SECTION 4 On-farm production and use of feed and feed ingredients

Section 4 - On-farm production and use of feed and feed ingredients This section provides guidance on the cultivation, manufacture, management and use of feed and feed ingredients on farms and in . This section should be used in conjunction with the applicable requirements of Sections 4 and 5 of this Code. To help ensure the safety of food used for human consumption, good agricultural practices1 should be applied during all stages of on-farm production of pastures, cereal grain and forage crops used as feed or feed ingredients for food producing animals. For aquaculture the same principles should apply, where applicable. Three types of contamination represent hazards at most stages of on-farm production of feed and feed ingredients, namely: t #JPMPHJDBM TVDIBTCBDUFSJB GVOHJBOEPUIFSNJDSPCJBMQBUIPHFOT t $IFNJDBM TVDIBTSFTJEVFTPGNFEJDBUJPO QFTUJDJEFT GFSUJMJ[FSPSPUIFS agricultural substances; and t 1IZTJDBM TVDIBTCSPLFOOFFEMFT NBDIJOFSZBOEPUIFSGPSFJHONBUFSJBM

Agricultural production of feed Adherence to good agricultural practices is encouraged in the production of natural, improved and cultivated pastures and in the production of forage and cereal grain crops used as feed or feed ingredients for food producing animals. Following good agricultural practice standards will minimize the risk of biological, chemical and physical contaminants entering the food chain. If crop residuals and stubbles are grazed after harvest, or otherwise enter the food chain, they should also be considered as feed. Most livestock will consume a portion of their bedding. Crops that produce bedding material or bedding materials such as or wood shavings should also be managed in the same manner as ingredients. Good pasture management practices, such as rotational grazing and dispersion of manure droppings, should be used to reduce cross-contamination between groups of animals.

Site selection Land used for production of animal feed and feed ingredients should not be located in close proximity to industrial operations where industrial pollutants from air, ground water or runoff from adjacent land would be expected to 38

result in the production of foods of animal MANUFACTURING OF FEED origin that may present a food safety ON-FARM risk. Contaminants present in runoff from Feed ingredients adjacent land and irrigation water should be On-farm feed manufacturers should follow below levels that present a food safety risk. the applicable guidelines established in sub- section 4.1 of this Code when sourcing feed Fertilizers ingredients off the farm. Where manure fertilization of crops or Feed ingredients produced on the farm pastures is practised, an appropriate handling should meet the requirements established for and storage system should be in place and feed ingredients sourced off the farm. For maintained to minimize environmental example, seed treated for planting should not contamination, which could negatively impact be fed. on the safety of foods of animal origin. There should be adequate time between Mixing applying the manure and grazing or forage On-farm feed manufacturers should follow harvesting (silage and making) to allow the applicable guidelines established in the manure to decompose and to minimize Section 5 of this Code. Particular attention contamination. should be given to sub-section 5.6 of this Manure, compost and other plant nutrients Code. should be properly used and applied to In particular, feed should be mixed in a minimize biological, chemical and physical manner that will minimize the potential for contamination of foods of animal origin cross-contamination between feed or feed which could adversely affect food safety. ingredients that may have an effect on the Chemical fertilizers should be handled, stored safety or withholding period for the feed or and applied in a manner such that they do feed ingredients. not have a negative impact on the safety of foods of animal origin. Monitoring records Pesticides and other agricultural chemicals Appropriate records of feed manufacturing Pesticides and other agricultural chemicals procedures followed by on-farm feed should be obtained from safe sources. Where manufacturers should be maintained to assist a regulatory system is in place, any chemical in the investigations of possible feed-related used must comply with the requirements of contamination or disease events. that system. Records should be kept of incoming feed Pesticides should be stored according to ingredients, date of receipt and batches of the manufacturer’s instructions and used feed produced in addition to other applicable in accordance with Good Agricultural records set out in sub-section 4.3 of the 2 Practice in the Use of Pesticides (GAP) . It is Code. important that farmers carefully follow the Good animal feeding practice manufacturer’s instructions for use for all Good animal feeding practices include those agricultural chemicals. practices that help to ensure the proper use Pesticides and other agricultural chemicals of feed and feed ingredients on-farm while should be disposed of responsibly in a minimising biological, chemical and physical manner that will not lead to contamination risks to consumers of foods of animal origin. of any body of water, soil, feed or feed ingredients that may lead to the Water contamination of foods of animal origin Water for drinking or for aquaculture should which could adversely affect food safety. be of appropriate quality for the animals being produced. Where there is reason to be concerned about contamination of animals from the water, measures should be taken to evaluate and minimise the hazards. SECTION 4 39

