I I 77-24,602
CAMPBELL, Harry Lawrence, 1944- THE EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIAL ARTS ACTIVITIES ON THE AFFECTIVE, COGNITIVE AND PSYCHOMOTOR ACHIEVEMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CHILDREN WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES.
The Ohio State University, Ph.D., 1977 Education, industrial
Xerox University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106 THE EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIAL ARTS ACTIVITIES ON THE
AFFECTIVE, COGNITIVE AND PSYCHOMOTOR ACHIEVEMENT
OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CHILDREN WITH
LEARNING DISABILITIES
DISSERTATION
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate
School of The Ohio State University
By
Harry L. Campbell, B.S. Ed., M.S. Ed.
*****
The Ohio State University
1977
Reading Committee: Approved By
James J. Buffer, Jr.
Donald Cavin S
Donald G. Lux College of Education ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author wishes to express gratitude and sincere appreciation to Dr. James J. Buffer, Chairperson of his Dissertation Committee, for his understanding patience, personal encouragement, time, and advice during the conduct and completion of this study. These feelings are also expressed to Dr. Donald Lux and Dr. Donald Cavin for their sugges tions as members of the Reading Committee. Appreciation is acknowledged for Roger Brown, a statistics consultant in the Department of Educa tional Development at The Ohio State University for his needed input for computer programming for the data analysis.
The cooperation and assistance of the administration and teachers of Whitehall School D istrict, Columbus, Ohio, deserve mention, especially
Mr. Joseph Spanovich, Principal of the Kae Elementary School, Mrs. Betty
Gary, a beautiful person who really cares about helping children to learn, and to the special children involved in this study--may they experience bright and fu lfille d futures.
Finally, sincere appreciation is expressed to the author's wife and family who have provided the necessary and essential love and caring support during the conduct of this entire endeavor and preparation of this dissertation.
H. L. C.
i i August 4, 1944 ...... Born - Dayton, Ohio
1962 ...... Graduate, Greenville High School, Greenville, Ohio
1967 ...... B.S. Ed., Ohio University, Athens, Ohio
1967-68 ...... Graduate Teaching Assistant, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, Ohio
1968 ...... M.S. Ed., Bowling Green State University
1968-1974 ...... Teacher North Allegheny School D istrict, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
1974-1976 ...... Teaching Associate, The Ohio State University Columbus, Ohio
1976-1977 ...... Assistant Professor, Illin o is State University, Normal, Illinois
PUBLICATIONS
J. J. Buffer and Harry L. Campbell, co-authors. "Status of Research and Development Activities of Industrial Arts Teacher Educators." The Journal of Epsilon Pi Tau, Volume I I I , May 1976.
FIELDS OF STUDY
Major Field: Industrial Technology Education
Minor Field: Educational Development TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... ii
VITA ...... i i i
LIST OF TABLES...... vi
LIST OF FIGURES...... x
Chapter
I. INTRODUCTION ...... 1
Statement of the Problem ...... 6 Purpose of the S t u d y ...... 7 Hypotheses ...... 7 Assumptions ...... 8 Limitations ...... 9 Delimitations ...... 10 Definitions of Terms ...... 10 Significance of the Study ...... 12 Summary ...... 13
I I . REVIEW OF LITERATURE...... 15
Identification of Children With Learning Disabilities . . 15 Learning Disabilities and Perceptual-Motor Theory .... 18 Movigenic Learning Theory ...... 18 Visual-Motor Learning Theory ...... 19 Neurological Organization Learning Theory ...... 20 Motor Activity Learning Theory ...... 22 Motor Activity and Cognitive Achievement ...... 25 Self-Concept and Academic Achievement ...... 27 Related Research in Industrial Arts ...... 31 Summary ...... 34
I I I . PROCEDURES...... 35
Selection of Subjects ...... 35 The Environment ...... 37 Experimental Design ...... 38 Self-Concept Instrumentation ...... 39
iv Cognitive Instrumentation ...... 43 Psychomotor Instrumentation ...... 44 The Treatment ...... 47 Treatment of the D a ta ...... 52 Summary ...... 53
IV. PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF THE D A T A ...... 55
Statistical Analysis of D a t a...... 55 Equivalency of Groups ...... 58 Results of Affective Achievement ...... 51 Results of Cognitive Achievement ...... 72 Results of Psychomotor Achievement ...... 80 D iscussion...... 108
V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 113
Summary ...... 118 Conclusions...... 122 Recommendations ...... 126
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 129
APPENDIX A: Affective Achievement Instruments ...... 134
APPENDIX B: Psychomotor Achievement Instruments ...... 142
APPENDIX C: Industrial Arts Project Activity Sheets ...... 149
APPENDIX D: Project Activity Time Schedules ...... 167
APPENDIX E: Individual Raw Data S c o re s ...... 172
v LIST OF TABLES
Means of Standard Deviations of Permanent Record I.Q. Scores and Chronological Age in Months by Treatment Groups ...... 59
Analysis of Variance of I.Q. Scores by Treatment Groups ...... 60
Analysis of Variance of Chronological Age by Treatment Groups ...... 60
Means and Standard Deviations of Pretests and Posttests by Treatment Groups on the Piers- Harris Self-Opinion Test ...... 62
Summary of Analysis of Variance of Piers-Harris Self-Concept Achievement by Teaching Methods ...... 62
Means and Standard Deviations of Pretests and Posttests by Treatment Groups on the Factor of Achievement on the Lister-Ohlsen Self-Concept Test . . . . 64
Summary of Analysis of Variance of Feelings Toward Achievement on the Lister-Ohlsen Self-Concept Test by Teaching Methods ...... 64
Means and Standard Deviations of Pretests and Posttests by Treatment Groups on the Factor of Learning A bility on the Lister-Ohlsen Self-Concept T e s t ...... 65
Summary of Analysis of Variance of Feelings Toward Learning A bility on the Lister-Ohlsen Self-Concept Test by Teaching Methods ...... 65
Means and Standard Deviations of Pretests and Posttests by Treatment Groups on the Factor of Interests on the Lister-Ohlsen Self-Concept Test ...... 66
Summary of Analysis of Variance of Feelings Toward Interests on the Lister-Ohlsen Self-Concept Test by Teaching Methods ...... 66
v i Means and Standard Deviations of Pretests and Posttests by Treatment Groups of the Overall Scores on the Lister-Ohlsen Self-Concept Test ...... 67
Summary of Analysis of Variance of Overall Lister-Ohlsen Self-Concept Achievement by Teaching Methods ...... 67
Means and Standard Deviations of Pretests and Posttests by Treatment Groups of Vocabulary Achievement on the Gates-MacGinitie Test ...... 74
Summary of Analysis of Variance of Vocabulary Achievement on the Gates-MacGinitie Test by Teaching Methods ...... 74
Means and Standard Deviations of Pretests and Posttests by Treatment Groups of Reading Compre hension Achievement on the Gates-MacGinitie Test . . . . 75
Summary of Analysis of Variance of Reading Comprehension Achievement on the Gates-MacGinitie Test by Teaching Methods ...... 75
Means and Standard Deviations of Pretests and Post tests by Treatment Groups of Mathematics Achievement on the Arithmetic Skills Inventory ...... 78
Summary of Analysis of Variance of Mathematics Achievement on the Arithmetic Skills Inventory by Teaching Methods ...... 78
Means and Standard Deviations of Pretests and Posttests by Treatment Groups on the Back Sawing Motor Assessment ...... 81
Summary of Analysis of Variance of Back Sawing Achievement by Teaching Methods ...... 81
Means and Standard Deviations of Pretests and Posttests by Treatment Groups on the Coping Saw Motor Assessment ...... 83
Summary of Analysis of Variance of Coping Saw Achievement by Teaching Methods ...... 83
Means and Standard Deviations of Pretests and Posttests by Treatment Groups on the Drilling Motor Assessment ...... 85 vii Table Page
25. Summary of Analysis of Variance of Drilling Achievement by Teaching Methods ...... 85
26. Means and Standard Deviations of Pretests and Posttests by Treatment Groups on the Striking Motor Assessment ...... 87
27. Summary of Analysis of Variance of Striking Achievement by Teaching Methods ...... 87
28. Means and Standard Deviations of Pretests and Posttests by Treatment Groups on the Screw Driving Motor Assessment ...... 89
29. Summary of Analysis of Variance of Screw Driving Achievement by Teaching Methods ...... 89
30. Means and Standard Deviations of Pretests and Posttests by Treatment Groups on the Scissors Cutting Motor Assessment...... 91
31. Summary of Analysis of Variance of Scissors Cutting Achievement by Teaching Methods ......
32. Means and Standard Deviations of Pretests and Posttests by Treatment Groups on the Right-Hand Finger-Touch Motor Assessment ...... 93
33. Summary of Analysis of Variance of Right-Hand Finger-Touch Achievement by Teaching Methods ...... 93
34. Means and Standard Deviations of Pretests and Posttests by Treatment Group on the Left-Hand Finger-Touch Motor Assessment ...... 95 i 35. Summary of Analysis of Variance of Left-Hand Finger-Touch Achievement by Teaching Methods ...... 95
36. Means and Standard Deviations of Pretests and Posttests by Treatment Groups on the Assembly Motor Assessment ...... 97
37. Summary of Analysis of Variance of Assembly Achievement by Teaching Methods ...... 97
38. Means and Standard Deviations of Pretests and Posttests by Treatment Groups on the Cross Test Motor Assessment...... 99
39. Summary of Analysis of Variance of Cross Test Achievement by Teaching Methods ...... 99 viii Table Page
40. Means and Standard Deviations of Pretests and Posttests by Treatment Groups on the Bead Stringing Motor Assessment ...... 101
41. Summary of Analysis of Variance of Bead Stringing Achievement by Teaching Methods ...... 101
42. Means and Standard Deviations of Pretests and Posttests by Treatment Groups on the Sorting Shapes Motor Assessment ...... 103
43. Summary of Analysis of Variance of Sorting Shapes Achievement by Teaching Methods ...... 103
44. Summary of the Pretest and Posttest Mean Differences by Teaching Method on All Factors of Achievement ...... 106
45. Summary of t-Ratios by Teaching Method on All Factors of Achievement ...... 107
46. Means and Standard Deviations of Pretests and Posttests by Treatment Groups of Reading Comprehension Achievement by Grade Level ...... I l l
47. Means and Standard Deviations of Pretests and Posttests by Treatment Groups of Vocabulary Achievement by Grade Level ...... I l l
48. Permanent Record Data by G ro u p s ...... 173
49. Affective Achievement Lister-Ohlsen Self-Concept Test ...... 174
50. Cognitive Achievement Gates-MacGinitie Reading Tests, Primary C, Form 1 175
51. Cognitive Achievement Data by Grade Level ...... 176
52. Psychomotor Achievement ...... 177
53. Psychomotor Achievement ...... 178
ix LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1. Treatment Time L in e ...... 50
2. Piers-Harris Self-Opinion Achievement as a Function of Teaching Method ...... 69
3. Lister-Ohlsen Self-Concept Achievement on the Factor of Interests as a Function of Teaching Method . . 70
4. Lister-Ohlsen Self-Concept Achievement on the Factor of Learning A bility as a Function of Teaching Methods ...... 70
5. Lister-Ohlsen Self-Concept Achievement on the Factor of Achievement as a Function ofTeaching Method. . 71
6 . Lister-Ohlsen Self-Concept Achievement onthe Overall Test as a Function of Teaching Method ...... 71
7. Vocabulary Achievement as a Function of Teaching M e th o d ...... 73
8 . Reading Comprehension Achievement as a Function of Teaching Method ...... 76
9. Mathematics Achievement as a Function of Teaching M e th o d ...... 79
10. Back Saw Achievement as a Function of Teaching Method ...... 82
11. Coping Saw Achievement as a Function of Teaching Method ...... 84
12. Drilling Achievement as a Function of Teaching Method ...... 86
13. Striking Achievement as a Function of Teaching Method ...... 88
14. Screw Driving Achievement as a Function of Teaching M e th o d ...... 90
x Figure Page
15. Scissors Cutting Achievement as a Function of Teaching Method ...... 92
16. Right Hand Finger Touch Achievement as a Function of Teaching M e th o d ...... 94
17. Left Hand Finger Touch Achievement as a Function of Teaching Method ...... 96
18. Assembly Achievement as a Function of Teaching M e th o d ...... 98
19. Cross Test Achievement as a Function of Teaching M e th o d ...... 100
20. Bead Stringing Achievement as a Function of Teaching Method ...... 102
21. Sorting Achievement as a Function of Teaching M e th o d ...... 104
xi CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Professional practitioners and theorists in education and psychology have demonstrated increasing interest in students with learn
ing problems. Educationalists have more thoroughly focused their atten tion to children with physical, mental and emotional impairments by developing and providing many divergent special education programs to
help meet their unique needs. Prominent alternatives for such children may be special schools, both private and public, self-contained special classes and, more recently, resource rooms for individual remediation of learning impediments.
Since the early sixties, a category of exceptionality for chil dren exhibiting various educational deficiencies, thereby requiring special treatment to meet their needs, has emerged as a dominant area of concern in special education (Cruickshank and Hallahan, 1973). This category is termed "learning disability". This human condition is that of having any specific d ifficu lty in acquiring or using information or
skills that are essential to problem solving (Vallet, 1969). Evidence of such a disability exists when the person's actual performance or
achievement in any given ab ility is found to be far below his or her
potential or capacity to learn. Bardwell el: a]_. (1973) characterize 2 learning disabled children as having average intelligence but, because of certain psychoeducational deficiencies, may be having d iffic u lty achieving at a normal rate through traditional means. The self concept is an intrinsic aspect of an individual's per sonality. Feelings of self worth can enhance or deter the individual growth of any person. Rogers (1951) states:
The self concept or self-structure may be thought of as an organized configuration of perceptions of the self which are admissible to awareness. I t is composed of such elements as the perceptions of one's characteristics and a b ilitie s ; the precepts and concepts of the self in relation to others and the environment; the value qualities which are perceived as associated with experiences and objects; and goals and ideals which are perceived as having a positive or negative valence. (p. 136)
The self-perception of children with learning disabilities is extremely crucial. Valett (1969) reinforced this position by relating:
Largely because of repeated failure experiences, the child with learning disabilities tends to lack interest, drive, and enthusiasm for educational situations. In many cases, an outright rejection of teachers and academic school tasks has occurred. This lack of motivation to try to learn must be recognized as a primary problem in working with these pupiIs.
A vague anxiety, usually stemming from a sense of impending failure, is also characteristic of many of these children. Because of personal diffic u ltie s in learning and a feeling of rejection by teachers and parents, children with learn ing disabilities tend to develop poor self-concepts. These feelings are quickly generalized to a sense of personal inadequacy that may be marked by inattentiveness, day dreaming, and nervous mannerisms, (p. 4)
There is some evidence that motor activity may enhance the cog nitive learning process with children who are learning disabled.
Kaphart (1960) was one of the fir s t researchers to stress the importance of motor movements. He suggests that the motor system is the fir s t to develop embryo!ogically and physiologically. Thus, fir s t learnings are motor and serve as foundations for later ab ility to generalize in higher mental processes. Kephart's theory, however, emphasizes the perceptual-motor aspect of learning and therefore, has been criticized for its lack of emphasis upon transition to later academic development
(Wallace and McLoughlin, 1975).
Ray H. Barsch (1965) promotes a movigenic curriculum which is intended to improve motor efficiency. Further, Movigenics is the study of the origin and development of movement patterns leading to learning efficiency (McCarthy and McCarthy, 1969, p. 37). The components of this curriculum for LD children are muscular strength, dynamic balance, spatial awareness, body awareness, visual dynamics, b ila te ra lity , rhythm, fle x ib ility , and motor planning (Hallahan and Cruickshank, 1973, p. 85).
The Doman-Delacato theory, based upon a neurological organiza tion concept, suggests treatment at any level of organization is aimed at reorganizing subsequent disorganized levels. The treatment is condi tioning for the brain involving external manipulations of arms, legs and the head (Wallace and McLoughlin, 1975). Doman-Delacato (1963) relate that motor activity through external body manipulations within a developmental remediation program affects the achievement levels of retarded children. Results suggest improvement in reading achievement within minimally impaired children through developmental motor activ ities (Delacato, 1966). Robbins (1966) and O'Donnel and Eisenson (1969) failed to support the Doman-Delacato theory in studies with second grade and reading disabled seven to ten year old children. Severe criticisms by Robbins and Glass (1969) toward the Doman and Delacato studies have been raised due to methodological flaws and sources of experimental invalidity. Hallahan and Cruickshank (1973), in discussing the e f f i ciency of perceptual motor training concluded that it may be premature to draw any definitive conclusions. I t was also noted by these authors, however, that there is li t t l e solid negative evidence available against perceptual-motor training.
Researchers in physical education suggest development of motor activity learning may be correlated with cognitive learning. Cratty
(1970), Krause (1972), and Humphrey (1965) also suggest that well planned physical education activities may have a beneficial effect on intelligence for certain children with learning problems. Further,
Cratty (1970) indicates:
Movement w ill aid intelligence to the extent to which the child is encouraged to think about the movements in which he is engaged, (p. 165)
Broadhead (1975) identifies motor learning as having three areas:
1. Motor learning which is concerned essentially with conditions surrounding the learning of motor s k ills .
2. Motor learning which is concerned essentially with perceptual motor development.
3. Motor learning which is concerned essentially with academic skill and concept development. (p. 12)
Broadhead (1975) further states that motor activities reinforce learning because:
1. The greater motivation of the children in the motor activ ity learning situation involves accentuation of those 5
behaviors directly pertinent to their learning activities, making these salient for the purpose of reinforcement.
2. The proprioceptive emphasis in the motor activity learning medium involves a greater number of responses associated with and conditioned to learning stimuli.
3. The gratifying aspects of the motor activity learning situ ation provide a generalized situation of reinforcers. (pp. 25-26)
Asher (1969) reported in the Journal of Special Education that:
. . . the acquisition of certain reading skills was signifi cantly accelerated when the learning task occurred in the context of a game involving the entire body. (p. 38)
Rarick and Broadhead (1968) and Martin (1969) reported improve ments in cognitive achievement through the rise of movement activities with groups of retarded and slow learners. The studies of Litchfield
(1970) and Broadhead (1965) of normal fir s t , second, and third grade children yielded support of the cognitive-motor activity relationship.
Cratty (1970) compared the responses of a self-concept measure between boys and girls with motor problems. The results yielded d iffe r ences in self-concept in that girls evidencing movement problems expressed negative self-concepts, while boys indicated negative feelings about peer relationships (Cratty, 1970, p. 39).
Industrial arts activities are motor learning activities since they require manipulative experiences involving the use of various parts of the body. They also require cognitive involvement since many of these activities involve reflective thinking and problem solving.
Thieme (1965), when studying fifth grade elementary students, found no differences in social studies achievement or retention when industrial arts activities were integrated within the subject units. Ingram (1966), however, reported that students who received integrated industrial arts activities in social studies units increased their silent reading comprehension. Downs (1968) suggests higher achievment scores were obtained in fifth grade mathematics and science with both high and low groups who participated in industrial arts constructional activities.
Although limited research has been conducted with mentally retarded children and industrial arts ac tivities , studies concerned with children with learning and behavioral disabilities are nonexistent.
Buffer (1973) has written that industrial arts activities may have therapeutic and remedial contributions for children with exceptional needs; however, empirical data to substantiate those remarks are not evident.
Statement of the Problem
It appears from the previous discussion that the identification of children with learning and behavioral disabilities as a unique group has only recently been established. Programs for learning disabled children require special education techniques to be used to meet their individual needs. Various research studies suggest that developmental motor experiences improve perceptual-motor ab ilities and perhaps cogni tive. Also, studies suggest relationships between attitudes or self- concepts and motor activities.
Industrial arts activities have been utilized as therapeutic and developmental activities for various groups of normal and exceptional 7 children. These activities may provide unique contributions toward the remediation of learning problems as well as the total growth of each child in the areas of attitude, motor s k ill, and cognition. However, there is a lack of research concerning the contributions of industrial arts as a motor learning activity, its effect as a developmental therapy for children with learning disabilities, and its effect on subsequent cognitive achievement in other school subjects, motor skills develop ment, and development of self-concept.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of indus tria l arts activities on the cognitive achievement, in language arts and mathematics, the motor skill achievement, and the affective (self-concept) achievement of elementary school children with learning and behavioral disabilities.
Hypotheses
This study tested the following hypotheses:
1. Students participating in integrated industrial arts
activities w ill demonstrate a greater improvement in
affective (self-concept) achievement than those who
do not participate in integrated industrial arts
activities. 8
2. Students participating in integrated industrial arts
activities w ill demonstrate a greater improvement in
language arts achievement than students who do not
participate in integrated industrial arts activities.
3. Students participating in integrated industrial arts
activities w ill demonstrate a greater improvement in
mathematics achievement than students who do not
participate in integrated industrial arts activities.
4. Students participating in integrated industrial arts
activities w ill demonstrate a greater improvement in
motor skill achievement than students who do not
participate in integrated industrial arts activities.
5. Students participating in integrated industrial arts
activities w ill demonstrate a greater improvement in
overall achievement than students who do not p artici
pate in integrated industrial arts activities.
Assumptions
This study was based upon the following assumptions:
1. The industrial arts developmental activities created
for this study were appropriate for children with
learning and behavioral disabilities.
2. Industrial arts activities could be integrated into
language arts and mathematics instruction. 9
3. The experimental treatments of this study would not
have a threatening effect upon the teachers conduct
ing the activities for learning and behavioral
disabled children.
4. The subjects that were identified by the professional
staffs within the school system were indeed children
with learning and behavioral disabilities.
5. The tests and instruments selected to measure achieve
ment were reliable and valid.
Limitations
For the purposes of this study, the following limitations were identified:
1. The results of this investigation obtained from an
analysis of empirical data may apply only to a similar
population of learning and behaviorally disabled children,
in a similar school community, having similar char
acteristics, and exposed to similar remediation treatment.
2. The instruments selected for this study may not accurately
assess individual achievement, motor performance, and
attitudes.
3. The research design may not account for the interaction
of selection and treatment and reactive arrangements
(Stanley and Campbell, 1963, p. 8). 10
4. The teachers involved with the subjects were aware of
the nature of the study before and during the conduct
of this experiment. Thus experimenter biases may have
influenced the results.
5. The two groups of subjects were not equivalent on factors
of age and behavior. Some subjects within the intact
troup had histories of disruptive behaviors and were
phased in the special class because of these adjustment
problems. Also, subjects within the intact group were
slightly older in age than those within the tutoring group.
Del imitations
This study was conducted with regard to the following delimita tions:
1. Children identified as having sensory handicaps, e.g .,
mentally retarded, emotionally disturbed, and
physically handicapped (deaf, visual, and orthopedic)
would not be included in this study.
2. This study did not include those children presently
enrolled in an industrial arts program.
Definition of Terms
For the purposes of this investigation, the following terms were defined: 11 1. Learning disability—an educationally significant dis
crepancy between a child's capabilities and actual level
of functioning (Carter V. Good, 1973, p. 185).
2. Cognitive achievement—a demonstrated or observed behavior
involving recall or recognition of knowledge or concepts
and the development of intellectual a b ilitie s and skills.
3. Psychomotor—behavior involving voluntary human motion or
patterns of motion related to manipulative s k ill,
motor skill and other acts that require neuromuscular
control (harrow, 1972).
4. Motor learning activity—those activities which constitute
an observable behavior as to motor s k ills , perceptual-motor
development, and academic skill and concept development
(Humphrey, 1975, p. 12)
5. Affective domain--the area of development pertaining to
feelings, attitudes, or emotions (Good, 1973, p. 194)
6. Language arts--an area of study of control and proficiency
in the use of the English language. For the purposes of
this study, interest was focused on the reading comprehension
and vocabulary skill of the child.
