PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL SEMINAR ON INSTITUTIONS WORKING ON GENDER, BIODIVERSITY AND LOCAL KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS IN SWAZILAND
Edited by
Phonius M. Dlamini Department of Agricultural Economics and Management University of Swaziland. E-Mail : [email protected]
and
Bruce R. T. Vilane Department of Land Use and Mechanization University of Swaziland. E-Mail : [email protected]
April, 2001
LinKS PROJECT WORKING DOCUMENT N0. 3
HOSTED BY THE UNIVERSITY OF SWAZILAND – FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE [CONFERENCE ROOM] : 16 – 17 MARCH 2001.
COPYRIGHT
This document is a collective sharing of ideas and experiences and thus copyright does not reside either with the editors, anyone of the contributors or their parent institutions. However, usage of any material or reproduction, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in whole or in part in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, as a matter of courtesy, acknowledgement of the source should be given. The views expressed are those of the contributors and do not necessarily represent the view of the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO).
Copyright © FAO, 2001.
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS Page
Copyright ...... ………………. iii List of Tables ...... …………. v Preface...... …………. vi
1.0 KEYNOTE ADDRESS By The Honourable Minister of Tourism, Environment and Communication (Mrs. Stella Lukhele...... …...... 1
2.0 DAY ONE : PAPER PRESENTATIONS……………………………….…… 3
2.1 Gender Papers :…………………………………………………………………….. 3 2.1.1 Gender, Biodiversity and Local Knowledge Systems : Highlights and Submissions of the Seminar Discussions :………………………… 3 2.1.2 Gender and Food Security by Dr. P.E. Zwane :……………………………………. 13
2.2 Biodiversity Papers :.……………………………………………………………… 26 2.2.1 Biodiversity Management in Swaziland by Mr. J.D. Vilakati :……………….….. 26 2.2.2 Biological Diversity Conservation in Swaziland : Perspectives From The Lubombo Region by Dr. B. S. Nkosi :…………………………………. 33
2.3 Indigenous Knowledge Systems Papers :…………………………………………. 52 2.3.1 Indigenous Knowledge Systems in Swaziland; A benefit or Threat to Biodiversity Conservation by Mr. M. Mlipha for Dr. P. N Fakudze…… 52 2.3.2 A Review of Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Technology for Community-Based Resource Management in Swaziland by Dr. A. M. Manyatsi:… 81 2.3.3 Swazi Indigenous Religion and the Swazi World View by Dr. H. N. Ndlovu:…….. 89
3.0 DAY TWO : GROUP DISCUSSIONS OF DOCUMENTS……………………. 98 3.1 Seminar Way Forward:……………………………………………………………… 98
4.0 CONCLUSSIONS:……………………………………………………………….. 102
5.0 LIST OF PARTICIPANTS:……………………………………………………… 103
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LIST OF TABLES Table Page
1 Communities where interviews were held by physiographic region:……….. 55
2 Perceived causes of land degradation in Swaziland:………………………… 61
3 Recommended technologies to control land degradation :………………….. 63
4 Grazing problems in the selected communities:……………………………… 64
5 Effects of fire on land :………………………………………………………. 65
6 Recommended techniques to maintain soil fertility :………………………… 66
7 Types of plants that can be used to improve soil fertility :………………….. 67
8 Some indigenous trees that are used as woodfuel or for building purposes:… 69
9 Common sources of drinking water used in the selected communities:…….. 70
10 Distance to nearest water sources :…………………………………………… 71
11 Problems with water resources in the selected communities :………………. 72
12 Reasons for the degradation of wetlands :…………………………………… 73
13 Importance of Cyperus plants :………………………………………………. 74
14 rules and regulations to be observed in the restoration of wetlands :………… 76
15 Some examples of indigenous knowledge used for community-based resource management in Swaziland :……………………… 84
iv
PREFACE
This report consists of five papers prepared for the two days’ LinKS Project Workshop, which was held at the University of Swaziland, Luyengo Campus’s Conference Centre, 16-17 March 2001.
The LinKS project, “Gender, Biodiversity and Local knowledge Systems” is a regional effort aimed at raising awareness of the value of rural people’s knowledge related to the use and management of local systems. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the UN is executing the project.
The three major themes of the Workshop were Gender, Biodiversity and Local Knowledge Systems, and the overall purpose was to discuss policy issues surrounding these themes. The workshop was organized at two levels: One level comprised presentations of papers related to the themes by key scholars whose background papers laid a platform for level two on the second day where the Directory and annotated bibliography were thoroughly discussed. The aim in compiling the Directory was to provide development workers, researchers, policy makers and other interested persons with an up-dated information about institutions that are in the fields of gender, biodiversity and local knowledge systems in Swaziland. Both the Directory and Annotated Bibliography are based on data collected by a Team of researchers at Luyengo Campus of the University of Swaziland (see Part II and III of this Report).
The Seminar began with a keynote address by the Minister of Tourism, Environment and Communications, the Honourable ‘Make’ Stella K. Lukhele who enlightened participants on the Government stand on the issues of gender, biodiversity and local knowledge systems. This was followed immediately by the gender papers: The gender dimension does need elaboration since it is the least observed aspect in the culture of the Swazi people. Two papers were presented on the issue of gender: one was a general case study which highlighted a number of serious views on gender, but since no formal paper was available a detailed summary is presented in this Report from notes taken during the v presentation. Other notes and individual submissions from the seminar discussions were found necessary for giving a broader perspective on each of the major issues since they individually carry so much weight in the way communities conduct their day-to-day businesses. The second paper entitled “Gender and Food Security” has been edited and incorporated in this report. The paper addresses the issues of food security and gender analysis through existing disparities related to food security and also poses some challenges that need to be addressed in future.
Biodiversity formed the second theme of the seminar under which the third and fourth papers were presented. The third paper by Jameson D. Vilakati analyzed policy, legislative and institutional measures that the country has established to promote the conservation of biodiversity and the utilization of its genetic resources. Dr Bonga S. Nkosi presented the fourth paper, which discussed community biodiversity conservation education programme, which formed part of study undertaken in the Lubombo Region of Swaziland in 1997. The paper focused on building an information base on the local knowledge and it highlights the concerns and observations of communities on the issue of biodiversity.
The fifth paper by Dr. Patience N. Fakudze was presented by Mr. Mandla Mlipha focused on a study that was commissioned to document indigenous knowledge systems and techniques in Swaziland. It focused squarely on the assessment of the extent of indigenous knowledge techniques and peoples’ perceptions on land degradation in the country. It further reviewed the history of policy measures that were designed to control land degradation. Dr A.M. Manyatsi presented a paper that reviewed existing local knowledge and technology used in community based resource management in Swaziland. The paper looks at traditional practices meant to protect rare species, use of totems and taboos, use of stories to protect wildlife, farming systems, passing historic information by use of names, naming of plants based on their use and importance, prediction of weather patterns, description of soil fertility, methods of harvesting plants for medicinal purposes and preservation of food.
vi The last theme of the workshop, local knowledge systems, saw the presentation and discussions of the fifth, sixth and seventh paper for the workshop. Dr H.L. Ndlovu presented the seventh and last paper, which examined the major beliefs and practices prevalent in Swazi indigenous religion that reflect and embody the underlying philosophy and culture of the Swazi. The author demonstrated the inextricable link and synthesis between Swazi traditional religion and the indigenous world view and knowledge of the Swazi.
In summary these papers have been enlightening because they touch all areas of importance in the life of a society. It is, in fact, necessary to protect the biodiversity of plants and animals in Swaziland and to learn and understand more about the issues of gender and local knowledge systems. In fact, the main aim of conducting a research of this nature is to support, build on, and strengthen what groups working on gender, indigenous knowledge and agro-biodiversity issues in Swaziland are already doing. The research promotes collaboration with and between governmental and non-governmental institutions working on these subjects. dr pm dlamini National Coordinator, LinKS – Swaziland.
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KEYNOTE ADDRESS
Honourable Mrs. Stella Lukhele Minister of Tourism, Environment and Communications.
Master of ceremony , Vice-chancellor, Dean of the faculty of agriculture, Seminar Coordinator, distinguished participants, ladies and gentlemen. Thank you for the opportunity you have given to me to participate in this national Seminar on institutions working on gender, biodiversity and local knowledge systems in Swaziland by way of an opening address.
From the very onset, I want us to recognize that this seminar is taking place at the time when: gender issues are at the fore-front of national regional and international development initiatives. It is important that issues of gender are main streamed into all development projects and programmes. There is need to be gender sensitive so that we correct some imbalances and biases that have occurred in the past within our society. We should ensure that we do not pay lip service but we should be committed to what we recommend. The bible says we should not be hearers of the word but we should be the doers. I therefore urge coordinators of this seminar to ensure that the recommendations on gender issues are translated into practical projects and programmes and not mere recommendations that gather dust on offices shelves.
I am informed that the purpose of this seminar is to discuss policy issues surrounding the themes of gender, biodiversity and local knowledge systems and it is my fervent hope that these issues will be discussed thoroughly so that they inform and shape our policy orientation and formulation in these areas.
My ministry is about to finalize the preparation of a biodiversity strategy and action plan, which aims at providing a framework for biodiversity conservation on a national scale. This biodiversity and action plan will also provide a basis for the formulation of a national biodiversity policy. This seminar has come about at the opportune time and will
viii provide an avenue for discussing in detail some of the problems and challenges Swaziland is facing with regard to biodiversity management in this country. As government, we are aware of the threats to biodiversity in this country, but we need coordinated and collaborative methods and strategies for overcoming these threats.
Master of ceremonies, ladies and gentlemen, the issue of local knowledge systems in the management of natural resources cannot be over emphasized. Past conservation strategies have not been successful because project and Programme planners had a tendency of ignoring local knowledge systems and had always thought that their approaches and methods were superior to local practices and know-how. The dismal performances of past policies and programmes on conservation and development has clearly demonstrated the need to take local knowledge systems in these areas and issues together to discuss and share experiences in these three areas of-gender, biodiversity and local knowledge systems. When talking about strategies for biodiversity conservation, the issues of gender and local knowledge systems are at the fore front and hence the need for institutions dealing with these areas to meet and share experiences May I at this juncture quote the book of books; which need no copy right : "Pay attention, you all the people, every one in Judah, listen. Has anything like this ever happened in your time or the time of your fathers? Tell your children about it, they will tell their children who in turn will tell the next generation". Joel 1:2-3.
In conclusion ladies, and gentlemen, I would like to take this opportunity to express my appreciation to the Faculty of Agriculture and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) for organizing and facilitating this national seminar on gender, biodiversity and local knowledge systems. I believe this will not be the only seminar on these issues, but there will be subsequent seminars after this one so as to ensure that these issues are thoroughly discussed by all involved institutions. With these few remarks, I would like to declare this national seminar on the directory of institutions working on gender biodiversity and local knowledge systems in Swaziland officially opened and wish you fruitful deliberations.
I thank you.
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GENDER, BIODIVERSITY AND LOCAL KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS : HILIGHTS OF THE SEMINAR DISCUSSIONS
Phonius. M. Dlamini Department of Agricultural Economics and Management University of Swaziland [email protected]
I Introduction
This paper presents synthesized material that came from the plenary session. The sequence of discussion is following the major themes of the seminar with gender treated first, followed by biodiversity, then local knowledge systems. It is worth mention that a lot of detail on these subjects was captured in the discussion than in the material written by the individual authors. Of importance though was the formal paper presentations which aimed at stimulating debates on these subjects.
II The Concept of Gender
From time immemorial, Gender has always been a conspicuous variable in the allocation of roles, responsibilities and resources at both the household and public levels. The term gender was first conceived as Women in Development (WID) in 1935 (Moffat Geedah and Stuart,) where they focused on the productive roles of women. At this time, WID was linked to the Equity Approach which recognizes that women are active contributors to
x development through their reproductive and productive roles (Moser, 1989). Later the whole focus shifted to what was called Women and Development (WAD) which emphasized the Efficiency Approach (SADC Report, 1998). A summary of the approaches is presented below:
In the deliberations during the workshop a lot came out on this subject. For example, gender was thought to refer to the social, cultural and historical differences between men and women in any given society.
While sex is a constant, unchanging biological physical feature, gender is socially constructed and denotes the roles attributed to females and males outlining how each is expected to act, speak and socialize. This socialization process instills values of each society to an extent that they are taken as if they are natural and God given.
As stated above, gender is a socially defined allocation of tasks in society between women and men. The division of labour and responsibility between the sexes is not natural in the sense that it is not determined by biological differences of sexes. It reflects social custom, norms and beliefs which govern and circumscribe individual behaviour. It attached social meaning to the roles of women and men in different societies. It is susceptible to change and is influenced by many factors such as religion, culture, economic and legal situation. Gender roles differ from society to society.
“People are born female and male, but learn to be girls and boys who grow into women and men. They are taught what the appropriate behaviour and attitudes, roles and activities are for them, and how they should relate to other people. This learned behaviour is what makes up gender identity and determines gender role”.
III Gender Concerns
Gender concerns are the needs which arise from the different situations of women and men in the division of labour, access and control of resources and benefits. These can be
xi classified into two categories: Practical needs and Strategic interests (Box 1). Practical Needs are the basic needs for survival such as water, food, shelter, money, fuel, and jobs, while strategic interests are those relating to power in self-determination and decision making – education, participation, voting, skills development, exposure, leadership and ownership.
Box 1 : Special Features of Practical & Strategic Gender Needs A. PRACTICAL NEEDS B. STRATEGIC INTERESTS Tend to be immediate, short term e.g. Access to Tend to be long-term e.g. freedom from violence, clean water, availability of fuel, credit - relatively equal legal rights, equal access to education – more easier to address. difficult to address
Unique to particular women. Common to almost all women
Relate to daily needs: food housing, income, healthy Relate to disadvantaged position: children, etc. Subordination lack of resource and education, vulnerability of poverty and violence, etc.
Easily identifiable by women Basis of disadvantage and potential for change not always identifiable by women.
Can be addressed by provision of specific inputs: Can be addressed by: consciousness raising, food, hand pumps, clinic, etc. increasing self-confidence, education, strengthening women’s organization, political mobilization, etc.
Provision of these needs makes it easier for women Provision of these needs changes the traditional to carry out roles and responsibilities expected of relationship between women and men and can be them by society. But generally does not alter very empowering for women. traditional roles and relationships. Addressing practical needs: Addressing strategic interests:
Tends to involve women as beneficiaries and Involves women as agents or enables women to perhaps as participants. become agents.
Can improve the condition of women’s lives. Can improve the position of women in society.
Generally does not alter traditional roles and Can empower women and transform relationships. relationships.
Women’s Special Needs arise from women’s sex roles that are biological. Reproduction and child-bearing are women’s special needs which are not experienced by men. These
xii include provision of maternity care, contraceptives, breastfeeding facilities, maternity leave and so forth.
Gender issues arise when a grievance is felt by one gender that their needs are not being met or that there is unfair treatment, for example in the division of labour, or in decision- making where there are observable gender gaps. These gaps are measures of gender inequality on any socio-economic indicator. A gender gap is measurable and may be part of well-known statistics e.g. male/female rations in formal sector employment management level occupations, literacy, university. A person who is gender aware has knowledge of gender issues but is yet to be convinced to change and take action. One who is gender sensitive has knowledge, has interest and internalized issues and is ready to take actions to bring about change.
In the literature about gender there is what is called mainstreaming gender. This is an action-oriented planning measure designed to ensure men’s and women’s equal access to and control over productive resources, development benefits and decision-making process. Gender issues and concerns must be taken into account in all development efforts within the process of mainstreaming.
There is also what is referred to as gender discrimination. Gender gaps do not arise by accident, but are often caused by the differential treatment given to one gender in comparison to the other. This treatment is called gender discrimination. Gender discrimination can be a single instance or systemic, as part of a social system which runs through all aspects of national life. Gender discrimination exists on all levels of family and household, customary law, government administrative regulations and practice, government legislation and in national constitutions.
Finally, there is gender sensitivity which means taking women’s equality with men seriously; understanding women and men’s roles rather than relying on assumptions; hearing women (their needs, priorities and perspectives) even as we hear men; counting and valuing women’s work as we do for men; equally respecting women and men’s views and human rights; caring about women and men (and what happens to them in development programmes) equally. xiii
IV Biodiversity and Local Knowledge
4.1 Background
Biodiversity comprises all habitats and their sustainable use. It is about the diversity of environments and/or habitats including the various life supporting niches such as grasslands, forests, wetlands and so forth. It encompasses all forms of agro-biodiversity such as the varied plants and animal species. Agro-biodiversity is undoubtlessly a resource which needs to be conserved. Other species not normally taken into consideration are countless numbers of micro-organisms which though innocuous are important ingredients in the food chain. What is also grossly underestimated is the diversity found in the wildlife and domesticated livestock.
The real danger is ignoring the diversity of indigenous knowledge, for example, conservation of certain seeds and plant species. Indigenous knowledge can be illustrated by a Word from the Bible:
11. “And God said, Let the earth bring forth grass, the herb yielding seed, and the fruit tree yielding fruit after his kind, whose seed is in itself, upon the earth: and it was so”(Genesis 1); 12. “And the earth brought forth grass, and herb yielding seed after his kind, and the tree yielding fruit, whose seeds was itself, after his kind: and God saw that it was good” (Genesis 1)
In the above quotations, God provided man with a natural pharmacy in the forest, and we are all witnesses to this that is why we have gathered here. Awareness of the abundance of this Natural Pharmacy is one thing, specific knowledge of which plant part does what, cures what specific ailment is the missing link which man has to find. God having made man expects man to use the faculties given to him to determine which plant is used for what purpose. Evidently man has not done much in exploring the Natural Pharmacy to his own benefit. All efforts towards finding cures for our ailments have so far been concentrated in the Laboratory where it may be easier. xiv
Knowledge of medicinal plants have been known to mankind for a long long time. In the Southern African region, such knowledge was and has been the sources of remedies for most of our ailments before the introduction of Western Medicine. What is grossly missing is the documentation of this knowledge.
The Institute of Health Sciences is a University Campus responsible for all research activities within the University, Ministry of Health and Social Welfare and the country at large. It is responsible for technical and sometimes coordination of short courses and seminars on health research methodologies.
Box 2: The Main Research Areas Covered
• Feasibility study for the introduction of Hepatitis B Vaccine in the Expanded Programme of Immunization in Swaziland • Endemic and Transmissible diseases (Malaria, Bilharziasis, Diarrhea Diseases, Sexual Transmitted Diseases and AIDS) • Health Systems Research Medicinal Plants and Traditional Medicine.
4.2 Medicinal Plants in Swaziland
The use of medicinal plants and traditional medicine in Swaziland is extensively very high. A national gene bank in collaboration with the Chemistry Department of the University of Swaziland is involved in the analysis of the plant extracts.
Most of the herbal medicines on sale in Swaziland had reportedly originated from Swaziland, South Africa, Mozambique and few portions from Malawi. Of particular note are the herbal material from Swaziland (Myrothamnus flabellifolius); from Malawi (Ndzawaveja); from South Africa ( Alepidea amatymbica, Cassipourea spp and
xv Ndzawaveja)1. There are no recorded official exports of medicinal species in the country, even though a lot has been smuggled through the legal and illegal exit point to South Africa and Mozambique.
The local market of medicinal plants is very informal for the large variety of plants, which are used to attempt to cure diseases. Traditional practitioners are divided in two categories: those who use plants that have some literature for example aloe vera, cassia alata, euphorbia hirta, vernonia amagdalina, azadiractha indica , and pausinystalia yohimbe (Box 3):
Box 3: Plants Used for Curing Diseases Plants Application Aloe Vera Wounds, sores and antiviral Azadicratha indica Malaria, Ulcer Cassia alata Fungal infections, wounds Euphorbia hirta Asthma Vernonia Amagdalina Dysentery, Helminthiasis and as cardiac stimulant Pausinystalia yohimbe Impotence/Aphrodisiac
Swaziland currently has no specific legislation aimed at conservation of wildlife and medicinal plants, but a number of laws and regulations affect the trade in medicines. International trade in plant medicines is channeled through the Government Department of Research. A lot was discussed during this session. Participants alluded to issues which are currently not given the recognition they deserve (Box4):
Box 4: Issues currently not given Proper Recognition
• The status of traditional medicines. • Standardization of traditional medicines. • Property rights of medicinal plants. • Protection of plant inventions and biodiversity.
