Nuclear and The

Nuclear and the

A.D. Sakharov

This article by the distinguished Russian physicist, One often hears on the radio Andrei Sakharov, came to me in the following way. I or reads in the press about observed during 1976–77–and am still observing– demonstrations involving thou- with growing discomfort the explosion of anti-nuclear sands of people, about speeches activities in Sweden, West Germany, Great Britian by well or not wellknown states- and France. I was shocked by the lack of accurate in- men, about various campaigns i formation and the political shortsightedness of the n the Western countries—all directed against the develop- anti-nuclear activitists. These observations brought ment of nuclear energy produc- me into the debate. I had been trying not only to ex- tion, against construction of plain that nuclear energy is much less dangerous and nuclear power stations, against much more healthy than the energy produced from breeders, etc. Although I felt fossil fuels, but also to convince the critics that nu- rather amazed by this and even clear energy is a conditio sine qua non for the political somewhat indignant, for a long freedom and independence of the West and for the time I restrained myself from any creation of a more favorable international political public statement, especially climate. In several discussions I had been asked: since, naturally, nothing of this “What is the attitude of Andrei Sakharov toward nu- kind takes place in the USSR. clear energy?” My reply was not very convincing; I Gradually, however, I came to could merely guess that his view would be similar to the conclusion that this subject my own. Therefore, I sent the text of my lecture to Sak- deserves attention and that I harov with an invitation for his comments. The following have something to say about it. The basic reason for anti- article is Sakharov’s reply, which I received in December nuclear feelings among people is 1977 – Frantisek Janouch Editor’s note: Professor Ja- probably the fact that they do not nouch is now working in Stockholm. Formerly, he was have sufficient information about head of the theoretical nuclear physics department at the the complex and very specialized Nuclear Research Institute in Prague, a professor of problems involved. Due to this lack theorectical physics at Charles University and Vice- of information, the natural and Secretary of the European Physical Society. legitimate concern of contempo- rary man for preservation of his environment is misdirected. 2 11