7. Mathematics s k ill—for the purpose of this study, mathematics
skill refers to the ability of an individual to compute the
mathematical functions of addition, subtraction and
multiplication.
8. Industrial arts--an area of study for all persons which
provides experiences and information to promote industrial- 12
technological literacy, knowledge of industrial-technical
occupations, professions and practices, and to satisfy
personal needs including discovery of self as related to
industry and technology. It includes laboratory type
activities for the personal development of psychomotor
skills, cognitive knowledges, and attitudes related to
industry and technology.
9. Self-concept--the individual's perception of himself or
herself as a person which may include abilities (physical,
mental, or emotional), appearance, and performance of tasks
related to phases of daily living (Good, 1973, p. 524).
Significance of the Study
Children are a most valuable human resource; therefore, the importance of establishing efficient and humane means to help ensure optimal educational development cannot be over stressed. Although a variety of prevalence rates exists as to the estimated incidence of children with learning disab ilities, Wallace and McLoughlin (1975) reported a range of one to fifteen percent of the school aged population.
Regardless of the exact percentage, i t is imperative to develop effective diagnostic and remediation programs to meet their special needs.
John Dewey (1919), noted educational philosopher, stated in
Democracy in Education:
Experience has shown that when children have a chance at physical activities which bring their natural impulses into play, going to school is a joy, management is less of a burden, and learning is easier, (pp. 228-229) 13
Integrated industrial arts activities as motor learning activ
ities may perhaps be quite beneficial in the facilitation of learning especially for those children with special learning problems.
Lack of success in schools may be attributed to those students who have minimal learning disabilities that are not formally identified or diagnosed, thus leading to personal frustration, behavior problems and failure in conventional school programs. Further, these students may develop negative attitudes and inferior perceptions of themselves which also tends to affect their desire to learn. Bryant Cratty (1970) has reported that the degree of skill to which a task can be done is of importance in exerting positive and negative influence upon the indi vidual's self-concept. This study, therefore, may provide new insights and knowledge, supported by empirical data, regarding the contributions of industrial arts activities as a means of remediation therapy on the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor achievement of children with learning disabilities.
Summary
This chapter provided an introduction to the subject and nature of the problem under investigation. A review of relevant related litera ture was presented along with several statements indicating the hypotheses
to be tested, assumptions, limitation, delimitations, definitions of pertinent terms, and the significance of the study.
The second chapter is a comprehensive review of related lite ra
ture, including a historical perspective of the establishment of learning 14 and behavioral disabilities as a category of exceptionality, related theory, and research pertinent to this study. The third chapter presents a description of the procedures used in this investigation, the popula tion and selection of subjects, selection and description of instruments used to gather data, the experimental design, and the statistical design employed to analyze the data.
The fourth chapter is a presentation of the statistical analysis 4 and interpretation of the data. The last chapter is a review and summary of the information obtained from this study. Also presented are conclusions, implications, and recommendations for future research in the area. CHAPTER I I
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Identification of Children With Learning Disabilities
Perhaps the term learning disabilities (LD) suggests more confu
sion than description of particular children with exceptional needs.
Although the acceptance of the term of learning disability as a generic category has come about quite rapidly, its exact definition appears
rather flexible and ambiguous.
Within the literatu re, children with learning disabilities have
been described as educationally retarded, slow learners, dyslexic, au tistic, perceptually handicapped, minimally brain damaged, cerebral
palsied, hyperactive and many others (Hallahan and Cruickshank, 1973).
In 1963, Samuel A. Kirk suggested the term 'learning disabil
itie s ' as an inclusive term to describe a group of children who lack
development in language, speech, reading and associated communication
skills that may be considered essential for social interaction. He
also suggested that children with sensory handicaps, i.e ., blindness or
deafness, not be included since the basis of assessment would be demon
strated behavioral characteristics rather than factors of etiology. In
an attempt to clarify the concept of learning d isab ilities, an institute
15 16 sponsored and funded by the United States Office of Education was held in 1967. Educators in special education developed a framework for defining the term. The resultant definitive description for children with learning disabilities included the following:
(1) Possess one or more significant deficits in essential learning processes requiring special education tech niques for remediation.
(2) Generally demonstrate a discrepancy between expected and actual achievement in one or more areas, such as spoken, read or written language, mathematics, and spatial orientation.
(3) Deficiencies may not be the primary result of sensory, motor, intellectual, or emotional handicap or lack of opportunity. (Kass, 1969, p. 71)
To avoid unnecessary confusion, Kass (1969) reported essential terms used in the definition of this area of exceptionality were defined as:
Siqnificant deficits--deficits related to terms of diagnostic procedures in education and psychology.
Essential learning processes--behavior involving verbal and non-verbal expression, perception, and integration sk ills .
Special education techniques for remediation--planned educational activities based on diagnostic procedures and results, (p. 71)
To assist in-service professionals to more clearly understand and help these special children with their needs, Bardwell, et a l.
(1973) authored Knowing the Child with Special Needs: A Primer, a pub lication produced through the cooperation of Head Start Technical
Assistance for Children with Handicaps and the Office of Child Develop ment, Department of Health, Education and Welfare. It was important to note that the child with learning disabilities was included as a 17 separate categorical heading. The authors suggest that a learning dis abled child may have adequate intellectual, motor, vision, hearing, and emotional attributes, but may have verbal or writing deficiencies , including problems with perception, listening, thinking, speech, read ing, spelling, and arithmetic. This disability may or may not have a direct reference to central nervous system dysfunction (Bardwell, et a l .,
1973, p. 12).
I t appears, therefore, from the previous discussion that LD children can learn and have the ability to learn, but, because of a potential variety of factors stemming from nutritional, etiological, cultural and/or environmental conditions, need developmental and remed ial assistance beyond what may be provided by traditional means.
Capobcanco (1964) and later Wallace and Kauffman (1973) emphasize that detection of learning deficiencies, based on assessment of behavioral characteristics rather than solely etiological factors, can greatly aid a child to develop more fu lly toward his or her potential.
Although defining LD children as a special identifiable popula tion has been a problem, its flexible interpretation has been benefi cial for some schools. The acceptance of the general generic term
"learning disabilities" has provided educational support for children who may only have qualified i f they were retarded (Wallace and McLough- lin , 1975, p. 32). 18
Learning Disabilities and Perceptual Motor Theory
A prominent figure in the field of learning disabilities was
Newell Kephart who based his theoretical foundations on those of Werner and Strauss. His book, The Slow Learner in the Classroom, presented a perceptual motor theory which suggests that all behavior is basically motor and that these basic skills should be taught in their natural order of development. He created specific instructions for the develop ment of form perception, space discrimination, form discrimination, ocular control, and sensory motor integration. He suggests that i f cer tain children lack skills basic to school learning, then attempts to teach such skills should be undertaken (McCarthy and McCarthy, 1969, p. 36). The effects of perceptual-motor deficits may become known in the elementary grades through problems in learning and low academic achievements (Wallace and McLoughlin, 1973, p. 107).
A weakness in Kephart's theory is the lack of any emphasis upon a transition to later academic development and the omission of any auditory training. Evidence to support the proposition that train ing in motor skill w ill increase cognitive achievement is inconclusive
(Wallace and McLoughlin, 1975, p. 109).
Movigenic Learning Theory
The "Movigenic" theory and curriculum was developed by Barsch
(Wallace and McLoughlin, 1975). Movement patterns are used as a means of improving motor efficiency in twelve different dimensions. These curriculum areas are:
1. Muscular strength 7. Kinesthesia 2. Dynamic balance 8. Tactual dynamics 3. Spatial awareness 9. Bilaterality 4. Body awareness 10. Rhythm 5. Visual dynamics 11. Flexibility 6. Auditory dynamics 12. Motor planning (Wallace and McLoughlin, 1975, pp. 110-111)
Barsch believes that movement is the basis for learning, and those persons who experience motor d ifficulties w ill subsequently encounter cognitive disturbances. This space and movement theory of learning, like Kephart's, is based on perceptual-motor functioning.
Wallace and McLoughlin (1975) report the effectiveness of his approach. Furthermore, the movigenic curriculum does not include the area of language and the transition from these specialized activities to academic skills had not been adequately communicated.
Visual-Motor Learning Theory
A visual-motor program was developed by an optometrist and researcher Gerald Getman. McCarthy and McCarthy (1969) reported:
Getman and his associates have developed a program of visual-motor training based upon the belief that visual perception is learned ( i. e ., based upon developmental sequences of physiological actions) and that i t evolves from actions of the entire organism. Furthermore, they believe i t is necessary to have good coordination of the body parts and body systems in order to develop perception of forms and symbols, (p. 46)
Getman, et al_. (1964) suggested six^porrtplete programs for aidi the development of perceptual motor skills:
1. Practice in General Coordination 2. Practice in Balance (Walking Beam) 20
3. Practice in Eye-Hand Coordination 4. Practice in Eye Movements 5. Practice in Form Recognition (Templates) 6. Practice in Visual Memory (Imagery). (Hallahan and Cruickshank, 1973, p. 78)
The content of these programs is quite similar to that of Kephart and Barsch except for the greater emphasis on visual perception. As with the other approaches, insufficient research has been conducted to support
Getman's model. The progression of motor development to the cognitive stages is not classified within the model. Getman also neglects the in fluence of auditory processes within the developmental program.
Neurological Organization Learning Theory
Doman and Delacato advance a neurological organization concept rather than a behavioral orientation. Wallace and McLoughlin (1975) offer a succinct explanation of this theory:
Doman and Delacato base their theory on the hypothesis that ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny, or that each individual's development progresses through the same stages as did the development of his species. An individual's development is considered logical, orderly, and inextricably bound to his species; anatomical and biological development along the evo lutionary scale. In his progress toward fu ll neurological organization, man develops through the levels common to other species: the spinal cord medulla, the pons, the midbrain, and the early cortical level. Man adds the final stage of cortical hemispheric dominance as an end to the process. The last step is a prerequisite to complete neurological organization, (p. 113)
What this suggests is that perhaps a sequential pattern of neurological growth from birth to maturity contributes to the overall development of a child. Each level of neurological development serves as a base for further development in the next stage. Through 21 participation in various forms of integrated kinesthetic, tactile, visual, and auditory stimuli the child experiences coordinated develop ment of the neuromuscular system.
The Handbook of Physical Education and Activities for Exceptional
Children by the Institute for Physical Education (1975) states:
A variety of motor activities can contribute to orderly development of the nervous system, especially at the most fundamental levels, where activities like moving arms and legs without forward movement, crawling, creeping, walking, running, jumping, hopping, and skipping contribute much. Some authorities feel that consideration should be given to dominance of each individual's hands, feet, eyes, and ears, in an effort to encourage youngsters to acquire unilateral control —i .e ., all controlled by the same side of brain. Body scheme, self-image, and ego-consciousness all are stimu lated and have, in some cases, improved with better neurolog ical organization, (pp. 3-4)
This theoretical position implies that a remedial program of integrated motor activity might, in fact, be a form of remediation therapy, thereby promoting neurological organization and fa cilitatin g potentially greater cognitive learning.
Studies by Delacato (1966) suggest that by walking upright and
in cross-pattern, symbolic speech, symbolic writing, reading, under standing human speech, and ta c tile recognition are the skills that ought to be fu lly developed by each human at maturity. At this time, complete neurological organization has been achieved by the individual.
The treatment involves an external manipulation of arms, legs, and the
head. Once the preremedial patterning treatment had resulted in com
plete neurological organization, remedial teaching is usually initiated.
Delacato (1966) had reported that by using the patterning treat ment, significant gains in reading achievement have been evident with minimally mentally retarded children.
Robbins and Glass (1969) as reported by Hallahan and Cruickshank
(1973), reviewed and c ritic a lly evaluated eleven studies proporting to show positive evidence for Delacato's treatment program. Because of methodological flaws in the research designs and experimental invalidity, the efficiency of the Doman and Delacato treatment is inconclusive.
Further, O'Donnell and Eisenson (1969) failed to support the
Doman-Delacato theory. In studies with reading disabled seven to ten year old children, i t was found that, after thirty minutes a day over a twenty week treatment period, the two experimental groups who were sub jected to various aspects of the Doman-Delacato remediational therapy procedures did not differ significantly from a Hawthorne control group
(Hallahan and Cruikshank, 1973).
Motor Activity Learning Theory
A central cognitive theory involving movement activities which provoke thought to improve intelligence is advanced by Bryant J. Cratty
(1970). Studies have been conducted by Cratty using well planned physi cal education activities with retarded and other children with learning d iffic u ltie s . Cratty (1970) states:
Movement w ill aid intelligence to the extent to which the child is encouraged to think about the movement in which he is engaged, (p. 165)
"General Supports of Behavior" is the base of a three factor theory of perceptual motor behavior developed by Cratty. This in itia l category as reported by Harrow (1972) are: 23
1. level of aspiration 2. level of persistence 3. level of arousal/motivation 4. ab ility to analyze the mechanics of a task 5. various perceptual a b ilitie s , (p. 21)
Cratty suggests that these factors are influential in a variety of human behaviors and although relatively fixed, can be altered by individual experiences.
The second group of the three levels is the ability traits of strength, endurance, fle x ib ility , speed, balance, and coordination.
Cratty contends that all these traits can be developed to an individual's potential which influence their perceptual motor performance.
Factors specific to the task and situation comprise the third level. Examples are energy required to perform tasks,the values the person places upon the task, the past experiences with the tasks and the social characteristics of the performance situation. Cratty contends his theory is balanced in that the domain of cognitive, affective, and psychomotor are represented at the various levels.
Humphrey (1975), a physical education educator, had sought to synthesize and classify motor learning activity and how i t contributes to learning. He suggests branches of motor learning which entail:
1. Motor learning which is concerned essentially with condi tions surrounding the learning of motor s k ills .
2. Motor learning which is concerned essentially with perceptual motor development (also called psychomotor development or neuromotor development) .
3. Motor learning which is concerned essentially with academic skill and concept development, (p. 12)
All of these branches, he emphasizes, involve the same general concept, and that there are various levels of interrelatedness and interdependence 24 of each area upon the other.
Humphrey (1975), in his book Teaching Elementary School Science
Through Motor Learning, relates that:
Motor learning is based essentially on the theory that children--being predominantly movement oriented--will learn better when what we arb itra rily call academic learning takes place through pleasurable physical activity; that is, when the motor component operates at a maximum level in skill and concept development in school subject areas essentially oriented to so-called verbal learning.
Further he states:
Learning takes place in terms of reorganization of the systems of perception into a functional and integrated whole because of the result of certain stimuli. This implies that problem solving is the way of human learning and that learn ing takes place through problem solving. In a motor activity learning situation that is well planned, a great deal of consideration should be given to the inherent possibilities for learning in terms of problem solving. In this approach opportunities abound for near ideal teaching-learning situa tions because of the many problems to be solved. By using active games there is a great opportunity for reflective thinking, use of judgment, and problem solving in this type of experience, (p. 19)
Humphrey recommends the selection of a physical education activ ity in which an academic concept is inherent as one way in which motor activity learning can be incorporated into the classroom.
Motor activity learning is seen as a compatable medium with the reinforcement theory since this medium reinforces attention to the learning task and learning behavior which therefore establishes an effec tive learning reinforcement situation.
Humphrey (1975), in addressing the reinforcement factor, surmized:
1. The greater motivation of the children in the motor activ ity situation involves accentuation of those behaviors directly pertinent to their learning activities, making these salient for the purpose of reinforcement. 25
2. The proprioceptive emphasis in the motor activity learn ing medium involves a greater number of responses asso ciated with and conditioned to learning stimuli.
3. The gratifying aspects of the motor activity learning situations provide a generalized situation of reinforcers, (pp. 25-26)
Motor Activity and Cognitive Achievement
Professional articles and research studies support various rela tionships between physical education activity and cognitive achievement.
Krause (1972), a teacher-educator of motor learning workshops for elemen tary teachers, suggests that general movement patterns such as crawling, rolling, skipping, jumping, climbing, and specific movement activity such as manipulating toys, hammers, scissors, and pegs w ill enhance per ceptual motor development and improve reading of primary grade level children. She also states:
During the six years the program has been in progress, we've measured success in several ways. The children have become better readers--various tests show marked improvement. Changes in behavior were evident. Children who previously lacked ab ility to concentrate had considerably widened their attention spans. They had more interest in their work, began to express themselves independently and showed increased self- confidence. (p. 171)
She cites that her program is based in the theories of Getman,
Doman, Delacato, and Frostig. However, she presented no specific data to substantiate her motor learning program.
Plack (1968) studied sixty kindergarten children. He reported highly significant correlations between physical education activities of throw-and-catch, zig-zag run tests, and reading but no relationship between reading ab ility and kicking, jumping, and reach performance
tests. However, an experimental study by Litchfield (1970) utilizing visual-motor-perceptual exercise treatments (one-half hour each for six months) with eighty fir s t, second, and third grade subjects with read
ing and learning deficiencies yielded no differences in reading achieve ment between the treatment and a control group.
Rarick and Broadhead (1968) utilized a developmental physical
education program in which elementary level retarded children were given movement problems to "think" about. The data suggest positive results.
Following a program of movement activities, I.Q. scores measured by the
Peabody Picture Test were significantly higher in favor of the experi mental group. Humphrey (1965) studied normal third grade children and found that when games were used to teach arithmetic and language sk ills ,
the experimental group realized more improvement than was attained by
the control group who used workbooks to learn similar skills.
Humphrey (1972) investigated the effects of motor activity
learning with two groups of fifth grade children who were equated on
the basis of pretest scores on science concepts. Each group of ten
slow learners (average I.Q. 84) was taught the same science concepts by
the same teacher over a two week period, one through traditional means
and the other through the motor activity learning medium. The motor
activity group was reported to have gained significantly more learning
than the traditional group. In addition, the motor activity group showed
a high level of retention after a three month period.
Cratty and Martin (1969) selected twenty-nine fir s t through
fourth grade low ab ility students (average I.Q. 75). A seventeen week 27 treatment of a three-1esson-a-week program of body movement to determine the effects on impulse control, body perception, serial memory ability, le tte r and pattern recognition, and spelling was developed by these researchers. The movement activities consisted of walking around t r i angles and counting the sides, remembering and performing a movement sequence by another child, and jumping in grids which contained alphabet letters. Significant positive gains were indicated by the scores on nine of thirteen tests concerning academic and motor attributes. Since no control group was used to compare results within this study, one may question the validity of the conclusions.
Eaton (1975) studied the relationship between perceptual motor ab ility and reading success using sixty normal rural third grade c h il dren. Based upon data from the Purdue Perceptual-Motor Survey, the
Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration, and the reading section of the Stanford Achievement Test, positive correlations were found.
Since this was a correlation study, no cause and effect relationship could be determined; however, the data suggest that a relationship may indeed exist.
Self-Concept and Academic Achievement
Researching the relationships between academic achievement and self-concept and/or motor performance and self-concept have also received limited attention. For example, Cratty (1970) used the Piers-Harris
Self-Opinion Test to compare the responses of the questionnaire items by normal children and those with coordination problems. The study included a matched group of 133 normal children and 133 children with motor problems. Its purpose was to obtain normative data using the questions from the Piers-Harris scale to evaluate physical a b ility and attributes. Sex and age differences were also analyzed. I t was con cluded that the self-concept instrument was a reliable measure of self concept and is appropriate for groups of children with normal in t e lli gence from seven to twelve years of age. Based upon the total scores on the questionnaire, an item analysis revealed that the test did sig nificantly discriminate between high and low self concept children.
Significant differences in mean scores were found between normal boys and those with motor problems, but not with the girls. However, girls evidencing movement problems were more likely to express negative feel ings about specific motor skills. In contrast, the boys in the same group were more likely to express negative feelings about peer relation ships than about movement competencies (Cratty, et aJL , 1970, pp. 38-39).
Tyler (1972) investigated the relationship between self-concept and motor performance of 109 second grade children from a midwestern
Ohio community. The Piers-Harris Self-Opinion Test and the Peacock Motor
Achievement Test were used as criterion measures. The findings indicated no significant relationship between high and low self-concept children and their motor performance. Further analysis did find a significant correlation between motor performance and self-concept scores for the total female population and the aspect of the Soccer Punt for Distance
(Tyler, 1972, p. 44).
One hundred and one sixth grade boys were used in a study by
Robinson (1975) to investigate relationships among reading achievement, 29 self-concept, and motor performance. The motor performance variables selected were kicking, balance beam, side-step a g ility , over-hand throw, pull-ups, sit-ups, zig-zag run, throw and catch, and double arm travel.
Based on the statistical treatment of the data, he concluded that read ing proficiency had no significant relationship to general self-concepts or to the child's ability to perform certain motor skills proficiently; students with high self-concepts evidence higher motor skill performance than average or low self-concept children; and that motor performance may not be valid predictors of reading proficiency and self-concept.
A correlation study by Campbell (1965) sought to determine to what extent a relationship might exist between self-concept and general academic ab ility of 158 fourth, fif th , and sixth grade normal children over a one year period. The Coppersmith Self- Esteem Inventory, Iowa
Test of Basic Skills and I.Q. scores from the SRA Test of Primary Mental a b ilitie s were used to collect data. The data supported a linear rela tionship between self-concept and school achievement, higher self- concept for girls than boys and a non-linear effort of self-concept and grade placement. I t was reported, however, that the correlations were not high enough to be useful as predictors of achievement from self- concept and intelligence. He further suggests work with boys is more likely to be productive in effecting change in self-concept and academic achievement.
Few studies existed related to self-concept and academic achieve ment as they may effect children with exceptional needs. Yates (1975) studied 153 gifted elementary school children in the third, fourth, and fifth grades on factors of self-concept and academic achievement. 30
Achievement was measured by the Wide Range Achievement Test and self- concept by the Piers-Harris Self- Opinion Test. Although no differences were reported in self-concept scores between sexes, positive correla tions were obtained between self-concept scores and averaged academic achievement for the total sample. Also, greater self-concept scores were related by overachievers than underachievers.
O'Donnell (1974) investigated whether improvement in self- concept, academic achievement, school related behavior, and attitude toward school were associated with teacher's reinforcement for desirable affective person-oriented behavior and cognitive task-oriented perform ance for children with learning disabilities. Thirty-nine students, ages ten to seventeen, were observed over a six week period. Analysis of the pretest-posttest data failed to support the concept that improved self-concept was central to the problems of LD children and that general improvement could be affected through reinforcement of self-concept.
Reinforcement, as O'Donnell concludes, for academic achievement was more productive for LD children than was reinforcement for self-concept.
Cheong (1974) compared LD children, ages eight to thirteen years of age, in self-contained classrooms with those in special education resource rooms with regard to the relationship between self-concept and achievement, sex, age, and I.Q. Using the Piers-Harris Self-Opinion
Test and the Wide Range Achievement Test as criterion measures, after analyzing the correlation coefficients, she concluded that a "slight positive" relationship exists between achievement and general self- concept for the integrated group. No differences were evident between the integrated group and the self-contained group on the basis of 31 self-concept and achievement. In explanation of the integrated group and their significant, positive relationship between achievement and self-concept, she suggests that the integrated group may have viewed themselves more positively without the social stigma of being labeled as LD.
Related Research in Industrial Arts
Industrial arts activities may be considered as an influential curriculum area that may wholistically effect the affective, cognitive and psychomotor aspects of learning of an individual. This is based on the contemporary definition of industrial arts developed by the National
Conference for Elementary School Industrial Arts sponsored by the U.S.