4.3 Status of Traditional Medicine
The system of alternative treatment in Swaziland has been developed empirically and is not the same as that of alternative treatment in China where the method of using plants
1 Marshall, N.T.; Searching for a Cure: Conservation of Medicinal Wildlife Resources in East and Southern Africa. A TRAFIC Network Report. TRAFIC International, Cambridge, UK, pp 111 xvi has been widely accepted internationally. In Swaziland persons using plants for treatment are shunned by the system.
However, due to the lack of scientific data concerning traditional medicines, medical doctors are reluctant to use medicinal plants for patient treatment. Medical doctors do not want to put their patients at risk, so they claim. Their reluctance is due to the fact that there is no assurance of the safety of traditional medicine usage. In addition, the Traditional Healers Associations have not held enough course for their members.
The emergence of a global information society in recent years, characterized by the rise of modern information technologies, has given rise to increasing awareness of the value of traditional knowledge (TK), including in particular traditional medicine. However, what is meant by the term TK? A fundamental aspect of TK is that it is “traditional” only to the extent that its creation and use are part of the cultural traditions of communities. “Traditional”, therefore, does not necessarily mean that the knowledge is ancient. TK is being created every day, it is evolving as a response of individuals and communities to the challenges posed by their social and natural environment. In its use, TK is also contemporary knowledge.
Although indigenous knowledge (IK) is generally considered traditional knowledge, not all TK is IK. Since IK is otherwise similar to TK in its transmission, scope, and diversity, it is appropriate to consider IK a subset of TK. For example, information passed down by traditional means amongst the Swazi communities may be referred to as IK or TK; however, the information passed down by white settlers in Swaziland through traditional means would be TK but not IK.
The importance of traditional medicine as a source of primary health care was first officially recognized by the World Health Organization (WHO) in the Primary Health Care Declaration of Alma Ata (1978) and has been globally addressed since 1976 by the Traditional Medicine Programme of the WHO. The Programme defined traditional medicine as the sum total of all the knowledge and practices, whether explicable or not, used in diagnosis, prevention and elimination of physical, mental or social imbalance
xvii and relying exclusively on practical experience and observation handed down from generation to generation, whether verbally or in writing.2
Covered by various definitions and terminologies, TK is receiving increased attention in numerous policy debates, ranging from food and agriculture, the environment, health, human rights and cultural policy, to trade and economic development. The role of intellectual property (IP) in the protection of TK is currently being considered in several of the policy contexts, including Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), FAO, United Nations Educational and Scientific Cooperation (UNESCO), UNHCHR, World Health Organization (WHO), and World Trade Order (WTO).
V Policy Framework in Swaziland
The policy environment is determined by Parliament through Gazette closes. However, of late the country has had relevant sector and cross-sectoral policies with implementation mechanisms. Of significance has been the National Development Strategy (Vision 2020), out of which ESRA was drafted to cater for short-term rolling plans for the country.
Under the issues of gender, biodiversity and local knowledge systems one finds a host of drafted policy documents covering the following areas (Box 5):
Box 5: Areas with Drafted Policy Documents as of March, 2001
• Food security. • Indigenous knowledge. • Gender. • Plants. • Culture. • Wildlife. • Poverty. • Livestock. • Cooperative development.
2 Dr Xiaorui Zhang, Director, traditional Medicine Programme, WHO. “Significance of Traditional Medicine in Human Health Care.” Paper presented at WIPO Asian Regional Seminar on Intellectual Property Issues in the Field of Traditional Medicine. New Delhi, India, October 7 to 9, 1998:3 xviii • Environment. • Land and land use. • Food and nutrition. • Forestry. • Fisheries.
The examination of Vision 2020 reveals that there were no specific policies on indigenous knowledge. However, there has been a framework policy guidance on food and nutrition which is under the auspices of the Swaziland National Nutrition Council. Other framework documents instituted by Government include the list in Box 6.
Box 6 : Framework Documents Instituted by Government
• The establishment of the Swaziland Environment Authority to coordinate biodiversity. • The rectification of the Biodiversity Convention in 1994. • The formulation of a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan to guide biodiversity conservation. • The formulation of a Forestry policy and updating legislations. • The building of capacity in the National Herbarium.
Conservation of biodiversity has been implemented through a number of techniques such as protected areas, legislation protecting certain fauna and flora. Protected areas fall under National Parks, Game Reserves, wildlife sanctuaries, and nature reserves. These areas are established under: i) an Act of Parliament, i.e., the Swaziland National Trust Commission Act of 1972); ii) the Flora Protection Act of 1952; and iii) the Game Act of 1991. On conservation the Government has moved towards the direction of establishing: i) a National Herbarium; ii) a National Plant Genetic Resource Centre (NPGRC); iii) a Nguni Breeding Station and iv) a tree nursery.
Finally, it is recommended that Government and other institutions should encourage studies that will cover wide areas such as the one listed in Box 7.
xix Box 7: Areas Needing Further Research
• Traditional methods of preserving vegetable and fruits. • Local technologies of production. • Indigenous soil conservation. • Traditional structures for food storage. • Traditional diets. • Indigenous knowledge on trees and animals. • Plants used by traditional healers. • Forest products. • Deforestation and its impact on food security. • Women as main care-takers of agro-biodiversity. • Differing needs of women and men. • Gender roles in the household and agriculture/workload. • Women’s roles in commercial activities.
One may say there has been little conceptual knowledge and analytical skills on these subjects and more so on the symbiotic relationships between gender, agro-biodiversity and local knowledge systems.
GENDER AND FOOD SECURITY
xx Pinky. E. Zwane Department of Home Economics University of Swaziland E-Mail : [email protected].
Abstract
This paper draws upon reviewed literature on the conceptualisation of gender using the equity and efficiency approaches. The presentation will then address food security, and gender analysis through existing disparities related to food security, and lastly pose challenges to be addressed in the near future.
I Conceptual Framework on Gender
Gender was first conceived as Women in Development (WID) in 1935. Emphasis was placed on the productive role of a woman. The focus was on women as an untapped resource that could provide an economic contribution to development, and it popularised the concept of income generating projects for women. The WID is linked to the Equity Approach which recognises that women are active contributors to development through their reproductive and productive roles, although their contribution is often unacknowledged in economic terms (Moser, 1989).
Subsequent to unrealised results, there was a shift in focus from Women in Development to Women and Development (WAD) which embraced the Efficiency Approach (SADC Report, 1998). The assumption with this approach was that increased economic participation for women in Third World countries would automatically result in increased equity. Furthermore, it assumed that under-productive technologies were predominant constraints influencing women’s participation in economic development and acknowledges that women need to be brought into the development process through access to employment and the market place. This shift coincided with the recession in the world economy from mid 1970’s. The IMF and World Bank imposed structural adjustment policies centered on increased efficiency and productivity in the workforce by redirecting labour costs from men to women through donor funds. It simply meant a shift
xxi in costs from paid labour to unpaid labour of women’s unpaid time. This led to increased funding of women activities among international aid agencies, and national governments (Moser, 1989).
The envisaged results from the efficiency approach did not take place due to the formulation of policies and projects without consultation with women. The success of projects was to be based on efficient execution of activities which was not the case and this led to increased failure rate of designed projects. The approach relied on women’s labour in productive, reproductive and community management roles for long hours without remuneration for the jobs (Moser, 1989 & Wallace & March, 1991).
The concept of Women and Development was then transformed to Gender and Development (GAD) in the 1980’s. It is believed that the term gender was conceptualized by feminists who were concerned with the perception of women’s problems which are universal, largely based on biological differences (sex roles) and not subject to change rather than on socially constructed roles that are influenced by a number of independent variables. May be that explains the reluctance and rejection of the concept by governments, particularly in third world countries, who perceived it negatively and as a foreign concept promulgated by western radical feminists aimed at disrupting the status quo (Martine & Villarreal, 1997 and Villarreal & Guerny, 2000).
Subsequent to the adoption of gender and development, programmes aimed at elevating the status of women in isolation mushroomed at national, regional, and international levels. These programmes were based on the empowerment approach, which emphasised that women experienced oppression differently based on race, class, colonial history, and current position in the international economic order. It encouraged women to challenge oppressive structures and situations. It acknowledged the importance of women in increasing their power and sought to identify power not in terms of domination but in terms of increased women’s capacity in self reliance and internal strength (Moser, 1989).
Based on the above approach, the issue of gender was not sufficiently and holistically incorporated into wide programming areas. This has mainly been due to the fact that most
xxii decision making portfolio powers have been in orientation. Furthermore, there has been some complexity surrounding the issue of gender in specific socio-economic context instead of drafting and implementing the operational framework that will enable practitioners to translate gender awareness to action as opposed to being a threat to males (Moser, 1989).
Despite the different names given to the concept or development interventions used in addressing the issue in the past, there has been some positive achievements made so far in empowering women even at grassroots level. We also need to acknowledge bottlenecks and misinterpretation that exist which need a critical redress on why the intended purposes of gender equity and equality were not achieved. One glaring problem is the realisation that information and reports on gender focus exclusively on women or women’s issues. That is bound to create resentment on males due to the biasness in handling matters on gender (Villarreal & Guerny, 2000). It becomes necessary to define gender, gender equity and equality.
II Gender Approach
Gender is the system of relations between men and women with some economic, social and cultural influences. It is not absolute but part of a dynamic system that surrounds life in general. Gender equity is the participation of all in household responsibilities among men and women. Everyone has to come to terms with the fact that life has changed. Men are no more the only income earners, even women are now part of the workforce and this situation begs for fair distribution of work roles in the home. Gender equality focuses on the provision of opportunities for both men and women to play active roles in the socio- economic and political environment having factored in the biological differences (Comesa Report, 1998).
The gender approach does not advocate a revolutionary change in socio-cultural system but argues that policy makers and project planners need to understand these differences in order to increase chances of formulating and implementing successful and sustainable
xxiii projects in making a meaningful contribution to communities. It embraces the equity approach in addressing practical needs and the efficiency approach in addressing strategic needs. This approach espoused internationally uses the rationale that men and women play different roles in society and have different needs. Therefore when identifying and implementing programmes, governments should take into consideration those differences necessitating a systematic approach to adequately and holistically address gender issues as noted by Villarreal & Guerny (2000).
In Swaziland, the integrated approach on gender equality has been proposed and adopted, and it is spearheaded by United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) with the involvement of many Non-Governmental Organisations (NGO’s). The main purpose of this approach is for bridging gender gaps in the Swazi society and to expedite necessary responses to key challenges faced by the country. It is also envisaged to harness the support of men and women at all levels in the nation, be it private or public sectors, through educational empowerment that will facilitate enhanced awareness which should lead to action on gender equality (UNDP & SADC Report, 2000).
This multifaceted and holistic approach includes three aspects: 1. participatory rural communication which is key in eliciting information from people at grassroots level and ensuring that they understand, promote and make valuable contribution to the process. 2. Media awareness should enable a pragmatic redress of gender through well- communicated messages to the people with results that may lead to the formulation of a national gender policy. 3. The social economic gender analysis as a tool for integration of gender issues in development plans with a focus on HIV/AIDS and poverty (UNDP & SADC Report, 2000).
This approach has also been enshrined in the National Development Strategy (NDS) and the Economic & Social Reform Agenda (ESRA) I [on the conceptual framework on gender equity and equality]. Its strategies have been mapped out on the drawing boards’ and the focus should now be on developing programmes utilizing the logical framework in the implementation and monitoring of drafted programmes followed by evaluation to re-strategise, if need be, for positive outcomes. The contribution by UNDP in carrying
xxiv out some groundwork, and assistance from organisations like Leadership Regional Network (LeaRn) are commendable, as they will act as catalysts in the formulation of the gender policy.
The above highlights on gender that have been undertaken or on-going activities, set, the background necessary to be followed by gender analysis in food security with a brief prelude on food security. World governments in 1996 renewed their pledge to eradicate hunger, food insecurity and malnutrition by 2015; but these problems still prevail particularly in developing countries. Furthermore, there are minimal indicators that show major improvements. Still there are about eight hundred million people in the world which have insufficient food to meet their basic nutritional needs. Food insecurity together with a whole host of factors are sometimes the culprits for such statistics. In other quarters, the root cause of food insecurity is said to be poverty with inequitable distribution of wealth and infections, as secondary contributory factors (World food Summit, 1996).
III Food Security in Swaziland
Food security is widely defined as access to food by all people, at all times needed for an active and healthy life (SADC Report, 1993). It is achieved by:
a) Adequate production of food in the community or national level to feed the population. b) Households having access to food availability or means for obtaining the food. c) Individuals consuming a sufficient and balanced diet given the status of food supply and food behavioral changes as affected by local socio-cultural factors. This part is crucial because a certain crop may be promoted given its nutrient content only to find that people do not utilise it. People need to be acculturated to new foods to increase acceptability of the food item to be part of their food choices (Malaza, 1994). Furthermore, it is imperative to focus on food allocations, which may be biased by gender and age.
xxv d) Assurance or risk management to minimize bottlenecks in food availability, food access and food utilisation thereby maintaining a high degree of stability in each of the above points. Sources of risk in the country include high dependency on rain for food production and unpredictable foreign investment (Swaziland Country Paper at the World Summit, 1996).
In Swaziland, 74% of the land is Swazi National Land (SNL) with 85% of the homesteads located in rural areas occupied by around 74% of the population, of which 58% are women (Country Paper at the World Summit, 1996). According to Manyatsi, Vilane & Dlamini, 2000, food production on SNL is still inadequate with 80% of maize producers engaged in subsistence farming and 59.1% of the subsistence farmers producing insufficient food. Improvements have been seen post the drought period between 1991 and 1993. According to the Food Security Quarterly Bulletin (1999), there was a surplus in 1998 of 7000 tonnes of maize production on the gross national output as maize is the main crop in the country and the principal crop produced by small holder farmers. This surplus is misleading because it is only based on maize production by commercial farmers.
Food inadequacy particularly in rural areas is partly due to the escalating cost of hybrid seeds which are not reusable as seeds for the next planting season. According to Manyatsi et al. (2000), 80% of households were using hybrid seeds and 20% were using local varieties. Twenty-six percent of families using local seed varieties reported food sufficiency as opposed to 45% of the families who used hybrid seeds. At face value, one may think it is best to use the hybrid seeds for food sufficiency for purposes of early maturation. The major huddle for most poor people is the high cost of seeds. There is need to explore, as an alternative, genetic banks of local varieties for the poor who are residing in parts of the country least affected by drought.
Livestock rearing is another major activity in rural areas. Farmers on SNL own about 81% of total cattle production for social significance with a negligible contribution towards the economy (Country Paper at the World Summit, 1996). The recent foot and mouth disease has reduced the total number of cattle drastically and will affect food
xxvi availability and generated income from sale of the livestock in rural areas. Some of the identified contributory factors to food insecurity may be insufficient land use, policy on Title Deed Land (TDL) and SNL, natural disasters and disabling conditions, and incapacitating government policies. For example, lack of market opportunities, lack of appropriate technologies for production of value added products and absence of a gender policy have equally contributed to the incidence of food insecurity in Swaziland.
Based on the above inhibiting factors towards food security, objectives have been formulated with implementing strategies mapped out for improved food security by the National Plan of Action on Nutrition (NPAN) as follows:
• Engender policy on improved land utilisation and promotion of appropriate technologies to improve food production. • Avail government guaranteed loans with low interest rates. • Encourage production of all crops apart from maize and legumes, and promote preparation and consumption of drought resistant crops. • Promote and improve food processing, preservation techniques and on-farm storage. • Improve and expand the maize storage capacity. • Promote the establishment of small industry and agro-industries by way of providing credit. • Secure marketing outlets on and off farm production and enhance the performance of cooperatives. • Review the land and credit policies to be also accessible to women. • Formulate an emergency food policy and set up emergency short-term food reserves. • Improve water management systems (CANGO Report, 1998).
Some of the strategies have been implemented and are currently in operation and some are in the pipeline given financial constraints. Other strategies need to be infused in the statutes and mechanisms drafted on their monitoring and evaluation in the
xxvii implementation process. The question remains, are the formulated strategies gender sensitive or not?
IV Gender Analysis in Food Security
Gender Analysis in food security examines gender-desegregated information on division of labour, duration of each activity, and degree of access and control over resources. It also requires an understanding of how labour is valued. Based on socially constructed gender-roles which we operate, programmes and projects affect women and men differently. Therefore, a successful project requires gender to be factored in all the stages of the development process.
Gender Analysis recognises that a household has people with common production and consumption functions or intra-household activities, and with shared or equal access to resources for the benefits from production to be enjoyed. It views households as systems of resource allocation where decisions affecting production, income and expenditure have to be made in consultation with members of the unit or decision making powers entrusted upon men, women and children. In a given system, household members may share some goals, benefits and resources, be independent on some and be in conflict on others. Therefore, decision-making powers should not be assumed due to the evolving complexities of life (Feldstein & Poats, 1989).
Secondly, there are different kinds of household structures within communities that emerge as responses to different demographic variables, resources, cultural traditions, social class and incentives. They all impact on gender-needs, opportunities, problems and solutions. Thirdly, households may belong to corporate groupings in inter-household activities, which may influence the pattern of, access to resources and obligations which in turn affect made decisions.
There are a number of gender analysis tools that can be used based on the purpose of the analysis exercise. The Harvard analytical framework is used for gathering gender
xxviii desegregated information on gender-roles. Although originally this framework was developed for solving complex problems, it has been modified and adopted for gender analysis as a complex issue too. It is a planner driven tool focusing on influencing factors on practical gender needs, arising from division of labour, as opposed to strategic gender needs, things necessary to change the balance of power between men and women.
The above framework has three levels: 1. The activity profile which includes productive, reproductive and community work. 2. Access and control of resources such as land, equipment, credit, labour, water, wild fruits, fuel-wood, carts, axes etc. and benefits that accrue from this level are evaluated based on sex. 3. Influencing factors that may contribute to unequal resource distribution and inequities in general are considered in terms of their impact, constraints and opportunities that are in existence.
In Swaziland, agricultural productive activities are carried out by women in rural areas as a sizeable number of homesteads are female headed households where the men are employed in the formal sector in urban areas, work in the mines in South Africa, or the women are widows. These socio-economic problems inhibit increased productivity and income growth in the rural areas. Activities to be carried out in rural areas include land clearing, ploughing, weeding, harvesting, threshing and storage, herding cattle, small stock keeping, cotton farming, and handicraft/ income generating project.
Although some headway has been made through the formation of women’s associations in accessing some donor funds for projects, women are still overworked from farming activities and household chores. Assistance from children, neighbours and relatives, is provided but the responsibility still lies with the women to ensure that the tasks are carried out diligently. The question remains, what should be done to ameliorate the situation of women and improve the involvement of men? In the past, the focus has been on women in addressing the emanating problems based on inequitable distribution of labour (SADC Report, 2000; Course Report, 1998, & Carr, 1991).
Reproductive activities are mostly executed by women and they include water collection, fuel-wood gathering, food preparation, child-care and health, and maintenance of huts.
xxix On the other hand, men provide security for their families, assist in fuel-wood collection and in building of houses and storage structures. The involvement of men in the productive role is mainly on cash generating activities which may be slightly mechanised including livestock rearing, cotton farming, and formal employment. Women on the other hand are involved in arduous activities including weeding, harvesting, herding animals, and handicraft. Both male and females participate in communal projects and meetings, in weddings and funerals. It has been observed that women’s participation in community projects was based more on the large number of female-headed households in rural areas (SADC, 2000). The disparity in allocation of responsibilities warrant scrutiny in redressing the situation in order to be gender sensitive.
