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Negotiating Language and Learning: an Ethnographic Study of Students’ Experiences in Two Tanzanian Secondary Schools

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Negotiating Language and Learning: An ethnographic study of students’ experiences in two Tanzanian secondary schools Laela Adamson 2020 UCL Institute of Education, University College London PhD Thesis 1 2 Author’s Declaration Word count (exclusive of bibliography or appendices): 98,176 This thesis may be made available to the general public for borrowing, photocopying, or consultation without the prior consent of the author. The copyright of the thesis rests with the author. Quotation from the thesis is permitted, provided that full acknowledgement is made. I, Laela Adamson, confirm that the work presented in this thesis is my own. Where information has been derived from other sources, I confirm that this has been indicated in the thesis. Signed: Laela Adamson Date: 16th April 2020 3 4 Acknowledgments First and foremost, this thesis would not exist without the many students and teachers from the two schools in Morogoro, Tanzania who contributed to this research. They made space for me in their classrooms, took the time to explain (and re-explain) their perspectives and experiences, and laughed with (and at) me as I asked ‘one more’ question and repeatedly changed the plan. In particular, I want to acknowledge and to thank the team of student researchers who helped to shape the research process, shared their insight on findings as they emerged, and showed me how to navigate the practical challenges of arranging transport and adequate snacks for workshops. This thesis embodies their energy, enthusiasm and commitment as much as it does mine. I am extremely conscious that I am finishing this thesis in a time of global upheaval that has affected and interrupted the schooling of so many of the young people who contributed to this study, and those who have followed after them. I would like to dedicate this work to them and to their tenacity, resilience and hope. This thesis would not have been completed without the patience, encouragement and intellectual energies of my supervisors, Tristan McCowan and Elaine Unterhalter. I am grateful to them both for challenging me and for expressing unwavering confidence in my abilities and ideas, even when I was struggling to have that confidence in myself. I would also like to thank my examiners, Angeline Barrett and John O’Regan for their engagement, questions and comments that will help me to reflect on, and continue to develop, my work in this area. I am grateful to the Education Development Trust and the family of Tim Morris for awarding me a grant to support the field research for this study and offering their enthusiasm and feedback as I began to process the findings. I have also greatly appreciated the time taken by fellow students and academics at conferences, workshops and seminars to offer comments on my work-in-progress. Pursuing a PhD part-time can be a lonely experience, but I was extremely fortunate to have academic friends and colleagues who not only offered companionship and support, but also gave generously of their thoughts on my emerging ideas. I am particularly grateful to Charley Nussey, Louise Wetheridge, Ellen Turner, Cristina Perales Franco, Christine Kelly, Christine Assad, Adam Walton, Marika Tsolakis and Lisa Walker for the 5 opportunities to share insights, feedback and frustrations. There were also times when carving out space for writing seemed impossible alongside other working commitments and I am thankful to Rowena Murray and other participants in writing retreats in Gartmore for the discipline, energy and solidarity that helped to push me through some of the toughest periods. I would also like to thank Annika Coughlin, Miriam Craik-Horan and the other Shut Up and Write-ers for their efforts to impose a similar structure on a UCL-based working day. In Tanzania, there were countless people who contributed both directly and indirectly to this project. I have already acknowledged those who participated in generating the data that informs this study, but I would also like to recognise others who made it possible, including education faculty members from the University of Dar es Salaam and Regional and District Education Officers for supporting my applications for research permissions and official access to schools. I am also grateful to the numerous official and unofficial Kiswahili teachers, to my three transcribers, and to those who housed me at different stages in the process. In particular, I give my heartfelt thanks to those who supported me to negotiate the intellectual, cultural and emotional challenges that this experience threw at me, including Lindi, Sharon and Lisa, and to Rebecca who helped me to see beyond the ‘tic-tacking’ to what was actually being said. My commitment to this project began several years before the doctoral programme and so there are many people to thank for encouraging me, and tolerating me, along the way, including teaching colleagues, READ International colleagues, MPhil class-mates, friends and family. I know that the submission of this thesis represents a relief for many of them, but it will also be a source of pride, and I am forever grateful for their supporting and cheering me on through the different stages. In particular, my thanks to Mum and Howard, to Sam and Hamish, to Bern and to wee Maira, whose arrival helped to sharpen my attention so that I could have time to watch her play, learn and grow. And as I write these final words, I raise a glass to absent friends, who I know would have taken great joy in this moment. 6 Abstract This thesis is concerned with students’ negotiations of language and learning in multilingual contexts. Students’ experiences of schooling are profoundly shaped by language-in-education policies and practices. In Sub-Saharan Africa, language of instruction policies overwhelmingly give prominence to European languages. This is despite a body of evidence, that has been built up since the 1970s, showing that the use of an unfamiliar language as the language of instruction limits learning. Debates about language of instruction in Africa are crucial, but have tended to become stuck in a conflict of seemingly irreconcilable beliefs and priorities. This thesis asks whether broadening the lens of language-in-education research and exploring the multiple roles that language plays could support the acknowledgment and explanation of these different concerns. It also considers how the conceptual vocabulary offered by the capability approach might help to reframe the debate so that it encapsulates all valued functions and meanings of language and makes a clearer distinction between language-related outcomes and learning processes. Drawing on the analysis of data from an ethnographic study in two Tanzanian secondary schools, this thesis offers a rich, socially-situated account of students’ experiences of negotiating language and learning in their school environments. This demonstrates that language acts not only as a form of communication, but also as an aspiration, a guardian of culture, and an expression of being. The key finding and contribution of this thesis is that students’ experiences of language and learning are characterised by important connections between a range of different language values and language- and education-related capabilities. A more holistic approach to language and education planning and intervention, that recognises and strengthens these connections, could result in more inclusive and equitable learning experiences for students in multilingual environments. 7 8 Impact Statement This thesis explores students’ negotiations of their school language environments. It builds on existing research showing that current language of instruction policies and practices, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa, have a detrimental impact on student learning. This study considers whether broadening the lens of language-in-education research and conceptually and analytically reframing the analysis could shift the debate that has become stuck in a conflict of seemingly irreconcilable beliefs and priorities. This aim is urgent as this study finds that the current language-in- education status quo is negatively effective learning, social-emotional well-being, and equity in education. This study draws from an ethnographic study in two secondary schools in Tanzania, but its empirical and theoretical findings may be relevant across a range of multilingual contexts. This thesis takes a multidimensional approach to the study of language-in-education, highlighting empirical findings about students’ experiences that are often either missing, or only mentioned in passing, in existing research. It also helps to explain some of the findings elsewhere in the literature that have been labelled as ‘perplexing’ or ‘contradictory’. Moreover, this thesis contributes to the development of the capability approach as a useful conceptual and analytical framework for the study of language-in-education. Dissemination of findings from this study has already begun, with papers presented at conferences of the British Association of International and Comparative Education and the Human Development and Capabilities Association. As well as seeking to publishing journal articles in English, I will explore collaborative opportunities for publishing in Kiswahili so that findings are more widely accessible in Tanzania. Methodological reflections about learning and using language for ethnographic research were published in a chapter in a collaborative volume in 2020, which is hoped will prove useful to others embarking on research in multilingual contexts. 9 The non-academic impact of this project began during the field research. The process of working with a team of student researchers built research capacity and understanding. Both the findings of this study, but particularly the learning from working with young people as researchers, have also influenced my own professional practice as a UK secondary school teacher with whole-school responsibility for teachers’ and students’ engagement with and in research. In this role, I regularly connect and share experiences with other schools across a nationwide network. This thesis outlines the importance of a holistic and joined-up approach to education policy-making, planning and intervention.
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