Office of Education. The definition reads:
Industrial arts at the elementary school level is an essen tia l part of the education of every child. I t deals with the way in which man thinks about and applies scientific theory and principles to change his physical environment to meet his aesthetic and utilitarian needs. It provides opportunities for developing concepts through concrete experiences which include manipulation of materials, tools and processes, and other methods of discovery. It includes knowledge about tech nology and its processes, personal development of psychomotor s k ills , and attitudes and understandings of how technology influences society. (Hoots, 1971, p. 228)
A search of the industrial arts literature yielded little research concerning the effects of psychomotor activities on the cogni tive development of children at the elementary school level. Further more, there appears to be a complete absence of research studies in industrial arts for children with learning disabilities. Buffer (1973), when reviewing research from 1962-72 as i t pertained to industrial arts 32 and children with special needs, reported a growing interest in the edu cation of the exceptional child. However, the research writings were predominantly essays and reports of teacher experiences (p. 55). Quasi- experimental research as to educational practice in industrial arts for exceptional children was non-existent.
Related studies, involving industrial arts activities and its effects on cognitive achievement in other school subjects, were conducted with normal elementary level children. Theime (1965), for example, used integrated constructional activities within units of social studies for fifth grade students. He reported no differences in social studies achievement or retention between the constructional activity group and the conventionally conducted classroom group.
Ingram (1966) investigated the effect of industrial arts on 250 fourth, fifth and sixth grade children and social studies concept learn ing. Although there were no differences between the experimental group receiving integrated activities and the group by the traditional method on achievement, the silent reading comprehension and work study skills were found to be significantly improved for the experimental group. A questionnaire was also used within this study to assess students' a t t i tudes. Highly significant differences favoring the experimental group were reported. The results suggest positive effect on student attitudes at no expense to learner achievement.
Downs (1968) studied the effect of constructional activities upon the achievement of high and low ab ility students in mathematics and science. Three hundred sixty fifth grade students were randomly selected and assigned to one of three groups. One group had integrated industrial arts activities to enrich a unit in science; the second used similar constructional activities to enrich areas of social studies and mathematics; the third was taught by the conventional unit classroom approach. Based on results of pretests and posttests over a five week treatment period, the data suggested that regardless of a b ility level, the achievement scores of students in the integrated industrial arts activities blended with the study of science were significantly better than the other two groups. These constructional activities seemed to provide greater opportunity for the higher ab ility students for increased achievement, since both experimental treatment groups made significantly greater gains in their scores than did the control group for such stu dents. No difference in mean scores, i t should be noted, were found to exist between males and females.
The American Council of Industrial Arts Teacher Education (1974) in their twenty-third yearbook, Industrial Arts for the Elementary School, indicated that a total of fifty -e ig h t doctoral research studies has been conducted concerning elementary industrial arts between 1930 and 1973.
Of that to tal, twenty-one were experimental studies with nineteen having been conducted since 1964 (p. 240). Downs (1974), who reviewed the existing related experimental research concerning elementary industrial arts for the Council's yearbook concluded:
. . . students who have experienced the elementary school industrial arts approach to cognitive, affective, and psycho motor learning have either made significantly higher gains or were equal to students who had studied by a more traditional approach, regardless of the elementary school curricular area in which the research was conducted.
. . . industrial arts activities can be effectively imple mented through integration with regular elementary school sub jects of mathematics, science, and social studies. 34 . . . industrial arts activities which are directly related to the unit under study are more effective with respect to achievement and retention than are indirectly related activ ities or no activities at all.
. . . both teachers and students have a more favorable attitude toward the elementary school industrial arts approach.
. . . elementary school industrial arts approach not only takes less overall class time to present curricular concepts, but i t also stimulates interest in learning concepts, (pp. 271 - 272)
It may be interesting to point out that although elementary industrial arts seem to be promoted because of their unique inclusive nature of the three domains of „learning--cognitive, affective and psychomotor--the effects of industrial arts on all three domains concom itantly seems to have been completely overlooked. Furthermore, research efforts concerning the effects of industrial arts activities on these three domains for learning disabled children and other areas of exceptionality have not received conspicuous attention.
Summary
This chapter has presented a review of related literature per taining to the formation of a working definition of children with learn ing d isab ilities, several theoretical positions concerning the remedi ation of learning d isab ilities, and research studies related to motor activity learning and cognitive learning and affective achievement. A limited review of research pertaining to industrial arts instruction and its effects on cognitive learning was also presented. CHAPTER I I I
PROCEDURES
The purpose of this chapter is to describe the population selected for this study, the environment in which the study was con ducted, the instrumentation used to determine the effects of the experimental treatment, the nature of the treatments, treatment of the data, and the experimental design selected for the conduct of the study.
Selection of Subjects
This study was conducted in the Whitehall School D istrict, a predominantly white (approximately 95%), middle to lower middle class suburban school d is tric t of the greater Columbus, Ohio, area. The d istrict provides for approximately 4,300 students through one senior high school, one junior high school, and four elementary schools. The
Kae Elementary School was selected for the purposes of this study, since i t was the one school of the four that had an intact unit class room especially for learning disabled children in the upper elementary grades, fourth through sixth.
The students in this special classroom were from all areas of the district and were identified as having learning disabilities by
35 36 teachers, counselors and determined specifically through testing by the school psychologist. The students assigned to this class were seven boys ranging in age from 10 years 11 months to 13 years 1 month. Their
I.Q. range was 84 to 110 as determined by the Stanford-Binet Intelligence
Scale for Children. These students were at least two years behind in grade level for their age, had learning problems in one or more academic areas, and because of acute erratic behavior could not perform in normal classroom situations. There were seven boys within this intact group that received the integrated industrial arts activity treatment.
To serve as a control, subjects were randomly selected from a group of students from the Kae Elementary School who were also identified by the teachers, counselors, and school psychologist as being learning disabled. These students participated in a remedial tutoring program for at least one hour per day five days per week. They were "main streamed" into regular class scheduling, since they were not behavior problems and could cope and function within a regular classroom. From this group, seven male students were randomly selected.
The teacher of the tutor group was a female, approximately forty years of age with more than fifteen years of elementary school teach
ing experience. She was one of the six tutoring specialists within the
school d istrict having had six years of previous experience in that capacity.
The intact special education class was taught by one female
teacher, approximately th irty -fiv e years of age with eight years experi
ence in teaching slow and learning disabled children. She had had no
previous experience with industrial arts subject matter and had not 37 received any previous training in adapting or integrating manipulative or constructional activities in a regular or special education class set ting. Therefore, the researcher described and demonstrated the use of tools, materials and processes to the learning disabilities teacher which were necessary to conduct the industrial arts activities in her class.
A student aide, who was enrolled in the early teaching experience as a part of her teacher training program from The Ohio State University, was present within the classroom for four days per week to assist the regular teacher with instructional duties. This person administered the affective and cognitive evaluation instruments used in this study. Since she had had no previous experience with industrial arts ac tivities , the researcher aided her in administering the psychomotor assessments of back sawing, coping sawing, striking, d rillin g , and screw driving. The remain der of the tests were conducted by her alone.
The limitation of three one-hour sessions three times per week for a period of five weeks was imposed on the integrated industrial arts activity method by the administration of the school district. It was fe lt that this was the maximum time that could be allowed for this study.
Concern was expressed that this study would take away regular remediation time from the LBD children who needed i t the most.
The Environment
Although the building was in itia lly built using the open concept with a minimum of walls or partitions, due to the special education
teacher's request, the area of instruction for the intact class had 38
temporary walls of pegboard and supply cabinets placed to form a perim
eter. Within this area were moveable tables and chairs, a moveable cab
inet with a countertop working area, and eight cardboard study carrels
furnished with individual desks and chairs. This arrangement was pro
vided to reduce the visual distraction from other areas around this
classroom; however, except for carpeting, li t t l e could be done to con
trol auditory distractions from adjoining classes.
A wash sink with hot and cold water with a drinking fountain was
also available in the instructional area.
Adjacent to this area and separated by similar temporary parti
tions, other special education classes were being conducted. Directly across from the instructional area was a class of mentally retarded c h il dren. Beside the intact group instructional area and separated by a
chalkboard and large moveable storage cabinets was a class of lower ele mentary children of grades one, two, and three who had been identified as LD. Although located in close proximity to each other, there was no
formal interaction between any of the classes.
Experimental Design
The experimental design for this study was the pretest-posttest
control group design (Stanley and Campbell, 1963). This design was
selected because of the strengths afforded by providing fewer threats
to the internal validity of the study, since randomization in the selec
tion of subjects was incorporated. 39
All subjects were given a battery of tests before the in itiation of the treatments. Two self-concept instruments, one standardized read ing and vocabulary test, one mathematics test,and a series of eleven motor assessments were utilized to obtain data in order to determine the effects of integrated industrial arts activities on the learning and self-concept achievement of LBD children.
The reader should be cautioned when interpreting the results of studies of this nature since this experimental design may not account for differences in scores due to interaction of subjects and perhaps the residual effects of pretesting (Stanley and Campbell, 1963). With regard to such theoretical weaknesses, this investigator does not believe these to be of a serious nature, since these effectsare equally distributed among all subjects of both groups.
Self-Concept Instrumentation
It is doubtful that one can precisely assess the numerous aspects and characteristics of a person's self-concept or self-perception. There fore, the selection of any instrument or self-rating scale has its lim i tations. This investigator selected two instruments for this study to more extensively ascertain each student's affective achievement.
One of the instruments chosen was the Piers-Harris Self-Opinion
Test. This instrument was developed by Ellen Piers and Dale Harris in
1964 at Pennsylvania State University. The twenty items to which subjects would only answer "yes" or "no" were derived from an original source of
164 statements which were obtained from Jersild's collection of children's 40
statements of what they liked and disliked about themselves. Five cate
gories could be partitioned within the given interrogatory statements as
to feelings about their general well-being, social competence, physical
a b ility , physical appearance, and school achievement. The in itia l group
of 164 statements was administered to ninety elementary children in
grades three, four, and six. The statements were read aloud with each
student responding by answering "yes" or "no". From this in itia l test
administration, these examiners selected 100 items which seemed to dis
criminate between children with high and low self-concepts.
In 1967, a group of researchers reduced the item count to twenty
in order to develop a more global, easily administered instrument (Cratty,
1970). Piers and Harris reported a re lia b ility of .72 with the 100 item
test with a test-retest duration of four months and that the items were
internally consistent. Cratty suggests a similar reliability on a test-
retest comparison of scores on the twenty-item test. When test-retest was separated by one week, a re lia b ility factor of .82 was obtained
(Cratty, 1970, p. 16). The Cratty study also found the self-concept mean
score for students of normal intelligence, based upon a 0 to 20 scale,
was 15.07 with a standard deviation of 3.22 (p. 38). Thus, subjects with
scores of 16 or above were regarded as having higher self-concepts, while
those with scores of 14 or below had lower self-concepts.
This investigator selected the Piers-Harris Self-Opinion Test
because of its accepted use in previous studies involving self-concept
and motor ab ility (Cratty, 1969 and 1970*, Cratty and Martin, 1969; Cheong,
1974; Tyler, 1972) and for its internal validity and reliability. The
instrument was also reportedly valid for special groups of elementary children (Cratty, 1970).
Since the Piers-Harris instrument does not differentiate as to a
level or degree of self-concept, the self-rating scale developed by Lis
ter and Ohlsen (1962) was selected by this investigator as another meas
ure to assess the effects of the experimental treatment on the self- concepts of the subjects (see Appendix A). The rating scales within the
instrument attempt to describe, by use of simplified statements, the areas measured by various tests. They were designed to provide the fo l
lowing:
(a) An estimate of students' performance on various tests.
Each student was told to indicate this estimate by marking one of five statements from "a lot more than most students my age" to "a lot less than most students my age."
(b) Students' present satisfaction with this estimated perform ance. Students were instructed to indicate their estimate by marking one of five statements from "I really like being this way" to "I really don't like being this way."
(c) Students' current ideal performance on the respective sub
tests of the test group. Students indicated this ideal performance by checking one of five statements from "very much more than moststudents my age" to "very much less than most students my age."
(d) Students' estimated accuracy of their self-rating of the
respective tests. Students were asked to indicate the estimated accur acy of their responses by selecting one of five statements from "I know
almost exactly how I compare with others" to "I really don't have any
idea about how I compare with others." 42
This self-concept instrument was used by Lister and Ohlsen in a study of the effects of orientation to testing on motivation for and out comes of test interpretation. Test and retest reliability coefficients indicate median correlations for estimates to actual performance, satis faction with actual performance, and ideal performance for all grades were .60.
The instrument used in the study consisted of three parts:
(1) Achievement, (2) Learning a b ility , (3) Interests. The instrument had been used by Lister and Ohlsen to assess changes in accuracy of self perception. Gehrman (1965) also used this instrument to measure changes in self-perception due to test interpretations procedures. This study used the Lister-Ohlsen Self-Concept Test to measure change in self- concept due to effects of the two treatments.
The LBD subjects of both groups possessed limited and varied reading s k ill. It was fu lly realized by this researcher that in all probability some subjects would encounter varying degrees of d iffic u lty in reading the Lister-Ohlsen Self-Concept Test, thus, potentially being a confounding factor affecting the validity of test results. A teachers aide, therefore, administered the tests to each subject indi vidually by reading each item aloud.
Each student was given a typewritten copy of each instrument to read along with the examiner. Each response was recorded by the exami ner. The same examiner administered the posttest in the same manner.
Instructions were read aloud before each test. A statement insuring the confidentiality of each subject's responses was also indicated.
Because of the time factor involved and the manner employed in 43 administering these tests, i t was impossible to test all the subjects at
the same time on the same day.
Cognitive Instrumentation
The selection of a standardized test to measure cognitive achievement was predicated on the following criteria:
1. The test should be typical of those used in the elementary schools in which the study was conducted.
2. The test should be reliable and valid.
3. The test should be administerable within the limited time period available.
4. Students should have had no previous experience with the test.
5. The test must be approved by the school d is tric t admini stration.
The Gates-MacGinitie Reading Tests, Primary £, Form 1_, 1964, was used to assess reading comprehension and vocabulary usage. The median validity coefficients for the correlation of Primary C at grade three with four other standardized reading tests were .84 for Vocabulary and
.79 for Comprehension.
The re lia b ility coefficients, which is an index of the accuracy of the scores on a test, reported for the Primary C, grade three, were
.88 for Vocabulary and .85 for Comprehension over a three month test- retest duration (Gates and MacGinitie, 1972). According to Van Dalen's
Understanding Educational Research, correlational coefficients above .40 may indicate a marked relationship while above .70 may suggest a high to very high relationship (Van Dalen, 1973, p. 231). 44
The Gates-MacGinitie Test was given to both groups as a whole, with the test being administered by the teacher of the intact class.
To ascertain the level of arithmetic skill for each subject, the Arithmetic Skills Inventory 1, 2_,, and 3 (Houghton-Mifflin, 1972) was individually given to each subject. This test was a series of prob lems presenting graduated items of increasing d iffic u lty in addition, subtraction, and multiplication.
A vocabulary lis t of 220 Dolch Words, a standard word lis t of essential words needed for reading competency, was given as a pretest- posttest of sight identification of these words. These scores were not included in the data analysis since many of the subjects scored above
210 words on this list; therefore, leaving a small margin of variability between individual scores.
Psychomotor Instrumentation
This study required the assessment of psychomotor achievement in order to observe the effects of the treatment on the subjects in each group. These pretests and pos;ttests were a series of eleven timed psychomotor tests. The administrator of the tests recorded the number of tasks accomplished or the time necessary for a subject to complete a specific motor task.
The following motor assessments were developed and adopted as they related to typical motor learning activities commonly associated with industrial arts activities. These were (see Appendix B): 45
1. Coping Saw Motor Assessment--the total time in seconds needed to cut between curved lines drawn across a given piece of one- half inch thick by three inch wide soft pine with a coping saw.
2. Back Saw Motor Assessment—the total time in seconds needed to completely separate a one-half inch thick by three inch wide pine block while using a miter box and back saw.
3. Assembly Motor Assessment--a manipulating test of assembl ing a number of washers onto machine screws in th irty seconds.
4. Sorting Shapes Motor Assessment--a visual discrimination test in which the subject discriminated between shapes of circle, t r i angle, square, and diamond and sorted the shapes by placing them in designated areas during a th irty second time lim it.
5. Scissor Cutting Motor Assignment--the cutting of strips of paper, eight and one-half inches in length, between specific lines during a time lim it of thirty seconds.
6. Bead Stringing Motor Assessment--the lacing of a string through a hollow bead one inch thick, stringing as many beads as possi ble in th irty seconds.
7. Cross Motor Assessment--a paper and pencil motor assessment in which a cross was to be put inside a three-fourths inch square box during a thirty second time period without touching the outline of the box.
8. Screw Driving Motor Assessment--using a screw driver, the subject was to drive four #6 x 3/4 inch wood screws into a piece of white pine wood. The screw holes had already been drilled and the screws driven into the material so that the assessment determined 46 coordination instead of strength in driving screws. The total time to drive four screws even with the top surface of the wood was recorded.
9. Drilling Motor Assessment--using a hand d rill with a 3/16
inch twist d rill mounted in i t , the subject was to d rill as many holes through a piece of pine wood, 1/2 inch thick, within the time lim it of th irty seconds.
10. Striking Motor Assessment--given a ten ounce claw hammer
and size 4D box nails started into 1/16 inch diameter holes through a one-half inch thick piece of pine, each subject was to drive as many
nails as they could completely into the wood. Bent nails were not counted. The time factor was thirty seconds.
11. Finger-Thumb Touch Assessment (Right and Left Hands)--using the fingers and thumb of a particular hand, the subject was to perform the following sequence: thumb-first finger, thumb-second finger, thumb- third finger, thumb-fourth finger, thumb-first finger. The subject was
to touch as many times as possible in fifteen seconds for each hand.
The teacher aide was trained by the researcher to give these motor assessment tests. Specific instructions were read aloud to each
student for each test to insure uniformity except for the Finger-Thumb
Touch Assessment. These directions for this test were recorded on a
cassette tape along with "START" and "STOP" commands, thereby allowing
the test administrator to visually count the number of actual contacts made by each hand.
Care was taken so that each subject understood exactly what to
do and how much time was specified for each assessment. The subject was
allowed to practice the motor test item at least once before beginning 47 the actual test and timing or counting the number of successful perform ances.
The psychomotor tests were reviewed by industrial arts teacher educators, special education teachers, and elementary school teachers to determine their face validity and appropriateness for elementary school children with learning disabilities. The d iffic u lty of each assessment was checked by piloting the test using primary grade school children.
Due to the possibility of distraction to other areas caused by noise from the motor testing (the striking assessment in particular), these assessments were administered in a separate room away from the instructional area. All the motor tests were administered by the teacher aide or by this investigator. The question of experimenter bias could be raised as a factor that influenced performance. However, due to the objective nature of the performance tests, the number of different assessments employed within this study, and that this influence was consistent throughout the testing of all subjects, this investigator believed i t not to be a major confounding variable.
The Treatment
For the purposes of this study, industrial arts activities were integrated into the regular classroom instructional program and schedule of the students of the intact class. These activities were presented for a time period not to exceed sixty minutes per day, three days per week, over a duration of five weeks. The activities were conducted on Monday, 48
Wednesday, and Friday from 9:30 a.m. until 10:30 a.m.
On Tuesday and Thursday, the program for the intact group included one hour remedial lessons adapted from the basic curriculum materials of the regular sixth grade classes. For example, phonic d rills and structural analysis for language arts were conducted. Group sounding games and supplemental Developmental Learning Materials (DLM) were also available for student use in the instructional area.
The teacher was given the instructional information about the nine industrial arts project activities. Since the regular LBD teacher had no previous training in industrial arts, each project was reviewed by the teacher and this investigator approximately two days preceeding the actual presentation of the project activity. The teacher, then, was to integrate these activities into the ongoing remediation program.
It should be noted that the teacher was in itia lly quite apprehen sive as to her a b ility to adeptly manipulate the various tools and materials needed to successfully complete each project activity. This attitude improved after she had an opportunity to practice using the tools and materials.
Industrial arts instructional sheets were given to students at the start of each project (Appendix C). The activity was explained and special vocabulary words that applied to the tools, processes, or materials involved in each activity were defined. Also, the LBD teacher structured mathematics and language arts instruction around these instruction sheets. Emphasis was placed on the teaching of arithmetic sk ills, the meaning and spelling of words, and the mastery of phonic skills prior to and immediately following the industrial arts activities. 49
(Selected samples of teacher-developed instructional activities are included in Appendix C.)
The activities selected were (see Appendix C):
1. Spinning Button 6. Ring Tool Game Base 2. Enameling Shapes 7. Note Pad 3. Recipe Holder 8. Truck Assembly 4. Plastisol Creatures 9. Screen Printing 5. Acrylic Shapes
These manipulative constructional activities were typical indus tria l arts activities for elementary school children. Elementary texts, such as Exploring Woodworking (Zimmerman, 1975) and Teaching Elementary
Industrial Arts (M iller and Boyd, 1972) were consulted. Prior to the study, each project activity was pilot tested by normal elementary school children under the supervision of a regular classroom teacher.
During the time the experimental group was receiving the indus trial arts activities integrated within their regular intact class ac tivities , the tutoring group was receiving remediation by a tutor in language arts and mathematics. This activity was scheduled as a part of their regular instruction. Individual tutoring sessions were conducted outside of their regular classroom for at least one hour per day, five days per week.
The tutor presented individualized programs of remediation directly focused toward the remediation of that child's educational deficiencies. Essentially, the same types of materials for phonics and structural analysis were used by both groups. Gerald Press materials for vocabulary improvement along with adapted teacher prepared materials for mathematics were used during the tutoring sessions. Figure 1 reports the time line schedule used to present the treat ment for the two groups.
INDUSTRIAL ARTS INTEGRATED ACTIVITIES
Industrial Arts Group Tutor Group
Date Activity Date Activity
April 26 M Pretesting M Pretesting T 28 W Spinning Button W
30 F Enameling Shapes
May 3 M Enameling Shapes
5 W Recipe Holder—Part 1
7 F Recipe Holder—Part 2 Individual Tutoring Remediation in Read 10 M Recipe Holder—Part 2 ing, Vocabulary, (Continui Spelling and Mathe 12 W Plastisol Casting matics
14 F Game Base—Part 1
17 M Game Base—Part 2
19 W Acrylic Forming
21 F Note Pad
24 M Note Pad
26 W Truck Assembly—Part 1
28 F Truck Assembly—Part 2
31 M HOLIDAY—NO SCHOOL
June 2 W Screen Printing
4 F Posttesting Posttesting
Figure 1. Treatment Time Line for the Industrial Arts Group and the Tutoring Group The tutoring time was not held at the same time as the intact group was receiving the experimental treatment. This variable may have affected the results of this study and therefore, maybe perceived as a limitation of this study.
Upon completion of the nine project activities, all subjects of both groups were subjected to the posttests. All posttesting was completed within two days after the final project activity was completed
All students were told that the results of these tests would not affect their regular class grade, therefore, reducing any anxiety that might have been associated with performance on the selected criterion measures
As discussed previously some subjects in the intact classroom had past histories of disruptive behaviors. Since the integrated industrial arts activities were presented within a group setting, behavior problems arose due to either lack of interest or perhaps because the subjects had rather low levels of attention or frustration, thus demanding more individual attention during the treatment sessions.
The teacher, in most cases, would refer the student back to the instruction sheet, ask them to read the directions aloud, verbally praise them with such phrases as "very good" or "that's great!" and then
"now le t's see what you can do." I t would be d iffic u lt to know i f these situations occurred in the tutoring sessions, since they were a one- tutor one-student ratio and no observations were recorded.