A typical example of an on-going project that is gender insensitive is the pilot project of establishing wood-lots in the Manzini region (Luve) that was implemented with good intentions for addressing problems experienced by only women in fuel wood scarcity and in reducing deforestation. The well thought out project has become an issue of conflict between women who want to harvest the trees for fuel-wood, and men who want to use the wood for the construction of kraals and houses. The main snag was that men were not involved in the development of the project and were not given an opportunity to express their needs.
On access and control of resources and benefits accrued by gender on land, livestock, income and farming, women are marginalised on access to ploughing implements, income or use of income and farm produce particularly if done on a commercial scale. Women also have no control over land ownership, livestock, and do not have decision making powers on the above issues except for female-headed households. In essence, men use income as they see fit, and women may not even benefit from used income or the farm produce (SADC Report, 2000).
Other pertinent factors that influence gender roles generally are the general economic situation that may adversely affect women. The main constraint is availability of time to engage in other productive activities. Opportunities for improving the situation may be through initiation of income generating activities and easing the work burden on
xxx reproductive responsibilities. Institutional structures and bureaucracies also further hinder gender roles from being realised by structuring programmes that do not focus on community needs. The current socio-cultural factors overload women with a lot of work resulting in less available time to instill desirable values to children. This leads to the disappearance of norms and imbalances between men and women in labour provision. A way forward would be gender sensitisation in the communities, which is currently ongoing with the help of UNDP and LeaRn. Meetings have been organised, to engage people in dialogue on gender issues in the Swazi context with the hope of reducing resistance from males and contributing towards the resolution of critical issues, including food security issues.
His Majesty’s initiatives are acknowledged and applauded in setting the 44 million fund whose purpose was to loan associations money to boost the economic activities in the country for purposes of poverty alleviation and reduction of rural migration to urban centres. Furthermore, the 40 million grant fund that was launched last year to assist associations formed by grassroots people in the 55 chiefdoms, will hopefully make a significant contribution towards poverty alleviation and mitigate problems related to access to credit by most poor people.
V Challenges and Way Forward
Based on the presented issues and achievements that have been accomplished, the following points although not comprehensive are food for thought that need to be considered. What are we not doing right? Is it the legal system that is not fed with the right information to implement laws or there are no implementing structures to ensure that recommendations are implemented by relevant bodies and ministries? Are men not receptive of the ideas and sluggish in repealing prohibitive legislature due to the threatening nature of the issues to male supremacy? Is it financial constraints to set things or plans in motion? All the above questions trigger issues we need to address. In addressing some of the above questions, we therefore need to explore mechanisation of weeding in the fields in order to complement the existing ploughing technologies in order to ease the work load and avail more time for rural women to engage in other productive activities. Most children attend school leaving the bulk of the work to be done
xxxi by women. Science and technology research has a role to play in rural areas. May be Agriculturists and Economists can shed some light on what happened to tinkabi tractor? From the layman’s point of view the latter was ideal in that it was cheaper, easy to use, and assembled locally which made spare parts to be easily available and maintenance was not a major concern.
The HIV/AIDS scourge affects the overall existence of human beings. Increased morbidity and mortality rates have and are crippling productivity in all sectors including food production. Food security has been grossly affected due to re-channeling of financial resources of families in order to sustain the health of the infected. There is also emotional effects of the affected that results in decreased productivity and absenteeism when taking care of the sick.
Increased mortality translates to more women being culturally mandated to wear the mourning gown and has repercussions on food security. The cultural restrictions or package that women are subjected to when in mourning limits them from providing their children with the basics including food, yet they will be the only surviving parent to ensure continued sustenance of the family.
Poverty has ramifications on maintenance of children. Parents have a joint responsibility of bringing up a child in an enabling environment that allows normal child development. In cases where men are neglecting their responsibilities, it impacts on food availability due to insufficient financial resources available to one parent to nurture the child. There is need for law enforcement in that area. At least a committee has been set up to look into the latter issue.
Formulate other strategies not only to assist the women but also to bring men on board to share the pie of responsibilities equitably. Restoration of male self-esteem may result in psychological ramifications including engaging in productive economic activities that will contribute to the welfare of families.
Engender legislature to address issues on land ownership by women and easy access to financial institutions as individuals with economic pursuits instead of being viewed as xxxii minors of their spouses. Review of existing legislature is necessary to reflect gender sensitivity. Exploration of affirmative action laws for marginalised groups once the input from communities has been sought.
Carry out gender analysis in food security at national level to feed into various programming areas of the country’s development plan. The specific area of focus should be access and control of resources and identification of suitable technology that is gender sensitive.
VI References
CANGO Report on Food Security and Nutrition. (1998). Funded by FAO, at Malkerns, Swaziland.
Carr, M. (1991). Women and Food Security. South Hampton Row, London: / IT Publications.
Commonwealth Secretariat Report on Proposals for Improving Food Security Information Systems in SADC. (June, 1993). Harare, Zimbabwe.Country Paper presented at the World Food Summit on Food Security in Swaziland. (Nov, 1996). Rome, Italy
FAO Report on World Food Summit. (1996). Rome Declaration on World Food Security and World Food Summit Plan of Action. Rome, Italy.
Feldstein, H.S. & Poats, S. V. (1989). Working Together: Gender Analysis in Agriculture. Kumarian Press: Connecticut, USA.
Food Security Quarterly Bulletin. (Jan/Feb, 1999). SADC, Harare.
Malaza, M. T. (1994). Food Security in Swaziland: Factors Influencing Dietary Patterns. Unpublished Master’s Thesis, Pennsylvania State University, Philadelphia. USA. xxxiii Manyatsi, A. M., Vilane, B.R.T., & Dlamini, R.M. (2000). Research Report on Assessment of Technologies Currently in Use at the Grassroots Level in Swaziland. Conducted for Swaziland Government & UNDP: Mbabane, Swaziland.
Martine, G., & Chile, S. (1997). Gender and Sustainability: Re-assessing Linkages and Issues. [On-line]. Available: FAO. Org/sd/WPdirect/Wpan0020.htm.
Moser, C. O. (1989). Gender Planning in the Third World: Meeting Practical and Strategic Gender Needs. World Development. Vol. 17 (11): 1799 – 1825. SADC Report on Training of Trainers on Gender in Food Security Course. (April, 1996). Otjiwarongo, Namibia.
SADC and UNDP Report on Participatory Communication for Gender Equality. (August, 2000). Piggs Peak, Swaziland.
Villarreal, M., & Guermy, J. (2000). Gender and development: Why do we still have problems in population programmes after all these years? Available: FAO. Org/sd/WPdirect/Wpan0047.htm.
Wallace, T. & March, C. (1991). Changing Perceptions: Writing on Gender and Development. Oxfam: Oxford, UK.
xxxiv
BIODIVERSITY MANAGEMENT IN SWAZILAND
J.D. Vilakati Swaziland Environmental Authority E-Mail : [email protected]
Abstract
This paper aims at analysing policy, legislative and institutional measures that the country has established to promote the conservation of biodiversity and the utilisation of its genetic resources. Section 2 discusses the role of biodiversity in national economic change and growth while Section 3 focuses on threats to biodiversity Section 4 and 5 focus on the status of in-situ and ex-situ conservation respectively. Sections 6 suggests policy and institutional measures that Swaziland should put in place to strengthen and build capacity in biodiversity conservation. Section 7 outlines the challenges in managing Swaziland’s biological diversity.
1.0 Introduction
Swaziland is a small country covering an area of 17364 km2 and is sandwiched between Mozambique and South Africa. Although Swaziland is small, it has a great variation in
xxxv landscape, geology and climate. It also supports a diverse assemblage of habitats which are home to a wide range of organisms.
Although information base on Swaziland’s biodiversity is still incomplete, Surveys undertaken to date show that a significant portion of Southern Africa’s plant and animals species occur in Swaziland, e.g. the eastern region of Swaziland forms part of Maputaland centre of plant diversity (one of the world’s biodiversity hotpots). Similarly, the western part of Swaziland falls within another area of global significance, the Drakensberg Escarpment endemic bird area.
2.0 Biodiversity in Swaziland’s Socio-economy
Despite its small size, Swaziland is one of Southern Africa’s areas that are rich in biodiversity. With at least 3400 plant species, the country contributes 14% of the taxa in the region; it has 127 mammal species, of which 28 are in the Southern Africa Red Data Book. There are 111 species of reptiles, 51 species of fish, 44 species of amphibians and 493 bird species, 51 of which are in the Southern Africa red data book.
Swaziland also forms part of two world biodiversity hot spots; the Maputaland centre of plant diversity in the East and the Drakensberg Escarpment Bird Endemic area in the West. The diversity of species is supported by an equally diverse mix of habitats, ranging from Savannah woodlands, grass plains, man-made reservoirs and natural rivers to Montane vegetation belts in the west of the country. Within these broad habitats, there are gradations and the associated hedge effects and ecotones resulting in a mosaic of habitats supporting correspondingly varied communities and environments.
Biodiversity is vitally important to the country’s economic development. It is indeed its economic basis, the single most important factor in the people’s welfare. Agriculture, the country’s economic backborne is directly dependent on biodiversity. Similarly, tourism which is an emerging economic growth area depends on the availability and sustainable use of biodiversity. Agriculture still accounts for over 10% of the country’s Gross National Product (GDP), while contributions from plantation forestry amounts to just 10% of GDP. xxxvi
Woodfuel on the other hand accounts for more than 80% of the National fuel requirement. The figure on forestry does not take in into account the non-timber forest products and services such as bees, mushrooms, fruits, game meat, medicinal products, water conservation and pollution reduction.
According to a report compiled by the Forest Policy and Legislation Project in Swaziland (2000) non-timber, forest groups contribute between E129 Million and E514 Million with a median of E321 Million per annum. The report states that the medicinal plants are the most important with an annual average value of E209 Million.
Besides its direct contribution to the National economy through agriculture, tourism forestry and non-timber forest products, biodiversity provides most of the calories for primary consumption, builds and protect the soil, determines water availability and controls temperature.
3.0 Threats to Biodiversity Management in Swaziland
Despite the direct and indirect contributions made by biodiversity to the country’s economic, species, habitats and ecosystems are being degraded and lost at a rapid rate. A wide range of interrelated actors account for this degradation and loss of biodiversity. These include: • Destruction or alteration of habitats as a result of commercial agricultural production and rapid population growth. • Over-exploitation through deforestation and commercialisation of bidoversity resources. • Impact of exotic species. • Limited or lack of appropriate conservation technologies. • Weak policies on sustainable land use. • Limited national capabilities to develop new conservation technologies.
xxxvii • Weak or absence of economic and land policies which generate disincentives to conserve biodiversity and sustainable use its component. • Absence of a national policy regime on conservation of biodiversity and sustainable utilisation of its components.
The Government of Swaziland has, over the past years, begun making effort at establishing various measures to reduce the loss of biodiversity. These measures range from the formulation of laws and policies to the creation of institutions.
4.0 In-Situ Conservation of Biodiversity
In-situ conservation of biodiversity in Swaziland has in the past years been implemented through a number of techniques ranging from the establishment of protected areas, legislation targeted to certain fauna and flora species and the establishment of institutions.
Swaziland has a number of wildlife protected areas covering at least 4% of her land area. These protected areas categorised as National Parks, Game Reserves, Wildlife sanctuaries and Nature Reserves. These areas have been established for the purposes of Conserving Wildlife and the National Heritage. National Parks and Nature Reserves are established under an Act of Parliament. (The Swaziland National Trust Commission Act 1972). The Nature Reserves falling under the Swaziland National Trust Commission (Pararastal body) and the Big Game Parks (Private entity) are well developed and well protected. Some private Nature Reserves and Game Reserves have been established but some still do not qualify for proclamation because they are still unable to meet the legislative requirements for their proclamation.
Most of the floral and faunal species that have been recorded in the country are found in the protected areas. Besides the protected area’s system, flora inside and outside protected areas is protected through the flora protection Act 1952. This Act protects certain flora that is considered to be of conservation and economic importance. Similarly
xxxviii the Game Act of 1991 also protects certain game species inside and outside protected areas.
5.0` Ex-Situ Conservation
In Swaziland, ex-situ conservation systems that are currently in use include the national herbarium, the establishment of a National Plant Genetic Resource Centre (NPGRC), the establishment of a National Nguni Cattle Breeding Station and the establishment of Tree nurseries.
Currently a national herbarium operates from the Malkerns Research Station and is operated by a herbarium curator and two assistants. In the absence of a National Botanical Garden, the Herbarium has proved as a very useful institution for conservation of our flora in Swaziland.
Efforts to conserve the Plant Genetic Resources (PGR) has recently been revived by establishing a National Plant Genetic Resources Centre (NPGRC), at Malkerns. The NPGRC was formed by the Government of Swaziland in response to the recommendations of the Southern Africa Development Community (SADC), that SADC member states establish National Plant Genetic Resources Centres, and a SADC Gene Bank for crop and forest seeds to safeguard the region’s genetic resources threatened by erosion. The NPGRC has the following responsibilities
• coordinate the practical activities at national level, including: ° collection ° conservation ° documentation ° exchange and distribution of germ plasm
• Development of national policies, guidelines, standards and legislation on conservation and germplasm exchange.
xxxix
Other notable ex-situ programmes include the development of nurseries and the National Tree Planting programme.
6.0 Policies and Institutional Measures
The absence or inadequate polices and institutional reforms have been found to be responsible for the degradation and loss of biodiversity in Swaziland.
Although some legislation exist for protecting some components of biodiversity, these legislation are either outdated or are not founded on any biodiversity policy. In some instances where legislation exist, the responsibilities for enforcement have not been clearly defined. There has been a tendency for some institutions to be protective especially where they have commercial interests. A case in point is in the administration of the Game Act, where a private entity has coerced the powers that be to give it the responsibility of administering the Game Act in order to protect its commercial interest.
In the case of Forestry, too much emphasis in the past was placed on plantation forestry to the detriment of the indigenous forests. This approach has tendered to under develop or undervalue the indigenous forest resources and its biodiversity’s contribution to the national economy.
In order to overcome the shortfalls currently being experienced in biodiversity conservation the Government of Swaziland has instituted the following measures: • Establishment of the Swaziland Environment Authority to coordinate biodiversity issues and to coordinate and implement the Convention on Biological Diversity. • Ratified the Biodiversity Convention in 1994. • Established National Plant Genetic Resources Centre. • Establish a Nguni (local breed) cattle breeding station to ensure that the local breeds are selectively bred and maintained and also ensure that the genetic resources of this breed are maintained. • Formulated a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan to guide Biodiversity Conservation. xl • A formulation of a Forestry Policy and the updating of the Forestry legislation to ensure that the legislation gives effect to the biodiversity Convention and is in line with biodiversity conservation in Swaziland. • Building capacity in the national herbarium.
7.0 Key Challenges in Managing Swaziland’s Biodiversity
Swaziland’s biodiversity, as shown above contributes considerably to regional and national development, but it is under threat. There is a growing rate of habitat destruction and species loss in country.
The search for ways and means for stemming the degradation and loss of biodiversity has been the pre-occupation of the Government of Swaziland for many years now. As it has been shown earlier in Section 4 and 5, networks of protected areas and nature reserves for wildlife have been established; a national genebank for ex-site conservation and enhancement of crop species have been established.
Despite the above named efforts, Swaziland is still confronted by major challenges to manage (conserve and sustainability use) its biodiversity. Policies, laws and institutions have not been able to stem biodiversity degradation and loss. The key challenges confronting Swaziland’s ability to manage its biodiversity include:
• Capacity to understand, assess and monitor impacts on biodiversity. • Awareness, knowledge and information on status and trend of biodiversity. • Ownership of biodiversity resources; property rights over land and biological resources. • Roles of communities in conservation and utilization. • Recognizing communities and their indigenous knowledge. • Weak legal and regulatory frameworks: absence of procedures and laws to regulate access to genetic resources. • Ownership and sharing of benefits accrued from national trade in genetic resources. • Determining proper economic use and values of major components of biodiversity. • Illegal trade in natural resources and their products.
xli
8.0 Conclusion
In order to overcome the challenges and problems stated in this paper, it is important that the country focuses on the following priority areas to mitigate biodiversity loss in Swaziland.
• Create awareness at all levels of society and instill the importance of biodiversity and its conservation into the youth of the country. • Strengthen institutional framework to ensure development of an integrated approach to biodiversity conservation. • Re-inforce implementation of national agreements through legislation and institutional strengthening. • Build capacity at individual and institutional level. • Draft a comprehensive wildlife legislation. • Establishment of a single institution dealing with wildlife issues in the country. • Formulation of a National Biodiversity Policy.
9.0 References
Kunene, I.S. (1998). Survey of information on the Botanical Biodiversity of Swaziland. Ministry Tourism, environment and Communications. Mbabane, Swaziland.
Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives (2000). Report on Non-timber Forestry Sub- Sector in Swaziland: Forest Policy and legislation project.
Monadjem, A, (1997). A Survey of information on the Zoological Biodiversity of Swaziland - Ministry of Tourism, Environment and Communications, Mbabane.
Ministry of Tourism, Environment and Communications, (1999). Draft Biodiversity Strategy and Action plan Report.
Ministry of Tourism, Environment and Communication, (1997). Swaziland National Environment Action Plan.
xlii
BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY CONSERVATION IN SWAZILAND PART 1: PERSPECTIVES FROM THE LUBOMBO REGION
Bonga S. Nkosi Department of Biological Sciences University of Swaziland E-Mail: [email protected]
Abstract
The process of Biodiversity Conservation is dependant on the level of information and awareness among the communities in Swaziland. A community biodiversity conservation education programme was undertaken in the Lubombo Region in December 1997. Community leaders including Chiefs and Headmen "Tikhulu ne Tindvuna " and other stakeholders such as Herbalists were involved in a one-day workshop held at the Simunye Country Club Conference Room. The participants were given some back-ground information on the need to conserve Swaziland's natural resources in general and the country's biological diversity in particular. The workshop included building an information base from the local knowledge of the stakeholders who were participating in the Lubombo Regional Biodiversity Conservation Workshop. This Paper highlights some of the community's observations and concerns. The workshop noted a large extent of the degradation of biodiversity in the region. This knowledge is a major contribution to a high degree of ownership of any measures undertaken to conserve the country's biodiversity within their region.
I Introduction
xliii A key observation in dealing with the conservation of biological diversity is understanding what it means. Biological diversity means: biological variety; biological variation; biological multi-formity; biological distinctiveness; and biological individualism. Basically, biological diversity (biodiversity) refers to organisms in the environment { Myers & Giller (1988); Barbour, Burk and Pitts (1987)}. Thus biological diversity may be defined as the variability, multi-formity, distinctiveness and individualism of biological resources in the environment.
Swaziland is a Party to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). The objectives of the (CBD) are the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of utilization of genetic resources, including by appropriate transfer of relevant technologies, taking into account all rights over those resources and to technologies, and by appropriate funding. With reference to the Convention, biological diversity is defined as the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part. The BSAP Project was a sequel to the Swaziland Environment Action Plan (SEAP). Member countries of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) resolved to undertake Biodiversity Conservation Strategies and Plans. This entailed consultations with communities to get indigenous knowledge. Therefore, the Regional Consultation Process was a UN-GEF supported activity aimed at developing a Biodiversity Conservation Strategy and Action Plan for Swaziland. Key Elements of the 1992 Convention on Biodiversity
II The Major Principles
2.1 Biodiversity has intrinsic value and is a common concern of humanity.
2.2 Governments have sovereignty over their biodiversity and using their biological resources in a sustainable manner.
2.3 States are responsible for conserving their biodiversity and using their biological resources in a sustainable manner.
xliv Causes of significant reduction of biodiversity should be attacked at their source.