Pasture grazing cleaned regularly to prevent potential hazards The grazing of pastures and crop lands to food safety. Chemicals used should be should be managed in a way that minimises appropriate for cleaning and sanitising the avoidable contamination of foods of feed manufacturing equipment and should animal origin by biological, chemical and be used according to instructions. These physical food safety hazards. products should be properly labelled and Where appropriate, an adequate period stored away from feed manufacturing, feed should be observed before allowing livestock storage and feeding areas. to graze on pasture, crops and crop residuals A pest control system should be put in place and between grazing rotations to minimise to control the access of pests to the animal biological cross-contamination from manure. production unit to minimise potential hazards Where agricultural chemicals are used, to food safety. operators should ensure that the required Operators and employees working in the withholding periods are observed. animal production unit should observe appropriate hygiene requirements to minimise Feeding potential hazards to food safety from feed. It is important that the correct feed is fed to the right animal group and that the directions Aquaculture3 for use are followed. Contamination should Aquaculture includes a wide range of be minimised during feeding. Information species of finfish, molluscs, crustaceans, should be available of what is fed to animals cephalopods, etc. The complexity of and when, to ensure that food safety risks aquaculture is reflected in the wide range are managed. of culturing methods ranging from huge Animals receiving medicated feed should cages in open seas to culturing in small be identified and managed appropriately freshwater ponds. The diversity is further until the correct withholding period (if reflected by the range of stages from larvae any) has been reached and records of to full grown size, requiring different feed as these procedures must be maintained. well as different culture methods. Nutritional Procedures to ensure that medicated feed are approaches range from feeding only naturally transported to the correct location and are occurring nutrients in the water to the use fed to animals that require the medication of sophisticated equipment and scientifically should be followed. Feed transport vehicles formulated compound feed. and feeding equipment used to deliver and To ensure food safety, necessary precautions distribute medicated feed should be cleaned should be taken regarding culturing methods, after use, if a different medicated feed or culturing sites, technologies, materials and non-medicated feed or feed ingredient is to feed used to minimize contamination in order be transported next. to reduce food hazards. Stable feeding and lot/intensive feeding units The animal production unit should be 1 Guidelines on this definition are under development by located in an area that does not result in FAO 2 See Definitions for the Purposes of the Codex the production of food of animal origin that Alimentarius (Procedural Manual of the Codex poses a risk to food safety. Care should be Alimentarius Commission) taken to avoid animal access to contaminated 3 Aquaculture producers should refer to relevant sections land, and to facilities with potential sources of the Code of Practice for Fish and Fishery Products of toxicity. for additional information (CAC/RCP 52-2003). Source: Code of practice on good animal feeding (CAC/ RCP 54–2004). Hygiene The animal production unit should be designed so that it can be adequately cleaned. The animal production unit and feeding equipment should be thoroughly Manual of Good Practices for the Feed Industry 40

INTRODUCTION Four areas of on-farm activity have an effect on BOX 15 feed safety: the cultivation of home-grown feed stuffs (including cereals, pulses, forage crops and Contaminant levels pasture); the purchase and use of bought-in feed Contaminant levels in foods shall be as low as stuffs; the processing, mixing and storage of reasonably achievable. The following actions may feed on the farm; the feeding of livestock from serve to prevent or to reduce contamination of which human food will be derived in the form of foods and feeds: meat, milk, eggs, etc. The goal across all of these - preventing food contamination at the source, activities is to deliver the required nutrients to e.g. by reducing environmental pollution. livestock at the best cost while avoiding conta- - applying appropriate technology in food pro- mination that could adversely affect food safety. duction, handling, storage, processing and The production and use of safe feed will packaging. enhance animal performance and improve pro- - applying measures aimed at decontamination fitability. The first step is to obtain safe ingre- of contaminated food or feed and measures dients, as it is impossible to produce safe feed to prevent contaminated food or feed to be without safe ingredients. marketed for consumption. This section covers: good agricultural practices To ensure that adequate action is taken to for the production of feed; manufacturing of reduce contamination of food and feed a Code feed on-farm; and relevant elements of good of Practice shall be elaborated comprising source animal feeding practices. related measures and Good Manufacturing Prac- tice as well as Good Agricultural Practice in rela- GOOD AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES tion to the specific contamination problem. FOR THE PRODUCTION OF FEED Broadly defined, GAP applies available knowle- Source: Codex General Standard for Food dge to addressing environmental, economic and Contaminants and Toxins in Food (CODEX STAN 193- social sustainability for on-farm production and 1995) post-production processes resulting in safe and healthy food .The concept of Good Agricultu- This section will mainly focus on those aspects ral Practices has evolved in recent years in the of GAP which have an impact on the safety of context of a rapidly changing and globalizing feed, the term feed refers to both feed and feed food economy and as a result of the concerns and ingredients, unless otherwise specified. commitments of a wide range of stakeholders GAPs apply to the primary line of production about food production and security, food safety including growing the crop material and primary and quality, and the environmental sustainability processing. From that point on, the starting feed of agriculture. ingredient material is subject to production and processing according to GMPs. GAPs eliminates or reduces the risks of micro- BOX 14 biological or chemical contamination, misuse of crop protection products, and deterioration Contamination of feed during primary processing and storage. Elimi- Contamination of feed and food is due to various nating and reducing these risks enhances the sources, causes and processes, having direct reliability of the feed materials. Therefore, feed impact on its quality and safety and also implying materials and ingredients should be furnished by a risk to animal and human health. These suppliers that are able to follow Good Agricultu- include operations carried out in crop husbandry, ral Practices to reduce the risks of contamination manufacture, processing, preparation, treatment, of the feed and food chain (Boxes 14 and 15). packing, packaging, storage, and transport The main elements of Good Agricultural Prac- of such feed or as a result of environmental tices are: contamination. t"HSJDVMUVSBMTJUFT1SPEVDUJPOBSFBT t4FFETBOEQSPQBHBUJPONBUFSJBM Source: Codex Alimentarius Commission, Procedural t$SPQSPUBUJPOBOETPJMNBOBHFNFOU Manual t6TFPGGFSUJMJ[FST t*SSJHBUJPO'FSUJHBUJPO On-farm production and use of feed and feed ingredients SECTION 4 41