I t should be noted, however, that inappropriate behavior was
not unusual for this special group and may have occurred during any
type of activity presented during the class day. 52
Treatment of the Data
In order to obtain as much information as possible from the data, a 2 x 2 factorial anova design was adopted. For purposes of data analysis, subjects1 scores were blocked into a statistical design of a
ONE-BETWEEN-ONE-WITHIN-SUBJECTS with repeated measures on the same subjects. The statistical analysis utilized was the analysis of variance. By selecting this design, error variance was reduced by partitioning the sums of squares and degrees of freedom in the analysis of data, thus yielding more information and greater sensitivity toward indicating statistical significance.
All pretest-posttest data for each variance were entered into the computer program SOUPAC, available through the Educational Consult ing Service, Department of Educational Development, at The Ohio State
University.
Since the analysis of variance only indicated that a difference existed between the main effects of the mean scores, additional analysis was necessary. Multiple comparisons of the pretest and posttest mean scores for the simple effects of each teaching method were accomplished by using the student t-te s t. This yielded a t>ratio, which was compared to the t_ distribution value obtained from a standard t distribution table. In addition to the critical value, the table indicated the level of confidence for that particular ratio.
To formulate a clearer impression of the effects of teaching methods of achievement, each set of pre and posttest mean scores was 53 graphed. This practice was useful in that i t provided a method of detecting potential trends that may not be indicated by simple statistical analysis.
Summary
This chapter has presented information and explanation of the procedures and instrumentation developed essential to the conduct of this experiment. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects that integrated industrial arts activities would have on cognitive, affective, and psychomotor achievement of elementary students with learning disabilities. The study was designed to involve two groups of identified learning disabled students from the fourth through sixth grade levels. An intact group was selected to receive the integrated industrial arts treatment, while a group of randomly selected male students who did not receive such treatment were selected to serve as a control. Since i t would have been inappropriate to permit the absence of any remediation treatment, the control received tutoring sessions to help them with their learning deficiencies.
Instruments selected or developed for the purpose of the experiment were two self-concept tests to measure change in attitudinal achievement, two standardized tests to measure cognitive achievement in areas of reading comprehension, vocabulary, and mathematics, and eleven motor assessments to determine psychomotor achievement. A description of the physical setting of the experiments, the experimental design, the treatment of the data, and the variables involved were also included. CHAPTER IV
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF THE DATA
The findings presented in this chapter were the result of the analysis and interpretation of data obtained from two groups of fourteen
LBD subjects involved in this study. Two methods of instruction were
investigated to determine their effects on the dependent variables of affective achievement, cognitive achievement, and psychomotor achievement.
Statistical Analysis of Data
Paper and pencil instruments were used to measure affective
(self-concept) achievement and cognitive (language arts and mathematics)
achievement (see Appendices A and B). Timed motor assessments were used
to measure achievement in psychomotor functioning for each subject (see
Appendix C).
Pretest and posttest scores were obtained for each ^ and means
and standard deviations were computed for seventeen dependent variables
for each group. A 2 x 2 factorial design comprised of teaching methods
and achievement by repeated measures were subjected to the statistical
test of a one-between one-within subjects analysis of variance. Kerlin-
ger (1973) states:
55 56
Factorial analysis of variance with the one-between one-within subjects design allows for a substantial increase in precision because the source of variation in the scores can be subtracted from the total variance. By isolating and extracting the vari ance in each dependent variable due to individual differences, the error term or the within group variance is reduced, (p. 212)
Analysis of variance is a statistical technique that assesses one or more categorical independent variables measured at any level upon a continuous dependent variable that is measured at an interval
level. The cases are divided into categories based on their values for each of the independent variables and the difference between the means of these categories on the dependent variable is tested for statistical significance.
The relative effect upon the dependent variable of each of the
independent variables, their combined effects, and interactions may be assessed.
I f there is no difference between groups in the population, both the sum of squares between the groups and the sum of squares within the groups indicate the same source of variation. Provided the under
lying assumptions of independence, homogeniety and randomness of sample are not seriously violated, the estimate of the population variance based upon the 'between' category variations, the sums of squares between
the groups divided by the degrees of freedom minus one, equals the mean
square due to the effects of the treatment. The estimate of population
variance based on the 'within' category variations is based on the esti mate of the population variance of the dependent variable.
Using analysis of variance (ANOVA), the test for significance yields an £ ratio. In this study, the ANOVA treatment of the data was 57 accomplished by the computer subroutine called SOUPAC, provided by the computer services through the Department of Educational Development at
The Ohio State University. I t provided the following compulations:
(1) source of variation; (2) sums of squares; (3) degrees of freedom;
(4) the mean squares; (5) the £ ratio; and (6) the probability level of the £ ratio. Interpretation of the results of analysis is limited, how ever. Kerlinger (1973) states:
In the analysis of variance, an overall £ test, if signifi cant, indicates that there are significant differences somewhere in the data. Inspection of the means can te ll one, though imprecisely, which differences are important. To test the hypotheses, however, more or less controlled and precise statis tical tests are needed, (p. 236)
For the purposes of this study and of most interest to this investigator in the in itia l analysis of the data provided by the analysis of variance, was the indication of a significant £ ratio for the method
X achievement interaction. If interaction was evident at the .10 level of confidence, then results of the main effects of teaching method and achievement were ignored. However, a critic al examination of the simple effects was undertaken.
Specifically, the simple effects subjected to further analysis were the differences between pretest and posttest means for each group by teaching method. This analysis was facilitated by the use of the student's t-te s t. This commonly employed test of significance produced a t-ra tio .
Since the multiple statistical comparisons were in the ANOVA context, the following formula was used to compute the £-ratio. 58
t _ difference between means
' / 2mss/ a n
The 'MS' was the value obtained from the ANOVA table and 'n' was
the number of subjects for the group. The resultant t-ra tio was then compared to the c ritic a l ratio obtained from a table of the distribution of t at a specific level of probability.
A confidence level for statistical significance was set at alpha equals to .10 for testing each of the dependent variables, thereby yield
ing information to support or not support the research hypotheses. This
level was selected by this investigator to increase the likelihood of getting more information from the data.
The alpha level of .05, a customary level, was judged by this
investigator to be unnecessarily stringent due to the low number of Ss
in the study and the potential wide range of variability among children with learning disabilities. Adoption of this level also reduced the risk
of committing a Type I I error. Therefore, with this in mind, the alpha
equal to .10 was set as an acceptable level for testing the statistical
significance for the achievement variables. However, the probability
level was presented for each factor of every variable.
Equivalency of Groups
Since one of the groups selected for this study was an intact
group while the other group was randomly selected, the variables of I.Q.
and chronological age of these groups were subjected to statistical 59 analysis to take into account initial differences that might effect the interpretation of the results of teaching method on subject achievement.
Data values of age in months based upon birthdate to March 1 , 1.976, were obtained from permanent record files of the school d istrict as were the
I.Q. scores of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale for Children. From the raw wcores (see Appendix E), means and standard deviations were com puted for each group and presented in Table 1. A test of significance using analysis of variance indicated no differences of age or I.Q. at
.078 and .677 levels of confidence. The statistical summaries are pre sented in Tables 2 and 3.
TABLE 1
MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF PERMANENT RECORD I.Q. SCORES AND CHRONOLOGICAL AGE IN MONTHS BY TREATMENT GROUPS
I.Q. Age Group Scores (months)
Industrial Arts MEANS 94.57 146.71 Activity SD 7.46 7.96
Tutoring MEANS 96.28 137.00 Remediation SD 6.40 9.41
Totals MEANS 95.43 141.86 SD 6.95 8.72
S tatistically, based on the results of these data, the two treatment groups were assumed to be equivalent on factors of age and
I.Q. The groups were also equivalent on characteristics of sex (all males) and the tr a it of handedness (one left-handed subject in each group). 60
TABLE 2
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF I.Q. SCORES BY TREATMENT GROUPS
Degrees of Sum of Mean F Source Freedom Squares Squares Ratio P
Between Groups 1 10.2857 10.2857 .18 .677 Error 12 677.1429 56.4286
Totals 13 687.4286
TABLE 3
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF CHRONOLOGICAL AGE BY TREATMENT GROUPS
Degrees of Sum of Mean F Source Freedom Squares Squares Ratio P
Between Groups 1 330.2857 330.2857 3.72 .078 Error 12 1063.4286 88.6190
Totals 13 1393.7143
Although these groups were assumed equivalent on factors of intelligence, age, sex, and handedness, i t is again emphasized that there were distinct behavioral and perhaps emotional differences between groups as identified by the professional staff in the school system.
One of the primary reasons for the school d istrict having the intact group of students for the remediation of their learning disabilities was that these children, based on their past histories, could not 61 adequately perform throughout a school day in a regular classroom situa tion. Subjects were placed within the intact group because of their inability to control inappropriate behavior, and their academic perform ance levels were generally lower than the children who were "main streamed" within the school d is tric t.
Results of Affective Achievement
Research Hypothesis I. Research Hypothesis I stated that stu dents participating in integrated industrial arts activities would demon strate a greater improvement in affective (self-concept) achievement than students who do not participate in industrial arts activities.
Two self-concept instruments were used to assess self-concept achievement: the Piers-Harris Self-Opinion Test and the Lister-Ohlsen
Self-Concept Test. The overall scores from the Piers-Harris test were analyzed. The scores from the Lister- Ohlsen test were analyzed on factors of self-concept toward "Achievement", "Learning Ability" and
"Interests" in addition to the overall achievement scores.
The means and standard deviations of achievement scores from the
Piers-Harris Self-Opinion Test are presented in Table 4. An increase in score on this test indicated improvement in self-concept achievement.
The corresponding ANOVA summary is presented in Table 5.
Although a significant £ ratio of 3.25 (|>=.097) for the main effect of teaching method was indicated, the £ ratios for the main effect of achievement and teaching method X achievement interaction were not sig nificant. Due to the absence of significant interaction, further analysis 62
TABLE 4
MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF PRETEST AND POSTTESTS BY TREATMENT GROUPS ON THE PIERS-HARRIS SELF-OPINION TEST
Pre Post Totals Group test test Means SD
Industrial Arts MEANS 9.86 8.86 9.36 Activity SD 2.30 2.23 2.26
Tutoring MEANS 11.00 11.71 11.36 Remediation SD 1.77 2.12 1.95
Totals MEANS 10.43 10.29 10.36 SD 2.05 2.17 2.11
TABLE 5
SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF PIERS-HARRIS SELF-CONCEPT ACHIEVEMENT BY TEACHING METHODS
Degrees of Sum of Mean F Source Freedom Squares Squares Ratio P
Between Ss
Teaching Method (A) 1 28.000 28.0000 3.25 .097 S/A 12 103.4286 8.6190
Within Ss
Achievement (B) 1 .1429 .1429 .08 .783 A X B 1 5.1429 5.1429 2.84 .118 Error 12 21.7143 1.8095
Totals 13 158.4287 63 of the simple effects was not performed.
The means and standard deviations of scores from the Lister-
Ohlsen Self-Concept Test on the factor of 'Achievement' are presented in
Table 6. As with all factors of this test, a lower score indicated a positive improvement in self-concept achievement.
The ANOVA summary is presented in Table 7. While the £ ratio of 4.40 (£=.058) for the main effect of achievement was significant, teaching method and teaching method X achievement interaction were not.
Subsequent analysis was not indicated.
The means and standard deviations for the Lister-Ohlsen test on the factor of "Learning Ability" are presented in Table 8. A decrease in score indicated positive self-concept achievement.
The ANOVA summary is presented in Table 9. No significant £ ratios were revealed for the main effects of teaching method, achievement, or for teaching method X achievement interaction. Further analysis of the simple effects was not required.
The means and standard deviations for the Lister-Ohlsen test on the factor of "Interests" are presented in Table 10. A decrease in score indicated improvement in self-concept achievement.
The ANOVA summary is presented in Table 11. No significant £ ratios were indicated for the main effects of teaching method, achieve ment, or teaching method X achievement interaction. Again, further statistical analysis was not indicated.
The means and standard deviations of the overall achievement scores on the Lister-Ohlsen test are presented in Table 12. Lower test scores on the Lister-Ohlsen test indicated a more positive self-concept. 64
TABLE 6
MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF PRETEST AND POSTTESTS BY TREATMENT GROUPS ON THE FACTOR OF ACHIEVEMENT ON THE LISTER-OHLSEN SELF-CONCEPT TEST
Pre Post Totals Group test test Means SD
Industrial Arts MEANS 34.00 36.57 35.29 Activity SD 9.84 7.93 8.94
Tutoring MEANS 28.86 32.71 30.79 Remediation SD 7.44 6.76 7.10
Totals MEANS 31.43 34.64 33.04 SD 8.72 7.36 8.07
TABLE 7
SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF FEELINGS TOWARD ACHIEVEMENT ON THE LISTER-OHLSEN SELF-CONCEPT TEST BY TEACHING METHODS
Degrees of Sum of Mean F Source Freedom Squares Squares Ratio P
Between Ss
Teaching Method (A) 1 141.7500 141.7500 1.06 .321 S/A 12 1592.2143 132.7262
Within Ss
Achievement (B) 1 72.3214 72.3214 4.40 .058 A X B 1 2.8929 2.8929 .17 .682 Error 12 197.2857 16.4405
Totals 13 2006.4643 65.
TABLE 8
MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF PRETEST AND POSTTESTS BY TREATMENT GROUPS ON THE FACTOR OF LEARNING ABILITY ON THE LISTER-OHLSEN SELF-CONCEPT TEST
Pre Post Totals Group test test Means SD
Industrial Arts MEANS 7.14 5.29 6.21 Activity SD 2.12 1.48 1.83
Tutoring MEANS 7.29 7.29 7.29 Remediation SD 1.98 2.96 2.52
Totals MEANS 7.21 6.29 6.75 SD 2.05 2.34 2.20
TABLE 9
SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF FEELINGS TOWARD LEARNING ABILITY ON THE LISTER-OHLSEN SELF-CONCEPT TEST BY TEACHING METHODS
Degrees of Sum of Mean F Source Freedom Squares Squares Ratio P
Between Ss
Teaching Method (A) 1 8.0357 8.0357 1.27 .281 S/A 12 75.7143 6.3095
Within Ss
Achievement (B) 1 6.0357 6.0357 1.18 .299 A X B 1 6.0357 6.0357 1.18 .299 Error 12 61.4286 5.1190
Totals 13 157.2500 66
TABLE 10
MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF PRETEST AND POSTTESTS BY TREATMENT GROUPS ON THE FACTOR OF INTERESTS ON THE LISTER-OHLSEN SELF-CONCEPT TEST
Pre Post Totals Group test test Means SD
Industrial Arts MEANS 56.14 57.29 56.71 Activity SD 17.35 8.78 13.75
Tutoring MEANS 59.00 64.29 61.64 Remediation SD 15.74 9.85 13.13
Totals MEANS 57.57 60.79 59.17 SD 16.56 9.33 13.44
TABLE 11
SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF FEELINGS TOWARD INTERESTS ON THE LISTER-OHLSEN SELF-CONCEPT TEST BY TEACHING METHODS
Degrees of Sum of Mean F Source Freedom Squares Squares Ratio P
Between Ss
Teaching Method (A) 1 170.0357 170.0357 .51 .488 S/A 12 3989.5714 332.4623
Within Ss
Achievement (B) 1 72.3214 72.3214 .81 .386 A X B 1 30.0357 30.0357 .34 .572 Error 1070.1429 89.1786
Totals 13 5332.1071 67
TABLE 12
MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF PRETEST AND POSTTESTS BY TREATMENT GROUPS ON THE LISTER-OHLSEN SELF-CONCEPT TEST
Pre Post Totals Group test test Means SD
Industrial Arts MEANS 97.29 98.29 97.79 Activity SD 17.65 12.63 15.34
Tutoring MEANS 96.43 106.00 101.42 Remediation SD 22.24 19.52 20.92
Totals MEANS 96.86 102.14 99.55 SD 20.07 16.44 18.35
TABLE 13
SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF OVERALL LISTER-OHLSEN SELF-CONCEPT ACHIEVEMENT BY TEACHING METHODS
Degrees of Sum of Mean F Source Freedom Squares Squares Ratio P
Between Ss
Teaching Method (A) 1 82.2857 82.2857 .12 .739 S/A 12 8479.7143 706.6429
Within Ss
Achievement (B) 1 195.5714 195.5714 1.31 .275 A X B 1 128.5714 128.5714 .86 .372 Error 12 1794.8571 149.5714
Totals 13 10680.9999 68
The corresponding ANOVA summary is presented in Table 13. The main effects of teaching method, achievement, and teaching method X achievement interaction were not significant, therefore, no further analysis was indicated.
Based on the results of the statistical analysis of these data,
Research Hypothesis I failed to be supported. It was suggested that there was no difference in affective (self-concept) achievement between students participating in the industrial arts activities method and those in the tutoring method.
There was concern on the part of this investigator and hesita tion to formulate and accept conclusions based on the in itia l s ta tis ti cal analysis of the data. The focus of this concern was that the tradi tional statistical tests of significance might not be powerful or sensi tive enough to indicate the actual effects of either treatment. A high degree of variability within the groups, a low number of subjects, and
reliability of the instrumentation could singly or collectively contrib
ute to a high level of error variance thereby obscuring the actual
effects of the treatments. Because of these factors, a closer scrutiny
and analysis of the data was done.
Although not necessitated, the simple effects of the pretest and
posttest scores by teaching method were analyzed by multiple t_ tests and
the actual mean scores displayed graphically. By utilizin g these addi
tional techniques, trends were identified which influenced the interpre
tation of the data.
Care was taken to display each variable graphically in a manner
that prevented visual distortion of the presentation of the actual data. 69
The computed t_ ratios of the mean scores from the Piers-Harris test were .637 and .452 for the industrial arts activity and tutoring groups respectively. The mean scores are presented in Figure 2. These data indicated only a slight gain in self-concept achievement for the tutored group, while the industrial arts activity group indicated a decline in self-concept achievement.
1
1
1 1.A. Group 1 Tutor Group
8 -
Figure 2. Piers-Harris Self Opinion Achievement As a Function of Teaching Method
The critical ratio for significance was 1.895 at the .10 level of confidence. Although the tutored group revealed a lower t ratio , it was a positive gain in achievement, while the industrial arts activity indicated a greater ratio but showed a negative self-concept achievement.
The t_ ratios for the Lister-Ohlsen test were:
I.A. TUTOR Overall .070 .674 Achievement .118 .543 Learning A bility 1.378 .000 Interests .417 .625 70
Displays of the mean scores for the factors of the Lister-Ohlsen test are presented in Figures 3, 4, 5 and 6.
56
58 I.A. Group 60 Tutor Group
62
64
66
Figure 3. Lister-Ohlsen Self-Concept Achievement on the Factor of Interests as a Function of Teaching Method
2
4
6 ■I.A. Group -Tutor Group 8
10
12
A Figure 4. Lister-Ohlsen Self-Concept Achievement on the Factor of Learning Ability as a Function of Teaching Methods 71
26
28 -I.A. Group 30 ■Tutor Group
32
34
36
38
A Ac
Figure 5. Lister-Ohlsen Self-Concept Achievement on the Factor of Achievement as a Function of Teaching Method
100 I.A. Group 102 — Tutor Group
104
106
108
A
Figure 6. Lister-Ohlsen Self-Concept Achievement on the Overall Test as a Function of Teaching Method 72
Although the pretest scores (B) appeared to be quite similar, a
marked difference in change of posttest score was noted for the tutored
group. The direction of this change, however, indicated a lower self-
concept for that group. The overall score for the industrial arts
activity group appeared to be more stable. A crossing of the groups on
Figure 6 suggested the presence of interaction, thereby reflecting that
these differences may be due to the treatment.
Further analysis of the factor of achievement showed an equiva
lent achievement growth for both groups. On factors toward Learning
Ability and Interests, the industrial arts activity group demonstrated
trends toward greater improvement or a more even feeling about them
selves. The tutor group evidenced trends away from a more stable self-
concept.
Based on the evidence presented, Research Hypothesis I was not
supported. The industrial arts activity groups did not demonstrate a
greater self-concept improvement than students who did not have these
activities. There were indications, however, that suggested that the
industrial arts activity may have led to improved self-concept feelings
toward their ability to learn.
Results of Cognitive Achievement
Research Hypothesis I I . Research Hypothesis II stated that stu
dents participating in integrated industrial arts activities would
demonstrate a greater improvement in language arts achievement than stu
dents who do not participate in integrated industrial arts activities. 73
The Gates-MacGinitie Reading Test, Primary £ provided pretest and posttest data on factors of vocabulary and reading comprehension achievement.
The means and standard deviations of the vocabulary achievement scores are presented in Table 14. An increase in score indicated improved achievement in vocabulary. The ANOVA summary presented in
Table 15 indicated a significant £ ratio of 4.20 (£=.063) for the main effect of achievement but was not indicated on the main effect of teach ing method and teaching method X achievement interaction.
The means and standard deviations of scores obtained from the
Gates- MacGinitie Test on reading comprehension are reported in Table 16.
A positive gain score from the pretest to the posttest suggested improved reading comprehension. The ANOVA summary presented in Table 17 did not indicate significant £ ratios for the main effects of teaching method or achievement. The interaction of teaching method X achievement also failed to show significance.
Examination of the pretest and posttest means of both groups showed gains in improvement for language arts achievement. The degree of difference was revealed by computing the t ratios. These were:
I.A. Tutor Vocabulary .221 .199 Reading Comprehension .986 .231
Displays of the mean scores for both groups on the Gates-MacGinitie
Test for vocabulary and reading comprehension are presented in Figures 7 and 8 respectively. 74
TABLE 14
MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF PRETEST AND POSTTESTS BY TREATMENT GROUPS OF VOCABULARY ACHIEVEMENT ON THE GATES-MACGINITIE TEST
Pre Post Totals Group test test Means SD
Industrial Arts MEANS 29.00 33.86 31.43 Activity SD 7.05 6.69 6.87
Tutoring MEANS 35.00 36.14 35.57 Remediation SD 6.63 5.74 6.20
Totals MEANS 32.00 35.00 33.50 SD 6.85 6.23 6.55
TABLE 15
SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF VOCABULARY ACHIEVEMENT ON THE GATES-MACGINITIE TEST BY TEACHING METHODS
Degrees of Sum of Mean F Source Freedom Squares Squares Ratio P
Between Ss
Teaching Method (A) 1 120.1429 120.1429 1.41 .257 S/A 12 1019.8571 84.9881
Within Ss
Achievement (B) 1 63.0000 63.0000 4.20 .163 A X B 1 24.1429 24.1429 1.61 .228 Error 12 179.8571 14.9881
T o ta ls 13 1407.0000 75
TABLE 16
MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF PRETEST AND POSTTESTS BY TREATMENT GROUPS OF READING COMPREHENSION ACHIEVEMENT ON THE GATES-MACGINITIE TEST
Pre Post Totals Group test test Means SD
Industrial Arts MEANS 21.00 22.57 21.79 Activity SD 8.43 7.69 8.07
Tutoring MEANS 23.29 24.71 24.00 Remediation SD 9.87 10.08 9.97
Totals MEANS 22.14 23.64 22.89 SD 9.18 8.96 9.07
TABLE 17
SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF READING COMPREHENSION ACHIEVEMENT ON THE GATES-MACGINITIE TEST BY TEACHING METHODS
Degrees of Sum of Mean F Source Freedom Squares Squares Ratio P
Between Ss
Teaching Method (A) 1 34.3214 34.3214 .19 .668 S/A 12 2127.8571 177.3214
Within Ss
Achievement (B) 1 15.7500 15.7500 1.02 .331 A X B 1 3.5714 3.5714 .00 .962 Error 12 184.4714 15.3229
T o ta ls 13 2365.9713 76
38
36
34 I.A. Group Tutor Group32
30
28
A] A
Figure 7. Vocabulary Achievement as a Function of Teaching Method
25
24
23 I.A. Group — Tutor Group 22
21
X Al A,
Figure 8, Reading Comprehension Achievement as a Function of Teaching Method The t ratios did not meet the critical ratio of 1.895. However, the industrial arts activity group showed slightly greater improvement than the tutor group on the factor of reading comprehension and consider ably greater improvement on the factor of vocabulary.