2.4 The fundamental requirement for the conservation of biodiversity is the in situ conservation of natural habitats and the maintenance of viable populations of species in the natural surroundings, preferably in the country of origin although ex situ measures also have an important role to play.
2.5 The General lack of information and knowledge regarding biological diversity and the urgent need to develop scientific, technical and institutional capacities to provide the basic understanding upon which to plan and implement appropriate measures.
2.6 The close and traditional dependence of man, indigenous and local communities embodying traditional lifestyles on biological resources and the desirability of sharing equitably the benefits arising from the uses of traditional knowledge, innovations and practices relevant to the conservation of biological diversity and the sustainable use of its components.
2.7 The vital role that women play in the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity and the need for the full participation of women at all levels of policy-making and implementation for biological diversity conservation.
2.8 The conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity is of critical importance for eating the food, health and other needs of the growing world population, for which purpose access to and sharing of both genetic resources and technologies are essential.
Therefore we are all (internationally, nationally and individually) obliged to play a role in the sustainable use and fairly/equitably share the biological/ genetic resources.
xlv Many indigenous and local communities with traditional lifestyles have a close and traditional dependence on biological resources and need to share equitably in the benefits arising from biodiversity.
III International Cooperation is an Important Part of Implementing the Convention.
3.1 Major Measures Which Contracting Parties Agree to:
• develop national biodiversity strategies, plans and programme; • identify and monitor important components of biodiversity; • establish systems of protected areas, manage biological resources, rehabilitate degraded ecosystems, control alien species, protect threatened species;
xlvi • implement measures for sustainable use, including use of economic and social incentives; • establish programmes for training, education and research, and promote access to relevant technology.
47 • facilitate access to genetic resources, on mutually agreed terms and under prior informed consent of the party providing such resources promote access to relevant technology. • promote technical and scientific cooperation, including exchange of information relating to biodiversity. • provide funds to developing countries to help implement these measures.
3.2 Points to be Emphasised in the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
As one of the parties to the CBD (UNEP, 1994) Swaziland recognises the issues gleaned from the (CBD including the following:
3.2.1 The intrinsic value biological diversity and of the ecological, genetic social, economic scientific, educational, cultural, recreational and aesthetic values of biological diversity and its components. 3.2.2 The conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity by humankind.
3.3 Socio-economic Benefits of Biological Diversity
The biodiversity convention was initiated by northern conservationist NGOs (IUCN and WWF) through concern on the destruction of the tropical rainforest. The objectives of the convention are to:conserve biological diversity, promote the use of biological diversity components and encourage equitable sharing in the benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources in a sustainable manner, so as not to compromise the ability of future generations to meet their needs. Among the important considerations in the fulfillment of the objectives of the convention is the development of national strategies for the conservation of biological diversity. Individuals, local communities, government, NGOs and the private sector have a major role to play in the development of the national strategies on sustainable management and utilisation of biological resources.
48 IV The Importance of Biodiversity The occurrence of the variety of organisms helps to ensure the existence of the different ecosystems. It is because of these ecosystems that nature is balanced. From this, mankind is able to get basic needs such as shelter (timber, thatching grass etc). We also get medicinal plants. The higher the biodiversity the more organisms a locality can have and therefore a much wider choice of getting resources for basic needs.
V How Development Affects Biodiversity
5.1 Agriculture The most obvious effect of commercial agriculture is the occurrence of green deserts – vast hectares of land under a single or limited number of plants e.g. sugarcane. Obviously the biodiversity of that area is drastically lowered and also the ecosystems are limited. The existence of animal husbandry has led to the increase of livestock and hence overgrazing particularly in commercial areas. The use of pesticides and herbicides not only kill the targeted pests (which are an element of biodiversity) but also affect and kill other organisms.
5.2 Manufacturing Manufacturing results in pollution of air, land and most importantly rivers. In rivers fish life is affected together with other forms of aquatic life. Land contamination not only limits the sizes of the habitat, but actually kills life forms living on and in the soil
5.3 Construction For construction to take place the ecosystems are disturbed - land is cleared killing plant- life and also changing the ecosystems such that organisms have to migrate to other areas. For example, with the occurrence of towns and cities wildlife has been chased away.
5.4 Developments in the Medical Field The increase in population (growth of about 3%) linked with low economic growth has led more pressure on resources and thus the decline in biodiversity. This is a self-
49 defeating process because with less resources mankind cannot survive. This poses a challenge to mankind.
5.5 The Challenge
Resources have to be utilised in a sustainable way to ensure the existence of the necessary Ecosystems and hence the biodiversity.
VI Regional Consultation : (Plenary)
The nature of the Lubombo Regional Consultation was, as in the other Regions prepared in consultation with a Regional Committee and involved the Regional Administrator, Regional Secretary and Members of Parliament in the Region. Other elected representatives were also involved. Discussion Group Reports were prepared and presented by either the Chairman or the Secretary of the group. Four Groups had been set up among the participants who numbered about seventy.
The Lubombo Regional Committee was comprised of officials from following stakeholders: the town council (Siteki); Government Ministries and NGO’s such as Save the Children Fund.
6.1 Observations
Some of the observations made in Plenary on the one day seminar were to the effect that Swazi Communities have very poor attention to conservation. Whereas our national envelopes carry the message “The soil is our greatest asset, Conserve it”, the following problems were highlighted;
• Urban development • Tree cutting. • Road construction without conservation ethics.
50 • Top soil loss through erosion and other effects. • Pollutants in cities and industrial estates. • Fresh soils / Virgin soils not preserved. • A high number of dongas could be observed near and not rehabilitated by communities • Traditional healers - herbalists uproot plants/cut down trees. • Mine dumps with no rehabilitation. • Change to housing from special agricultural land. • Animal life our wealth Impala/ Impunzi/wildlife threatened. • ”Inyamatane inengati lembi- siyibukela kuyibulala.” • Now we have to buy externally to replace lost resources.
It was noted that the University of Swaziland (UNISWA) and other institutions should educate people effectively about Biodiversity Conservation. It was further noted that Mitigation Plans should come from Community members and all stakeholders, not top- down from government.
Some of the Participants wondered if the Swaziland Environment Authority was able to carry-out Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) inspection before construction and after construction, in Projects such as the Simunye Sugar Estates. Unfortunately the Simunye Sugar Estates were set-up when the regulations were not yet in place.
VII Group Discussions.
All the groups had the same theme except that Group 4 discussed POLICY issues.
7.1 Groups : 1, 2 and 3
These groups were randomly assembled from the participants whose careers were generally not administrative.
51 A. Threats to Biological Diversity
• introduction of exotic species. • industrial development. • Earth extraction for road construction. • Down slope farming. • Inappropriate land use. • Pollution / waste disposal systems. • Traditional structures authorities not instrumental in the development processes. • Bush encroachment. • Lack of appreciation of nature and the environment . • Lack of responsibility attitudes and positive behaviour towards the environment. • Natural disaster such as drought, wild fires over-flooding. • Population explosion. • Deforestation (indiscriminately) uprooting (over utilization of trees). • Clearing of bush during settlement and development. • Poor Planning (e.g. dipping tank one sided hence soil erosion. • During development of industries roads cutting are made any where. • Erosion of socio-cultural values.
B. Plant /Animal Extinction.
Threatened species of plants and animals include economic/social organisms. (plants): bunkhunkhu (Androstachys johnsonii); umvangati (Pterocarpus angolensis); umhlume (Adina microcephala); silele; likhatsato (Alepidea amatymbia); lihlambo; sibhaha (Pittosporum viridiflorum); (animals): tinhlangu / emanqala; imbhune; tiger fish; livule; timphisi; infinyezi
Additional observation: Umtfombotsi (Spirostachys africana), mangololo, umnganu (Sclerocarya caffra), lusundvu (palm tree), gebeleweni umsilinga (Melia azadarach),
52 umnyamatsi (Ekebergia capensis), umntulwa (Vangueria cyanescens); The animals include: cattle, snakes, wild animals, birds. Other organisms include liza, liwula, gebeleweni (Elaphoglossum ptiolatum), silulwane (mahlanganisa) insingizi. (NB Most observations were similar in the three Groups)
C. What is Threatening the (Biodiversity)?
• Negative attitudes. • Population growth / needs. • Climate change. • Poaching. • Destruction of catchment areas/water sources. • Poverty. • Socio economic development ie, community development projects. • Dam Construction.
Other observations included the following: o Developments - sugarcanes. - use of herbicides/pesticides. - cutting trees (eg. For fire wood without replacement). - improper road construction leading to erosion. • Too many cows leading to overgrazing. • Over-hunting is causing extinction of animals. • Pesticides are killing fish. • Water pollution is killing fish. • Chemicals used to control bilharzia are killing fish. • Fish are poisoned using pesticides (to catch the fish).
53 D. Ecosystem Types
• Lubombo Plateau • Rivers and Riverine habitats (tihosha). • Swamps/Wetlands (ematete). • Forests. • Dams. • Grasslands. • Caves (imigedze).
• Rocky outcrops.
E. How can we encourage and maintain conservation?
• Incentives. • Establish youth clubs. • Law enforcement. • Education for all, by all educational agencies. • Restrict use of working tools and such. • Law enforcement and implementation process/structures. • Publicity - to elaborate its importance. • Conservation for private sector and adjacent communities. • Attach conservation education to relevant phenomenon.
F. How can Agro-biodiversity be conserved? • Take pride in our nature. • Genetic resources bank. • Encourage the maintenance of Nguni cattle. • Promote traditional dishes / foods. • Revive traditional knowledge systems.. • Sustainable harvesting
54 G. What Crop-land races do we have? Landraces should be mixed and interbreeding should be reduced. • Silver-king is a landrace of maize (singwane?). Ummbila wesintfu • Ematabhane (Scolopia mu. • Nyawotsi. • Emabele (sorghum – Setaria italica or Pennisetum gloucum). • Ludvonca (Sesamum alatum). • Emadlaboshi. • Nguni cattle. • Ligwalagwala.
H. Use of biological resources in a sustainable manner.
• Control of accessibility to traditional attire resources by permits. • Establish woodlots for communities. • Strict control on extraction of resources. • Empower traditional authorities. • Attach monetary value to natural resources. • Accessibility to resources within nature reserves
I. Inputs needed to implement recommended actions to formulate youth /community programmes
• initiate incoming generating projects for the youth. • give empowerment to communities . • provide appropriate human resettlements. • educate and provide information.
55 J. Measures to Conserve Biological resources. These included efforts to apply proper land use planning that would allow reservation of environment and create Protection Worthy areas (reserved as monuments) eg. Protecting specific plants which provide habitats for animals.
Other measures were noted as follows: • Swaziland National Trust Commission (SNTC) should conduct research that would establish propagation methods. • Restructure the National Land Use Policy. • SNTC with the help of government should establish sites where they can grow botanical gardens. • Increase capacity building to the present nature conservation institution. • Government in conjunction with farmers and extension workers should set aside areas for keeping pure breeds. • Community members should be sensitised with importance of local materials which have resistance to diseases such as Tinhlumaya (cowpeas), emabele (sorghum), tindlubu (Jugo beans), ludvonca (Ceratotheca triloba), mngomeni (mungbeans), emantongomane (groudnuts – Arachis hypogea). • Create awareness about the importance of protecting the natural habitat through community leaders. (Educate) • Let people come up with a well planned conservation strategy. • Communities should have conservation communities that would deal with conservation issues. • This community committee in consultation with the chief, will work to develop environmental issues.
K. Actions that would result in sustainable utilization • Education especially on the importance of the environment. • Establish committee (appointed by chiefs) in each chiefdom which are responsible for environmental protection.
56 • Selected areas (of important habitats) that should be protected e.g. In the form of nature reserves; • Legislation required for community nature reserves. • Introduce a culling system. • Over-harvesting be prevented by introducing limits of harvesting guidelines. • Sustainable use of the species with economic / social value: o fall grass o umvangati (Pterocarous angolensis). o Luphakama. o Umutsi. o Umkhanyakudze (Acacia xanthophloea). o Umsilinga (Melia azedarach). o Umhonono (Terminalia phanerophlebia). • Captive propagation is not currently possible or feasible. It is better to develop sustainable harvesting instead. • One benefit of biodiversity is tourism. • Take all idle government farms and use them to develop eco-tourism. (To benefit the local communities). • Poaching is a serious problem, as is overgrazing and the cultivation of riverbanks. Littering is also a problem. There is no well-defined settlement policy and therefore an appropriate policy is needed. • Community education on biodiversity is necessary (and this must be supported by legislation). • Tree planting initiatives must be supported (cut a tree and then plant two) • More nurseries are required. • Local authorities and government must support biodiversity conservation. • Financial resources must be made available for conservation projects. • Conservation of biodiversity needs to be promoted effectively. • Technical support is required for conservation initiatives.
57 7.2 Group 4. Policy Concerns
This group was hand picked and constituted participants who had some administrative exposure.
A) Threats / Pressure on the Biological Resources • Unplanned houses thus destroying forestry. • Overpopulation and pressure on livestock (cattle). • Lack of regulation and policy to guide communities especial when taking livestock to dip tanks. • Poor ploughing methods. • Unplanned fires. • Pesticides done on commercial land -use of planes. • Lack of knowledge on environment impact assessment. • Unplanned donga done purposely by companies selling sand and silt for building. • (Most observations were similar to those of other groups)
B. Group: 4 listed some of the benefits from the use of biodiversity resources as • the prevention of soil erosion. • the provision of food for animals. • tree availability whichprovide shade and act as windbreaks. • Improvement of the aesthetic quality of the environment.
C. POLICY - Policy observations included the following:
At national level, existing acts, policies should be ratified, rectified and enforced. i) Establish demonstration sites or projects as education tools. This is feasible at emphakatsini or tinkhundla areas. ii) The communities near the protected areas should be part of the decision making or administration of the reserve. The communities should be represented especially in their monthly board meetings.
58 iii) Designate more areas as protection worthy in the Lubombo region. Currently, areas in this catergory include: - The Hlane Game Reserve - The Mlawula Game Reserve - The Mbuluzi Game Reserve - Mhlosinga Nature Reserve v) Provide a policy to highlight the benefits derived from the use of Biodiversity resources In Game Reserves. - Employment - Project funding - Selling of land craft near the reserve for tourists.
D. Benefits These benefits noted in C above require sustainable use of the biological resources and there is a need for strategies that can be put in place for the equitable sharing of benefits. These strategies include:
i) Education or awareness at local level to enhance local cooperation pertaining their biodiversity conservation. ii) At local level a policy /policies and regulations should be put in place and enforced through Tinkhundla and the chiefs to be able to share by protecting and conserving:
a) Creation of Regional legal committees to work on the policy
b) Exchanging beneficial skills within the stakeholders and also the creation of a pool of funds to train people in biodiversity
iii) Biodiversity concerns into Government Planning.
59 Institutes when planning any development should integrate all stakeholders that is roads, environmental health , housing. The Economic Planning Ministry should be involving an Environment inclined person on these matters. Swaziland Environment Authority (SEA) is presently under Government in a smaller industry. Thus it would be better if the Swaziland Environment Authority (SEA) was a department under The Prime Minister’s Office to be able to voice Government concerns and also advise all departments/institutes and companies. The Swaziland Environment Authority should establish a strong information base using education effectively. iv) Role of Other Ministries.
In order to protect the natural habitats found in our regions, Government should:-
1) Create an educational strategy and bring awareness to the areas which have rich natural resources. 2) Identify the areas periodically. This could also be done at national level. Funds will be needed. The Swaziland Environment Authority should solicit for funds to service communities. The education strategy should be in place to bring awareness to all thus they can be able to identify the value of their biodiversity. Policies should be enforced through consultation with the Legislature and the Attorney General’s Chambers to create effective and relevant laws regulating Biodiversity Conservation. 3) Conservation efforts - Companies should avail funds for outreach education on importance of biodiversity conservation. - Create regional communities to work on the policy they want - Exchange beneficial skills within the stakeholders and also create a pool of funds to create people in biodiversity.
60 4) Biodiversity concerns into Government Planning - When there is any development by Government institution, the Government should involve all stakeholders in their planning. - The planning and Economic Ministries should have an environmental inclined person to be involved on their ministry. 5.) The Swaziland Environment Authority should be moved form the current Ministry and be at placed in the Prime Ministers Office a department that can stand our and be able to voice out government concerns and also be able to advise all departments, institutes and companies. 6.) SEA should establish a strong information wing to educate or create awareness in all other ministries in order to protect the natural habitats found in regions. This may involve the creation of an Educational strategy to bring awareness to all various areas the importance of the Conservation of Biodiversity. The awareness can be done at local level and at national level places can he targeted for any observed biodiversity destruction taking place in that area or community.
VIII. Recommendations and Conclusions
In order to facilitate the equitable sharing of the benefits listed and those not listed the group resolved that:
i) There is a need to raise awareness amongst community leaders and members on the benefits of biodiversity conservation.
ii) Community members should establish a policy on the protection of their local environment.
iii) There is a need for greater community involvement in the management of conservation areas such as game parks and nature reserves.
61
The stakeholders should : i) exchange ideas and skills amongst themselves. ii) establish funds for training local community members on how to manage their environment.
Biodiversity concerns may best be brought into government planning by : i) The SEA educating other ministries and government departments on the value of biodiversity and the importance of complying with the Environmental Impact Assessment Regulations.
ii) The Swaziland Environment Authority being transferred to the Prime Ministers Office in order to gain more authority and more recognition so that environmental issues are taken more seriously by the public and private sectors.
Sustainable management of biodiversity in the region may be achieved by: i) raising awareness on biodiversity. ii) identifying habitats to be protected. iii) establish a regional committee to monitor environmental management in the region.
In order to implement the recommended actions the community will need : i) Funding and technical assistance from existing conservation parks in the region and governmental and non-governmental organisations.
62 IX. References
Dlamini M. (1997). Industry and Biodiversity. Seminar Paper for the Swaziland National Regional Consultations on Biodiversity.
Fakudze, P. N. (1997). Socio-Economic Benefits of Biological Diversity. Seminar Paper for the Swaziland National Regional Consultations on Biodiversity.
Nkosi, B. S. (1997) [Ed.] Proceedings of the First National Workshop on Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan : Swaziland (19 August, 1997). Swaziland Government / UNDP Report.
Nkosi, B. S. (1997). The International arena on Biological Diversity Conservation. Seminar Paper for the Swaziland National Regional Consultations on Biodiversity.
Nxumalo, J. M. (1997). Perspectives on the Conservation of Biological Diversity in Swaziland. Seminar Paper for the Swaziland National Regional Consultations on Biodiversity.
UNEP, (1994). Convention on Biological Diversity : Text and Annexes.
63 INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS IN SWAZILAND; A BENEFIT OR THREAT TO BIODIVERSITY C ONSERVATION.
Patience N. Fakudze Department of Geography, Environmental Science and Planning University of Swaziland E-Mail :[email protected]
Abstract
To fulfil the country's mandate on the Convention to Combat Desertification, a study to document indigenous knowledge systems and techniques in Swaziland was commissioned by the National Steering Committee for the convention. The survey was conducted in sixteen (16) communities from the various physiographic regions of the country. Each region was represented by at most 3 communities. Elderly members of the selected communities were interviewed in their homesteads using an open-ended questionnaire. The interviews were meant to assess the extent of indigenous knowledge techniques in the country. In addition, the perceptions of the respondents on land degradation were also investigated.
The results of the survey suggest that most people in the country are aware of the causes of land degradation in the country. However, there are some disturbing aspects, especially with regard to the use of fire. The respondents recommended a number of techniques that are relevant in natural resource management. The suggested techniques can be incorporated in the strategies to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought. Of importance, are the techniques to harvest wood resources, control erosion in grazing and cultivated areas, maintain soil fertility and restore wetlands. On another note, the climate prediction techniques still need to be verified.