t*OUFHSBUFEQFTUNBOBHFNFOU in two consecutive years. Crops such as potato, t1MBOUQSPUFDUJPOQSPEVDUT other vegetables, clover and alfalfa that are not t)BSWFTUJOH hosts to Fusarium species should be used in rota- t4UPSBHFBOEEJTUSJCVUJPO tion to reduce inoculums in the field. Wheat and t5SBOTQPSU maize have been found to be particularly suscep- t&RVJQNFOU tible to Fusarium species and they should not be t%PDVNFOUBUJPOBOESFDPSELFFQJOH used in rotation with each other9. t1FSTPOOFMIFBMUI TBGFUZBOEUSBJOJOH Prepare seed bed for the new crop by des- troying old seed heads, stalks and other debris Agricultural sites/production areas that may serve as substrates for the growth of Feed and food safety is preserved once the mycotoxin-producing fungi. production areas used are suitable and do not Avoid overcrowding of plants by maintai- present risks for crop contamination, health of ning the recommended row and intra-plant- operators and the environment. spacing for the species/varieties grown. Infor- It is a good practice to identify the fields, mation on plant spacing may be provided by orchards and yards to better locate and reference seed companies. production areas (Box 16). Adequate techniques should be used to Safe production of feed and food as well as protection of environment are key parts of sus- tainable farming and include good management BOX 16 and control of risks such as pollution, water contamination, soil compaction, soil erosion and Cultivated land information intensity of application of chemicals for plant Important information that needs to be obtained protection. about the history of the land includes prior use of the land: Seeds and propagation materials t'PSBOJNBMGFFEJOH Use seeds of good quality, free from injurious t'PSEPNFTUJDBOJNBMQSPEVDUJPO pests, diseases, virus, etc. Recommended prac- t"TBHBSCBHFPSUPYJDXBTUFEJTQPTBMTJUF tices for the prevention and reduction of myco- t"TBTBOJUBSZXBTUFNBOBHFNFOUTJUF toxins contamination in cereals as well as in t'PSNJOJOHBDUJWJUJFT PJMPSHBTFYUSBDUJPO raw materials and supplemental feedstuffs for t'PSUIFEJTQPTBMPGJODJOFSBUFENBUFSJBM JOEVT- milk producing animals include the growing of trial waste or if mineral residues exist on the seed varieties developed for resistance to seed- site; infecting and insect pests8. Only seed varieties t'PS CBSOT BOEPS JG GBSN BOJNBMT BSF CFJOH recommended for use in a particular area of produced on land adjacent or a short distance the country should be planted in that particular from the cultivation site. area. Other information that should be obtained Monitor the plant health through controls include if the land has: signs of pests and diseases. When rootstocks are t&YQFSJFODFEBOZTFSJPVTGMPPEJOH used, pay attention to their origin. t#FFO USFBUFE JO BO VODPOUSPMMFE NBOOFS XJUI Crop planting should be timed avoiding high organic or inorganic fertilizers and/or pesti- temperatures and drought stress during the cides. period of seed development and maturation. Source: Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Crop rotation and soil management Fruit and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers, Develop and maintain a crop rotation schedule University of Maryland, 2000. to avoid planting the same commodity in a field

8 Codex Code of Practice for the Reduction of Aflatoxin B1 in Raw Materials and Supplemental Feedingstuffs for Milk-Producing Animals (CAC/RCP 45-1997); Codex Code of Practice for the Prevention and Reduction of Mycotoxin Contamination in Cereals, including Annexes on Ochratoxin A, Zearalenone, Fumonisins and tricothecenes (CAC/RCP 51-2003) 9 Codex Code of Practice for the Prevention and Reduction of Mycotoxin Contamination in Cereals, including Annexes on Ochratoxin A, Zearalenone, Fumonisins and tricothecenes (CAC/RCP 51-2003) Manual of Good Practices for the Feed Industry 42

maintain soil structure, avoid soil compaction tive chemicals and empty containers are safely and erosion. disposed. Containers should go through a triple Where appropriate, an adequate rest period wash and the residual water should not be mixed should be observed before allowing livestock to with drinking and working waters. They should graze on pasture, crops and crop residuals and be broken or perforated so as not to be reused between grazing rotations to minimize biological and, finally, kept them in closed bags to be deli- cross-contamination from manure. vered in the collecting centers.