Based on the analysis and presentation of these data i t was con cluded that statis tica lly there were no differences revealed to suggest that the group receiving industrial arts activity method demonstrated greater improvement in language arts achievement than the tutoring method.
Closer analysis revealed that a trend may be indicated to support the research hypothesis in favor of the industrial arts activity group, since differences in gain scores on both vocabulary and reading comprehension were higher for that group. This researcher chose to accept Research
Hypothesis II.
Research Hypothesis I I I . Research Hypothesis I I I stated that students participating in integrated industrial arts activities will demonstrate a greater improvement in mathematics achievement than stu dents who do not participate in integrated industrial arts activities.
The pretest and posttest scores of the Arithmetic Skills Inven tory were subjected to analysis to test the hypothesis.
The means and standard deviations are reported in Table 18.
Greater improvement in mathematics achievement was indicated i f the posttest scores exceeded those of the pretest.
The ANOVA summary in Table 19 revealed a nonsignificant £ ratio for the main effects of teaching method but indicated the £ ratio of
9.89 (£=.008) for achievement and 7.82 (£=.016) for teaching method X achievement interaction. Further statistical analysis of the simple 78 TABLE 18
MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF PRETEST AND POSTTESTS BY TREATMENT GROUPS OF MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT ON THE . ARITHMETIC SKILLS INVENTORY
Pre Post Totals Group test test Means SD
Industrial Arts MEANS 17.00 21.00 19.43 Activity SD 6.68 5.38 6.06
Tutori ng MEANS 18.86 19.14 19.00 Remediation SD 2.64 4.16 3.48
Totals MEANS 17.93 20.50 19.21 SD 5.08 4.81 4.53
TABLE 19
SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT ON THE ARITHMETIC SKILLS INVENTORY BY TEACHING METHODS
Degrees of Sum of Mean F Source Freedom Squares Squares Ratio P
Between Ss
Teaching Method (A) 1 1.2857 1.2857 .02 .878 S/A 12 628.4286 52.3690
Within Ss
Achievement (B) 1 46.2857 46.2857 9.89 .008 A X B 1 36.5714 36.5714 7.82 .016 Error 12 56.1429 4.6786
T o ta ls 13 786.7143 79
effects by teaching method using the Student t test was suggested by
these results.
The _t test yielded a ratio of 1.034 for the industrial arts activity method and .072 for the tutoring method. The critical ratio
for significance at the .10 level of confidence was 1.895.
Summary of the mean pre- and posttest scores by teaching method
is shown in Figure 9. I t indicated the presence of interaction. The
pretest mean of the industrial arts activity group was below that of the
tutor group. After the treatment, however, the industrial arts activity group achieved a higher level on the posttest than did the tutor group.
This suggested that the gain in achievement was caused by the effects of
the treatment.
22
21
20 ■I.A. Group ■Tutor Group 19
18
17
16
Figure 9. Mathematics Achievement as a Function of Teaching Method 80
From the analysis of these data i t was concluded that Research
Hypothesis I I I could not be s tatis tica lly supported at the .10 level of significance. Evidence was presented, however, that suggested the inte grated industrial arts activity group did demonstrate a greater improve ment in mathematics achievement than the tutor group. Based on the results, this researcher accepted Research Hypothesis I I I .
Results of Psychomotor Achievement
Research Hypothesis IV. Research Hypothesis IV stated that stu dents participating in integrated industrial arts activities will demon strate a greater improvement in psychomotor achievement than students who do not participate in integrated industrial arts activities.
Twelve motor assessments were used to obtain pretest and post test data to measure psychomotor achievement. Each assessment was analyzed and the results were reported separately.
The means and standard deviations for the Back Saw Motor Assess ment are presented in Table 20. Reported are the number of seconds needed by a subject to completely saw across a piece of wood in a miter box. A decrease in the amount of time indicated a gain in achievement.
The ANOVA summary in Table 21 indicated no significant £ ratios the the main effects of teaching methods, achievement, or teaching method
X achievement interaction.
Analysis by the t-te s t yielded ratios of .113 for the industrial arts activity method and .005 for the tutor method. The critical ratio was 1.895. 81
TABLE 20
MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF PRETEST AND POSTTESTS BY TREATMENT GROUPS ON THE BACK SAWING MOTOR ASSESSMENT
Pre Post Totals Group • test test Means SD
Industrial Arts MEANS 24.00 26.57 25.29 Activity SD 8.19 11.65 10.07
Tutoring MEANS 52.17 52.29 52.50 Remediation SD 33.90 43.38 38.93
Totals MEANS 38.36 39.43 38.89 SD 24.66 31.76 28.43
TABLE 21
SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF BACK SAWING ACHIEVEMENT BY TEACHING METHODS
Degrees of Sum of Mean F Source Freedom Squares Squares Ratio P
Between Ss
Teaching Method (A) 1 5184.3214 5184.3214 2.86 .117 S/A 12 21775.8570 1814.6548
Within Ss
Achievement (B) 1 8.0357 8.0357 .07 .793 A X B 1 15.7500 15.7500 .14 .714 Error 12 1334.7143 112.0595
T o ta ls 13 28318.6774 82
A graph of the pre- and posttest mean scores by teaching method is presented in Figure 10. Very l i t t l e gain in Back Saw Achievement was evident.
Time in 50 Sec. 45
40 — I.A. Group 35 ■—Tutor Group
30
25
A1 A, Figure 10. Back Saw Achievement as a Function of Teaching Method
The means and standard deviations for the Coping Saw Motor
Assessment are presented in Table 22. Reported are the number of seconds
needed to saw across a given piece of wood with a coping saw.
The ANOVA summary presented in Table 23 indicated significant £
ratios of 3.45 (£=.088) for the main effects of teaching method and
7.15 (£=.020) for the main effects of achievement but a nonsignificant F_
for teaching method X achievement interaction.
A t-test on the pre- and posttest mean scores by teaching method
yielded 1.070 for the industrial arts activity method and .215 for the 83 TABLE 22
MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF PRETEST AND POSTTESTS BY TREATMENT GROUPS ON THE COPING SAW MOTOR ASSESSMENT
Pre Post Totals Group test test Means SD
Industrial Arts MEANS 54.00 26.29 40.14 Activity SD 20.93 12.87 17.37
Tutoring MEANS 73.86 68.29 71.07 Remediation SD 49.20 41.11 45.34
Totals MEANS 63.93 49.29 55.61 SD 37.81 30.46 34.33
TABLE 23
SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF COPING SAW ACHIEVEMENT BY TEACHING METHODS
Degrees of Sum of Mean F Source Freedom Squares Squares Ratio P
Between Ss
Teaching Method (A) 1 8092.0000 8092.0000 3.45 .088 S/A 12 28177.4290 2348.1190
Within Ss
Achievement (B) 1 2720.5714 2720.5714 7.15 .020 A X B 1 448.0000 448.0000 1.18 .299 Error 12 4563.4286 380.2857
T o ta ls 13 44001.4280 84 tutoring method. The critical ratio for significance was 1.895.
A graph of the pre- and posttest scores by teaching method is presented in Figure 11. Although no interaction was shown, a sharp decline in the number of seconds needed for the industrial arts activity group was indicated. Comparatively l i t t l e achievement was shown by the tutoring group.
75
65
55 1.A. Group Tutor Group 45
35
25
a 2 Figure 11. Coping Saw Achievement as a Function of Teaching Method
The means and standard deviations for the Drilling Motor Assess ment are reported in Table 24. The scores described the number of holes drilled through a piece of wood in th irty seconds.
In Table 25 the ANOVA summary indicated significant £ ratios of
4.35 (£=.059) for the main effects of teaching method; 49.00 (£=.000) for the main effects of achievement; 9.00 (£=.011) for teaching method X achievement interaction. 85
TABLE 24
MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF PRETEST AND POSTTESTS BY TREATMENT GROUPS ON THE DRILLING MOTOR ASSESSMENT
Pre Post Totals Group • test test Means SD
Industrial Arts MEANS 4.57 6.00 5.29 Activity SD 1.18 1.07 1.12
Tutoring MEANS 3.42 4.00 3.71 Remediation SD 1.59 1.41 1.51
Totals MEANS 4.00 5.00 4.50 SD 1.40 1.25 1.33
TABLE 25
SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF DRILLING ACHIEVEMENT BY TEACHING METHODS
Degrees of Sum of Mean F Source Freedom Squares Squares Ratio P
Between Ss
Teaching Method (A) 1 17.2857 17.2857 4.35 .059 S/A 12 47.7143 3.9762
Within Ss
Achievement (B) 1 7.0000 7.0000 49.00 .000 A X B 1 1.2857 1.2857 9.00 .011 Error 12 1.7143 1.4286
T o ta ls 13 75.0000 86
The jt-test yielded a ratio of 1.342 for the industrial arts activity method and .544 for the tutoring method. The critical ratio for significance was 1.895.
Mean scores of pre- and posttests by teaching method are pre sented in Figure 12. No interaction was evident on the graph.
# of Holes in 30 sec. -— I.A. Group Tutor Group
A1 A2 Figure 12. D rilling Achievement as a Function of Teaching Method
The means and standard deviations for the Striking Motor Assess ment are given in Table 26. The scores represented the number of nails driven into a wooden block in th irty seconds.
The ANOVA summary in Table 27 indicated a £ ratio of 3.86 (£=.073) for the main effects of teaching method and 4.93 (£=.046) for the main effects of achievement, but no significance for teaching method X achieve ment interaction.
The £ ratio for the industrial arts activity method was 1.244, while the tutoring method was 1.387. The critical ratio for significance was 1.895. 87
TABLE 26
MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF PRETEST AND POSTTESTS BY TREATMENT GROUPS ON THE STRIKING MOTOR ASSESSMENT
Pre Post Totals Group test test Means SD
Industrial Arts MEANS 7.71 10.14 8.93 Activity SD 2.91 2.25 2.60
Tutori ng MEANS 4.86 7.57 6.21 Remediation SD 3.00 4.14 3.61
Totals MEANS 6.29 8.86 7.57 SD 2.96 3.33 3.15
TABLE 27
SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF STRIKING ACHIEVEMENT BY TEACHING METHODS
Degrees of Sum of Mean F Source Freedom Squares Squares Ratio P
Between Ss
Teaching Method (A) 1 51.5714 57.5714 3.86 .073 S/A 12 160.6029 13.3571
Within Ss
Achievement (B) 1 46.2857 46.2857 4.93 .046 A X B 1 .1429 .1429 .02 .904 Error 12 112.5714 9.3810
T o ta ls 13 371.1743 88
Mean scores of pre- and posttest striking achievement by teach ing method are graphed in Figure 13. The gain in achievement slightly favored the tutoring method.
# of Nails in 30 sec. ^
9
8
7 -I.A. Group -Tutor Group 6
5
4
A1 A2 Figure 13. Striking Achievement as a Function of Teaching Method
The means and standard deviations of the Screw Driving Motor
Assessment are reported in Table 28. Scores represented the number of seconds needed to drive four wood screws into a block of wood.
The corresponding ANOVA summary in Table 29 indicated a s ig n ifi cant £ ratio of 7.80 (£=.016) for the main effects of teaching method and 6.87 (£=.022) for the main effects of achievement. No significant
£ ratio appeared for teaching method X achievement interaction.
Further analysis by the t-test yielded 1.278 and .953 for the industrial arts activity method and tutoring method respectively. The critical ratio for significance was 1.895. 89
TABLE 28
MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF PRETEST AND POSTTESTS BY TREATMENT GROUPS ON THE SCREW DRIVING MOTOR ASSESSMENT
Pre Post Totals Group test test Means SD
Industrial Arts MEANS 41.86 34.00 37.93 Activity SD 5.91 6.05 5.99
Tutoring MEANS 53.00 47.14 50.07 Remediation SD 12.20 9.49 10.93
Totals MEANS 47.43 40.57 44.00 SD 9.59 7.96 8.81
TABLE 29
SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF SCREW DRIVING ACHIEVEMENT BY TEACHING METHODS
Degrees of Sum of Mean F Source Freedom Squares Squares Ratio P
Between Ss
Teaching Method (A) 1 1032.1429 1032.1429 7.80 .016 S/A 12 1588.8571 132.4048
Within Ss
Achievement (B) 1 329.1429 329.1429 6.87 .022 A X B 1 7.0000 7.0000 .15 .709 Error 12 574.8571 47.9048
T o ta ls 13 3532.0000 90
Pretest and posttest mean scores for each teaching method were graphed and reported in Figure 14. Slightly greater achievement was indicated for the industrial arts activity group.
Time in Seconds 55
50
45 -I.A . Group 40 -Tutor Group 35
30
A A2
Figure 14. Screw Driving Achievement as a Function of Teaching Method
The means and standard deviations for the Scissors Cutting Motor
Assessment are reported in Table 30. Achievement scores represented the number of strips of paper cut by using a pair of scissors in thirty seconds.
The AN0VA summary in Table 31 indicated a significant JF ratio of
6.57 (£=.025) for the main effects of teaching method but failed to reveal significance for the main effects of achievement and teaching method X achievement interaction.
Subsequent 1>tests yielded 1.153 for the industrial arts activ
ity method and .161 for the tutoring method. The critical ratio for
significance was 1.895. 91
TABLE 30
MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF PRETEST AND POSTTESTS BY TREATMENT GROUPS ON THE SCISSORS CUTTING MOTOR ASSESSMENT
Pre Post Totals Group test test Means SD
Industrial Arts MEANS 4.71 5.71 5.21 Activity SD .70 1.39 1.10
Tutoring MEANS 3.57 3.71 3.64 Remediation SD 1.51 1.58 1.55
Totals MEANS 4.14 4.71 4.43 SD 1.18 1.48 1.34
TABLE 31
SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF SCISSORS CUTTING ACHIEVEMENT BY TEACHING METHODS
Degrees of Sum of Mean F Source Freedom Squares Squares Ratio P
Between Ss
Teaching Method (A) 1 17.2857 17.2857 6.57 .025 S/A 12 31.5714 2.6310
Within Ss
Achievement (B) 1 2.2857 2.2857 1.67 .221 A X B 1 1.2857 1.2857 .94 .351 Error 12 16.4286 1.3690
T o ta ls 13 68.8571 92
In Figure 15 the mean scores of pre- and posttest scissors cut ting were graphed. The industrial arts activity produced greater improvement in achievement than the tutoring method.
# of 6 Strips 1.A. Group cut in 5 Tutor Group 30 sec. 4
3
2
Figure 15. Scissors Cutting Achievement as a Function of Teaching Method
The means and standard deviations obtained from the Right-Hand
Finger Touch Motor Assessment are presented in Table 32. The achievement scores represented the number of correct finger touches of the right hand performed by the subject.
The ANOVA summary is presented in Table 33. No significant £ ratios were indicated for the main effects of teaching method. However, a significant £ ratio of 18.27 (£=.001) for the main effects of teaching method and 4.43 (p=.057) for teaching method X achievement interaction.
The t-test revealed a ratio of 1.613 for the industrial arts activity method and .548 for the tutoring group. The critical ratio was
1.895 at the .10 level of significance. 93
TABLE 32
MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF PRETEST AND POSTTESTS BY TREATMENT GROUPS ON THE RIGHT HAND FINGER-TOUCH MOTOR ASSESSMENT
Pre Post Totals Group test test Means SD
Industrial Arts MEANS 31.71 38.86 35.29 Activity SD 6.39 5.89 6.14
Tutoring MEANS 30.14 32.57 31.36 Remediation SD 5.30 5.42 5.36
Totals MEANS 30.93 35.71 33.32 SD 5.89 5.66 5.77
TABLE 33
SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF RIGHT-HAND FINGER-TOUCH ACHIEVEMENT BY TEACHING METHODS
Degrees of Sum of Mean F Source Freedom Squares Squares Ratio P
Between $s
Teaching Method (A) 1 108.0357 108.0357 1.57 .234 S/A 12 825.5714 68.7976
Within Ss
Achievement (B) 1 160.3214 160.3214 18.27 .001 A X B 1 38.8929 38.8929 4.43 ,057 Error 12 105.2857 8.7738
T o ta ls 13 1238.1071 94
A graph of the pretest and posttest means by teaching method is presented in Figure 16. Substantial change in achievement was realized by the industrial arts activity group when compared to the tutoring group.
# of 40 Touches in 38 30 sec. 36 1.A. Group Tutor Group 34
32 — ■ *
30
A2 Figure 16. Right Hand Finger Touch Achievement as a Function of Teaching Method
The means and standard deviations for the Left-Hand Finger-Thumb
Motor Assessment are reported in Table 34. The scores indicated the num ber of correct finger-thumb touches performed in thirty seconds.
The corresponding ANOVA summary is presented in Table 35. A significant F_ ratio of 20.21 (£=.001) was revealed for the main effects of achievement but not for the main effects of teaching method or teach ing method X achievement interaction.
Subsequent t-tests revealed ratios of 1.619 for the industrial arts activity method and 1.151 for the tutoring method. 95
TABLE 34
MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF PRETEST AND POSTTESTS BY TREATMENT GROUPS ON THE LEFT-HAND FINGER-TOUCH MOTOR ASSESSMENT
Pre Post Totals Group test test Means SD
Industrial Arts MEANS 31.42 37.85 34.64 Activity SD 3.81 7.12 5.71
Tutoring MEANS 29.00 33.57 31.29 Remediation SD 4.07 5.68 4.94
Totals MEANS 30.21 35.71 32.96 SD 3.94 6.44 5.34
TABLE 35
SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF LEFT-HAND FINGER-TOUCH ACHIEVEMENT BY TEACHING METHODS
Degrees of Sum of Mean F Source Freedom Squares Squares Ratio P
Between Ss
Teaching Method (A) 1 78.8929 78.8929 1.43 .255 S/A 12 662.5714 55,2143
Within Ss
Achievement (B) 1 211.7500 211.7500 20.21 .001 A X B 1 6.0357 6.0357 .58 .462 Error 12 125.7143 10.4762
T o ta ls 13 1084.9643 A graph of the pre- and posttest scores by teaching method is presented in Figure 17. Greater improvement in finger-touch achievement was indicated for the industrial arts activity group.
38 # of Touches 36 in I.A. Group 30 sec. 34 Tutor Group
32
30
Figure 17. Left Hand Finger Touch Achievement as a Function of Teaching Method
The mean and standard deviations of the Assembly Motor Achieve ment are presented in Table 36. Scores reflected the number of units assembled in th irty seconds.
The ANOVA summary in Table 37 indicated two significant £ ratios
6.04 (£=.030) for the main effects of teaching method and 4.46 (£=.056) for the teaching method X achievement interaction. The £ ratio for the main effects of achievement was not significant.
Further analysis by the t-test resulted in ratios of .420 for the industrial arts activity method and .316 for the tutoring group.
The graphic display in Figure 18 showed a slight decline in achievement for the industrial arts activity group, while the tutoring group reflected a small positive gain. These results favored the tutor
ing method. 97
TABLE 36
MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF PRETEST AND POSTTESTS BY TREATMENT GROUPS ON THE ASSEMBLY MOTOR ASSESSMENT
Pre Post Totals Group • test test Means SD
Industrial Arts MEANS 11.57 11.00 11.29 Activity SD 2.06 2.00 2.03
Tutoring MEANS 8.71 9.14 8.93 Remediation SD 1.39 1.25 1.31
Totals MEANS 10.14 10.07 10.11 SD 1.76 1.67 1.81
TABLE 37
SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF ASSEMBLY ACHIEVEMENT BY TEACHING METHODS
Degrees of Sum of Mean F Source Freedom Squares Squares Ratio P
Between Ss
Teaching Method (A) 1 38.8929 38.8929 6.04 .030 S/A 12 77.2857 6.4405
■ - Within Ss
Achievement (B) 1 3.5714 3.5714 .09 .768 A X B 1 1.7500 1.7500 4.46 .056 Error 12 4.7143 .3929
T o ta ls 13 126.2143 98
# of 12 Assemblies in 30 sec. 11 1.A. Group 10 Tutor Group
9
8
Al A, Figure 18. Assembly Achievement as a Function of Teaching Method
The means and standard deviations of the Cross Test Motor Assess ment are presented in Table 38. The scores reported indicated the number of boxes into which the subject could place a cross in th irty seconds.
The corresponding ANOVA table indicated a significant £ ratio of
3.34 (£=.093) for the main effects of teaching but failed to show sig nificance for the main effects of achievement and teaching method X achievement interaction.
The computation of t-tests yielded ratios of .689 for the indus tria l arts activity method and .221 for the tutoring method. The c r it i cal ratio for significance was 1.895.
A graph of the pre- and posttest scores by teaching method is presented in Figure 19. The industrial arts group appeared to demon strate a clear gain in achievement. The tutor group gained less than one unit. These results favored the industrial arts activity method. 99
TABLE 38
MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF PRETEST AND POSTTESTS BY TREATMENT GROUPS ON THE CROSS TEST MOTOR ASSESSMENT
Pre Post Totals Group test test Means SD
Industrial Arts MEANS 30.00 33.85 31.93 Activity SD 5.01 7.08 6.13
Tutoring MEANS 24.29 25.14 24.71 Remediation SD 10.28 8.55 9.46
Totals MEANS 27.14 29.50 28.32 SD 8.09 7.84 7.97
TABLE 39
SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF CROSS TEST ACHIEVEMENT BY TEACHING METHODS
Degrees of Sum of Mean F Source Freedom Squares Squares Ratio P
Between Ss
Teaching Method (A) 1 364.3214 364.3214 3.34 .093 S/A 12 1310.2857 109.1905
Within Ss
Achievement (B) 1 38.8929 38.8929 1.03 .331 A X B 1 15.7500 15.7500 .42 .531 Error 12 454.8571 37.9048
T o ta ls 13 2184.1071 100
34 # of crosses 32 in 30 sec. 30 28 I.A. Group Tutor Group 26
24
AA
Figure 19. Cross Test Achievement as a Function of Teaching Method
The means and standard deviations of the Bead Stringing Motor
Assessment are reported in Table 40. The scores represent the number of beads placed on a string in th irty seconds.
The ANOVA summary indicated a significant £ ratio for the main effects of teaching method. Nonsignificant £ ratios for the main effects of achievement and teaching method X achievement interaction were not evident.
Corresponding t-tests on the pre- and posttest scores by teach ing method yielded .357 for the industrial arts activity group and .947 for the tutoring group. The critical ratio for significance was 1.895.
In Figure 20 a graph of the pre- and posttest means by teaching method is presented. The tutor group showed a gain in achievement, while the industrial arts group showed a decline. The results favored the tutoring method. 101
TABLE 40
MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF PRETEST AND POSTTESTS BY TREATMENT GROUPS ON THE BEAD STRINGING MOTOR ASSESSMENT
Pre Post Totals Group test test Means SD
Industrial Arts MEANS 14.14 13.71 13.93 Activity SD 1.46 1.16 1.32
Tutoring MEANS 10.86 12.00 11.43 Remediation SD 2.23 1.93 2.08
Totals MEANS 12.50 12.86 12.68 SD 1.88 • 1.59 1.74
TABLE 41
SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF BEAD STRINGING ACHIEVEMENT BY TEACHING METHODS
Degrees of Sum of Mean F Source Freedom Squares Squares Ratio P
Between Ss
Teaching Method (A) 1 43.7500 43.7500 8.63 .012 S/A 12 60.8571 5.0714
Within Ss
Achievement (B) 1 .8929 .8929 .44 .519 A X B 1 4.3214 4.3214 2.14 .170 Error 12 24.2857 2.0238
T o ta ls 13 134.1071 102
# of 15 Beads in 14 30 sec. 13
12 I.A. Group 11 Tutor Group
10
A
Figure 20. Bead Stringing Achievement as a Function of Teaching Method
The means and standard deviations of the Sorting Shapes Motor
Assessment are presented in Table 42. The scores indicated the number of shapes correctly sorted in th irty seconds.