A brief review of the history of policy measures to control land degradation was also undertaken to establish the level of community participation in the drafting and implementation of the policies. Documentation on the implementation of policies
64 suggests that most of the policies were based on foreign ideologies and did not involve consultations with the affected communities. It is believed that ineffective participation of local communities in the drafting and implementation of policies and programmes contributed to the failure of some of the policies or programmes. Local communities did not own the processes involved. They generally perceived the activities outlined in the policies and programmes as government's or development officers' responsibilities.
I. Introduction
Local or indigenous knowledge has been an area of focus in the quest to combat environmental problems and enhance the conservation of biodiversity. In many instances, it is recognised that the incorporation of such knowledge in proposed projects aimed at solving the escalating environmental problems partly contributes to increased awareness of the problems and acceptance of the projects by local communities. Documentation of indigenous knowledge techniques and practices is important because, prior to the introduction of scientific technologies of natural resource management, communities relied on indigenous knowledge techniques.
The indigenous knowledge systems and techniques revolve around traditional rules and regulations based on beliefs for the protection of flora, fauna and land. These techniques and systems are largely built on experiences and close contact with nature. As such, cultural diversity is an important component in local knowledge with regard to natural resource management. Within the traditional sphere, the management of natural resources can be gender sensitive in terms of the division of labour, access to land, decision-making and other roles. Very few countries have undertaken to compile available information on local knowledge regarding natural resource management and biodiversity conservation.
The fact that indigenous knowledge systems in resource management are not documented in most countries partly contributes to the lack of or poor application of indigenous techniques in resource management. Instead, the information is conveyed orally from
65 generation to generation. Authors such as Osunade (1994 (b)) and Lore (1992), argue that the incorporation of indigenous knowledge systems in modern technologies facilitates understanding and the utilisation of modern techniques. Indigenous knowledge systems can also be used in contemporary resource management and conservation education as well as the assessment of social and environmental impacts.
As a signatory to the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, Swaziland is obliged to fulfill the objectives of the convention. To fulfil this mandate, a study to document indigenous knowledge systems and techniques in Swaziland was commissioned by the National Steering Committee for the convention. This was facilitated with funding from the United Nations Special Office (UNSO) through the local United Nation Development Programme (UNDP) office. Underlying the importance of the study is the expectation that local communities must fully participate in the National Action Programmes to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought (Articles 10 & 17). Recognising that effective participation of local communities in measures to combat desertification can be achieved through understanding of the techniques involved, it is therefore essential to review and integrate the indigenous knowledge techniques with modern techniques.
On the basis of the convention, desertification means land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various factors, including climatic variations and human activities. Land degradation means the reduction or loss of biological or economic productivity in cropland, pasture, forest and woodlands as a result of processes such as erosion, long-term loss of natural vegetation and the deterioration of soil. Causes of desertification include increases in the human and livestock populations, bad agricultural practices, climatic variations, felling of trees for fuel and frequent use of fire.
1.2 Objectives Generally, the objectives of this study were: • To establishing the perceptions of local communities on land degradation.
66 • To document information on indigenous knowledge techniques used to address the problem of land degradation is Swaziland. • To facilitate networking between modern scientists, traditional authorities and rural communities on strategies to combat desertification and develop a resource base for capacity building on techniques to combat desertification using the documented techniques. • To explore the possibility of integrating indigenous knowledge techniques in the strategies to combat desertification.
II. Methodology
Primary and secondary sources of information were used to acquire information on indigenous knowledge systems in the country. Considering that indigenous knowledge systems may vary between locations and that land degradation also depends on several variable factors, the study was designed in such a way that each of the six physiographic regions of Swaziland is represented. The primary information sources were elderly members of sixteen (16) communities in the six physiographic regions of Swaziland. Representing each physiographic region were three randomly selected areas (Table 1).
Table 1: Communities where interviews were held by physiographic region.
Highveld Upper Lower Western Eastern Lubombo Middleveld Middleveld Lowveld Lowveld
Ntfonjeni Lobamba Kukhanyeni Mpaka Siphofaneni Lomahasha Mankayane Timphisini Buhleni Lavumisa Madubeni Siteki Mantjolo Ezikhotheni Engudzeni Hlane
In each community a total of 22 people were randomly selected and interviewed. Overall, a total of about 330 people were interviewed.
67 The interviews were conducted at the homes of all the respondents using an open-ended questionnaire. There were four areas of interest in the questionnaire, namely (a) the perceptions of the respondents to land degradation in the area, (b) techniques used to harvest natural resources, (c) recommended techniques to mitigate the problems of land degradation and water depletion and (d) techniques used to predict climatic conditions. In all the communities, the interviews were based on "surprise" visits. Appointments were not arranged prior to the interview in all the areas.
Secondary sources of information such as policy documents and other literature on natural resource management were also consulted. The literature review was conducted to enhance understanding of the history of the policy measures put in place to address issues of land degradation in the country. Information from the secondary sources is also valuable in the distinction of indigenous and introduced techniques. In addition, the information obtained can be used to elucidate the possible reasons for departure from the known indigenous techniques and the adoption of "scientific" or western techniques in the country.
III. Literature Review
Land degradation in Swaziland is partly caused by the land tenure systems that exist in the country. The systems are based on the colonial land policies that were developed between 1903 and 1914 and the subsequent partitioning of the country in 1907 (Crush, 1980). In the 1907 partitioning, the country was sub-divided into settler estates and Swazi Reserves. Amongst the reasons presented by Crush (1980) for the partitioning of the land was (a) the natural increase and possible migration of the Swazi population, (b) grass burning by the Swazi which would destroy settler crops and grazing and (c) the need for settlers to have security of title to land on which to make capital investment. This left the Swazi population with very little land for their livelihood and hence the subsequent degradation that is characteristic of Swazi Nation Land. The present land tenure systems in the country are extensively outlined in Downing and Zuke (1996).
68 In Swaziland, soil erosion is the most obvious sign of land degradation. According to Osunade (1994), the occurrence of soil erosion in Swaziland pre-dates the settlement of the area by the people. However, with increasing population and demand for more land by competing land uses, the problem of soil erosion has grown worse (Osunade, 1994). The main causes of soil erosion are overgrazing and destruction of land. As a result of soil erosion, sediment yield in the drainage systems of the country have increased resulting in diminishing water supply. For example, Pitman (1977) as quoted by Osunade (1994), estimates that the sediment yield in the highveld and middleveld is about 8 tonnes /ha/yr, for the lowveld the yield is 10 tonnes/ha/yr and in the Lubombo region 4 tonnes/ha/year. Since the colonial period "modern " or scientific plans and strategies of natural resource management (often developed and tested in the cool temperate regions) were introduced in affected communities. Common to most introduced technologies was minimum participation of the traditional authorities and community members. Local communities had to abandon their own techniques of conserving resources for the imposed scientific methods.
According to Osunade (1994 (b)), the conservation of land and water resources in the country started in 1949 when the Xhosa extension workers encouraged the use of grass strips. Between 1940 and 1960, the extension workers laid out a total of 113 780km of grass strips. In 1954, the CRDB was formed. This body was charged with resettlement, the division of all Swazi Nation Land (SNL) into arable and grazing areas and the management of the nations natural resources. Consequent to the formation of the CRDB, local conservation or development committees (Imisumphe) were established. However, due to conflicts with chiefs and basic ingredients of operations these became inefficient (Osunade, 1994 (b)).
In 1970, the Rural Development Area Programme (RDAP) was established with funding from the United Kingdom. The programme was extended in 1976 with bilateral aid from West Germany, Sweden and Canada and multilateral aid from the World Bank, African Development Bank, European Economic Union (EEC) and UNDP. This programme was geared to improve the income and well being of the Swazi farmers by
69 providing infrastructure, fencing grazing areas, improving livestock management and land consolidation among other things. Soil conservation became prominent in the RDAP with the introduction of terraces to supplant grass strips (Osunade, 1994 (b)). According to Osunade (1994 (b)), only 20% of the planned conservation measures were achieved in the RDAP. Of the planned removal of 39400ha of grass strips only 2034ha were removed and of the 42800ha of terraces, a total of 2003ha were constructed. Since 1983, farmers have continued to lay grass strips in their farms without anybody compelling them (Osunade, 1994 (b)).
It has since been realised that environmental or land-use policies that are solely based on western technologies have failed (ETC foundation, 1987; Osunade, 1994(a)). For example, Osunade (1994 (b)) attributes the failure of the Rural Development Areas Programme (RDAP) in Swaziland to the neglect of community (indigenous) knowledge. The approach used in the RDAP was based on the assumption that production levels in rural areas are constrained by lack of inputs, knowledge and infrastructure. This approach fails to recognise other factors that contribute to land degradation. Basically, the failure of policies which address land degradation problems may be attributed to (i) inequalities in land holding and security of tenure, (ii) lack of consultations with local communities in the formulation of the policies and (iii) failure to recognise that opportunities to solve the problems also lie with the local communities and that there is need to learn from the people who face the problems. Because of the sectoral nature of the policies, there is failure to appreciate the fact that the existing policies have far reaching implications than the sectors for which they were designed. In most instance policies that are solely based on alien technologies are designed to protect natural resources in specific sectors rather than encourage better management of resources. Indigenous knowledge systems are based on resource sharing practices than protection. Contrary, the imposed policies have led to the collapse of traditional resource-sharing practices and controls over resource use (ETC foundation, 1987; Lore, 1992). Therefore, capturing indigenous knowledge techniques and the subsequent integration of these techniques and knowledge to natural resource management is vital for the success of any programme or project.
70
IV. Results
It is generally recognised (e.g. Lore, 1992) that the quantity and quality of indigenous knowledge systems varies with gender, age, social status, intellectual capability and profession (i.e. herbalist, farmer, spiritual medium etc) among community members. Differences in the perceptions of the respondents on land degradation, its causes and techniques used to combat the problems were noted. These differences are not only restricted to regional variations but they are also reflected amongst the various respondents. Such variations were noted in the results of the survey and these maybe attributed to differences in environmental conditions, gender and academic background. For example, people from the highveld and the lowveld regions responded differently to questions on water and wood resources. With regards to gender, women appeared to have limited knowledge compared to men.
4.1 Knowledge on the extent and causes of land degradation.
Extent of land degradation : For most respondents, land degradation is synonymous with erosion hence the responses were generally based on past and existing erosion features in the area. Only a few respondents mentioned the issue of deforestation as a sign of land degradation. In all the communities that formed part of the study, land degradation did not exist in the past and in those where it did, the respondents indicated that this was minimal and localised to areas close to streams and rivers. To try and explain the causes for localised and minimal land degradation in the past, one of the respondents, Mr Shiba of Ekukhanyeni cited low numbers of settlements and livestock. From the results it appears that soil acidification may not be considered as land degradation. Lack of awareness on other forms of land degradation is a threat to biodiversity conservation because the problem might persist without proper redress.
Causes of land degradation : Most respondents in the visited communities perceive climatic variations as the most important cause of land degradation. According to the respondents, heavy rains and drought have a significant contribution to land degradation
71 (Table 2). Amongst the anthropogenic causes, overgrazing/overstocking, overpopulation, pathways and tracks and deforestation were also identified as causes of land degradation. Other causes of land degradation that were identified by the locals include the construction of roads, uncontrolled fires or frequent burning and poor agricultural practices. According to some respondents from Ngudzeni, Ezikhotheni and Madubeni, land degradation was attributed to the spread of termites. They argued that termites increase the susceptibility of the soil to erosion.
Noted from the responses is that land degradation in largely confined to grazing areas than cultivated land. Only a few respondents mentioned the possibility of land degradation in cultivated areas. Apart from cultivated areas, land degradation is also limited in sacred sites. In Swaziland, sacred sites are mainly burial sites for past and present royalty in an area. Generally, exploitation of resources such as firewood or cultivation close to the site is not allowed. Even when there is a fire, local residents will ensure that the fire does not affect the sacred sites. As a result, all the respondents were also asked about the existence and location of sacred sites in the area. In all the areas, the sacred sites were not affected by land degradation. Most forests, particularly in the highly eroded areas are restricted to the sacred sites. Although the reverence of sacred sites is a benefit to biodiversity conservation, there is need to enhance efforts on expanding the conservation of other areas, especially grazing land.
72 Table 2 : Perceived causes of land degradation in Swaziland.
Cause Area Heavy Overgrazing Overpopulation Uncontrolled Drought Termites Deforestation Pathways Roads Poor Other Total rains/floods fires agricultural practice Buhleni 6 8 4 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 21 Ekukhanyeni 4 8 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 15 Ezikhotheni 6 4 1 0 1 3 1 0 0 0 2 18 Hlane 8 2 2 0 4 0 0 1 0 0 2 19 Lavumisa 8 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 1 0 0 12 Lobamba 2 3 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 10 Lomahasha 10 2 4 0 1 0 2 0 0 1 1 21 Madubeni 6 3 3 0 6 2 0 1 0 0 0 21 Mantjolo 5 0 0 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 8 Mhlatane 8 4 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 14 Mpaka 5 0 8 0 1 0 0 2 0 0 0 16 Ngudzeni 8 7 1 0 2 1 1 3 0 0 0 23 Ntfonjeni 3 0 5 2 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 12 Siphofaneni 4 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 8 Siteki 10 0 1 0 5 0 0 3 1 0 0 20 Timphisini 6 2 5 0 4 0 2 1 0 0 0 20 Total 95 43 40 4 26 6 11 14 2 3 6 250
73
Techniques used to control land degradation in grazing areas or cultivated land : The most popular indigenous techniques for controlling land degradation are rotational grazing and the planting of vegetation (Table 3). Other techniques that were suggested include destocking, filling rills and gullies with stones and soil, fencing of pastures, alternating cattle routes and the protection of existing vegetation from over exploitation. In as much as the respondents recognise rotational grazing as an important techniques for controlling land degradation in grazing areas, there are several constraints. When asked about grazing problems in the areas, the most popular responses were that grazing areas are either inadequate, eroded, unfenced and in some instances specific sites for grazing purposes are not allocated (Table 4). The problems are further compounded by overstocking, lack of water and bush encroachment. Other identified problems were frequent burning and the expansion of termite hills.
There is need to establish the relationship between overgrazing and the expansion of termitaria on grazing lands. The allocation of grazing areas in the country needs to be investigated since this was part of the CRDB mandate. Alternative means of supporting livestock, such as feedlots also need to be encouraged.
The main techniques used to control soil erosion in cultivated areas are contour ploughing and the use of grass strips. Other noted techniques were terraces, the construction of furrows and filling rills with stones. Grass strips are the most popular and used simultaneously with contour ploughing. However, Osunade (1994) notes that the grass strips are poorly maintained in most areas hence their effectiveness in controlling soil erosion is reduced. Apart from controlling soil erosion, grass strips are also a source of thatching grass to indigenous communities. When asked about the techniques used to maintain the supply of thatching grass, most respondents (53%) suggested that the grass must not be uprooted but cut low to allow regeneration. some respondents also highlighted the importance of shaking or thinning the grass at the source to ensure a continuous supply of seeds and future germination of grass in the area. On the other hand, 32% suggested that the area has to be burned to encourage regeneration of the grass. Although burning does encourage the regeneration of grass, frequent burning contributes to land degradation.
74 Table 3 : Recommended techniques to control land degradation.
Techniques Area Destocking Rotational Stone/soil filling Protect Fence Plant Do not Contour Construct Alternate Do not Divert Total grazing grass pastures trees/grass cut trees ploughing terraces cattle burn water routes Buhleni 4 4 2 1 1 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 15 Ekukhanyeni 2 7 0 0 2 5 0 0 0 1 0 2 19 Ezikhotheni 3 8 1 0 4 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 30 Hlane 0 3 1 1 0 1 0 2 0 1 0 0 9 Lavumisa 1 6 1 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 Lobamba 5 8 0 0 0 4 0 2 0 0 0 1 20 Lomahasha 0 1 1 0 1 3 0 1 1 0 0 0 8 Madubeni 3 2 6 0 0 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 14 Mantjolo 0 3 0 0 2 1 1 3 0 1 2 0 13 Mankayane 3 6 3 0 0 3 1 0 0 1 0 0 17 Mpaka 0 3 2 1 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 10 Ngudzeni 2 6 3 1 1 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 20 Ntfonjeni 4 4 1 1 1 5 1 3 0 0 0 0 20 Siphofaneni 4 7 9 0 0 9 0 6 0 2 0 0 37 Siteki 1 4 2 0 1 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 20 Timphisini 5 3 0 0 2 5 2 1 0 1 0 0 19 Total 37 75 32 5 17 76 8 18 1 8 2 3 282
63 Table 4 : Grazing problems in the selected communities. Problems
Area Unfenced veld Overstocking Erosion Inadequate Unspecified Bush Inadequate Uncontrolled Termites Total grazing areas grazing encroachment water fires areas Buhleni 5 9 2 1 2 2 0 0 0 21 Ekukhanyeni 0 8 5 7 0 0 0 0 0 20 Ezikhotheni 1 5 7 5 0 0 0 0 1 19 Hlane 1 2 0 1 1 0 5 0 0 10 Lavumisa 1 2 9 6 0 2 2 0 0 22 Lobamba 1 6 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 12 Lomahasha 1 3 7 3 1 0 0 0 0 15 Madubeni 7 0 5 4 0 0 0 0 1 17 Mantjolo 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 2 0 5 Mankayane 6 6 5 4 1 0 0 0 0 22 Mpaka 4 0 3 5 0 0 0 0 0 12 Ngudzeni 8 2 3 1 0 0 0 0 1 15 Ntfonjeni 2 4 1 7 2 0 0 0 0 16 Siteki 4 7 8 2 1 0 1 0 0 23 Timphisini 1 5 2 8 6 0 0 0 0 22 Total 43 59 58 60 14 4 8 2 3 251
64 Noting that frequent burning by Swazis was cited as one of the factors leading to the 1907 partitioning of the country, the perceptions of the respondents on the impacts of fire were determined. Fifty three percent (53%) of the respondents believe that fire is destructive (Table 5). The destruction of homesteads, plants and increased land degradation were cited as the major destructive effects of fire. Of the remaining 45%, 42% of the respondents were of the opinion that fire has a positive impact on land in that it encourages regeneration of grass, increases in soil fertility and destroys pests such as ticks and mice. An examination of Table 5 indicates that most of the respondents who believe that fire has a positive impact are from Ekukhanyeni (52%), Ezikhotheni (63%), Mpaka (53%) and Ngudzeni (53%). These areas are amongst the most degraded areas in the country. Of all the respondents, some (3%) argued that the impacts of fire largely depend on the timing and frequency of burning. If done at the right time and infrequently, fire has a positive impact. Frequent burning does not only lead to a paucity of grass and encourage soil erosion, but it also suppresses the growth of trees in an area. One respondent (Mr Dlamini of Ndlalambi) attests to the view that frequent burning suppresses the growth of indigenous trees. According to Mr Dlamini the area from Timphisini to Ndlalambi used to be grassland. He attributed the expansion of indigenous trees at Ndlalambi to controlled burning.
Table 5 : Effects of fire on land. Effect Area Regenerates Causes land Destroys Causes Destroys Increases Kills Kills mice Depends Total grass degradation plants cattle homesteads soil ticks and diseases fertility snakes
Buhleni 4 1 11 0 1 0 0 0 1 18 Ekukhanyeni 11 2 5 2 1 0 0 0 0 21 Ezikhotheni 10 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 16 Hlane 2 2 10 0 0 0 1 0 0 15 Lavumisa 4 0 7 0 0 1 1 0 1 14 Lobamba 5 6 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 15 Lomahasha 5 3 6 0 1 1 2 0 0 18 Madubeni 3 0 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 Mantjolo 6 2 7 1 0 0 1 0 0 17 Mankayane 5 2 6 0 0 0 1 1 1 16 Mpaka 8 1 4 0 1 0 1 0 0 15 Ngudzeni 10 0 5 0 1 0 0 0 3 19 Ntfonjeni 6 0 6 1 0 0 0 1 0 14 Siphofaneni 3 1 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 Siteki 5 0 8 0 0 0 3 0 0 16 Timphisini 5 1 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 14
Total 92 21 105 5 6 2 10 2 7 250
65
Uncontrolled fires are a common feature in the country and in view of the above responses this problem needs to be addressed urgently. Considering that land degradation is associated with the deterioration of the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of soil, the respondents were also asked about techniques to maintain soil fertility. Regarding the indigenous techniques to maintain soil fertility in cultivated areas, the use of kraal manure, compost, fallowing and crop rotation were cited (Table 6).