Use of agricultural chemicals Use of fertilizers Agricultural chemicals should be obtained from Determine if there is a need of fertilizers or soil reputable suppliers and be appropriately label- conditioners to ensure adequate soil pH and led. Agricultural chemicals should be stored plant nutrition to avoid plant stress, especially safely in clearly labeled, secure containers in during seed development. Recommendations on clean, dry areas separate from other materials the application of organic or inorganic fertilizers and livestock feed. Herbicides, pesticides, fertili- should be given by competent personnel. Record zers and other agricultural chemicals should be fertilizer applications indicating the date/month/ used for the indicated purpose, applied according year, type of fertilizer and concentrations. to the quantities and frequencies as indicated by Store fertilizers in a covered, clean and dry area manufacturers. Records of the application should separated from other plant protection products be maintained, including the name and content and in a manner that there is minimum risk of of the chemical used as well as all justifications contamination of water sources and environ- for the application. ment. Withholding periods for harvesting, stocking, Purchase inorganic fertilizer from a reliable feeding or grazing should be strictly observed. source in order to have a guaranteed content of Pesticides and other agricultural chemicals the plant nutrients and the absence of chemical should be disposed of responsibly in a manner contamination such as heavy metals and fluorine. that will not lead to contamination of any body No human sewage sludge should be used. of water, soil, feed or feed ingredients that may lead to the contamination of foods of animal Manure origin which could adversely affect food safety. Manure, to be used in feed crops and pasture, It should be ensured that expired or defec- should be appropriately handled and stored, in order to minimize environmental contamination, particularly to ground water and waterways BOX 17 through run-off. There should be adequate time between applying the manure and grazing, to Irrigation practices allow the manure to decompose and to minimize Irrigation practices with waste water or with biological contamination. other water sources are similar and depend on Similarly, manure applied to ponds to enhance the local conditions, including climate, physical productivity should be composted for an ade- and chemical soil properties, drainage conditions quate period prior to use to attenuate the pre- and the salt tolerances of the crops to be grown. sence of pathogens. Good irrigation practices may vary, but are based The systems should comply with any regula- on: tory requirement in place. Manure, compost and t8BUFSRVBOUJUZ other plant nutrients should be properly used t8BUFSRVBMJUZ and applied to croplands, pastures and ponds to t4PJMDIBSBDUFSJTUJDT JOGJMUSBUJPO ESBJOBHF minimize biological and chemical contamination t$SPQTFMFDUJPO of crops and the environment. t*SSJHBUJPOUFDIOJRVFT The source and safety of manure or sludge t-FBDIJOH sourced off-farm should be monitored and safety t.BOBHFNFOUQSBDUJDFT assured

Source: WHO Guidelines for the Safe Use of Irrigation Wastewater, Excreta and Greywater, 2006 Ensure that, when irrigation is used, an ade- quate supply of water is applied evenly to all On-farm production and use of feed and feed ingredients SECTION 4 43

plants. The water used should be of adequate All insecticides, fungicides used to minimize quality. When waste water is used, concentra- insect damage and fungal infection as well as tions of chemicals and other information on herbicides for the control of weeds in the crop, water quality should be known and can be when mechanical methods do not suffice, should found in the WHO Guidelines for the Safe Use of be registered and obtained from safe sources. Wastewater, Excreta and Greywater, 2006. These Store all pesticides according to manufacturer’s Guidelines explain the concepts and practices instructions and use them according to Good for the safe use of wastewater, including health- Agricultural Practice in the Use of Pesticides. based targets and minimum procedures. It also External technical assistance may be obtained covers a substantive revision of approaches to when advice is needed for the implementation ensuring the microbial safety of wastewater of IPM. A number of technical references are used in agriculture (Box 17). also available for specific crops and purposes on various IPM websites. Integrated pest management Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is the coordi- Plant protection products nated use of pest and environmental information When pests can not be controlled by non-che- with available pest control methods to prevent mical means and techniques, plant protection unacceptable levels of pest damage by the most products may be necessary to be applied. These economical means and with the least possible should be handled and stored correctly and hazard to people, property, and the environment according to label recommendations and should (EPA – Pesticides in Food – “What Integrated Pest be suitable for the pest, disease and weeds consi- Management Means”, 2007). dered (Box 19). IPM should be a well planned program aiming Only plant protection products that are regis- to protect crops and including a variety of tered in the country of use and for application in methods and tools to manage pests effectively the specific crop should be used. FAO Internatio- and according to local conditions (Box 18). nal Code of Conduct for the Use and Distribution of Pesticides (FAO Rome, 2002) sets out voluntary standards of conduct for all public and private BOX 18 entities engaged in or associated with the distri- bution and use of pesticides, particularly where Integrated pest management techniques there is inadequate or no national legislation to IPM techniques are divided into three broad regulate pesticides. categories: The record keeping of plant protection pro- i) Prevention – The adoption of cultivation ducts can be organized through: methods that could reduce the incidence t*OWPJDFTPGQSPEVDUTQVSDIBTFE and intensity of pest attacks, thereby redu- t" MJTU PG QSPEVDUT JODMVEJOH UIFJS BDUJWF JOHSF- cing the need for intervention. dient composition; ii) Observation and Monitoring – Determining when and to what extent, pests and their natural enemies are present, and using this BOX 19 information to plan what pest management techniques are required. Good agricultural practice in the use of iii) Intervention – In situations where pest attack pesticides will adversely affect the economic value of a Practices include the nationally authorized crop, it may be necessary to intervene with safe uses of pesticides under actual conditions specific pest control methods, including necessary for effective and reliable pest control. plant protection products. However, where It encompasses a range of levels of pesticide possible, non-chemical approaches should applications up to the lightest authorized use, be considered. applied in a manner which leaves a residue that is the smallest amount practicable. Source: Global G.A.P. – Control Points and Compliance Criteria – Integrated Farm Assurance – Crops Base – Source: Codex Alimentarius Commission, Procedural Annex CB.1 Integrated Pest Management, 2007 Manual Manual of Good Practices for the Feed Industry 44