The ANOVA summary, reported in Table 43, indicated significant
£ ratios: 10.28 (£=.008) for the main effects of teaching method, 3.84
(£=.074) for the main effects of achievement, and 3.49 (£=.086) for the teaching method X achievement interaction.
Further analysis of the simple effects of pre- and posttest achievement by teaching method by the t-te s t yielded ratios of .000 for the industrial arts teaching method and 1.551 for the tutoring method.
The critical ratio for significance was 1.895.
A graph of the pre- and posttest means by teaching method is presented in Figure 21. The industrial arts group indicated virtu ally no gain in achievement, while the tutor group showed substantial gain.
These results favored the tutoring method. 103
TABLE 42
MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF PRETEST AND POSTTESTS BY TREATMENT GROUPS ON THE SORTING SHAPES MOTOR ASSESSMENT
Pre Post Totals Group test test Means SD
Industrial Arts MEANS 25.57 25.71 25.64 Activity SD 5.18 3.92 4.59
Tutoring MEANS 13.85 19.86 16.86 Remediation SD 4.61 7.57 6.27
Totals MEANS 19.71 22.79 21.25 SD 4.90 6.02 5.49
TABLE 43
SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF SORTING SHAPES ACHIEVEMENT BY TEACHING METHODS
Degrees of Sum of Mean F Source Freedom Squares Squares Ratio P
Between Ss
Teaching Method (A) 1 540.3214 540.3214 10.28 .008 S/A 12 630.4286 52.5357
Within Ss
Achievement (B) 1 66.0357 66.0357 3.84 .074 A X B 1 60.0357 60.0357 3.49 .086 Error 12 206.4286 17.2024
T o ta ls 13 1503.2500 104
# of 2 6 - Shapes in 30 sec.
20 -
I.A. Group Tutor Group
A] A2
Figure 21. Sorting Achievement as a Function of Teaching Method
S tatistically, none of the motor assessments indicated sig n ifi cance at the .10 level of confidence. Achievement gains on the right and left-hand finger touch assessments closely approached significance.
Critical analysis of the t-te s t scores revealed an interesting trend, however. The industrial arts activity group indicated a higher t-ratio on eight of the twelve motor assessments.
This seemed to suggest that the industrial arts activity method was having an effect on the psychomotor achievement but, perhaps due to the high degree of variability of the group, the small n_, and the r e li ab ility of the instrumentation for this population, the statistical methods used were not powerful enough to indicate differences.
Based on the data presented, the industrial arts activity group demonstrated a greater improvement in psychomotor achievement, especially 105 on the factors of right and le ft hand motor development. This
researcher, therefore, accepted Research Hypothesis IV.
Research Hypothesis V. Research Hypothesis V stated that stu dents participating in integrated industrial arts activities will demon strate a greater improvement in overall achievement than students who do not participate in industrial arts activities.
The results reported in the earlier part of this chapter indi cated that support for the hypothesis that the industrial arts activity group would demonstrate greater self-concept improvement than the tutor group was not evident. The hypothesis, thus, was not supported.
The impact of industrial arts activities on language arts and mathematics achievement appeared to have a more positive effect. The hypotheses that stated that the industrial arts activity group would show greater achievement in these cognitive areas were accepted.
A trend also developed in favor of the industrial arts activ
ities group that suggested greater improvement in psychomotor achieve ment.
The total results were examined collectively and are presented
in Table 44 and Table 45. These are the results of twenty dependent variables reported in this study. Fourteen of these variables indicated a positive gain in achievement for the industrial arts activity method, while six factors indicated greater improvement for the tutoring group.
It was concluded, therefore, that support was suggested beyond
that which could have resulted by chance. Based on these results, this
research accepted Research Hypothesis V. 106
TABLE 44
SUMMARY OF THE PRETEST AND POSTTEST MEAN DIFFERENCES BY TEACHING METHOD ON ALL FACTORS OF ACHIEVEMENT
Pre- and Posttest Achievement Measures Mean Differences I.A. Tutor
Piers-Harris Self-Opinion Test -1.0 • 71(+)
Lister-Ohlsen Self-Concept Test—Overall i.o(+) 9.60
Interests 1.15(+) 5.29 Learning A bility -1.85 .00{+) Achievement 2.57(+) 3.85
Gates-MacGinitie Reading Tests
Reading Comprehension 1.57(+) 1.42 Vocabulary 4.86(+) 1.14
Arithmetic Skills Inventory 4-0(+) .28
Back Sawing (Time in Seconds) 2.57(+) .12
Coping Saw (Time in Seconds) -27.71(+) -5.57
D rilling (# of Holes in 30 Seconds) 1.43(+) .58
Striking (# of Nails in 30 Seconds) 2.43 2.71(+)
Screw Driving (Time in Seconds) -7.86(+) -5.86
Scissors Cutting 1.00(+) .14
Right Hand Finger-Touch 7.15(+) 2.43
Left Hand Finger-Touch 6.43(+) 4.57
Assembly -.57 •43(+)
Cross Test 3.85(+) .85
Bead Stringing -.43 1•14(+)
Sorting Shapes .14 6.01(+)
(+) Indicates greater improvement TABLE 45
SUMMARY OF t-RATIOS BY TEACHING METHOD ON ALL FACTORS OF ACHIEVEMENT
Student t-Ratio Achievement Measures I.A. Tutor
Piers-Harris Self-Opinion Test .637 .452(+)
Lister-Ohlsen Self-Concept Test— Overal1 .070(+) .674 Interests .118 .543(+) Learning Ability 1.378(+) .000 Achievement .417 .072
Gates-MacGinitie Reading Tests
Reading Comprehension .986(+) .231 Vocabulary .221(+) .199
Arithmetic Skills Inventory 1.034(+) .072
Back Sawing (Time in Seconds) . 113(+) .005
Coping Saw (Time in Seconds) 1.070(+) .215
Drilling (# of Holes in 30 Sec.) 1.342(+) .544
Striking (# of Nails in 30 Sec.) 1.244 1.387(+)
Screw Driving (Time in Seconds) 1.278(+) .953
Scissors Cutting 1.153(+) .161
Right Hand Finger-Touch 1.613(+) .548
Left Hand Finger-Touch 1.619(+) 1 .151
Assembly .420 .316(+)
Cross Test ,689(+) .221
Bead Stringing .357 ,947(+)
Sorting Shapes .000 1.551(+)
(+) Indicates greater improvement 108
Discussion
This investigation attempted to study the effects of integrated industrial arts activities on the affective, cognitive and psychomotor behavior of elementary children with learning disab ilities.
Two groups were used to compare self-concept, language arts, mathematics achievement and psychomotor skill achievement. One group received instruction through integrated industrial arts activities, while the second group received remediation of learning disabilities by tutorial instruction.
No significant trends were evident for industrial arts activities as to self-concept achievement. I t could have been that for children with learning disabilities, and especially those with behavioral disab ilities, that the Piers-Harris test was not sensitive enough to measure their achievement.
A factor which may have affected the results on self-concept was the extremely low scores of self-concept of both groups. The average self-concept reported in the Cratty studies was 15 for the
Piers-Harris test. However, pretest-posttest grand mean score for both groups was 10.36. I t was d iffic u lt to determine i f gains in affective achievement could have been realized with any other form of instruction during a five week treatment.
Anecdotal notes kept by the teacher of the intact group reported to this investigator that the children became more self-directed in their behavior. After completing their regular assignment, they would 109
suggest a direction for themselves, such as "I've finished my math, I
think I'll work on my spelling."
The subjects involved in the tutorial remediation seemed to rely on the "teacher being there" to answer their question "What do I have to
do next?" She further commented,
This experiment has been more successful than test results may show. The children [within the industrial arts activity group] are interacting with each other in a more positive way--more helpful, cooperative, and 'group conscious'. A relaxed attitude is coming through that I haven't noticed as much before [the study]--relaxed but controlled and more self-directed.
This observation should be considered in view of the fact that
the intact class was comprised of the LD children who had been identi
fied as having behavioral problems which inhibited their participation
in regular classroom situations.
Marked differences in cooperative behaviors by the tutoring
remediation group were not noted by the teachers.
The Lister-Ohlsen test was reported to have been a d iffic u lt test
for this level of children by the test examiner. She reported that most
of the students had great d iffic u lty reading and understanding the test
even when each question was read to them. Perhaps some of this frustra
tion affected their input to this study.
It was interesting that a trend of greater achievement gains was
suggested by the industrial arts activity method (one hour per day, three
days per week), considering the tutoring group was receiving individuali
zed remediation one hour per day, five days per week.
The results of the self-concept instruments could have been
affected by the close involvement of teacher's aide. Even though 110 confidentiality was assured before each testing, responses given and recorded by the examiner may not have been an actual indicator of their self-concept. The female-male relationship may have also confounded the results.
The data did not indicate significant differences between groups in reading comprehension or vocabulary achievement based upon raw scores.
The grade level averages of the two groups revealed interesting results and are presented in Tables 46 and 47. During the five week duration, the industrial arts activity group, which was the lower reading group, gained three months in reading comprehension. The tutorial group also advanced over seven months, which suggested that individual tutoring does have a positive effect for LD children, but was done by individu alization of reading instruction as opposed to the group technique used with the intact industrial arts activity group.
Vocabulary achievement by grade level presented in Table 47 showed a more dramatic gain for the industrial arts activity group.
The tutored group gained less than two months, whereas the industrial arts group gained almost six months. Perhaps this was due to use of their vocabulary within the activities which reinforced the use and meaning of the words. This supports Humphrey's (1975) position that motor activity learning establishes an effective learning reinforcement situation.
Although the intact group was the lower group in the academic subjects, they demonstrated a higher level of psychomotor functioning.
This might suggest that even though the groups were statis tica lly equivalent on age, there was, in fact, a difference. The industrial Ill
TABLE 46
MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF PRETEST AND POSTTESTS BY TREATMENT GROUPS OF READING COMPREHENSION ACHIEVEMENT BY GRADE LEVEL
Pre Post Totals Group test test Means SD
Industrial Arts MEANS 2.81 3.11 2.96 Activity SD 1.05 1.10 1.07
Tutoring MEANS 3.17 3.94 3.56 Remediation SD 1.29 1.54 1.42
Totals MEANS 2.99 3.53 3.26 SD 1.18 1.34 1.26
TABLE 47
MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF PRETEST AND POSTTESTS BY TREATMENT GROUPS OF VOCABULARY ACHIEVEMENT BY GRADE LEVEL
Pre Post Totals Group test test Means SD
Industrial Arts MEANS 2.79 3.37 3.08 Activity SD .87 1.08 .99
Tutoring MEANS 3.57 3.74 3.66 Remediation SD 1.14 1.09 1.12
Totals MEANS 3.18 3.56 3.37 SD 1.02 1.09 1.05 112 arts activity group actually seemed to be physically older.
Student performance on the Assembly Motor Assessment decreased
for the industrial arts group, whereas the tutor group improved slightly.
This seemed quite unusual since the industrial arts activity demon
strated better proficiency on the finger-thumb touch tests for both
hands.
The shape sorting achievement appeared to be much better for
the tutored group. This may be explained, in part, by the effects of pretesting. Also, the pretest score was rather low and may not have
been a true measure of their functioning level. Perhaps, as a part of the regular math class, identification of geometric shape may have
influenced their shape discrimination ab ilitie s .
The results of these data might suggest that the use of conservative statistical design may not be powerful enough to readily assess the changes in behavior. Special groups such as those with
learning disabilities seem to demonstrate a high degree of variability.
Also, instrumentation used to assess such children may be susceptable
to unreliability since LBD children many times have underlying emotional problems in addition to their academic deficiencies.
Collectively, these problems may have influenced the results thus
posing a limitation on this study.
Perhaps a different means of observing and assessing achieve ment or behavioral change, such as applied behavioral analysis, would
yield more fru itfu l and perhaps more meaningful results when investi gating the effects of teaching methods or other types of treatments with special groups. CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Many children presently enrolled in our schools have average intelligence but, because of certain psychoeducational deficiencies, may encounter considerable d iffic u lty achieving at a normal rate in conven tional classroom situations. Such children may be classified according to these deficiencies or may be generically called learning disabled
(LD) or learning and behaviorally disabled (LBD).
This category of exceptionality for children afflicted with these learning handicaps has only emerged as a dominant area of concern in edu cation and psychology since the early sixties. Valett (1969) described a learning disability as any specific difficu lty in acquiring or using information or skills that are essential to problem-solving. Furthermore, a child may be identified as LD or LBD if evidence exists that the-child's educational performance is two or more years behind expected level in two or more subject areas. Inappropriate social behavior which impedes class room performance may also classify a student as being LBD.
The self concept is an intrinsic aspect of individual's person a lity . Feelings of self worth can enhance or deter the individual growth of any person. Valett (1969) related that the self-perception of children with learning disabilities is extremely crucial. Because of personal d if ficulties in learning and perhaps due to repeated failure experiences, 113 114 the LD child tends to develop a poor self-concept. Cratty (1970) studied the effects of motor activity on self-concept, which suggested participa tion in selected motor activities, especially related to physical educa tion, may improve self-concept.
There is some evidence that motor activity may enhance the cogni tive learning process with children who are learning disabled. Kephart
(1960) was one of the fir s t researchers to stress the importance of motor movements. He suggests that a person's fir s t learnings are motor and serve as foundations for later ab ility to generalize in higher mental processes. Kephart1s theory, however, emphasizes the perceptual-motor aspect of learning and, therefore, has been criticized for its lack of emphasis upon transition to later academic development.
Barsch (1965) promotes a movigenic curriculum which is intended to improve motor efficiency. Further, Movigenics is the study of the origin and development of movement patterns leading to learning e f f i ciency. The components of this curriculum for LD children are muscular strength, dynamic balance, spatial awareness, body awareness, visual dynamics, b ila te ra lity , rhythm, fle x ib ility , and motor planning (Hallahan and Cruickshank, 1973, p. 85).
The Doman-Delacato theory, based upon a neurological organization concept, suggests treatment at any level of organization is aimed at reorganizing subsequent disorganized levels. The treatment is condition ing for the brain involving external manipulations of arms, legs and the head. It was reported that motor activity through external body manipu
lations within a developmental remediation program affects the achieve ment levels of retarded children. Results suggest improvement in reading 115
achievement within minimally impaired children through developmental
motor activities (Delacato, 1966). Robbins (1966) and O'Donnell and
Eisenson (1969) failed to support the Doman-Delacato theory in studies
with second grade and reading disabled seven to ten year old children.
Severe criticisms by Robbins and Glass (1969) toward the Doman and Dela
cato studies have been raised due to methodological flaws and sources of
experimental invalidity. Hallahan and Cruickshank (1973), in discussing
the efficiency of perceptual motor training, concluded that i t may be
premature to draw any definitive conclusions. I t was also noted by
these authors, however, that there is li t t l e solid negative evidence available against perceptual-motor training.
Researchers in physical education suggested development of motor activity learning may be correlated with cognitive learning. Cratty
(1970), Krause (1972), and Humphrey (1965) also suggested that well-
planned physical education activities may have a beneficial effect on
intelligence for certain children with learning problems. Rarick and
Broadhead (1968) and Martin (1969) reported improvements in cognitive achievement through the rise of movement activities with groups of
retarded and slow learners. These studies advocated the integration of
two teaching-learning approaches when creating instructional activities.
Some industrial arts activities are motor learning activities,
since they require manipulative experiences involving the use of various
parts of the body. They also may include involvement of cognitive
development, since many of these activities require reflective thinking
and problem solving attributes on the part of the learner to perform
certain tasks. Industrial arts activities have also been integrated as 1 1 6
therapeutic and developmental activities for normal and exceptional ch il dren.
Thieme (1965), when studying fifth grade elementary students, found no differences in social studies achievement or retention when
industrial arts activities were integrated within the subject units.
Ingram (1966), however, reported that students who received integrated
industrial arts activities in social studies units increased their silent reading comprehension. Downs (1968) suggests higher achievement scores were obtained in fifth grade mathematics and science with both high and low groups who participated in industrial arts constructional activities.
The review of related literature indicated that there was a gen eral lack of research regarding contributions of industrial arts manipu lative experiences as a developmental therapy for exceptional learners and its effect on subsequent cognitive achievement in other subjects and social behavior, development of motor skills and self-concept. No studies were located specifically ascertaining these factors with children who may be academically handicapped because of learning or behavioral disabilities.
The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of indus trial arts activities on the affective (self-concept) achievement, cogni tive achievement in language arts and mathematics, and psychomotor skill achievement of elementary school children with learning and behavioral disabilities.
To determine the effects of such activities, this study tested the following hypotheses:
1. Students participating in integrated industrial arts activities w ill demonstrate a greater improvement in 1 1 7
language arts achievement than students who do not participate in integrated industrial arts activities.
2. Students participating in integrated industrial arts activities w ill demonstrate a greater improvement in mathematics achievement than students who do not par ticipate in integrated industrial arts activities.
3. Students participating in integrated industrial arts activities will demonstrate a greater improvement in motor skill achievement than students who do not participate in integrated industrial arts activities.
4. Students participating in integrated industrial arts activities w ill demonstrate a greater improvement in affective (self-concept) achievement than those who do not participate in integrated industrial arts activities.
5. Students participating in integrated industrial arts activities w ill demonstrate a greater improvement in overall achievement than students who do not p a rtici pate in integrated industrial arts activities.
To test these hypotheses, an experiment using two methods of teaching children with learning disabilities was conducted. All fourteen male subjects of the two groups of sixth grade boys were identified by the school d istrict as being LBD. One group of seven subjects received integrated industrial arts activity treatments, while a second randomly selected group received tutoring for remediation of their learning deficiencies.
The industrial arts activity group received treatment as an in tact group in a self-contained classroom area. This group was composed of students who were performing at an academic level of more than two years below expected normal levels in at least two or more academic areas.
The intact grouping was implemented by the school d is tric t, since these LBD children also had histories within the schools of disruptive behaviors. They could not, because of the combination of emotional and 118 educational deficiencies, perform adequately within a conventional classroom setting during a regular school day.
The second group of LBD subjects, who did not receive the industrial arts activity treatment, was composed of seven LBD children who had fewer behavioral problems and were "mainstreamed" into regular classroom settings. However, this group received tutoring treatment for remediation of their disabilities.
Both groups received treatment for a period of five weeks.
Industrial arts treatments were integrated into remediational lessons of the intact group by the LBD teacher. For example, language arts and mathematics skills were correlated with the construction of industrial arts products. Participation by students in the integrated activities occurred one hour per day, three days per week. This time restriction was imposed by the school administration. The remaining two days were devoted to small group remedial sessions using non industrial arts activities, e.g., phonic drills, computation drills, and structural analysis sessions.
The LBD teacher did not have previous formal training in
industrial arts. Therefore, the researcher reviewed the use of the materials and briefly demonstrated how to incorporate the activities
into her class.
The second group received individualized tutoring in mathematics, reading, vocabulary, and spelling by an LBD teacher one
hour per day, five days per week. This time was scheduled as an
integral part of their regular classroom activities. 119 The two groups were statistically tested on factors of age and intelligence quotient obtained from the permanent records of the school d is tric t. I t was revealed that the industrial arts group was slightly older, but no difference existed in their intellectual potential (I.Q.). It was realized that the history of the intact group's behavioral problems may have had an impact on the results of this study thus posing a possible lim itation.
Self-concept achievement data were obtained from pretest and posttest scores on the Piers-Harris Self Opinion Test and the Lister-
Qhlsen Self- Concept Test. The Gates-MacGinitie Reading Test, Primary £,
Form 1 was used to determine language arts achievement. Mathematics achievement scores were obtained from the Mathematics Skill Inventory
1_, 2_ and 2.
Psychomotor functioning ab ility was measured by a battery of motor tests. They included back sawing, coping saw, d rillin g , screw driving, assembly, bead stringing, striking, sorting shapes, scissors cutting, crossing, and right and le ft hand finger-touch motor assessment.
All pretest and posttest achievement data for both groups were subjected to statistical analysis within a 2 X 2 factorial design using analysis of variance. Student jt-tests and graphing of pre-and posttest mean scores of each dependent variable were used to further analyze the effects of the treatments on group achievement.
The results of the statistical treatment of the data of this study did not support the research hypotheses at the .10 level. How ever, post-analysis of the data did indicate some interesting directional changes that were suggestive of further analysis research. 120
The findings of this analysis indicated no significant
statistical differences at the .10 level between teaching methods and
self-concept achievement. By further analyzing the data by computing
t-ratios and graphing, a slight trend was revealed. I t was suggested
that the industrial arts activity method may have had a stabilizing
effect on self-concept, since the students in the tutor group showed
a directional change toward a less favorable self-concept. Directional
differences in favor of the industrial arts activity was evident in
their reported feelings toward learning a b ility .
Anecdotal reports by the LBD teacher of the intact group
related that she observed a decrease in disruptive behaviors. She
reported that the students were more group conscious, interacting, and cooperative. Interestingly, she related that upon the conclusion of
the study, the students demonstrated self-directed behaviors. In contrast, i t was reported that the tutoring group relied more heavily on teacher direction. These were worthwhile observations in that the
intact group had past histories of disruptive behaviors coupled with
learning deficiencies which prevented them from participating in
regular classroom situations.
Greater positive language arts achievement gains were revealed
for the industrial arts activity method. However, these gains for
reading comprehension and vocabulary were not statistically significant.
Strong gains were especially noted in vocabulary with the
integrated industrial arts method. Achievement growth in grade level was nearly six months for the industrial arts activity group over the
five week treatment period. The tutored group produced gains of 121 approximately one month in grade level.
I t was found that greater mathematics achievement was attained by the industrial arts activity group. Although not statis tic a lly significant, the pre- and posttest achievement means when graphed indicated a strong interaction effect.
Of the twelve motor assessments that were subjected to statistical analysis, none were found to be significant at the .10 level. Further analysis revealed that the industrial arts group had consistently greater improvement in psychomotor functioning.
Specifically, this group showed greater achievement on eight of the twelve measurements. They were: back sawing, coping sawing, d rillin g , screw driving, scissors cutting, right-hand finger-touch, left-hand finger-touch, and making crosses on the cross test motor assessment.
Of the eight, the strongest values most closely approaching significance were measures of right and le ft hand finger-touch s k ill. The tutored group demonstrated slightly better gains on skills of assembly, bead stringing and striking, with a much stronger achievement on sorting shapes than the industrial arts activity group.
Overall, in the total analysis of all twenty dependent variables on factors of affective (self-concept), cognitive (language arts and mathematics), and psychomotor achievement of these subjects with learning disabilities, the integrated industrial arts activity group indicated greater improvement on fourteen of twenty variables.
The tutored group indicated greater achievement on six of the twenty variables. 122
Conclusions
Based on the findings of this study, the following conclusions were made:
1. The integrated industrial arts activities did not significantly effect greater improvement in self- concept achievement.
A trend was revealed that seemed to suggest that the integrated industrial arts method was effecting the behavior of the intact group. Yet, except for vague indications of stabilization of self-concept and perhaps a positive trend toward more positive feelings related to their learning a b ility , the instrumentation did not seem to be sensitive or sufficiently statistically reliable for this population.