Table 6 : Recommended techniques to maintain soil fertility.
Technique Area Add Fallowin Crop Add Double Use Shift Plant Use Add Inter Total kraal g rotation fertilisers ploughing compost cultivation trees ashes lime cropping manure
Buhleni 20 2 2 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 27 Ekukhanyeni 13 2 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 19 Ezikhotheni 7 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 Hlane 11 2 1 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 17 Lavumisa 6 3 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 Lobamba 7 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 Lomahasha 10 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 13 Madubeni 6 2 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 11 Mantjolo 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Mankayane 16 2 2 0 1 5 1 0 3 1 0 31 Mpaka 17 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 17 Ngudzeni 20 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 24 Ntfonjeni 16 2 1 0 0 2 0 0 1 0 0 22 Siteki 9 5 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 18 Timphisini 18 2 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 23
Total 176 28 18 2 6 10 4 0 4 1 1 250
Other techniques that were identified include double cultivation, shifting cultivation and the use of ashes. Although Osunade (1994) also mentions the use of termite soil as material that can be used to enrich the soil, this was not mentioned by any of the respondents in this study. The notion that indigenous knowledge is subject to erosion with time was confirmed in this question where a few respondents also cited fertilisers and liming as indigenous techniques. The respondents were also asked about the different types of materials or plants that can be used to increase soil fertility in degraded soil. Cited plants (Table 7) include leguminous plants such as groundnuts (Arachis hypogea), beans (e.g. Phasedus vulgaris) and tinhlumayo (Vigna spp), ludvonca (Sesamum inducum), emabele (Setarica italica or Pennisetum glaucum), sweet potatoes (Ipomea batatas), umganu (Sclerocarya caffra), cassava (Manihot esculenta) and umkhiwa (Ficus capensis).
66
Table 7 : Types of plants that can be used to improve soil fertility.
Plant Species Area Umkhiwa Emabele Tindlubu Groundnuts Tinhlumaya Beans Umganu Cotton Sweet Ludvonca Cassava Ematabhane Total Ficus) Setarica Bambara Arachis Vigna Phasedus Sclerocarya potatoes Sesame Manihot (Ipomea) Buhleni 0 0 1 4 12 11 0 0 2 3 0 0 33 Ekukhanyeni 0 4 1 6 9 7 1 2 2 1 0 0 33 Ezikhotheni 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Hlane 0 0 0 3 2 4 1 0 0 0 0 0 10 Lavumisa 0 0 0 0 2 7 0 2 2 0 0 0 13 Lobamba 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Lomahasha 0 2 0 4 0 8 0 2 0 1 0 0 17 Madubeni 0 1 0 1 1 3 4 0 0 1 0 0 11 Mantjolo 0 2 0 0 0 9 0 0 2 1 0 2 16 Mankayane 0 1 0 5 1 11 0 0 2 1 0 0 21 Mpaka 0 1 0 0 4 3 0 1 0 2 0 0 11 Ngudzeni 0 1 0 2 0 11 0 2 2 0 0 0 18 Ntfonjeni 1 2 1 1 2 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 Siphofaneni 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 2 1 0 0 6 Siteki 0 7 0 1 2 4 0 4 6 0 0 0 24 Timphisini 0 2 2 3 5 5 0 0 2 0 1 0 20 Total 1 23 5 31 41 87 6 14 22 11 1 2 244
67 4.2 Wood Resources Long-term loss of vegetation and subsequent land degradation is generally associated with the harvesting of wood resources either for fuel or building purposes. During the interviews, the respondents were asked about the techniques that were used in the past to harvest woodfuel and building poles. In addition, the respondents were asked about the most common trees that are used for woodfuel and building purposes. Information on the indigenous techniques to harvest woodfuel will help in the identification of differences between past practices and present-day practices. Knowing the types of trees that are commonly used will help in the identification of threatened species and possible strategies to mitigate the effects. Secondly, the information may help in the selection of species to be used in afforestation programmes.
Woodfuel. In harvesting woodfuel, most people emphasise on resource sharing (ETC Foundation, 1987). The most popular technique among the respondents was the collection of only dry or fallen trees. Uprooting or the burning of trees can be destructive to wood resources and that these should be avoided at all costs. Presently, most people who harvest woodfuel will go to the extent of cutting fresh "wet" trees. This is a result of both financial need and the fact that the demand for woodfuel is higher than the supply. In those areas where wattle plantations were introduced, the locals believe that wattle should be used as the main source of fuelwood in order to sustain wood resources. However, some respondents feel that wattle trees burn out faster than the indigenous trees. According to one respondent, the indigenous trees that are commonly used as woodfuel are mainly the hardwoods. Indigenous trees that are commonly used as woodfuel are shown on Table 8. Some of these trees, especially Combretum spcs (Imbondvo), Dichrostachys cinera (umzilazembe) and Acacia robusta (umgamba) have a high calorific value (Mtetwa and Vilakati, 1992).
BUILDING POLES. In harvesting building poles, the respondents suggested that the most sustainable technique is selective cutting where an individual only cuts the trees or branches of a tree, which he will definitely use. In a situation where only straight branches are harvested, the other crooked branches are supposed to be left in place for other uses such as woodfuel when dry. According to one respondent (Mr Shiba of Ekukhanyeni), this practice also ensures regeneration and continuous supply of the material.
68 Although exotic species such as eucalyptus and wattle are now used in most areas, some respondents felt these are not as good as the indigenous trees. The reason is that exotics are susceptible to attack by termites hence not as strong as the indigenous trees. An example of an indigenous tree that is resistant to termites is umhohlo (Bolesanthus speciosus). Other indigenous trees that are used for building purposes include umncozi (Syzygium cordatum), umtfombotsi (Spirostachys africana), imbondvo (Combretum spp) and umvangati (Pterocarpus Angolensis) (Table 8). Some of these trees play an important role in hydrological processes and in national cultural events.
Table 8 : Some indigenous trees that are used as woodfuel or for building purposes.
Tree Use Type of Tree woodfuel building Umtfolo (Acacia dealbata) yes yes Imbondvo (Combretum spp) yes yes Umncozi (Syzygium cordatum) yes yes Umzilazembe (Dychrostachyst cinerea) yes yes Umsilinga (Melia azedarach) yes No Sitfwetfwe (Acacia spp) yes yes Umvangati (Pterocarpus Angolensis) yes no Umkhiwa (Ficus Capensis) yes no Inkokhokho (Ficus spp) yes no Umganu (Sclerocarya birrea) yes no Singa (Acacia gerradii) yes yes Umgamba (Acacia davyi) yes yes Lugagane (Acacia brevispica) yes yes Umhlume (Breonadia microcephala) yes yes Siganganyane (Lannea discolor) yes no Umkhabamkhombe (Peltophorum africanum) yes yes Umtelemba (Annona senegalensis) yes no Umkhuhlu (Trichilia emetica) yes no Umtfombosti (Spirostachys africana) no yes Umncwambo (Manilkara spp) yes no Umnumbela (Bequaertiodendrn spp) yes no Lusololo (Bauhinia galpinii) yes yes Umdvubu (Combretum erythrophyllum) yes no Umphahla (Branchylaena discolor) yes yes Sijelele (Euclea crispa) yes yes Sitsatsatsa (Rhus pentheri) yes no Umtsetane (Dichrostachys spp) yes no Sicalaba (Faurea spp) yes yes Umkhaya (Acacia nigrescence) yes yes Umsasane (Acacia tortilis) yes yes Umneyi (Berchemia zeyheri) yes yes
Based on the responses, the most threatened tree species are those that are used both as woodfuel and for building purposes. These include imbondvo (Combretum spp), umncozi (Syzygium cordatum), singa (Acacia gerradii), sijelele (Euclea crispa), umphahla 69 (Branchylaena discolor), sicalaba (Faurea spp), umtsetane (Dichrostachys spp) and umneyi (Berchemia zeyheri). Efforts should be made to propagate these trees and incorporate them in afforestation programmes. Although the respondents also mentioned umzilazembe and umgamba, these are not necessarily threatened since these are invasive and common in areas that are subjected to bush encroachment.
4.3. Water Resources. Desertification can lead to water shortages in affected areas. During the survey, respondents were asked about sources of drinking water, the presence of wetlands and indigenous techniques to protect or recharge water resources such as wetlands in the area. Information on sources of drinking water helps in the identification of areas that need assistance in terms of safe drinking water supplies. Wetlands were also investigated in the study because they play an important role in hydrological processes and water supply in an area. Combating desertification also entails ensuring a continuous supply of water not only for drinking purposes but also for the growth of natural vegetation in an area.
Sources of drinking water.
Rivers and open springs were found to be the most common sources of drinking water in the study areas (Table 9).
Table 9 : Common sources of drinking water in the selected communities.
Area Source
Spring Buy from Tanks Borehole Dam or Taps Stream or Total truck Well River
Buhleni 3 0 0 0 0 9 11 23 Ekukhanyeni 4 0 0 0 4 11 5 24 Ezikhotheni 2 0 0 2 3 3 12 22 Hlane 0 0 0 0 0 0 18 18 Lavumisa 0 0 2 2 0 18 0 22 Lobamba 2 0 0 1 0 17 4 24 Lomahasha 8 0 0 0 0 6 7 21 Madubeni 0 0 0 0 0 0 19 19 Mantjolo 5 0 0 0 0 0 15 20 Mankayane 12 0 0 0 0 7 5 24 Mpaka 1 3 0 1 15 1 0 21 Ngudzeni 7 0 0 0 0 6 9 22 Ntfonjeni 3 0 0 1 2 8 4 18 Siphofaneni 0 0 0 3 0 3 16 22 Siteki 3 0 1 3 8 4 5 24 Timphisini 8 0 1 1 0 5 8 23
Total 58 3 4 14 32 98 138 347 70
The most affected areas are Hlane, Buhleni and Siteki. Other sources of drinking water include boreholes, dams, water harvesting tanks and taps. It is important to note that taps may either be connected to a borehole or protected spring. This information was not verified in the field.
When asked about the distance travelled to water sources, most respondents said they travel less than 1 km (Table 10).
Table 10 : Distance to the nearest water source.
Area Distance Travelled < 1km 1.1 - 2.5km 2.6 - 3.5 km > 3km Total Buhleni 10 5 4 0 19 Ekukhanyeni 10 2 0 0 12 Ezikhotheni 4 2 2 0 8 Hlane 18 0 0 0 18 Lavumisa 5 7 1 0 13 Lobamba 12 2 3 0 17 Lomahasha 7 2 3 1 13 Madubeni 14 1 1 0 16 Mantjolo 12 2 3 0 17 Mhlatane 15 2 4 0 21 Mpaka 14 2 3 0 19 Ngudzeni 14 3 4 3 24 Ntfonjeni 8 9 4 3 24 Siphofaneni 21 1 0 0 22 Siteki 12 3 2 2 19 Timphisini 12 1 2 6 21 Total 188 44 36 15 283
In some areas such as Ngudzeni, Ntfonjeni, Siteki and Timphisini, some people have to travel a distance of more than 3 km to obtain drinking water. It was also observed that most people have not always obtained water from the present source. When asked about the reasons for changing the source of drinking water, most people had to change following the construction of taps/boreholes, dams and wells in the area. Other factors that have contributed to changes in the sources of drinking water include drought, conflict and contamination of the water source.
71 Areas where drought has led to a change in the source of drinking water are Ezikhotheni, Malindza, Ntfonjeni and Lavumisa. Several problems were identified by the respondents regarding water supply (Table 11) . The cited problems were poor water quality, distant water sources, drought and the absence or inadequate taps to serve a community.
Table 11: Problems with water resources in the selected communities.
Problems Area Total Unprotected Water Distant Sources dry Inadequate Absence of Saline water sources shortages sources up in taps taps water winter Buhleni 8 3 2 0 0 1 0 14 Ekukhanyeni 0 1 2 0 2 2 0 7 Ezikhotheni 11 4 0 3 1 0 0 19 Hlane 7 8 3 5 0 0 0 23 Lavumisa 3 14 1 1 2 0 1 22 Lobamba 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 3 Lomahasha 3 7 3 3 4 0 0 20 Madubeni 6 3 2 3 0 0 0 14 Mantjolo 8 0 2 0 0 2 0 12 Mankayane 7 4 1 0 3 0 0 15 Mpaka 11 6 1 5 0 2 0 25 Ngudzeni 9 3 3 0 3 0 0 18 Ntfonjeni 4 5 1 3 0 0 0 13 Siteki 11 6 0 5 0 0 0 22 Timphisini 2 7 3 1 1 3 0 17 Total 90 73 24 30 16 10 1 244
Wetlands : There are several definitions of wetland. The legal definition of wetlands as given by Mitsch and Gosselink (1993), is that wetlands are areas that are inundated or saturated by surface or ground water at a frequency and duration sufficient to support a prevalence of vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated conditions. Wetlands are characterised by standing water, hydric soils and the presence of hydrophytes such as floating plants, Typha (libhuma), Phragmites (umhlanga), Scirpus (umuzi or inchoboza) and Cyperus (likhwane, incoshana, inchoboza and insikane) plant species. As such, wetlands include swamps, marshes, lakes, flood plains and areas adjacent to rivers and streams.
When asked about the presence of wetlands and their location in the area, respondents from Siteki, Mpaka and Lavumisa noted that there are no wetlands in these areas. Mpaka and Lavumisa are in the lowveld, a dry region in the country. Siteki is in the Lubombo region and although characterised by a paucity of river systems, there are some pans and swamps scattered around the area. The reason for the negative responses could be that the
72 respondents are either not aware of these or they do not consider them to be wetlands. In the other study areas flood plains, swamps, river sources, and areas close to rivers and streams (flood plains) were cited as wetlands. Although this is in line with the above definition of wetlands, very few respondents mentioned swamps as constituting wetlands.
Wetlands maybe subject to degradation if not protected. Factors that lead to the degradation or loss of wetlands include burning in sensitive areas, planting of vegetation on slopes adjacent to wetlands, ground water abstraction, dam construction and deforestation. When asked if any wetlands have dried-up in the area, in almost all the study areas, the respondents indicated that some wetlands have since dried-up. The reasons given for the degradation of wetlands were drought, trampling by cattle, sedimentation, planting exotic trees with a high water demand and over-exploitation of wetlands vegetation, especially Scirpus (inchoboza) and Cyperus (e.g. likhwane, inchoboza and incoshana) plant species (Table 12).
Table 12 : Reasons for the degradation of wetlands.
Cause Area Total
Drought Trampling Sedimentation Tree Erosion Exploitation of by cattle plantations Cyperus species
Buhleni 19 0 0 0 0 0 19 Ekukhanyeni 8 0 1 0 0 0 9 Ezikhotheni 7 0 3 0 0 0 10 Hlane 12 1 0 0 0 1 14 Lavumisa 6 0 0 0 0 0 6 Lobamba 9 0 0 1 1 0 11 Lomahasha 13 3 0 0 0 0 16 Madubeni 10 0 0 0 0 0 10 Mantjolo 4 0 0 0 0 1 5 Mankayane 16 2 0 0 0 0 18 Mpaka 7 0 1 0 0 0 8 Ngudzeni 10 1 0 4 0 0 15 Ntfonjeni 11 1 0 1 0 0 13 Siphofaneni 11 1 0 0 1 0 13 Siteki 8 0 0 0 0 0 8 Timphisini 15 0 0 0 0 0 15 Total 166 9 5 6 2 2 190
Considering that Cyperus plants are an important economic resource for women in the country, the perception of the respondents on the importance of this resource and techniques used in harvesting the plants in wetlands was also determined. When asked about the importance of wetlands vegetation, especially Scirpus and Cyperus plant species, the 73 responses were that such plants retain water, prevent soil erosion, encourage water re- charge, provide shade hence reduce evaporation and stabilise the swamps (Table 13).
Table 13 : Importance of Cyperus plants.
Importance Area Retain Prevent Provide shade Recharge water Stabilise Total water erosion swamp Buhleni 11 3 1 0 0 15 Ekukhanyeni 16 3 0 0 0 19 Ezikhotheni 14 1 1 0 0 16 Hlane 12 1 0 2 2 17 Lavumisa 8 2 0 0 0 10 Lobamba 7 2 0 0 0 9 Lomahasha 16 2 0 1 2 21 Madubeni 9 1 0 0 0 10 Mantjolo 14 1 1 0 0 16 Mankayane 15 1 0 2 1 19 Mpaka 4 3 1 0 0 8 Ngudzeni 11 1 0 2 0 14 Ntfonjeni 10 1 1 1 0 13 Siteki 15 2 1 1 0 19 Timphisini 11 0 1 1 0 13 Total 173 24 7 10 5 219
According to chief Mbandzamane of Shewula, the water retention ability of these plants is attributed to the extensive root system, which restricts water movement and the loss of soil in an area. Regarding the techniques used to maintain the supply of this important resource, most respondents indicated that the plants must be harvested when mature and not uprooted but cut low using a sickle. There is also a need to leave shoots and shake seeds at the source to encourage regeneration and subsequent germination the following year. Several respondents (23) indicated that burning after harvesting the plants also encourages regeneration. This practice needs to be discouraged since it can lead to the degradation or loss of the wetlands. One respondent from Mantjolo attested to the fact that burning of wetlands must be discouraged.
Techniques used to encourage water re-charge in wetlands : From the foregoing discussion, it is obvious that wetlands need to be protected and in situations where the wetlands are degraded, there is need to restore or re-charge the wetlands. When asked to recommend techniques for the protection or re-charge of the wetlands, the respondents
74 indicated that there is need to dig around and protect the water sources (springs). Others suggested that cattle must not be allowed to graze in such areas and that trees must be removed and only plants which encourage re-charge planted in wetlands. The most commonly used plants to restore/ re-charge wetlands are Cyperus plant species. According to Chief Mbandzamane of Shewula, Cyperus plant species are so effective that even if the area was completely dry, the conditions are likely to improve within a few years. However, it is important to protect the area against other factors such as cattle and fire. A good example of the effectiveness of fencing and the growth of Cyperus species is a project initiated by Yonge Nawe at Kaphunga. Other vegetation types that were identified by the respondents include umkhiwa (Ficus capensis), umcopho, umncozi (Syzygium cordatum), libhuma (Typha latifolia), umfomamasi (Rauvolfia caffra), umhlume (Adina microcephala), bhanana (Musa sapientum), lutindzi (Coleochloa setifera), umnyetane (Salix woodii), inkhomankhoma (Alsophila capensis/dregei), umhlofunga, inkhokhokho (Ficus petersii). These plants are commonly found in wet areas and some have been successfully used in other parts of the world to restore wetlands (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1993).
Restoration and maintenance of wetlands using the recommended techniques and plant species needs to be included in the strategies to combat desertification in the country.
Recognising the fact that indigenous knowledge systems are based on taboos and regulations, the respondents were asked about the regulations that have to be observed in the restoration of wetlands. One may note at the onset that the superstitious nature of indigenous knowledge systems was confirmed in the responses to this question. Amongst the controversial regulations was the burying of stillborn babies in clay pots in wetlands. Other cited regulations (Table 14) include the fact that livestock must not be allowed to graze on wetlands, widows should not come near the area, women as well as twins and their spouses must not dig springs but only elderly women are allowed to dig springs. Most importantly, the area must be fenced. One respondent from Ekukhanyeni stated that cultivation should not be allowed on or close to wetlands. Another respondent from Lomahasha also noted that eucalyptus trees must not be planted on wetlands.
