalli- the categorical model and dimensional model have nen and Ravaja (2006), and Evans and Schubert (2008). received empirical support (Kreutz et al., 2007; Vieillard et al., 2008) and have been commonly used in the study • Positive relationship: Occurs when ‘‘the listener’s of music and emotion (Juslin et al., 2008; Truong, Leeu- emotional response is in agreement with the emo- wen, Neerincx, & Jong, 2009; Vieillard et al., 2008; Vuos- tional expression in the music’’ (p. 131); koski&Eerola,2011a).Inaddition,Eerolaand • Negative relationship: Occurs when the ‘‘listener Vuoskoski (2010) compared the use of these two models reacts with an emotion opposite to that expressed and suggested that the categorical emotion model was in the music: positive emotion in the music elicits less reliable than the dimensional model at predicting negative emotion in the response, or negative the rating of excerpts that were ambiguous examples of emotion in the music elicits positive emotion in an emotion category, but that they both produced the response’’ (p. 134); highly compatible ratings of perceived emotions. Simi- • No systematic relationship: Occurs when the lis- lar to tempo (Dixon, 2001; Repp, 1994), emotion might tener stays ‘‘emotionally neutral’’ regardless of the be instantaneous, which can be recognized and experi- expression of the music, or experiences different enced as soon as the music starts, or emotion may emotions on different occasions (p. 136); evolve and change continuously over time. Due to this • No relationship: Occurs when there is not even dynamic nature of music, we measured the ‘‘dominant a potential relationship, such as when a person emotion’’ from a musical excerpt that participants per- feels an emotion that cannot be expressed in ceived and felt, which might be considered as a central music (p. 136). tendency (not an average, nor the median) of emotion During the past two decades, categorical models (or in a certain range of exposure (e.g., 30 or 60 seconds). discrete models), dimensional models, miscellaneous The goal of this paper is to study both induced and models (Ilie & Thompson, 2006; McAdams, Vines, perceived emotion: we compare the perceived and Vieillard, Smith, & Reynolds, 2004), and domain-specific induced responses in both categorical and dimensional emotion models (e.g., Geneva Emotion Music Scale, models. Although other approaches such as behavioral which is only used for induced emotion) (Zentner, measurement and physiological reaction are becoming Grandjean, & Scherer, 2008) have been proposed and increasingly popular, there exist several issues. For used in the study of music and emotion. The typical instance, measuring behavioral responses to music dimensional model (DM) represents emotions in an including facial expression and body language (Frijda, affective space with two dimensions: one related to 1986), and various physiological reactions such as heart valence (a pleasure-displeasure