Therefore, it was difficult to accurately assess the differences between teaching methods and self-concept achievement.
In view of the trends revealed with industrial arts activities and self-concept, it seemed that such integrated activities were having a beneficial effect. However, because of the small number of subjects included within this study, this researcher did not believe sufficient empirical evidence was yielded to favor the industrial arts activity group. Perhaps a longer duration of the integrated industrial arts activities would have provided more supportive data.
Observations of the behavior of the intact group seemed to suggest that this group was demonstrating more favorable cooperative behaviors. Perhaps, as Humphrey (1975) suggested, positive reinforce ment was provided by the successful completion of the treatment activities, thus promoting positive peer and teacher attention. These 123 factors (successful completion and positive approach) in themselves may have affected their self-perceptions which, therefore, resulted in reduced social conflict and a better learning environment for the group.
2. The integrated industrial arts activity method had a greater effect on overall language arts achieve ment, but the tutoring method for mainstreamed children had a slightly greater effect for improved reading comprehension.
The tutoring remediation group received treatment individually by a tutoring specialist five times per week, whereas the integrated activities were presented three times per week in a group setting. This difference in the time spent on the treatments suggests that the integrated activity method to promote remediation of language arts deficiencies was a more efficient means of helping LBD children.
3. The integrated industrial arts activities promoted greater improvement in mathematics for children with learning disabilities.
These activities provided reinforcing experiences to fa c ilita te the development of unit concepts. The nature of these activities seemed to provide practical uses and applications for conceptual learn ings. Downs (1968) study presented a similar conclusion on mathematics and science achievement for normal fifth grade students. This present study supports his conclusion for mathematics achievement but relates it to fifth grade children with learning disabilities.
4. The integrated industrial arts activities promoted greater psychomotor skill development as measured by the motor assessments.
Highest achievement levels occurred on right and left-hand finger touch skill. Furthermore, the integrated industrial arts 124 activity method showed greater improvement on eight of twelve motor assessments.
5. The integrated industrial arts activities were generally more effective in providing for greater cognitive and psychomotor achievement than tutoring remediation alone.
The greater overall achievement gains were obtained by the intact group on fourteen of the twenty variables of achievement. This should be considered in light of the fact that the LBD teacher presented the integrated industrial arts activities without previous coursework in industrial arts. The teacher for the tutoring group, however, was an experienced tutor with six years of previous experience as a tutoring specialist. Greater differences may have appeared at all levels of achievement i f the LBD teacher would have been more thoroughly trained and experienced in conducting industrial arts activities.
The previous conclusion, based on empirical data, is consistent with those writings of the American Council of Industrial Arts Teacher
Educators (ACIATE) Yearbook (1974), Industrial Arts for the Elementary
School. It related that industrial arts activities with normal popula tions have made equal or higher gains in cognitive, affective and psychomotor learning than those involved in the more traditional approaches (p. 271). This present study seemed to reinforce those writings and positions as they apply to children with learning and behavioral deficiencies.
6. Traditional statistical methods may not be the most appropriate for analysis of achievement data due to the wide variability of LBD subjects. They did not seem powerful enough to determine subtle differences in achievement scores. 125 The analysis of variance test for significance w ill indicate that differences between mean scores for groups exists provided the underlying assumptions of independence, homogeneity and randomness are not seriously violated. The group within this study demonstrated quite varied a b ilitie s on the various achievement measures. The high degree of variability between subjects along with the small number of subjects had a substantial effect on the results. By raising the error variance within each analysis of mean scores was difficult for the £-ratio to to show significance by using this conservative statistical technique.
The conclusions resulting from this investigation are based on the findings from the analysis of the data. The conclusions drawn from this study may pertain only to a similar population of learning and behaviorally disabled children having similar characteristics and exposed to similar remediation treatment under similar conditions.
The generalization of these conclusions may also be limited due to the small size of the sample studied, the inability of the instrumentation to accurately assess achievement of children with learning d isab ilities, and the absence of a control with which to compare the results with children who received no remediation treatment for their psychoeducational deficiencies. However, these limitations are common to educational research. 126
Recommendations for Future Research
Based on the findings and conclusions of this investigation, the
following recommendations were made:
1. Additional research should be conducted focusing on the vari
ables addressed in this study. Larger populations from various schools
should be sought. A longitudinal study of the effects of treatment on
later school success might yield more conclusive results, especially
regarding growth in self-concept.
2. Further research is needed to develop more reliable instru mentation to assess achievement in self-concept of the LBD child. The
Piers-Harris test and the Lister-Ohlsen test did not seem to be sensitive
enough to accurately assess actual achievement for sixth grade children
with learning disabilities. Perhaps recording observed social behaviors
by frequency over a period of time rather than depending on the students
to record their feelings using paper and pencil instruments would pro
vide more accurate data related to actual achievement.
3. Investigation should be undertaken to develop a series of
standardized psychomotor assessments for exceptional learners and more
specifically, the child with learning disabilities. It would be of great
benefit if reliable and valid measures of their abilities could be
obtained both before and after exposure to various treatment strategies.
This may also allow remediation treatments to be individually prescribed
to more efficiently aid LBD children.
4. Investigate differences between utilization of inferential
statistics and applied behavioral analysis with children who have 127 psychoeducational deficiencies. The subjects within this study demon strated an extremely wide range of variability. This increased the error facto to the degree that the real effects of integrated industrial arts activities may have been obscured due to the lack of power afforded by experimental statistical design.
5. Investigate differences between the effects of integrated industrial arts activities for children with learning disabilities on domains of achievement comparing regular LBD teachers with no formal industrial arts training with LBD teachers who have had previous train ing. Perhaps i f the regular LBD teacher within this study would have fe lt more confident about her ab ilitie s to conduct these integrated* activities and also had more s k ill, the results may have differed sub stantially. This may also have implications for the teacher preparation institutions as to their program offerings to provide such experiences for prospective teachers and professional personnel of the learning dis abled and other exceptional persons within our society.
6. Efforts should be directed to develop more formalized instruc tional materials for special groups of exceptional children. Materials and appropriate instructional programs need to be developed which would integrate industrial arts activities into the teaching of units in mathe matics and language arts. These activities, in addition to improving instruction, also may help children who have behavioral disabilities.
Students who participated in integrated industrial arts activities in this study demonstrated favorable self-directed and group conscious social behaviors. 128
7. Further research is needed to determine the effects of special testing with children with psychoeducational problems. A rather large battery of tests were used in this study to obtain data related to achievement. Are there residual effects related to testing with LBD children? To what extent? What types of tests have a greater effect on children with learning disabilities?
8. Research efforts are needed toward empirically testing the singular effects of industrial arts activities on affective, cognitive, or psychomotor achievement with LBD children. This study attempted to study each domain within one study. An intensive investigation would help determine which aspect of the child's total learning can best be aided by the unique contributions of industrial arts activities.
9. Further research is needed to develop more sensitive mechanisms to measure growth or discrete changes in behavior. Teacher observations reported in this study suggested that positive changes in affective and cognitive behavior had occurred within the intact group. However, these small differences were not readily evident based on the results obtained from the instruments selected for their study.
10. Examine the effects of industrial arts activities on the attitudes of LBD children toward school. This study investigated the attitudinal feelings toward personal self-concept, learning ability, interests and academic achievement. Perhaps better feelings toward school in general may result from such activities. BIBLIOGRAPHY
American Council on Industrial Arts Teacher Education. Industrial Arts for the Elementary School. Robert G. Thrower and Robert D. Weber, Editors. Bloomington, 111.: McKnight Publishing Co., 1974.
American Industrial Arts Association. "What is Industrial Arts." Posi tion paper of AIAA on Career Education and Industrial Arts. Washington, D.C.: AIAA, 1973.
Asher, James J. "The Total Physical Response Technique of Learning." Journal of Special Education, Fall 1969, pp. 48-54.
Bardwell, Ann, Krieg, Fred J. and 01 ion, La Delle. Knowing the Child Special Needs: A Primer. Chicago, 111.: Head Start, Office of Child Development, 1973.
Barnes, Fred P. Research for the Practitioner in Education. Washington, D.C.: Department of Elementary School Principals, National Education Association, 1964.
Buffer, James J. Review and Synthesis of Research on Industrial Arts for Students With Special Needs. ERIC Clearinghouse on Voca tional and Technical Education. Columbus, Ohio: Center for Vocational and Technical Education, 1973.
Buffer, James J. "Industrial Arts as Therapeutic Education for the Mentally Retarded." T h irty -firs t AIAA Convention Addresses and Proceedings, Las Vegas, Washington, D.C.: American Industrial Arts Association, 1969, p. 334.
Brudzynski, Alfred J. "A Comparative Study of Two Methods for Teaching Electricity and Magnetism with Fifth and Sixth Grade Children." Unpublished Doctoral Thesis. Boston, Mass.: Boston University, 1966.
Campbell, Donald T. and Stanley, Julian C. Experimental and Quasi- Experimental Designs for Research. Chicago: Rand McNally & Company, 1963.
Campbell, Paul Burton. "Self-Concept and Academic Achievement in Middle Grade Public School Children." Unpublished Doctoral Thesis, Wayne State University, 1965. 129 130
Cheong, Lar Mooi. "A Comparative Study of Children in Self-Contained Special Education Classrooms With Children in Special Education Resource Rooms With Regard to the Relationship Between Self- Concept and Achievement, Sex, Age, and Intelligence Quotient." Unpublished Doctors Thesis, Texas Womens University, 1974.
Cratty, Bryant J. Developmental Sequences of Perceptual Motor Tasks. Educational A ctivities, Inc., Freeport, New York, 1967.
Cratty, Bryant J . , et al_. Movement A ctivitie s, Motor Abi 1 ity and the Education of Children. Springfield, 111.: Charles C. Thomas Publisher, 1970.
Cratty, Bryant J. Movement Behavior and Motor Learning. Third Edition. Philadelphia, Pa.: Lea & Febiger, 1973.
Dawson, David K. "An Instructional Program for Children With Perceptually Related Learning Disabilities." Unpublished Doctors Thesis, The Ohio State University, 1966.
Delacato, Carl H. The Diagnosis and Treatment of Speech and Reading Problems. Springfield, 111.: Charles C. Thomas, 1963.
Delacato, C. H. Neurological Organization and Reading. Springfield, 111.: Charles C. Thomas, 1966.
Downs, William A. "Effect of Constructional Activities Upon the Achieve ment in the Areas of Science and Mathematics at the Fifth Grade Level." University of Missouri-Columbia, 1968.
Eaton, Ira E. "The Relationship Between Perceptual-Motor A bility and Reading Success." Unpublished Doctors Thesis, St. Louis Univer sity, 1975.
Frostig, M. and D. Horne. The Frostig Program for the Development of Visual Perception: Teacher's Guide. Chicago: Follet, 1964.
Getman, G. N. "Studies in Perceptual Development: How to Provide Intellectual Care and Guidance for Children." Unpublished paper, Luverne, Minn., 1954.
Good, Carter V. Dictionary of Education. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1973.
Govatos, Louis A. "Motor Skill Learning." Review of Educational Research 32 (December 1967).
Hallahan, Daniel P. and Cruickshank, William M. Psychoeducational Founda tions of Learning D isabilities. Englewood C liffs , N.J.: Prentice-Hal1 Inc., 1973. 131
Harrow, Anita 0. A Taxonomy of the Psychomotor Domain. New York: David McKay Company, Inc., 1972.
Hoots, William R. "Philosophical Positions." Industrial Arts for the Elementary School, ACIATE 23rd Yearbook. Bloomington, 111.: McKnight Publishing Co., 1974.
Humphrey, James H. Child Learning Through Elementary School Physical Education. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Baron Company, 1966.
Humphrey, James H. "Comparison of the Use of Active Games and Language Understanding With Third Grade Children." Perceptual Motor Skills 21 (1965):23-26.
Humphrey, James H. Teaching Elementary School Science Through Motor Learning. Springfield, 111.: Charles C. Thomas Publisher, 1975.
Humphrey, James H. "The Use of Motor Activity Learning in the Develop ment of Science Concepts With Slow Learning Fifth-Grade Children." Journal of Research in Science Teaching 9 (1972).
Ingram, Franklin C. "Effect of Elementary School Industrial Arts or Pupils Social Studies Achievement." Penn State, 1966.
Institute for Physical Education. The Handbook of Physical Education and Activities for Exceptional Children. Old Saybrook, Ct.: In s ti tute for Physical Education, 1975.
Kass, Corrine E. "Learning Disabilities." Review of Educational Research 39 (February 1969):71-82.
Kephart, Newell C. The Slow Learner in the Classroom. Columbus, Ohio: C. E. Merrill Co., 1960.
Kerlinger, Fred N. Foundations of Behavioral Research. Second Edition. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1973.
Kirk, S. A. Educating Exceptional Children. Boston: Houghton M ifflin , 1962.
Krause, Dorothy. "A Motor Approach to Learning." Instructor 82 (1972): 170-1, 173.
Litchfield, Ticknor B. "A Program of Visual-Motor-Perceptual Training to Determine Its Effects Upon Primary Level Children With Reading and Learning Deficiencies." ERIC Number: ED 43994, 1970.
McCarthy, J. J. and McCarthy, J. F. Learning D isabilities. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1969.
M iller, R. and Boyd, T. Teaching Elementary Industrial Arts. South Holland, 111.: Goodheart-Willcox Company, 1972. 132
Myklebust, Helmer R. and Johnson, Doris J. Learning D isabilities. New York: Grune and Stratton, 1967.
O'Donnell, Mary Kathleen. "The Comparative Effects of Teacher Reinforce ment of Self-Esteem and of Academic Achievement on Affective Variables and Achievement in Learning Disabled Children." Unpub lished Doctors Thesis, University of Southern California, 1974.
O'Donnell, P. A. and J. Eisenson. "Delacato Training for Reading Achievement and Visual-Motor Integration." Journal of Learning Disabilities 2 (1969):441-46.
Rarick, G. L. and Broadhead, G. D. "The Effects of Individualized Versus Group Oriented Physical Education Programs on Selected Parameters of the Development of Educable Mentally Retarded and Minimally Brain Injured Children." Monograph by USOE, Department of Physical Education. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wiscon sin, 1968.
Robins, M. and Glass, G. V. "The Doman-Delacato Rationale: A Critical Analysis." In J. Hellmuth (Ed.), Educational Therapy. Vol. I I . Seattle, Washington: Special Child Publications, 1969.
Robbins, M. Influence of Special Programs on the Development of Mental Age and Reading. Projects No. S-349. Washington, D.C.: USOE, Department of Health, Education and Welfare, 1965.
Robinson, William B. "A Study to Determine the Relationship Among Read ing Achievement, Self-Concept and Selected Motor Performance Tests for Sixth Grade Male Students." Unpublished Doctors Thesis, The University of Mississippi, 1975.
Rogers, C. R. Client Centered Therapy. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, Co., 1951.
Thieme, Eberhard. "Pupil Achievement: Retention in Selected Area of Grade 5 Using Elem. I.A. Activities Integrated With Classroom Units of Work." Unpublished Doctors Thesis, Penn State, 1965.
Tyler, Jo Ann Louise. "The Relationship Between Self-Concept and Motor Performance of Second-Grade Children." Unpublished Doctors Thesis, Columbus, Ohio: The Ohio State University, 1972.
Valett, Robert E. Remediation of Learning D isabilities. Palo Alto, Calif.: Feron Publishers, 1967.
Van Dalen, Deobold B. Understanding Educational Research. Third Edi tion. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1973.
Wallace, Gerald and Kauffman, James M. Teaching Children With Learning Problems. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Co., 1973. 133
Wallace, Gerald and McLoughlin, James A. Learning D isabilities, Concepts and Characteristics. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Pub- 1ishing Co., 1975.
Wylie, Ruth C. The Self-Concept. Lincoln, Neb.: University of Nebraska Press, 1961.
Yardley, Alice. "Movement and Learning." Todays Education 66 (March- April 1974):62-64.
Zimmerman, Fred W. Exploring Woodworking, Basic Fundamentals. South Holland, 111.: Goodheart-Willcox Co., 1975. APPENDIX A
AFFECTIVE ACHIEVEMENT INSTRUMENTS
134 135
PIERS-HARRIS SELF OPINION TEST
NAME______AGE_____ SEX______DATE______
Answer a l1 the following questions by circling yes or no. Do Not circle both. All your answers w ill be confidential.
1. Are you good at making things with your hands? YES NO
2. Can you draw well? YES NO
3. Are you strong? YES NO
4. Do you like the way you look? YES NO
5. Do your friends make fun of you? YES NO
6. Are you handsome/pretty? YES NO
7. Do you have trouble making friends? YES NO
8. Do you like school? YES NO
9. Do you wish you were different? YES NO
10. Are you sad most of the time? YES NO
11. Are you the last to be chosen in games? YES NO
12. Do girls like you? YES NO
13. Are you a good leader in games and sports? YES NO
14. Are you clumsy? YES NO
15. In games do you watch instead of play? YES NO
16. Do boys like you? YES NO
17. Are you happy most of the time? YES NO
18. Do you have nice hair? YES NO
19. Do you play with younger children a lot? YES NO
20. Is reading easy for you? YES NO 136
LISTER OHLSEN SELF-RATING SCALE
NAME______AGE_____ SEX______DATE______
After reading each of the following questions, print an "X" before the words which best describe you in comparison with most others your age. Be honest and answer all questions as you believe you are at this time. All your answers will be confidential.
1. Compared with others your own age, how A lot more than others well do you understand the words you Some more than others read and the words others speak? About the same Some less than others A lot less than others
How do you feel about being this way? I like i t a lot I like i t I don't like i t or dis like i t I don't like i t Don't like i t a lot
How would you really like to be? A lot more than others Some more than others About the same Some less than others A lot less than others
2. Compared with others your age, how A lot more than others well do you understand the meaning Some more than others of what you read? Do you get the About the same meaning out of the things you read? Some less than others A lot less than others
How do you feel about being this way? I like it a lot I like i t I don't like i t or dis like i t I don't like it I don't like it a lot
How would you really like to be? A lot more than others Some more than others About the same Some less than others A lot less than others 137
3. Compared with others your own age, A lot more than others how well do you understand what you Some more than others read? Do you get the meaning out About the same of the things you read? Some less than others A lot less than others
How do you feel about being this way? I like i t a lot I like i t I don't like it or dis like i t I don11 like i t I don't like it a lot
How would you really like to be? A lot more than others Some more than others About the same Some less than others A lot less than others
4. Compared with others your own age, A lot more than others how well are you able to spell, Some more than others use capital letters, punctuation About the same marks, and use words correctly in Some less than others sentences? A lot less than others
How do you feel about being this way? I like i t a lot I like i t I don't like i t or dis like i t I don't like i t I don't like it a lot
How would you really like to be? A lot more than others Some more than others About the same Some less than others A lot less than others
5. Compared with others your own age, A lot more than others how well do you work and study? Some more than others About the same Some less than others A lot less than others
How do you feel about being th is way? I like i t a lot I 1ike i t I don't like i t or dis like i t I don't like i t I don't like it a lot I
138
How would you really like to be? A lot more than others Some more than others About the same Some less than others A lot less than others
6. Compared with others your own age, A lot more than others how well do you understand arithmetic, Some more than others and how well do you solve problems? About the same For example, how well can you add, Some less than others subtract, and multiply numbers? A lot less than others
How do you feel about being this way? I like it a lot I like i t I don't like i t or dis like i t I don't like i t I don't like it a lot
How would you really like to be? A lot more than others Some more than others . About the same Some less than others A lot less than others
7. Compared with others your own age, how A lot more than others well are you able to learn from books Some more than others and understand ideas that are written About the same or spoken by others? For example: How Some less than others good are you at figuring things out? A lot less than others How good are you at solving puzzles or ' figuring out how a machine works?
How do you feel about being this way? I like it a lot I like i t I don't like i t or dis like i t I don't like i t I don't like it a lot
How would you really like to be? A lot more than others Some more than others About the same Some less than others A lot less than others
8. Compared with others you own age, how A lot more than others much do you like a rt—painting, drawing, Some more than others working with modeling clay, soap- About the same carving, etc.? Some less than others A lot less than others 139
How do you feel about being this way? I like i t a lot I like i t I don't like it or dis like i t I don11 1 ike i t I don't like it a lot
How would you really like to be? A lot more than others Some more than others About the same Some less than others A lo t less than others
9. Compared with others your own age, how A lot more than others much do you like playing records, Some more than others listening to musical programs and About the same watching them on T.V., going to musical Some less than others movies and musical concerts and programs? A lo t less than others
How do you feel about being this way? I like i t a lot I like i t I don't like i t or dis like i t I don't like i t I don't like it a lot
How would you really like to be? A lot more than others Some more than others About the same Some less than others A lot less than others
10. Compared with others your own age, A lo t more than others how much do you like learning about Some more than others how people live in other countries, About the same about how people lived in the past, Some less than others and about the geography of our world? A lo t less than others
How do you feel about being this way? I like it a lot I like i t I don't like i t or dis like i t I don't like i t I don't like it a lot
How would you really like to be? A lot more than others Some more than others About the same Some less than others A lot less than others 140
11. Compared with others your own age, A lot more than others how much do you like to take part Some more than others in active play—baseball, basketball, About the same hopscotch, running, jumping, swim Some less than others ming, etc.? A lot less than others
How do you feel about being this way? I like i t a lot I like i t I don't like i t or dis like i t I don't like i t I don't like it a lot
How would you really like to be? A lo t more than others Some more than others About the same Some less than others A lot less than others
12. Compared with others your own age, A lot more than others how much do you like quiet play— Some more than others checkers, playing cards, telling About the same stories, playing guessing games, Some less than others taking walks, etc.? A lot less than others
How do you feel about being this way? I like i t a lot I like i t I don't like i t or dis like i t I don't like i t I don't like it a lot
How would you really like to be? A lot more than others Some more than others About the same Some less than others A lot less than others
13. Compared with others your own age, A lot more than others how much do you 1ike working with Some more than others your hands and making things from About the same materials, such as building models, Some less than others wood-carving, etc.? A lot less than others
How do you feel about being th is way? I like i t a lot I like i t I don't like i t or dis like i t I don't like i t I don't 1 ike it a lot 141
How would you really like to be? A lot more than others Some more than others About the same Some less than others A lot less than others
14. Compared with others your own age, A lo t more than others how much do you like doing things Some more than others around your house, such as doing About the same household chores, helping your Some less than others mother in the kitchen, helping your A lot less than others father around the yard and garage?
How do you feel about being this way? I like i t a lot I like i t I don't like i t or dis like i t I don't like it I don't like it a lot
How would you really like to be? A lot more than others Some more than others About the same Some less than others A lot less than others
15. Compared with others your own age, A lot more than others how much do you like activities where Some more than others you try to find answers to scientific About the same questions? For example: Why does Some less than others that plant grow that way? What will A lot less than others happen when I mix these chemicals, and why does i t happen? Where does electricity come from? What causes tornadoes?
How do you feel about being this way? I like i t a lot I like i t I don't like i t or dis like i t I don't like it I don't like it a lot
How would you really like to be? A lot more than others Some more than others About the same Some less than others A lot less than others APPENDIX B
PSYCHOMOTOR ACHIEVEMENT INSTRUMENTS
142 143
COPING SAW MOTOR ASSESSMENT
You w ill be given a piece of soft wood and a coping saw. You are to saw between the curved lines marked on the wood. Saw as quickly and as accurately as you can. You w ill be timed as to the length of time i t takes to saw completely across the piece of wood. Do not begin until the tester says START.
BACK SAW MOTOR ASSESSMENT
You w ill be given a piece of soft wood and a back saw. You are to saw in astraight line across the piece as quickly and as accurately as you can. You w ill be timed as to the length of time i t takes to com pletely saw across the piece of wood. Do not begin until the tester says START.