75 Table 14 : Rules and regulations to be observed in the restoration of wetlands.
Keep Do not Widows Twins Old Menstruating Do not plant Avoid Fence Women Area livestock destroy avoid and women women must eucalyptus ploughing the area should avoid Total away cyperus wetlands spouse should not dig wells trees near the near wetlands plants must not clear the site wetlands during dig wells site menstruation
Buhleni 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 4 Ekukhanyeni 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 Ezikhotheni 3 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 Hlane 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Lavumisa 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 Lobamba 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Lomahasha 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 Madubeni 1 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 Mantjolo 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Mankayane 0 0 2 1 4 1 0 0 0 0 8 Mpaka 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 Ngudzeni 0 0 4 3 0 1 0 0 0 0 8 Ntfonjeni 0 1 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 7 Siteki 0 0 6 7 0 0 0 0 0 2 15 Timphisini 2 0 1 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 7 Total 10 3 21 14 9 2 1 1 1 4 66
76
4.4 Techniques used to predict climate. Recognising that desertification is also caused by natural phenomena such as drought, there is need to predict climatic conditions on a periodic basis. Such predictions are essential for mitigating the effects of drought and the occurrence of floods that are likely to disturb the livelihood of rural communities. Traditionally, local communities have their own means of predicting climatic conditions. The predictions are based on behavioural patterns of plants and animals. The respondents were asked about the traditional techniques of predicting heavy rains and drought.
Regarding the prediction of heavy rains that may lead to floods, several responses were given. These responses may be classified into three groups, namely, the position of the moon, behavioural patterns of animals and plants as well as wind and cloud patterns. Most respondents suggested that the crescent of a moon faces down in a year of heavy rains. With regards to plants and animals, high numbers of swallows (Hirundo spp), wild ducks (Anas sparsa), emahlolamvula, emanyamane (caterpillars), white birds and rare white frogs are indicative of heavy rains in a year. Butterflies (tiphaphati) will also fly from west to east in a wet year. At Madubeni and Siteki, some respondents suggested that in wet years there are large numbers of termites and red ants. Osunade (194) also suggests that earthworm casts and the appearance of tinhlava on the ground also indicate imminent rain. The respondents in this survey further elucidated that the flowering of umkhaya (Acacia nigrescence), nhliziyonkulu (Dombeya rotindifolia) is said to occur only in wet years by some respondents from Lavumisa. On the issue of wind and cloud patterns, some respondents suggested that easterly winds and the presence of clouds in the east indicate a wet year. If stars are surrounded by fog with hot air and rain in July suggest a wet year.
In the case of dry years, the traditional prediction techniques can also be classified into three categories. On the issue of the position of the moon, a crescent that faces up indicates a dry year. Regarding the behaviour of animals, drought is indicated by the appearance of sikhonyane (locusts), white butterflies and green flies. Other animals that suggest a wet year such as imfukwane disappear. Vegetation, especially trees such as umncozi (Syzygium cordatum), umkhiwa (Ficus capensis) do not flower in dry years. Lastly, winds blowing from the west and clouds that appear low in the horizon indicate a dry year.
78
V. Conclusion
The survey has confirmed the existence of indigenous knowledge techniques in the country. Some of the suggested techniques are closely related to the modern or "scientific" techniques. As such, there is a great potential to integrate indigenous knowledge techniques in the strategies to combat desertification. The integration of these techniques would be an added advantage since the local communities can be in a better position to participate effectively in the implementation and review of the National Action Programme as suggested in the convention (Article 10) and strategies to combat desertification in the country.
Also noted is that the quality and quantity of the knowledge varies between regions and communities in the country. The variations do not only relate to differences in the natural environments but also the degree to which the knowledge has been eroded as a result of modern technologies and education. It should also be noted that some of the techniques suggested by the respondents area threat to the conservation of biodiversity. This is especially true in the case of fire. When asked about the frequency of burning, most respondents suggested that field burning should be done every year under the supervision of a chief or indvuna. There is need to discuss the issues regarding the use of fire on a frequent basis and in wetlands with communities. The aim of these discussions should be to sensitise communities on the destructive effects of continuous burning on vegetation and wetlands. Secondly, the discussions should elicit strategies and policy measures to control frequent burning.
Regarding the predictions of drought, there is need for further studies to validate the acquired information. Such research has to involve collaboration between the Department of Meteorology, relevant departments in the Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives and local community members.
VI. Acknowledgements Firstly I would like to acknowledge members of the SNCCD for their recommendation and support for the request that I should conduct such an intensive survey. They have demonstrated that they have trust in me. The assistance of Mr B. Masuku (National focal
79 point for CCD), Dr N.O. Simelane ( the head of G.E.P) department) and Mr A. Skriver (UNDP, Programme Officer) is greatly appreciated. The consultant is also indebted to the community members who took their time to respond to the extensive questionnaire in spite of the failure to make appointments before the visits were made. Last but not least, I am indebted to the students (Dlamini ( Luke, Mfanasibili, Nqobile, Sphephile), Vilakati Bongani, Fakudze Christopher, Mkhweli Samukelisiwe, Mavuso Ntombi, Mthimkhulu Sindy, Shongwe Jeremiah & Mamba Sabelo) and the UNISWA driver (Mr Zwane) who helped during data collection. They soldiered on even when things were getting tough. The analysis of the data would have taken longer without the assistance of Gcinekile Fakudze and Nomvula Mhlanga.
VII. References
Crush Jonathan S. 1980. The Colonial Land Policy in Swaziland. SOUTH AFRICAN GEOGRAPHICAL JOURNAL 62: 73 - 88
ETC-Foundation. 1987. WOOD ENERGY DEVELOPMENT: POLICY ISSUES. A report prepared for the SADC Energy Sector.
LORE. 1992. CAPTURING INDIGENOUS ENVIRONMENTAL KNOWLEDGE. International Development Research Centre: Ottawa.
Mitch, W.J. and T.G. Gooslink. 1993. Wetlands. Van Nostrand Reinhold: New York. Mtetwa, V.S.B. and S.S.S. Vilakati. 1992. Renewable Energy Studies: Calorific Values
of some biomass fuels used in Swaziland. UNISWA JOURNAL :55 - 65. Osunade, Adewole M.A. 1994 (a). Community Environmental Knowledge and Land
Resource Surveys in Swaziland. SINGAPORE JOURNAL OF TROPICAL GEOGRAPHY 15: 157 – 170.
Osunade, Adewole M.A. 1994(b). INDIGENOUS SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION: THE STATE OF GRASS STRIPS AS AN EROSION CONTROL MEASURE. A report prepared for the Centre for Development Co-operation Services and the International Institute for Environment and Development.
80 A REVIEW OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE AND TECHNOLOGY FOR COMMUNITY–BASED RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN SWAZILAND
Absalom M. Manyatsi Department of Land use and Mechanization University of Swaziland. E-Mail : [email protected]
Abstract
This paper reviews the existing local knowledge and technology that is used in community-based resource management in Swaziland. It gives the background information on the concept of indigenous knowledge and reviews the literature on the use of indigenous knowledge from an international aspect and Swaziland in general. Some examples of indigenous knowledge used in Swaziland for community-based resources management is discussed. The domains under which the indigenous knowledge for community-based resource management in Swaziland are tradition to protect rare species, use of totems and taboos, use of stories to protect wildlife, farming systems, passing historic information by use of names, naming of plants based on their use and importance, prediction of weather pattern, description of soil fertility, methods of harvesting plants for traditional medicine, and preservation of food. Suggested improvements on collection and dissemination of indigenous knowledge in Swaziland include the proposal for research to collect information on indigenous knowledge currently used in the country and the establishment of an indigenous knowledge centre.
I. Introduction
The role of indigenous knowledge and technology in development and natural resource conservation is beginning to gain recognition within scientific circles. The conservation of natural resources is also a major international goal, and in this endeavor, the establishment of protected areas has become a widely accepted policy instrument. However up to now the participation of communities in management of the protected areas has been minimal or least acknowledged. Swaziland is one of the countries that still keep its cultures and tradition. Some of the cultures and traditions are focused in management of resources among other things. Cultural activities and traditions are used to pass knowledge from generation to
81 generation. Tradition and culture tend to vary within different ethnical groups. Swaziland is composed of virtually one ethnical group, and that is a unifying factor within the country. Like in most developing countries there is very little documentation on indigenous knowledge in Swaziland. The country is in the process of codifying tradition and culture related to laws of the country, and this exercise is going to provide valuable information for generations to come, especially taking into consideration that the new generation is losing touch with culture and tradition. Traditional knowledge is being used in many countries in the world for different purposes.
Most of the indigenous knowledge has been developed through experience and experiments. In the past the occupants of Africa saw natural resources not just as a means of food sources, firewood and timber, but more as a way of life since they relied on them for their livelihood. Indigenous land users developed numerous different farming systems, each of which was fine-tuned to its ecological, economic and sociocultural environment. Today traditional land users are still experimenting, in order to minimise risk, adapt recommendations to local conditions, solve specific problems, test existing technologies and adjust to the changes in climatic and socio-economic conditions (Rhoades and Bebbington, 1998).
II. Review of Literature
Indigenous knowledge is used in a number of areas including pest control, medicinal plants and wild edible plants, improvement of livestock fertility, prediction of weather pattern and problem-solving. Hunter (1996) discussed some traditional pest control and agricultural development in the atolls of the Maldives. To combat attacks by major crop pests, a variety of resourceful control practices were employed in the atolls. The traditional methods discussed include the use of traps, use of scaring devices, handpicking, and use of barriers, burning, and wrapping. The indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants and wild edibles among some tribal subcommunities of the central Himalayas in India was discussed by Maikhuri et al. (2000). They described 37 plants most commonly collected by the Bhotiya subcommunities. They reached the conclusion that most plants collected were used for medical or household purposes. Most of the people within the subcommunities visited the local medical practitioner to have their sickness diagnosed, and they resorted to traditional herbs for medication after the diagnosis had been done.
82 The Fulani pastoralists in Cameroon on the other hand used ethno-veterinary healing. They combined the use of medicinal material from plant or animal source, and combined it with supernatural aspects including prayers, incantations, and other actions portraying psychic interactions and a faith in the healing power (Nuwanyakpa et al. (2000). In a case study from Western Mexico, Gerritsen (2000) illustrated that farmers’ perspective on biodiversity was needed as a first step towards conservation of land resources. He argued that through their farming practices farmers maintain the different land-use and vegetation units (i.e. resource diversity), as well as the relationships that exist between them.
As stated earlier, there is very little documentation on the use of indigenous knowledge and technology in Swaziland. Osunade (1992a and 1992 b) is one of the leading authors on the use of indigenous knowledge for resource management in Swaziland. In his article Osunade (1992a) discussed the relationship between the soils and land capacity classification of Murdoch (1968) and the traditional method of land classification. He further analysed the land resource appraisal used by small scale farmers in Swaziland by putting together the fragmented knowledge of land possessed by small farmers of the country into a consistent methodological system that compared favourable with the equivalent modern system documented by Murdoch (Osunade, 1992b).
A situation analyses of indigenous knowledge in Swaziland was done by Dube and Musi (1998). They compiled a list of domains in which Indigenous knowledge was used, and the list contains domesticated foods, wild fruits/foods, animal foods, use of trees and plants for dyeing purposes and use of trees and plants for livestock among others. Manyatsi et al. (2000) undertook an assessment of technologies in use at the grassroots level in Swaziland. The technologies that they found to be in use included those for farming systems and land management, crop production and management, as well as food preservations. An inventory and utilisation of agricultural research technologies in Swaziland was done by Keregero et al. (1999). The formal knowledge network (Agricultural Research and Development Centres and the University of Swaziland) developed the technologies that were reported. They noted that high percentages of the farmers received information from informal sources, including parents, relatives and neighbours. Keregero and Dlamini (1999) reported that the traditional technologies dominated in most women activities.
83 III. Indigenous Knowledge for Resource Management in Swaziland
In Swaziland, sources of indigenous knowledge include land users (e.g. farmers, hunters), opinion leaders, village leaders and friends. Distant relatives and members of the community who are migrant workers also contribute in bringing new knowledge in a community which ends up being adopted by the community. Locally generated knowledge may be disseminated through farmer-to-farmer interactions, usually involving neighbours or friends, which take place during personal visits at community gathering, social clubs, at traditional and social functions, and more especially at beer meetings.
Several traditions that have implications of protecting wildlife are practised in Swaziland. They include the timing of the traditional hunting, which is done during the months of July and August. The period is set such that there will be no new born game which will be prone to being killed during the hunting season, as most of the game start giving birth in October onward. According to tradition the grasslands should also be burned during the same period as that of the traditional hunting period.
Table 15 : Some examples of indigenous knowledge used for community-based resource management in Swaziland. Domain Examples 1. Tradition to protect • Traditional hunting in July/August of the year. species • Use of rare animals for selected clans such as loin skin made from leopard skin reserved for the Royal family. 2. Use of totems and • Totems associated with surnames. taboos • Taboos associated with plants. 3. Use of stories to • Story of chameleon and gecko. protect wildlife. 4. Farming systems. • Shifting cultivation (Lucabe) • Cultivation of some certain crops on land after being fallowed (e.g. Bambara groundnuts).
5. Passing of historic • Naming of places based on wildlife predominantly found in the area. information by use of • Naming of persons based on historic events and wildlife. names. 6. Naming of plants • Mahlanganisa (Ochna arborea) used as splints for bone fractures. based on their use and • Velabahleke (Pyrenacantha grandiflora) used as an emetic for good importance. luck
7. Prediction of weather • Prediction of approach of wet weather from cry of phezukwemkono bird pattern. • Prediction of floods from heights of nests of emahlokohloko birds on trees next to rivers. 8. Description of soil • Sidzakeni, which is fertile land. fertility. • Esihlabatsini, which is sandy soil. 9. Harvesting of plant • Cutting of small portion of bark (emagcolo). material for traditional • Removal of side roots (timpandze). medicine. 10. Preservation of food. • Umncweba (Sun drying of meat). • Lukhotse (Grinding and drying of maize). 84
During this period the grasses would have produced seeds for propagation, and also there will be no new borne game which could be prone to destruction by fire. The Swazi tradition has it that only certain clans can use products of some rare animals for traditional purposes. Examples of such are the loin skins (emajobo) made from leopard skin that is reserved for the royal family. This means that few members of the community have a right to wear leopard skin emajobo. Another example of projection of rare species by prohibiting their usage is that of red feathers (ligwalagwala). Ligwalagwala is a rare bird in Swaziland, and only members of the royal family have a right to wear the red feathers of the bird.
There are some totems associated with surnames, and the totems can be based on wild animals or wild plants. According to culture a clan will respect and protect (and not eat) the wild animal or wild plants that is its totem. Examples of totems are a zebra (for Dube) and a bird (for Nyoni). There are some taboos associated with plants, such as some plants not being used for household needs such as timber and firewood. Some of these plants do not multiply and propagate easy, and others have other usefulness such as producing fruits. An example of such a tree that is not to be used as firewood and timber is Umlahlabantfu (Zizyphus mucronata). The tree is used for bearing corpse at burial, and it is rarely found in some places in the country. Another tree that is not used as firewood is Sihlangu (Maytenus undata). The tree is often used for making wooden spoons.
Stories are often told about how bad or humble some wildlife is. There are instances whereby those animals that are useful to humanity and rare are portrayed as good animals. One instant is that of the chameleon (lunwabu) and the gecko (imfulo). The story goes that the creator sent the two animals to a destination with different message to the same destination. The chameleon was to deliver a message that human beings were to rise after death, and the gecko was to deliver a message that human beings were not to rise after death. The message to be received first was suppose to be taken as final. The gecko is said to have outran the chameleon and delivered the message first, and that ii why human beings do not rise after death. This has lead to chameleon being taken as friendly animals and thus not to be harmed.
Shifting cultivation was practised for a long time in order to maintain soil fertility in the fields. Certain crops are often grown in land that had previously been under fallow. The crops mixed cropping for maximum output were selected carefully.
85 Historic information is often passed by way of naming places or persons. Places are often named after wildlife that was dominant in the area. One such example is the area called Mhlambanyatsi (where buffaloes swim). There is a river passing through the area, and it is said that buffaloes used to swim through the river, indicating that they were plenty of them during that time. People are often named after events such is someone called Sikhonyane (locust). Such a person would have been born during the outbreak of locusts in the country.
The names of plants often describe what they are used for. As an example the plant Ochna arborea is called Mahlanganisa (that which mends fractures). The plant is used as a splint for bone fractures. Another example is that of Velabahleke (Prynacantra grandiflora), and it is used as an emetic for good luck.
The cry of one bird called Phezukwemkhono is taken as a sign of the beginning of the wet season, and farmers start getting their farming inputs in order once they hear its cry. It is believed that emahlokohloko (kind of bird) are able to predict the approach of floods. When floods are likely to happen during that rainy season it is said the birds nest very high on the trees next to rivers, but when they are not likely to occur they nest low on the trees.
The description of the soil can give information to the land user about its fertility and potential land use. If the soil is called sidzakeni, then the soil is known to be fertile and crops such as maize and pumpkins are grown under such soil, while on the other hand if it is called esihlabatsini the soil is known to be sandy.
Different methods are used to preserve food for times of shortage. One such method is the grinding and drying of maize (lukhotse) and the other one is the sun drying of meat (umncweba).
Traditional healers often harvest plant material for traditional medicine in small quantities. They do not harvest the whole plant, and when cutting barks (emagcolo) they remove small portions, and do not remove the barks all around the plant. When digging roots (timpandze) they often remove only the side roots.
86 IV. Synthesis and Conclusion
It is evident that for success in protection of land resources, the community members should be involved, and they should see the benefits of protecting the resources.
Several indigenous knowledge practices are being used in the country, but there is lack of documentation. No comprehensive research has been done to compile information on indigenous knowledge for community-based resource management in Swaziland. The ongoing national exercise on codification of customs and culture is more likely to concentrate on customs and culture related to laws of the country, and the area of indigenous knowledge for protection of resources will benefit very little from it.
There is need for research to be done at national level to determine the indigenous knowledge used at grass root level, and the research should follow the participative approach in order to involve the members of communities fully. The findings of such research should be published and publicised in different forms.
The establishment of an indigenous knowledge centre would facilitate the publicising of indigenous knowledge for resource management in the country and it would contribute positively to the management of resources. The use of information technology would be a vital tool in collecting and disseminating information on indigenous knowledge in the country. One country that has utilised information technology to facilitate research and information exchange is Uganda. The Makerere University in Uganda, and Indiana University Workshop in Political Theory and Policy Analysis developed a Web page which focuses on indigenous knowledge in environmental conservation in Africa. Databases should be created for data collection and dissemination. The created databases should be compatible with those developed by other researchers in the continent in order to facilitate exchange of information.
V. References
Dube, M.A. and Musi, P.J. (1998). A Situation Analysis of Indigenous Knowledge in Swaziland: Implications for Sustainable Agriculture. Research Report, University of Swaziland, Luyengo.
87 Hunter D. (1996). Traditional Pest Control and Agricultural Development in the Atolls of the Maldives. Indigenous Knowledge and Development Monitor. 4 (3) 10-12.
Keregero, K.J.B., Dlamini, B.M., and Subair, S.K. (1999). Inventory of utilisation of agricultural research technologies in Swaziland. Research Highlights, No. 1 March 1999: 1- 3, University of Swaziland Research Center.
Keregero, K.J.B., and Dlamini, B.M. (1999). Womens’ Creation and Utilisation of Rural Technology in Swaziland. Research Highlights, No. 1 March 1999: 3-5, University of Swaziland Research Center.