t1SFTDSJQUJPO GSPN QFSTPOOFM XJUI UFDIOJDBM Storage and distribution competence to advise on the use of chemicals; Harvested crop should be stored in cleaned areas, t5SBJOJOH SFDPSET PG UIF QFSTPOOFM SFTQPOTJCMF free from residues of previous crops. Where for the handling and application of products; appropriate, storage facilities should be washed t3FDPSEPGBQQMJDBUJPOJODMVEJOH and insecticide treated prior to use to prevent - Crop name and variety; insect infestation. - Location of application; For bagged commodities, ensure that bags are - Date of application; clean and stacked on pallets or incorporate a - Justification of application; water impermeable layer between the sacks and - Quantity/concentration of product applied; the floor. - Machinery used for application; Store harvested crops at the temperature best - Preharvest interval. suited to control insect and mold development Surplus mixes and tank washings should be without compromising physical or physiological disposed of according to the local regulations. integrity of the stored product. Where possible Storage of plant protection products should be aerate commodities stored in bulk through to done in a clean and safe place, under appro- maintain proper temperature and moisture. priate conditions of temperature and venti- Use of a suitable authorized preservatives such lation. The location should be well lit and far as organic acids (propionic acid), may be bene- from other materials. Only authorized personnel ficial in that such acids are effective in killing should have access to the storage facilities of moulds and fungi and preventing the production products. of mycotoxins. If an organic acid is used, it is Empty plant protection product containers important that the amounts added are sufficient should not be reused and should be disposed of to prevent fungal growth and are consistent with in a way that does not cause any contamination the product end use. to human health and to the environment. In the Handling of the harvested crops should fol- case there is a local system for collection of empty low all hygiene practices. Personal and clothing containers, these should be kept secure until dis- cleanliness, hand washing and personal behavior posed. Local collection rules should be followed as no smoking, spitting, eating, chewing should strictly. be observed.

Harvest Transport Harvest crops at full maturity unless allowing Transport containers should be dry and free of it continues to full maturity would subject it to visible fungal growth, insects or any other conta- extreme heat, rainfall or drought conditions. minated material. As necessary, transport contai- Wagons, trucks and any other containers used ners should be cleaned and disinfected before for collection and transportation of the harves- use and re-use and be suitable for the intended ted grain should be clean, dry and free from insects and fungal growth. As much as possible, avoid mechanical damage to the grain and avoid BOX 20 contact during the harvesting operation. Immediately after harvest, determine moisture Flagging potential contamination levels of the crop and, where applicable, dry General symptoms that flag an employee with the the crop to the recommended moisture content potential for causing microbial contamination: for storage. To reduce the variation of moisture t%JBSSIFB content within a lot, the grain may be moved to t7PNJUJOH another facility after the drying process. t%J[[JOFTT Cereals should be dried in such a manner that t"CEPNJOBMDSBNQT damage to the grain is minimized and moisture t&YQPTFEPSPQFOXPVOET levels are lower than those required to support t)FQBUJUJTPSKBVOEJDF ZFMMPXDPMPSPGUIFTLJO mold growth during storage. This is necessary to prevent further growth of a number of fungal Source: Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh species that may be present on fresh grains, espe- Fruit and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers, cially Fusarium species. University of Maryland, 2000 On-farm production and use of feed and feed ingredients SECTION 4 45