Cut between curved lines with coping shw.
Cut on the line with a back saw. 144
ASSEMBLY MOTOR ASSESSMENT
You w ill be given some machine screws and some metal washers in separate containers. As quickly as you can, assembly the washer onto the screw and place them in another container. You w ill have th irty (30) seconds to assemble as many units as you can. Do not begin until the tester says START. Stop immediately when the tester says STOP.
SORTING SHAPES MOTOR ASSESSMENT
You w ill be given shapes of triangle, square, diamond and circle.
You are to sort the shapes and place them in a proper area. You w ill have th irty (30) seconds to sort as many shapes as you can. Do not begin until the tester says START. Stop immediately when the tester says STOP.
SCISSOR CUTTING MOTOR ASSESSMENT
You w ill be given a pair of scissors and this piece of paper with lines drawn across the sheet. You are to cut as many strips of paper as you can while cutting only between the narrow lines. You w ill have thirty
(30) seconds to cut the strips. You may practice by cutting ONE strip on 145 the paper provided by the tester. Do not begin until the tester says
START. Stop immediately when the tester says STOP. (Score to the nearest one-fourth (1/4) strip of paper.)
CUT HERE
I CUT HERE
CUT HERE
BEAD STRINGING MOTOR ASSESSMENT
You w ill be given a piece of string approximately twenty-four (24) inches in length and some wooden beads one (1) inch in length with a one- fourth (1/4) inch hole through them. You are to string as many beads as you can in th irty (30) seconds. Do not begin until the tester says START.
Stop immediately when the tester says STOP.
CROSS MOTOR ASSESSMENT
With a pencil, put a cross (X) in as many boxes as you can in
th irty (30) seconds. Keep marks inside the boxes. You may use the fir s t
line for .practice. Do not begin until the tester says START. Stop 146 immediately when the tester says STOP.
PRACTICE LINE
START HERE
SCREW DRIVING MOTOR ASSESSMENT
You w ill be given a screwdriver and four (4) fla t headed wood screws that are to be driven into the four holes in a block of soft wood.
All four (4) of the screws must be driven even with the surface of the wood. You w ill be timed as to the length of time i t takes to completely drive the screws into the holes. Work as quickly as you can. Do not start until the tester says START.
© 3/4 8 Flat Head Wood Screw
Material: 3 x 3 x 3/4 Pine 147
DRILLING MOTOR ASSESSMENT
You w ill be given a hand d rill and a three-sixteenth (3/16) inch twist drill bit. You are to drill holes through a piece of one-half
(1/2) inch soft wood on a given mark as quickly and accurately as you can. You w ill have th irty (30) seconds to d rill as many holes as you can. Do not begin until the tester says START. Stop immediately when the tester says STOP.
STRIKING MOTOR ASSESSMENT
You w ill be given a claw hammer (10 ounce) and box nails (size
4d) to drive into a piece of soft wood. Drive the nails completely into the wood on a given mark as quickly as you can without bending the nails. You w ill have thirty (30) seconds to drive the nails. Do not begin until the tester says START. Stop immediately when the tester says STOP.
FINGER-THUMB TOUCH ASSESSMENT
Use your RIGHT hand and touch the TIPS of your fingers to the thumb of the same hand this way: (The tester w ill demonstrate this 148 sequence).
Thumb-first finger, Thumb-second finger, Thumb-third finger,
Thumb-fourth finger, Thumb-first finger, andso forth.
You are to touch the tips of your fingers to the thumb as many times as you can in fifteen (15) seconds. Do not begin until the tester says
START. Stop immediately when the tester says STOP.
Repeat the same sequence for the LEFT hand. - ■ ■ APPENDIX C
INDUSTRIAL ARTS PROJECT ACTIVITY SHEETS
149 PLASTISOL CASTING
DIRECTIONS:
1. Select mold. Place on paper.
2. Choose color of liquid plastic.
3. Carefully squeeze liquid into mold.
4. Use toothpick to spread liquid to all parts of mold.
5. Scrape off extra liquid plastic.
6. Use spatula and place on heat at 325°.
7. Heat until cured. (3 to 5 minutes)
8. Remove mold from heat and cool in water.
9. Remove objects from mold.
10. Trim with scissors.
11. Clear up work area when finished. 151
/<£ a Z 4 - 2cS £ \jJ
D -5 0 ‘
RECIPE HOLDER
DIRECTIONS:
1. Cut wood 4 inches long. Draw lines across corners.
2. Draw 3 1/2 inch circle with compass.
3. Locate eyes, hole for nose, and center for ears.
4. Cut out circle with a coping saw. Sand edges.
5. D rill 1/8 inch hole for nose clip.
6. D rill 1/4 inch hole 1/4 inchdeep on bottom edge of face.
7. Cut a piece of 1/4" diameter dowel rod 2 3/4" long.
8. Cut BASE 2 1/2" wide and 3 1/2" long. Sand corners.
9. Locate center for hole. Drill hole at 80°.
10. Sand and stain pieces. Assemble all parts. SPINNING BUTTON
DIRECTIONS;
1. Saw wood to 4 1/2 inch length.
2. Draw straight lines across corners.
3. Use compass to draw 3 1/2 inch circle.
4. Saw out circle with coping saw.
5. Sand edges.
6. Measure 1/2 inch from both sides of center.
7. D rill a 3/16 inch hole on each side of center.
8. Cut a piece of string 36 inches long.
9. Lace the string through the holes.
10. Tie ends of string together.
11. Have the spinning button checked.
GREAT JOB—NOW HAVE FUN! 153
NOTE PAD
DIRECTIONS:
1. Get a duplicating master.
2. Divide into 4 equal parts. (4 1/4" x 5 1/2")
3. Plan a design, use a cartoon, or write a saying for each space.
4. Remove middle sheet and copy designs in each space. Use ball point pen.
5. When finished, make 25 copies of designs.
6. Cut copies into 4 parts. (4 1/4" x 5 1/2")
7. Place cardboard under each stack of copies.
8. Place into padding press. Close press.
9. Coat one edge with padding compound.
10. When dry, apply second coat. Allow to dry.
11. Remove from press. Clean up.
12. Your note pad is finished! 154
c 75
IOO
4 £[H f t oumd JEm J
£
GAME BASE
DIRECTIONS:
1. Select piece of wood for base.
2. Measure and locate a ll hole centers.
3. D rill 5 holes 3/8 inch diameter.
4. Sand all rough edges.
5. Stain the base. Use small cloth.
6. Cut dowel rod. Cut 5 pieces 4" long. Round one end.
7. Glue dowels into holes.
8. Cut label 3/4" inch long. Write numberson labels 1/4" high. Write 5 labels, 25, 25, 50, 75, and 100.
9. Stick labels onto base near each dowel rod.
10. BASE IS FINISHED! GREAT JOB! 155
FORMING ACRYLIC PLASTIC
CAUTION: DO NOT GET BURNED BY HOT PLASTIC. BE CAREFUL! WORK SAFELY!
1. Measure 3 pieces of plastic 1/2" X 12 1/2".
2. Cut to size. Remove paper.
3. Mark pieces for forming shapes. (Square has 3" sides; Triangle has 4" sides. Use the wood form for the c irc le .)
4. Use the strip heater. Heat until plastic is soft.
5. Form shape of triangle, square and circle. Cool, plastic with cool water of damp towel.
6. Have your shapes checked. Clean up when finished. 156
ENAMELING SHAPES
DIRECTIONS:
1. Draw a diamond, square, circle ortriangle on a piece of paper. Cut i t out with scissors.
2. Put a design on i t . Decide where to d rill holes.
3. Select a piece of metal. Cut out to shape.
4. D rill a 1/8 inch hole in the metal.
5. Sand to remove sharp edges.
6. Place project on piece of paper.
7. Sprinkle on enamel powder (thickness of a dime).
8. Slowly slide spatula under piece.
9. Place on heater for 2 minutes.
10. When powder is smooth, remove piece and le t cool.
11. Draw a stencil design. Cut it out. Use on project.
12. Design, cut out, and enamel TWO different shapes. Lacestring through hole to make a necklace. SPRINKLE METHOD
1. Gently pour powder into s ifte r.
2. S ift powder onto project.
3. Slide spatula under project.
4. Place on heater for 3 minutes.
Remove and cool.
STENCIL METHOD
1. Apply base coat of powder and fire . Let cool.
2. Cut out stencil design. Use paper.
3. Place stencil on project.
4. Sprinkle different color over the cut out.
5. Gently remove stencil,
6. Place on heater for 5 minutes.
7. Remove and cool. 158
CONVOY 1 TRUCK
Truck Base
1. Select wood 3 1/2" wide and saw to 8" long. 2. Measure and draw lines for axles 1" from each end. 3. Locate centers of holes for stack pipes. 4. Center punch and d rill two 1/4" holes for stack pipes. 5. Sand all rough edges.
Truck Bed
1. Get a rectangular piece of wood 6" long, 3 1/2" wide and 1 3/8" 2. Measure for holes. Center punch for each hole. 3. D rill 9 holes 3/8" diameter. Use brace and bit. 4. D rill 6 holes 1/4" diameter. Use hand d r ill. 5. Sand all rough edges, corners and surfaces.
Axles and Pipe Stacks
1. Select 1/2" X 1/2" square wood. Cut 2 pieces 3 1/2" long. 2. Find the center on each end of axle. Center punch. 3. D rill a 1/8" diameter hole in both ends of axles. D rill holes very straight and 1/2" deep. 4. Select 1/4" diameter dowel rod. Cut to 3 3/4" long. Cut a 45° angle on one end. Use mitre box. 5. Sand all pieces before assembly.
TRUCK ASSEMBLY
1. Collect all parts together. You should have two axles, one truck base, one bed, one cab, two stack pipes, four wheels, four screws, and two sizes of nails. 2. Put glue on truck bed and assemble to truck base. Nail base to bed with four nails. Do not nail through the holes drilled in the bed. 3. Apply glue to bottom of cab and attach to base. Use two nails to hold cab into place. 4. Start small nails into each axle. Apply glue to one side of the axle and nail 1" from each end of the bottom of the truck base. 5. Wipe off extra glue. Sand rough edges. Stain the wood. 6. Put wheels on axles with wood screws. Drive the screws straight into the axles. 7. Glue the stack pipes into the base holes. Use thumb tacks for head lights and tail lights. 8. Truck should now be assembled and ready for the screen printing on the side of the bed. 9. When finished you can KEEP ON TRUCKING!
(Ten-four and bye-bye) 159
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SCREEN PRINTING ON THE TRUCK
1. Put newspapers on a table. Get materials together.
2. Place ink on the screen.
3. Put truck on its side.
4. Place screen over side of truck bed. Make sure the letters w ill be right side up.
5. Pull squeegee with the ink over the design area.
6. Carefully l i f t the screen from the side of the truck.
7. Turn the truck to the opposite side.
8. Repeat the printing process.
9. Put the truck away to allow the ink to dry.
PRINTING ON A SHIRT
1. Place cardboard under print area.
2. Put ink on the screen.
3. Place the screen exactly where the design should be printed.
4. Pull squeegee with ink over the design.
5. Carefully l i f t screen from the shirt.
6. Allow ink to dry.
7. Clean squeegee and the screen.
8. Clean up area. Put materials away.
9. Great Job Guys! YOU ARE ALL FINISHED! 163
FOLLOWING DIRECTIONS
1. What is the length of line a^. _____
a.______
2. Put an X. in 3 corners of this paper.
3. Make a straight line 6 inches in length.
Put a z at both ends of i t . Put a T in the center of it .
4. Measure the long side of this paper. ______
5. Measure the short edge of i t . ______
6. Can you use a d rill to draw a circle? ______
7. Can you cut a straight piece of wood with a compass?______
8. Can you cut a piece of wood with a coping saw? ______
9. Could you lace your shoe with a 36 inch piece of string? _____
10. Could you tie the ends together? ______
11. Make a circle around each of the x's you made.
12. Could you lace a 1/2" piece of string through a hole in a 1" thick
piece of wood? ______Could you tie the ends together? ______164
MEASURING FUN
§ 1/2 diameter
1 1/2
1. Measure 3 1/2" from the top of your paper on each side. Put a mark there. 2. Draw a straight line between these marks. Cut along this line. 3. Draw straight lines across corners of the large piece. 4. Use compass to draw a 6 1/2" circle. 5. Measure 1 1/2" from both sides of center, put dots there. 6. Have circle and measuring checked. 7. Make your circle into a cartoon face. 165
1. 4 1/2" on ine A
2. 3 1/2" on ine B
3. 1/2" on ine C
4. 6 1/2" on ine D
5. 2 1/2" on ine E
6. 1 1/2" on ine F
7. 6" on ine G
8. 1/2" on ine H
9. Measure the length of this paper
10. Measure the width. APPENDIX D
PROJECT ACTIVITY TIME SCHEDULES
1 6 6 PROJECT ACTIVITY TIME SCHEDULE INTEGRATED INDUSTRIAL ARTS ACTIVITIES
TREATMENT #1 TIME FACTOR Minutes
Spinning Button Activity
Introduction to Activity 10 1. Layout of Circle on Wood 2 2. Cutting with Saws 5 3. Sand Edges 5 4. Center Punch Holes 1 5. D rill 2 holes 3 6. Finishing 5 7. Threading String 3 8. Clean-up 5 39
TREATMENT it2
Enameling on Metal Activity
Introduction to Activity 7 1. Sort Blank Shapes 2 2. Layout Selected Shapes 3 3. Cut out Blank 5 4. D rill Hanger Hole 2 5. Coat Surface with Enameling Material 3 6. Cure Resin and Cool 5 7. Thread String 2 8. Have Finished Product Inspected 9. Clean-up 10 39
TREATMENT #3
Recipe Holder (Part 1)
Introduction to Activity 10 1. Layout of Base (measured) 4 2. Saw Base 3 3. Sand Corners 3 4. D rill Base 3 5. Measure Dowel 1 6. Saw Dowel 2 7. Sand Edges 3 167 168
M inutes
8. Layout of Top (circle) 3 9. Locate Eyes, Mouth, Nose 5 10. Have Finished Product Inspected 11. Clean-up ljO 47
Recipe Holder (Part 2)
Review General Directions 5 Retrieve Parts 3 1. Cut Out Top 4 2. Sand Edges 5 3. Locate Hole Centers for Clip, Screw Eyes, Dowel 3 4. D rill Holes (4) 5 5. Glue and Assemble Base, Dowel, Head 5 6. Decorate Face and Base 5 7. Twist in Screw Eyes 2 8. Attach Alligator Clip With Screw 2 9. Have Finished Product Inspected 10. Clean-up _5 44
TREATMENT #4
Plastisol Casting
Introduction to Activity 5 1. Read Specific Direction Sheet 2 2. Secure measuring container 1 3. Measure one ounce of material 3 4. Place ten (10) drops of pigment into Resin 2 5. Mix Resin 1 6. Pour into Mold 1 7. Cure in Heat 10 8. Cool Product 1 9. Extract From Mold 1 10. Trim With Scissors 3 11. Have Finished Product Inspected 0 12. Clean-up 10 40
TREATMENT #5
Acrylic Forming of Geometric Shapes (Circle, Square, Rectangle, Triangle)
Introduction to Activity 10 169 M inutes
1. Measure Length for Circle 1 2. Measure Length for Square and Mark Where to Bend Corners 2 3. Measure and Mark for Triangle 2 4. Measure and Mark for Rectangle 2 5. Cut Pieces to Length 5 6. Heat and Form Circle 3 7. Heat and Form Triangle 3 8. Heat and Form Square 3 9. Heat and Form Rectangle 3 10. Join Ends by Gluing 4 11. Have Finished Product Inspected 0 12. Clean-up 5 43
TREATMENT #6
Game Base
Introduction to Activity 5 1. Measure Length and Width of Base 3 2. Cut to Length 2 3. Cut to Width 2 4. Locate 5 hole Centers 3 5. Center Punch Holes 1 6. D rill 5 Holes 5 7. Sand Rough Edges 5 8. Measure Dowel Lengths (5) 2 9. Cut Dowels 2 10. Sand Rough Edges 2 11. Assemble by Gluing Dowels With Holes 3 12. Place Numbers on Base 5 13. Have Finished Product Inspected 0 14. Clean-up 5 45
TREATMENT #7
Note Pad Activity
Introduction to Activity 5 1. Layout Spaces on Ditto (6) 5 2. Trace Design in Each Space 5 3. Print Ditto 3 4. Cut Sheets Into Smaller Parts 4 5. Stack All Sheets Evenly and Place in Padding Press 2 6. Apply Padding Compound to Edge 4 7. When Dry, Trim the Three Remaining Edges 5 170
M inutes
8. Have Finished Product Inspected 5 9. Clean-up _5 38
TREATMENT #8
Truck Assembly (Part 1)
Introduction to Activity 10 1. Sort Parts According to Instruction Sheet 3 2. Layout for Holes on Truck Bed 5 3. Center Punch All Centers 3 4. Layout for Axle Placement 3 5. Layout for Cab and Bed on Chasis 2 6. D rill Holes, 2 Sizes in Bed 8 7. Nail Bed to Chasis 4 8. Nail Cab to Chasis 2 9. Have Finished Product Inspected 0 10. Clean-up _5 45 Truck Assembly (Part 2)
Review Instructions 5 1. Attach Front and Rear Axles 5 2. D rill Pilot Holes for Wheels 4 3. Screw Wheels into Axles 8 4. Cut Out Stickers for Truck Cab 4 5. Place Stickers on Truck 4 6. Measure Dowel for Truck Bed (4) 2 7. Cut Dowels 2 8. D rill Holes Through Dowel (One End) 3 9. Sand Rough Edges 2 10. Glue Dowels to Bed of Truck 2 11. Thread String Through Dowels in Truck Bed 4 12. Have Finished Product Inspected 0 13. Clean-up _5 50
TREATMENT #9
Screen Process Printing
Introduction to Activity 8 1. Inking the Screen 3 2. Register Product to be Printed 5 3. Trial Print 1 4. Print Design on Paper (8 1/2 x 11) 3 5. Select Shirt and Insert Backing 2 M inutes
6. Register Shirt With Design 3 7. Print on Shirt (Put Aside to Dry) 2 8. Fold Printed Paper in Fourths 3 9. Have Finished Product Inspected 0 10. Clean-up J5 40
POSTTEST - ALL SUBJECTS
Total Instructional Time 470 Minutes APPENDIX E
INDIVIDUAL RAW DATA SCORES
172 173
TABLE 48
PERMANENT RECORD DATA BY GROUPS
Right Age or Left Subject Group Months I.Q. Sex Handedness
1 E 144 97 MR
2 E 157 94 M R
3 E 131 110 MR
4 E 152 89 MR
5 E 152 95 MR
6 E 142 84 ML
7 E 149 93 MR
8 C 134 84 MR
9 C 145 99 MR
10 C 140 93 MR
11 C 130 104 M R
12 C 139 93 M R
13 C 151 98 ML
14 C 120 103 M R 174
TABLE 49
AFFECTIVE ACHIEVEMENT LISTER-OHLSEN SELF-CONCEPT TEST
PIERS ACHIEVE- LEARNING INTERESTS .S HARRIS MENT ABILITY s Group Pre- Post Pre- Post Pre- Post Pre- Post }ost test test test test test test test tesi :est
1 E 10 11 20 22 12 3 86 69 94
2 E 10 9 24 29 7 5 64 44 78
3 E 6 8 50 47 8 6 58 64 117
4 E 12 12 39 38 6 6 61 51 95
5 E 12 10 27 36 5 4 24 48 88
6 E 12 7 40 42 6 '8 47 62 112
7 E 7 5 38 42 6 5 53 63 104
8 C 13 13 16 34 6 7 47 59 106
9 C 9 8 36 40 8 10 75 73 129
10 C 10 12 34 31 3 3 57 58 92
11 C 9 11 32 32 9 8 70 67 107
12 C 14 15 20 18 9 3 27 46 67
13 C 11 13 33 39 8 11 70 70 120
14 C 11 10 31 35 8 9 67 77 121 175 TABLE 50
COGNITIVE ACHIEVEMENT GATES-MACGINITE READING TESTS PRIMARY C, FORM 1
Arithmetic Reading Skills Inventory Vocabulary Comprehension 1, 2 & 3 Pre- Post Pre- Post Pre- Post Group test test test test test ______test
1 E 34 39 23 29 9 21
2 E 28 30 10 9 24 28
3 E 37 45 29 28 12 17
4 E 17 31 13 14 19 24
5 E 37 39 29 31 17 19
6 E 22 25 12 21 10 14
7 E 28 28 31 26 28 30
8 C 41 44 37 38 18 20
9 C 21 31 16 20 22 21
10 C 43 42 37 41 20 23
11 C 34 41 28 23 16 12
12 C 34 28 19 10 23 24
13 C 38 32 13 21 17 20
14 C 34 35 13 20 16 14 176
TABLE 51
COGNITIVE ACHIEVEMENT DATA BY GRADE LEVEL
Reading Comprehension Vocabulary By Grade Level By Grade Level Subject Group Pretest Posttest Pretest Posttest
1 E 2.8 4.3 2.9 3.7
2 E 1.6 1.5 2.5 2.6
3 E 3.6 3.5 4.2 5.7
4 E 1.8 1.9 1.5 2.6
5 E 4.3 4.7 3.5 3.7
6 E 1.7 2.6 1.8 2.2
7 E 3.9 3.3 3.1 3.1
8 C 4.9 5.0 4.9 5.5
9 C 2.2 2.5 1.7 2.6
10 C 4.9 5.6 5.3 5.1
11 C 4.0 2.8 2.9 4.1
12 C 2.6 1.6 3.7 3.1
13 C 1.8 2.6 3.6 2.7
14 C 1.8 2.5 2.9 3.1 177
TABLE 52
PSYCHOMOTOR ACHIEVEMENT
BACK SAW COPING SAW DRILLING STRIKING Pre Post Pre- Post Pre- Post Pre- Post Subject Group test test test test test test test test
T E 18 14 48 27 4 6 10 11
2 E 27 22 91 20 5 7 12 9
3 E 18 16 58 19 5 6 5 10
4 E 26 36 72 52 3 5 6 13
5 E 18 22 21 12 7 8 5 10
6 E 42 50 40 17 4 5 5 12
7 E 19 26 48 37 4 5 11 6
8 C 112 150 189 145 1 2 1 1
9 C 13 13 78 24 4 4 6 12
10 C 23 13 48 31 6 6 ' 3 12
11 C 91 64 43 67 2 3 4 4
12 C 33 23 66 38 3 4 11 10
13 C 39 48 37 64 5 6 6 10
14 C 58 55 99 109 3 3 3 4 178
TABLE 53
PSYCHOMOTOR ACHIEVEMENT
SCREW SCISSORS R. FINGER L. FINGER DRIVING CUTTING TOUCH TOUCH Pre- Post Pre- Post Pre- Post Pre- Post Mi Group test test test test test test test test
i E 42 23 4 6 24 36 27 31
2 E 42 35 4 8 23 35 32 38
3 E 41 35 5 4 30 33 33 30
4 E 43 29 5 5 42 48 35 44
5 E 29 38 4 6 38 48 37 51
6 E 49 43 6 7 33 37 29 39
7 E 47 35 5 4 32 35 27 32
8 C 73 67 2 2 24 27 24 26
9 C 58 44 6 6 39 42 34 42
10 C 43 37 2 3 33 39 29 36
11 C 63 50 , 3 2 24 28 23 27
12 C 33 50 3 6 29 33 34 33
13 C 49 37 5 4 27 31 28 31
14 C 52 45 4 3 35 28 31 40