Maikhuri, R.K., Nautiyal, S., Rao, K.S., and Semwal, R.L. (2000). Indigenous Knowledge of Medicinal Plants and Wild Edibles among three Tribal Subcommunities of the Central Himalayas, India. Indigenous knowledge Monitor Articles. URL:http://www.nuffic.nl/ciran/ikdm/8-2/maikhuri.html
Manyatsi, A.M., Vilane, B.R.T., and Dlamini, R.M. (2000). Assessment of Technologies Currently in use at the Grassroots Levels in Swaziland. Ministry of Natural Resources and Energy. Mbabane.
Mopoi, N., Toyang, N. J., Django, S., Ndi, C., and Wirmum, C. (2000) Ethnoveterinary Healing Practices of Fulani Pastoralists in Cameroon: combining the natural and the supernatural. Indigenous knowledge Monitor Articles. URL:http://www.nuffic.nl/ciran/ikdm/8-2/ngeh.html
Murdoch, G. (1968). Soils and Land Capability of Swaziland. Swaziland Ministry of Agriculture, Mabane. Swaziland.
Osunade, M. A.A. (1992) Land Resource Appraisal by Small Farmers of Swaziland. UNISWA Research Journal, 6: 93-104.
Osunade, M. A.A. (1992) Soils and the Small Farmers of Swaziland. UNISWA Research Journal, 6: 71-82 Rhoades, R. and Bebbington, A. (1988). Farmers who Experiment: An Untapped Resource for Agricultural Development. Lima, CIP. 88 SWAZI INDIGENOUS RELIGION AND THE SWAZI WORLD VIEW
Hebron L. Ndlovu Department of Theology and Religious Studies University of Swaziland. E-Mail : [email protected]
Abstract
In this paper it is argued and demonstrated that the major beliefs and practices prevalent in Swazi indigenous religion reflect and embody the underlying philosophy and culture of the Swazi. Drawing examples from three main features of the Swazi World View, the inextricable link and synthesis between Swazi traditional religion and the indigenous world view and knowledge of the Swazi are demonstrated. The paper concludes with the contention that a critical empirical study of Swazi traditional religion provides invaluable insights into the key indigenous ideas, values, and skills (i.e., local knowledge) which shape the people’s behaviour and are expressed in behaviour.
I. Introduction
There are two main assumptions under girding this paper. First, I view Swazi indigenous religion is viewed as an authentic belief system which shapes the thoughts and behaviour of many Swazi. To many adherents of Swazi religion, this indigenous religion is a dynamic tradition which provides salvation to many Swazi today. Like other Bantu (cf Mbiti 1974:110-111), the Swazi understand salvation in terms of material and general well-being characterized by good health, contentment, a family with children and grandchildren, and grand-grand children, and a healthy relationship with the Ancestor.
The second assumption is that Swazi indigenous traditional religion as a socially standardized institution which is highly valued by in Swazi society .The main reason is that Swazi religion performs vital social functions of society which include the legitimation of dominant social values and traditions, the fostering of family stability, provision of primary health care, and promotion of national solidarity. The most notable representatives of Swazi religion are the tangoma (or the diviners), tingedla (herbalists), the chiefs, aristocrats, and the Ingwenyama (or the King) and the Indlovukati (or the Queen Mother) (Ndlovu, 1997).
89 II. Conceptual Framework and Methodology
This paper is informed by phenomenological and anthropological conceptions of the role of African Traditional Religions in modern African societies. According to most scholars, African traditional religions constitute and encompass the total way of life of the African peoples. African traditional religions are defined as the indigenous religions of the Bantu- Speaking peoples of Africa which have been handed down from generation to generation since the advent of homo sapiens in the African continent.
In his book, African Religions and Philosophy (1989), Mbiti explains that many scholars prefer to speak of African Traditional Religions in the plural because there are about three thousand peoples and each ethnic group has its distinct religious system which is coloured by its peculiar cultural history. Consequently one can speak of Swazi , Zulu, or Ndebele traditional religion. Given the inextricable link between African religions and their corresponding cultures, Mbiti even makes a bold assertion that : "Africans are notoriously religious. Religion is the strongest element in the traditional background and exerts probably the greatest influence upon the thinking and living of the people concerened" (1989:1)
A similar view is also expressed by Hopfe in his book Religions of the World who asserts that: "Religion is one of the keystones of African culture. A basic understanding of African Religion will provide an awareness of the customs, the family, appreciation of land, of death and life beyond" (1991:60).
Following Hopfe, Mbiti, and other scholars such as Olupona (1991), examples from Swazi indigenous religion will be given to demonstrate the fact that African indigenous religion play a crucial role in guiding the thoughts, local knowledge, and the behaviour of the Swazi.
With regard to anthropological conceptions, this paper will be informed by the interpretive approach which posits the view that religion is essentially a cultural system which can best be interpreted from the perspective of the ethos and world view of the believer. Geertz (1973, 1983) and Ortner (1978), for example, perceives religion as a system of symbols which attempt to affirm, dramatize, and embody the character and world view of given culture. This perception suggests that one of the functions of religion is to depict a symbolic world which will be intellectually satisfactory in that it will be fused with the prevailing world view of the believer.
90 According to Geertz (1973), The term "world view" is commonly used in reference to the intellectual aspect of a given culture, namely, the underlying philosophy of a particular group of people. In other words, a people's world view refers to the way people see or think about the world. Every group of people have a coherent picture or framework by which they understand the world. That is, every group of people have a picture of the way in which the universe, living organisms, human beings, and society are related to one another. A people's world view, therefore, is a coherent set of ideas and beliefs which enable the people to understand the world and the place of humanity in the world.
In a similar vein, use these conceptions will be used to describe the link between Swazi indigenous religion and the Swazi world view. In addition, examples will be drawn from my own interpretive studies of Swazi traditional religion (1997, 1998) to show that most of the basic indigenous beliefs held by many Swazis actually reflect and embody the key features of the Swazi world view, which include: (a) the concept of a Supreme Being, (b) The Concept of Time , and (c) Cosmic Unity.
III. The Swazi World View as Reflected in Swazi Indigenous Religion
1. The Concept of a Supreme Being
All known African societies acknowledge and recognize the existence of the Supreme Being who created and continues to sustain the world. African myths tell the story of a God who create the world and then withdrew himself into heaven because of mistakes made by some animals. God is remote, unknowable, yet He is the Creator and Owner of everything. Generally, the African perceive the Creator God as human being or rather a super human being. Typically the creator is presumed to be a male , an elder, or a very old man with a grey beard. In short, God has a proper name, human qualities, and is a male.
According to the myths of many African peoples the creator God, is worshipped from time to time. For example, the Yoruba of Nigeria worshipped God. Other West African tribes who worshipped the Supreme Being: The Ashanti, The Dogon, the Ambo. In these societies God was actively worshipped.
The Bantu of Southern Africa, on the other hand, turn to God as a last resort when the ancestors have failed. Here, the ancestors serve as intermediaries or junior chiefs in the 91 otherworld and carry men's requests to God. The bottom line is that, for many Southern African societies, God is remote, and many Africans pray to Him only in moments of special need. For example, in Swazi religion no regular rituals are is conducted in honour of Mvelincanti (God).
Setiloane (1976) also affirms the primacy of Ancestors in African Traditional Religions. He states that the ancestors are part and parcel of their living relatives. The Ancestors communicates with their living relatives through the wind, the rain, snakes, birds, and other human beings. In particular, the ancestors have the power the bless or curse the living (Setiloane, 1976).
The Swazi Ancestors :
In Swazi society, when somebody dicist is believed that he/she joins the world of the ancestors; Period. Ancestors do not stay with God (Mvelinchanti). Their main concerns are with the living, their relatives, and not with Mvelinchati. Ancestors look back, not ahead. Real life is here and not in heaven. So their focus is on this world.
The Diviners are called by the ancestors and they are possessed by ancestors; Period. Their job is to combat all types of human afflictions: famine, disease, death, and malice (witchcraft: hatred, envy, jealousy). Thus the remoteness of the creator helps explain the primacy of the ancestors in African Traditional Religion.
3.2. The African Concept of Time
For Mbiti, the African Concept of Time is the key to our understanding of the basic religious and philosophical concepts of ATR. In other words, the African concept of time may help explain the beliefs, attitudes, and practices, and general way of life of the African Peoples. What is Time in an African Context? Mbiti contends that in Africa, Time is a composition of events which are taking place now and those which are inevitably or immediately to occur. That is, time denotes events which are certain to occur or events which fall within the natural rhythm of the natural phenomena such as day and night, climatic changes, and life cycles (birth, childhood, adolescence, adulthood, procreation, death).
92 Thus, in Africa, Time is Two-dimensional, comprising the present and the past. In Contrast to the linear concept of time prevalent in Western thought which denotes Indefinite past, present, and infinite future, the African concept of time emphasizes the present and the past. African People, therefore, tend to focus on what has happened and what happens rather than what lies ahead in the future. In short, time is experienced. Hence the remote future, which cannot be experienced, does not make sense to the conservative African.
IV. Evidence and Examples
1. The Absence of African verbs and adverbs denoting the distant future.
Mbiti argues that most African languages have no verb tenses to cover the distant future. In African thought, the future actually means the present and immediate future That is, events that are happening now and those that are about to occur. In short, for Africans, time is experienced; and the most significant moment is now and the past.
Thus Mbiti subdivides African Time into two main periods, namely: a) The Sasa Period b) The Zamani period
a) Sasa
The Sasa period covers the present and the immediate future. For example: I am coming, I came (I have just come). There are no concrete words to refer to events that will take place say in two or three years' time. "People have little or no active interests in events that lie in the future beyond, at most two years from now: and the languages concerned lack the words by which such events can be conceived".
b) The Zamani period
The Zambian Period covers the past, the immediate past, and the distant past. For example: I came (yesterday), I came (before yesterday), I came (no specific date).
93 2. Cyclical Time.
Mbiti also argues that Africans also conceptualize time in accordance with the cycles of natural phenomena such as days and nights and the changes of the seasons and the moon. Cyclical time also falls under present time and the past. That time is perceived as a cycle is affirmed and reflected in rituals:
V. Examples from Swazi Religion:
i. Rites of renewal in which the old is replaced by the new: The case of the Incwala ceremony. A new year celebration. The old year is replaced by the new year. ii. Naming ceremony: A child is named after an ancestor. The ancestor who represents the past is brought back to the living. iii. Kubuyisa ceremony: a deceased member of the family is brought back to the family. After this ceremony he becomes an ancestor and he/she looks after the interests of his/her relatives. iv. History, for the African, History moves backward. Time is a series of memorable events involving national heroes. At the family level, history is the recollection of the great deeds, values, and injunctions of family ancestors. v. Social Morality Life : Social morality is rooted in tradition, that is the past. The elder, the grandfather, the grandmother, the aunt, the uncle, father, are accorded much respect. vi. Life-Affirmation : The African concept of time help us appreciate and understand African attitudes toward life, namely a positive attitude. People are encourage to strive for the enjoyment of life . For the Swazi, the good life includes the enjoyment of food, drink, and sex. Thus, when it comes to salvation, the African will strive for a holistic salvation now or today. For instance, traditional healers , diviners, Adrian initiated Churches all call for salvation in the present world.
94 VI. Cosmic Unity
The African concept of being
In contrast to the traditional western world view which considers being as static and mechanical, in African thought being is viewed as animated and dynamic. For example, Temples in his influential work entitled Bantu Philosophy, (1969) explains that in Bantu philosophy, every being alive and it acts on another being., hence a being that does not act is a non-being - it does not exist. He contends that he Bantu concept of Being is best explained by the term "vital-force" or "life force" since very being is thought to be alive and dynamic.
Therefore, beings in the world may be differentiated according to the capacity of their life- forces they possess. This suggests that not all beings possess the same life-force. Each being possesses a life-force of its own. For example, umuntfu or a person is a vital-force that is endowed with intelligence and will, while animals, plants, and inanimate objects represent vital forces which are not endowed with human reason. Thus, each being has been endowed by God with a certain force which is capable of strengthening the vital energy of the strongest being of creation, namely Man/Humankind.
Interdependence of Beings.
The major implication of this philosophy is that all aspects of life are interdependent on one another and these beings are linked by a network of relationships. No being exists as an independent force that operates on its own. All creatures exist and function within the framework of interdependence and interrelationship. Thus in Swazi religion the human being is to respect nature. Through rituals people learn the interdependence of plants, animals, humans, and inanimate objects. The example of the Incwala: plants, leaves, roots, barks, water, fire, the ocean, the moon, the dark moon, bright moon, sacred objects are mixed together to renew and strengthen the King. The same applies to healing rituals.
With regard to humans, the African believe that no man is an individual nor an island. Every person is a public figure since he or she represents a family, his lineage, clan, his region, his nation, and so on. This indigenous world view has been translated into a social philosophy commonly called Ubuntu.
95 In Bantu philosophy the interaction and interdependence of beings is viewed as a benefit rather than a burden. The reason is that it leads to the maintenance of harmonious relationships among various beings. This harmony, in turn, leads to the mutual strengthening of the beings involved and enhances the growth of life.
Thus in African thought the goal of life is harmony and integration, which implies mutual participation of all beings in keeping with the rhythm of nature or the universe. As Echunga Meth rightly puts it: " The main objective of an African is to live a life in harmony with humanity and with nature. Man strives to be in harmony with God, the Deities, and his fellowmen both the living and the dead; He feels himself in intimate rapport and tries to maintain harmonious relationships with the animals, vegetable, and elements and phenomena in the universe" .
To the traditional Bantu, therefore, the good life, on one hand, is characterized by cosmic unity, that is, the integration, communion, and harmony of all beings. On the other hand, the opposite of cosmic unity is disintegration, disharmony and individualism. This constitutes Evil.
VII. Conclusion
The foregoing remarks regarding the Swazi ideas and understandings of God, time, and, cosmic unity suggest that the African peoples possess some deep insights and philosophy about life which, regrettably, have not yet been positively affirmed and articulated by many African thinkers. There is pressing need therefore to uncover and unpack the rich wisdom of Africa which is embodied in African Traditional Religions.
VIII. References
Geertz, C (1973). Interpretation of Cultures. New York: Basic Books.
Geertz, C. (1983) Local Knowledge. New York: Basic Books.
Ikengah-Meth, E. Comparative Studies of African Traditional Religions. Onitsha, Nigeria:IMICO Publishers.
96 Mbiti, J. (1989)African Religions and Philosophy. London: Heinemann.
Ndlovu, H. (1997). Phenomenology of Religion. Institute of Distance Education, University of Swaziland . Kwaluseni, Swaziland.
Ndlovu, H. (1998). The Autonomy of African Traditional Religions: the case of Swazi Religion. UNISWA Research Journal, vol. 12.
Olupona, J.K. (1991). Introduction. In Olupona, J.K., ed., African Traditional Religions in Contemporary Society. St. Paul, Minnesota: Paragon House.
Ortner,S.(1978). Sherpas Through Their Rituals. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, UK.
Setiloane, G(1976). The Image of God Among the Sotho Tswana. Rotterdam:A.A.Balkema.
97 SERMINAR WAY FORWARD
Introduction
Two documents were presented for discussion during the last and second day of the seminar. The first document entitled Directory of Institutions Working on Gender, Biodiversity and Local Knowledge Systems in Swaziland was a product of data collection using structured personal interviews with the institutions. From this document an annotated bibliography was made which only showed institutions that were actively involved in gender, biodiversity and local knowledge systems in Swaziland as evident by the research done. This then formed the second document.
The seminar way forward was done by randomly dividing the participants into three groups, according to the three themes (Gender, Biodiversity and Local Knowledge Systems. Each group was given the task of studying and analysing the document; “Directory of Institutions Working on Gender, Biodiversity and Local Knowledge Systems in Swaziland” together with the complementary views expressed during the paper presentations and thus report back their recommendations. The guiding objectives of the group work comprised the following: • Document Refinement.
• Challenges.
• Way forward.
• Preparing a report for discussion – to do this a chairman and recorder had to be elected.
Group presentations
Group One : Gender.
The recommendations made by the gender group comprised the following :
1. Creating awareness through education Gender sensitization to marginalized groups: should be carried out at national level through : • incorporating gender issues in all development programmes • incorporating gender issues in formal and non formal education programmes.
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Reviewing : i. the socialisation process through gender lines by : • equipping girls with assertive skills. • sharing duties along gender roles. ii. the framework of gender analysis particularly duties that have cash attached to them and these are reflected in the labour statistics. iii. cultural practices such as the mourning which requires the wearing of black gowns, particularly for women who have to mourn the death of their spouse for long periods of time compared to their male counterparts. This hinder the social and economic development iv. innovative technology such that the technology is gender positive by enforcing the positive use of appropriate technology.
Participatory Methodologies and existing community structures should be used to • involve all members of the constituencies in gender issues • implement gender projects and programmes
Empowerment of women should be encouraged , particularly in : • decision making with respect to HIV/AIDS and the use of contraceptives • having equal access to resources such land, finance etc.
The directory should be reviewed yearly by: • conducting periodic upgrades • restructuring the system to be more responsive to gender issues. • incorporating more gender sensitive institutions into the document such as: i) Home Economics Extension (Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives). ii) Swaziland national Trust Commission (S.N.T.C) iii) Yonge Nawe.
99 Group Two : Biodiversity.
1. Document refinement through : the incorporation of the following biodiversity institutions : - Big Game Parks. - Yonge Nawe. - Swaziland farmer development foundation (SFDF). - Tinyanga temdzabu (Traditional healer’s association). - Department of Geology (Ministry of Works). - Attorney General’s Chambers (Ministry of Justice). - Trade Section of Ministry of Foreign affairs and trade (MOFA& T) - United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
2. Challenges
These comprised:
° Coordination – should be forged between the biodiversity institutions and other relevant institutions which are doing complementary work.
° Awareness/Publicity.
° Usefullness – the document must be made useful through wide circulation and publication, particularly to the grass-root level.
3. Way-forward The way forward as proposed by the biodiversity group comprised the following : ° Filling up the gaps or missing information on the directory. ° Devise strategy for publicizing the findings of the directory. ° Support research related to biodiversity. ° Define levels at which organizations and institutions work ° Establishing a forum for meeting and exchanging ideas.
100 Group Three : Local Knowledge Systems.
1.0 Document Refinement 1.1 The refinement of the Directory comprised inclusion of the following institutions which deals with indigenous knowledge systems : • Faculty of Health Sciences – University of Swaziland (UNISWA). • Institutions dealing with trade – Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade. • Attorney general’s Office - Ministry of Justice and constitutional Affairs. • Ministry of Enterprise and Employment. • Law enforcement agencies. • Co-operatives and the Home Economics Section – Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives (MOAC). • Correctional Services.
1.2 Re-organize the directory by categorizing according to gender, biodiversity and indigenous knowledge systems using an index.
2.0 Challenges The challenges that needs to be addressed in future pertaining to indigenous knowledge systems in Swaziland were highlighted as shown next. • Lack of documented information • Problems with gray literature • Problems of protection of intellectual property rights. • Lack of verification of indigenous knowledge. • Lack of co-ordination in studies and use of indigenous knowledge. • Lack of code of ethics governing Indigenous Knowledge issues.
3.0 Way- forward The way forward was summarized as shown below : • Undertake research and compilation on Indigenous Knowledge. • Undertake community–driven documentation of Indigenous Knowledge. • Establishment of a national competent authority body to coordinate Indigenous Knowledge issues. • Need to have an active and functional National Research Council.
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CONCLUSSIONS
There is need to conduct further research in all the three themes of the Seminar as evident in the way forward presented by each group. Limited funds are available for interested researchers who want to conduct research within the three themes and beyond, as noted by the UNISWA Research Center acting director.
The National Research Council that was not functional for a long period of time was resuscitated in the year 2000. Hopefully it will address the concern shown by the third group – that of the need of a functional National Research Council.
The country coordinator of the links project (Dr. P.M. Dlamini) was unanimously voted to act as a Focal Point for activities related to the three themes of the seminar. He was to liaise with the other existing committees such as the Biodiversity committee to try and address the problem of periodic meetings for further work in the three area (gender, biodiversity and local knowledge systems).
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