. The use of registered fumigants or insecti- production practices, handling of products and cides may be useful. At unloading, the transport equipment as well as safely measures. Plant container should be emptied of all cargo and protection products, biocides and other chemi- cleaned as appropriate. cal that can be hazardous are to be handled by Shipments of grain should be protected from workers that have been trained and can show additional moisture by using covered or airti- competence for such. ght containers or tarpaulins. Avoid temperature Hygiene instructions are part of the workers fluctuations and other measures that may cause training program and can be provided verbally or condensation to form on the grain, which could through signs and pictures assuring that: lead to local moisture build-up and consequent t)BOETOFFEUPCFDMFBO fungal growth and mycotoxin formation. t4LJOTDVUTTIPVMECFDPWFSFE Avoid insect, bird and rodent infestation during t4NPLJOH  FBUJOH BOE ESJOLJOH BSF QFSNJUUFE transport by the use of insect and rodent proof only in defined areas; containers or insect and rodent repellent che- t4JDLOFTTBOEJOGFDUJPOTTIPVMECFJOGPSNFE mical treatments, if they are approved for the t 1SPUFDUJWFDMPUIJOHTIPVMECFXPSOXIFOSFRVJSFE intended end use of the grain. Visitors and subcontractors are also to be made aware of procedures related to personnel safety Equipment and hygiene. Clean all machinery and equipment as well as trucks Place signs to indicate the chemicals storage and trailers used to transport grains and other facilities and the treated crops. feed raw materials. Be particularly careful with Clean protective clothing and equipment regu- the cleaning operation of trailers that are used to larly and separately from personnel clothing. Do transport different types of materials and medica- not store protective clothing and equipment with ted feeds in order to prevent cross contamination. chemicals and other plant protection products. Make workers aware of all necessary cleaning Make available to workers a place where they procedures and records to be kept. Do not load can store their food and eat. Hand washing faci- bulk feed concentrates, ingredients, or pre-mixes lities and potable drinking water must be acces- into equipment that is also used to haul pesti- sible at all times. cides, insecticides, glass, or scrap metal. Provide living quarters in good and sound condi- Documentation and record keeping tions having basic hygiene facilities and water. Documentation of procedures and relevant farm practices ensure that producers have cor- MANUFACTURING FEED ON-FARM rectly developed, implemented and updated an Many livestock and poultry producers choose to effective feed production and management sys- manufacture all or a large part of the feed for tems. their animals on farm. In order to produce feed The recording of practices established in the with high quality and safety standards, manufac- procedures allows the demonstration of com- turers should consider following basic steps given pliance to the statutory, regulatory and client in figure 1. requirements. Record keeping will facilitate the traceability of products and information, obser- Feed ingredients vation of legal requirements, external inspec- As stated by Johnston and Hawton (1991), the tions/ audits and the availability of data to the first step in manufacturing high quality feeds is competent authorities. to obtain high quality ingredients. It is impos- sible to manufacture high quality feed with Personnel health, safety and training poor quality ingredients. Grain should be free Workers health, safety and hygiene are impor- of molds, insects, dirt, stones and other miscella- tant for the efficiency and safety of production neous debris when it is stored. on the farm. Training and will gua- Feed ingredients should be obtained from safe rantee that personnel are competent to perform sources. Monitoring of feed ingredients should their duties and have good knowledge of risks include inspection and sampling and analysis for and conditions that can contaminate or decrease undesirable substances using risk-based proto- safety and quality of products (Box 20). cols. Feed ingredients should meet acceptable Training programmes are to be conducted on and, if applicable, statutory standards for levels a regular basis and will help people understand of pathogens, mycotoxins, pesticides and unde- Manual of Good Practices for the Feed Industry 46

sirable substances that may give raise to consu- Particle size mers’ health hazards. To achieve optimal animal performance, it is Furthermore, feed ingredients produced on the necessary to process cereal grains through a ham- farm should meet the requirements established mer mill or roller mill to reduce particle size. In for feed ingredients sourced off the farm. fact it well knows that reduction of particle size increases surface area of the grain that promote Formulation enzyme action improving efficiency of digestion Accurate formulation is essential to producing ani- and finally efficiency of body weight gain. Fur- mal diets that satisfy their nutrient requirements. thermore, particle size reduction allows uniform Nutrient concentrations of feed ingredients can mixing of grain with protein, vitamin and mine- vary substantially from average values published ral supplements. The optimal particle size will in nutrient composition tables. The on-farm feed depend on the animal specie for which the feed manufacturer should consider that the most accurate is intended. A minimum physical structure should formulations result only from laboratory analysis of be maintained in ruminant feeds as compared to ingredients. The manufacturer should seek the help poultry feeds of trained professionals when not familiar with the calculations involved in the formulation process. Equipment Special formulation should be followed exactly Feed equipment must be suitable for manufac- as any variation will alter nutrient content of turing animal feedstuffs. Manufacturer’s recom- the final feed and may compromise animal per- mendations on mixing time for the size and type formance. Only supplements and premixes that of the mixer should be followed. Mixers should have been formulated specifically for each animal not be overfilled; ; efficiency of mixing is reduced species or category should be used. when mixers are too full or too little material to

FIGURE 1: FLOW CHART OF MANUFACTURING FEED ON-FARM

Specification Purchase of the Receipt & inspection of Production Plan for materials materials materials

Materials for Quality Control processing

Formulation Re-processing if possible Return to Weighing supplier

Mixing Qualified personnel could Check list perform these tasks Quality Control Fail Labeling & packing

Pass

Storage

Feed animals

Source: Avitech Animal Health Pvt. Ltd, adapted On-farm production and use of feed and feed ingredients SECTION 4 47

permit adequate mixing action. They should be assist towards the assurance that ingredients kept clean, free of any accumulated material and used are: should be able to achieve an even mix. t8IPMFTPNF Feed equipment should be stored in good and t'SFFGSPNDPOUBNJOBUJPO clean conditions as to avoid any kind of contami- t.JYFEBEEFEJOUIFDPSSFDUQSPQPSUJPOT nation. Visual checks should be carried out on a This control plan should address the following regular basis, maintenance and cleansing records questions and be used regularly and especially should be kept. when any changes are made to the mixing ope- If drugs or other additives have been mixed ration. into the feed, all the equipment used should - Are ingredients from a known and repu- be cleaned between batches. Feed should be UBCMFSFMJBCMFTPVSDF mixed in a manner that minimizes the potential - Are records of the source of bought-in ingre- for cross-contamination between feed or feed EJFOUTLFQU ingredients. - Are ingredients and the finished feed pre- WFOUFEGSPNCFJOHDPOUBNJOBUFE Adding ingredients - Are stored raw materials protected from Basically, there are two types of feed mixing CJSETBOEPUIFSQFTUT equipment: - Are feed ingredients/feedstuffs stored sepa- Continuous flow (sometimes called mix-mills, SBUFMZ "SFUIFZJEFOUJGJFE volumetric or meter mills) – In this type of equip- - Is the equipment used to mix clean and ser- ment, ingredients are added based on volume. WJDFBCMF This procedure takes into account that each  "SFEFUBJMTPGUIFNBOVGBDUVSFEGFFELFQU ingredient has a constant bulk density. When - Is the equipment suitable for ensuring an the bulk density of ingredients changes and the FWFOBOEVOJGPSNNJYPGJOHSFEJFOUT same volume is still added, the mixture will no - Is everyone involved in mixing feed aware of longer contains the right amount of ingredients. IPXUPBDIJFWFBOIPNPHFOFPVTNJY Consequently, bulk density of ingredients should - Where necessary, are samples of ingredients be monitored and continuous flow mills chec- BOEDPNQMFUFGFFETLFQUBOESFUBJOFE ked periodically and adjusted if necessary, when - If using a mobile feed mixing contractor, is appropriate. UIFXPSLSFDPSEBWBJMBCMF Batch processing - In batch processing mixers,  *TUIFSFBSFDPSEPGBMMNJYFT each ingredient is added individually by weight, not volume. This procedure increases the accura- Quality control cy of feed manufacturing. A competent person should be given the res- According to the FIFE Council Trading Stan- ponsibility for production and quality control. dards Service, the below checklist can be used Their designated responsibilities should be listed to help drawing up a control plan. The plan will and recorded. If there is no one to designate the

FIGURE 2: ANIMAL HEALTH AND FOOD SAFETY

Guidance to obtain/maintain animal health and food safety

Good Animal health Animal welfare Environment animal feeding

Source: FAO - Guide to Dairy Farming Practice, 2004 Manual of Good Practices for the Feed Industry 48

responsibility to, the farmer himself is the res- formulas and mixing instructions and the dates ponsible individual. on which feeds were mixed and used. Where Whoever the responsibility lies with, this person veterinary drugs or feed additives are used, should produce a written quality control plan, there should be records of the procedures used which should be implemented and reviewed for adding these ingredients in order to prevent when necessary. The quality control program contamination of other feed mixes. should include periodic laboratory analysis of ingredients and feed using suitable methods of Re-processing sampling and analysis. When feed manufactured on-farm does not achieve the standard limits of quality, qualified Labeling personnel should evaluate if the material can be Label should be consistent with any statutory reprocessed. requirements and should describe the feed and provide instruction for use. Personnel training Personnel should be familiar with and comply Storage with all relevant national regulations and key Feed and feed ingredients should be clearly industry standards/assurance schemes relating identified and be stored separately to preserve to product quality and safety. Personnel should their identity and prevent cross-contamination, ensure that records are maintained to demons- especially with medicated feeds. Feed ingredients trate compliance with regulations or assurance that may require analysis to ensure food safety schemes. People involved in animal management/ should be adequately identified and isolated husbandry should keep themselves updated on until approval for their use is obtained. technological developments that can prevent or Feed and feed ingredients should be stored in correct welfare problems. a manner so that stock occurs, observing validity dates to avoid microbial growth of contaminants USE OF FEED and to ensure the proper activity of feed addi- Good animal feeding practices include those tives, including drugs. practices that help to ensure the proper use of Storage areas should be kept clean, dry and feed on-farm to promote animal health and at an appropriate temperature and humidity to productivity, while minimizing biological, che- minimize microbial growth. Where appropriate, mical and physical risks to consumers of foods of pathogen control procedures should carried out. animal origin and also reduce the impact on the Effective pest control regimes should be imple- environment. mented. Access by wildlife and other animals Animal health and productivity depend on the should be minimized. quality and management of the feed and water. Buildings and storage containers should be well When feeding animals, they should be given suf- ventilated and monitored to minimize contami- ficient feed and water of adequate quality, based nation or deterioration of feed and feed ingre- on their physiological needs taking into account dients. their age, body weight, stage of lactation, pro- duction level, growth, pregnancy, activity and Monitoring records climate. Appropriate records of feed manufacturing pro- cedures followed by on-farm feed manufacturers Feed Distribution should be maintained to assist in the investiga- The on-farm feed distribution system should tions of possible feed-related contamination or ensure that the correct feed is sent to the right disease events. specie and group of animals. During distribu- Records of incoming feed ingredients, date of tion and feeding, feed should be handled so receipt and batches of feed produced should be that biological and chemical contamination does kept. A regular inventory of feed ingredients not occur from contaminated storage areas and should be carried out to ensure that the correct equipment. Non-medicated feeds should be han- feed ingredients have been used in the correct dled separately from medicated feeds to prevent quantities. In some production systems, general contamination. feeding plans may be more appropriate. Avoid overfilling the animals’ feeding troughs, Records should also be maintained of master adapting the quantity to the physiological requi- On-farm production and use of feed and feed ingredients SECTION 4 49

TABLE 3. RECOMMENDED PRACTICES FOR ON-FARM PRODUCTION AND USE OF FEED AND FEED INGREDIENTS

Adherence to Good Agricultural Practices and Good Manufactured Practices are encouraged in the production of natural, improved and cultivated pastures, forage and cereal grain crops used as feed or feed ingredients for food producing animals.

Producers who choose to manufacture feed on the farm also accept responsibility for maintaining feed quality and other duties that come with it, such as maintaining feed safety.

Quality control begins with purchase of feed ingredients, continues through the feed manufacturing process and does not end until the animals have consumed the feed.

Animals should be fed with sufficient feed, based on their physiological needs and according to their age, body weight, stage of lactation, production level, growth, pregnancy, activity and climate.

If the animals are on poor quality pasture, additional forage or any kind of supplementation may be required to meet the animals’ needs.

Adjust stocking rates and/or supplementary feeding to ensure adequate water, feed and supply.

The grazing of pastures, croplands, ponds or other water bodies should be managed in a way that minimizes the contamination of livestock by biological and chemical food safety hazards.

Protect animals from access to toxic plants. Do not feed animals moulded feeds.

Animals should have free access to a clean fresh water supply. Regularly clean water troughs or drinkers and inspect them to ensure they are fully functional. The water supply should be adequate to meet peak animal requirements that is, drinkers should fill sufficiently quickly to avoid any animals in a group remaining thirsty. All reasonable steps should be taken to minimize the risks of the water supply freezing or overheating, as appropriate.

Design and construct buildings to be free of obstruction and hazards. Provide competent animal husbandry skills and appropriate training.

Protect animals from adverse weather conditions and the consequences thereof. Provide non-slippery floors.

Ensure animals are free from pain, injury and disease.

Have an effective animal health management programme in place and inspect animals regularly.

Provide competent animal husbandry skills and appropriate training.

rements and remove any unused feed from the Animals receiving medicated feeds should be troughs before refilling. identified until the withholding period has expi- Clean the troughs and automatic feeders regularly. red. Water supplies should be protected from unin- tentional contamination which includes patho- REFERENCES genic microorganisms, toxic chemicals such as CAC/GL 62-2007. 2007. Codex Working Principles pesticides, solvents, and nitrates. for Risk Analysis for Food Safety for application by Governments. http://www.codexalimentarius.net/ Medicated feeds download/standards/10693/CXP_062e.pdf ; Medicated feeds should be transported to the CAC/RCP 45-1997.1997. Codex Code of Practice correct location and are fed to animals that for the Reduction of Aflatoxin B1 in Raw Materials require the medication. Where medicated feeds and Supplemental Feedingstuffs for Milk- are used, they could produce residues in animal Producing Animals. http://www.codexalimentarius. net/download/standards/331/CXP_045e.pdf ; tissues and food products. Correct withholding periods should be followed and records kept. CAC/RCP 51-2003. 2003. Codex Code of Practice Feed transport vehicles and feeding equipment for the Prevention and Reduction of Mycotoxin used to deliver and distribute medicated feed Contamination in Cereals, including annexes should be cleaned after use, if a different medi- on Ochratoxin A, Zeralenone, Fumonisins and Tricothecenes. http://www.codexalimentarius.net/ cated feed or non-medicated feed is to be trans- download/standards/405/CXC_050e.pdf ; ported next. Manual of Good Practices for the Feed Industry 50

CODEX STAN 193-1995. 1995. Codex General Johnston, L.J.; Hawton, J.D., 1991. Quality Control Standard for Food Contaminants and Toxins of On-Farm Swine Feed Manufacturing. University in Food. http://www.codexalimentarius.net/ of Minnesota Extension. www.extension.umn.edu/ download/standards/17/CXS_193e.pdf ; distribution/livestocksystems/DI5639.html; FAO. 2004. International Dairy Federation and Food Jongbloed, A. W., Lenis, N. P.1998. Environmental Agricultural Organization of the United Nation Concerns About Animal Manure. Journal of – Guide to good dairy farming practice. www. Animal Science, 76:2641–2648; ipfsaph.org./En/default.jsp; OIE Animal Production Food Safety Working FAO. 2007. Guidelines Good Agricultural Practices Group. 2006. Guide to good farming practices for for Family Agriculture. www.ipfsaph.org./En/ animal production food safety, Rev. Sci. Tech. Off. default.jsp; Int. Epiz., 25(2), 823-836; FIFE Trading Standards Service. 2000. Guidance USDA. 2007. Guidelines for the Control of Aquatic for On-farm Mixers Producing Complete Feeds Animal Health Hazards in Aquatic Animal Feeds, for their Own Use (also available at www. March 2007 (also available at www.aphis.usda. tradingstandards.gov.uk/fife/feedmix.htm); gov/import_export/animals/oie/aquatic.shtml). Hintz, R. W., Koegel, R. G., Kraus, T. J., Mertens, D. R. 1997. Mechanical Maceration of Alfalfa. Journal of Animal Science, 77:187–193;