energy freedom of the West

It is difficult to explain to a non- European readers probably know solve the safety and environmental specialist (though it is actually true) also the name of the physicist F. problems for a nuclear power that the nuclear reactor of a nu- Janouch who has repeatedly ex- station than it is for a power station clear power station is nothing like pressed himself on the same using coal, oil, etc. an atomic bomb, that the power subject. At the same time it is obvious station burning coal or oil offers I am in complete accord with that it is necessary to force the much greater danger and harm to the reasoning of these and many pace of development of nuclear the environment as well as a bio- other authoritative writers. technology, since it is the only logical threat to people than does a The development of nuclear economically feasible method— nuclear station or breeder reactor technology has proceeded with available in the next few dec- of the same capacity rating. much greater attention on the ades—of replacing the use of oil. Many responsible statesmen of problems of safety techniques and (According to most estimates, oil the West, industrial leaders and preservation of the environment will become both too expensive nuclear scientists have now come than the development of such and scarce by the end of the cen- to understand (though belatedly) branches of technology as metal- tury due to the exhaustion of con- that it is necessary to bring the lurgy, coke chemistry, mining, venient deposits and increased basic technical facts to the atten- chemical industry, coal power extraction costs.) Moreover, it is tion of the public. They now under- stations, modern transportation, very important not only to construct stand the need for large-scale chemicalization of agriculture, etc. “conventional” nuclear power scientific and technical propa- Therefore, the present situation in stations working on enriched ura- ganda. This is truly very important. nuclear power is relatively good nium, in which the rare uranium Hans Bethe, Nobel laureate in from the point of view of safety and isotope uranium-235 is used, but physics, wrote an excellent, well- possible effects on the environ- also to solve the problem of pro- argued article on “The Necessity of ment. The ways to improve it ducing fissionable material from Fission Power,” which was pub- further are also quite clear. The the main uranium isotope and lished in the Scientific American in basic peculiarity that distinguishes eventually from thorium. January 1976. Bethe is the author nuclear technology from that using This will make it economically of theoretical works on thermonu- chemical fuels is the high concen- feasible to utilize poor uranium clear processes in the stars, on tration and small volume of the ores, large deposits of which are quantum electrodynamics and dangerous byproducts and the found in the Earth’s crust. Later nuclear physics. His works are a small size of the process as a this will make it possible to utilize part of the history of physics. whole. This makes it easier to thorium ores, the deposits of which 10 3 are even more abundant. As is individual obtaining a working dependence. In politics, one con- well known, fast neutron reactors atomic bomb will be handicapped cession always leads to another (breeders) are only one of the by the denaturing of plutonium and and where it will finally lead is hard possible solutions of this problem. other fissionable materials with to foresee. Both their engineering design and neutron-active additives. I have already had an opportu- the development of safety meas- The whole problem of nuclear nity to tell about a statement of an ures are well advanced. Appar- energy production should be con- important Soviet official which I ently, in the near future it will be- sidered from more than just the heard in 1955 when I could still be come necessary to start building economic and technical points of considered “one of the boys.” He industrial fast-neutron reactors. view. In the rest of this article, I was talking about the reorientation Naturally, maximum attention to want to discuss the international of Soviet policy in the Near East, safety measures will be called for. and political implications of this about the support of Nasser in I have already written about one problem. When I had already order to create an oil crisis in possible alternative solution to the started working on this article, I Western Europe and thus obtain problem of producing fissionable happened to hear on the radio a an effective lever for exerting materials, and I would like to mention broadcast about a book by the pressure on her. Now the situation it here. (I have also emphasized that I English astrophysicist Fred Hoyle. is much more complex and full of am not the originator of this idea.) I I have not read this book but judg- nuances. But some parallels un- am speaking about a proposal to ing from the broadcast, Fred doubtedly exist. There exists a build a large underground chamber Hoyle’s point of view and his ap- political interest on the part of the (probably with a hermetically sealed, prehensions are close to mine. USSR in exploiting energy short- heat-proof, corrugated shell) in which Policy-makers always assume, ages in the West. explosions of especially prepared not without reason, that one of the Is the present campaign thermonuclear charges of minimal many factors in determining the against the development of nuclear power are caused to occur periodi- political independence of a coun- power inspired by the USSR (or cally. The products of such explo- try, its military and diplomatic other countries of Eastern sions are subsequently withdrawn strength and its international influ- Europe)? I know of no reliable from the chamber and processed. ence is the level of economic facts supporting this. If this were With charges of this kind, very effec- development of a country and its so, then insignificant and unno- tive production of fissionable material economic independence. This ticeable efforts are sufficient sub- can be attained by letting neutrons assumption is doubly valid in the stantially to influence the dimen- from the thermonuclear reaction be case of two world systems oppos- sions of this campaign because of absorbed by uranium or by thorium. ing each other. But the level of a widespread anti-nuclear prejudice Of course, attractive as this idea is, country’s economy is determined and lack of understanding of inevi- there are many serious difficulties in by its energy technology: that is, tability of the nuclear era. its implementation. by the utilization of oil, gas and I must end this article on the One other problem, much dis- coal at present; of uranium and same note that I started it. People cussed in the literature, is the thorium in the near future; and, must have the opportunity, that is, possible theft of fissionable mate- perhaps, deuterium and lithium in the knowledge, and the right to rials from a power station or from a the more distant future, when the consider the mutually connected reprocessing plant. The stolen very complex technical problems, economic, political and ecological materials could be used to produce of controlled thermonuclear syn- problems involved in the develop- a primitive atomic bomb. As far as thesis will have been solved. ment of nuclear power, as well as the possibility of theft is concerned, Therefore I assert that the de- the problems involved in alterna- I think that proper organization and velopment of nuclear technology is tive ways of economic develop- technical security measures will one of the necessary conditions for ment. And they must have the make such a possibility minimal. the preservation of the economic opportunity to consider these Besides, one can hardly envy the and political independence of issues soberly and responsibility, thief who would dare to steal a fuel every country–of those that have without unfounded emotions and rod from a nuclear reactor: most already reached a high develop- prejudices. What is involved here likely he himself will perish and the ment state as well as of those that is not just comfort, or preservation plutonium contained in one rod will are just developing. For the coun- of the so-called quality of life, but not be sufficient to produce an tries of Western Europe and Ja- the much more fundamental prob- atomic bomb. pan, the importance of nuclear lem of economic and political As far as the possibility of pro- technology is particularly great. If independence, and the preserva- ducing a “do-it-yourself” atomic the economy of these countries tion of freedom for their children bomb is concerned, I am bound by continues to be in any important and grandchildren, I am sure that security regulations, as Bethe way dependent on the supply of in the end a proper decision will be evidently is. However, like Bethe, I chemical fuels from the USSR or reached. can assure readers that this is a from countries which are under her very complex procedure, not eas- influence, the West will find itself See Sakharov, My Country and ier than, for example, building a under constant threat of the cutting the World, Knopf, 1997.

“do-it-yourself” space rocket. In off of these channels. This will addition, one can assume that the result in a humiliating political 4 9 was informed by a flash telegram from the Spiegel’s Editor-in-Chief that they had changed their mind and would publish the whole article. Each year, the European Parliament My attempt to publish Sakharov’s ar- awards the Andrey Sakharov Prize for ticle in the prestigious American maga- Human Rights and Freedom. Sakharov zine The Bulletin of the Atomic Scien- is well known in the West mainly as the tists encountered similar problems. At 1975 Nobel Peace Price winner and as first, the Editor-in-Chief Herbert York the man behind the Soviet hydrogen doubted the authenticity of Sakharov’s bomb; it is less known that he is also the text. Only after I sent him a photocopy of author of TOKAMAK, an idea on which Sakharov’s text (reproduced here – in- the future fusion reactor is based, and cluding several handwritten notes from ii for which the EU alone allocates many Sakharov’s directed to me ) he changed billions of EUR. his mind and did publish Sakharov’s Sakharov’s prophetic lines that nu- article as a front page story. clear energy is essential for preserving This article was then published in and maintaining the freedom and the many renowned Western European independence of the West were written newspapers and magazines. Its publica- in Moscow toward the end of 1977 and tion in Neue Zürcher Zeitung inspired published in the West during the spring Heinrich Böll to write an open letter to An- of 1978, i.e. exactly thirty years ago. drey Sakharov after which Böll and Sak- Regretfully, this important contribution of harov exchanged a number of letters. Sakharov has essentially been forgotten The European Nuclear Forum in Pra- in the West. gue is convened exactly thirty years Allow me – since I was involved in after Sakharov’s paper was published. I persuading Andrey Sakharov to write think it is only proper to remind its par- this paper – to provide some personal ticipants of Sakharov’s prophetic in- observations. After several telephone sights especially as they remain so conversations with Sakharov and letters clearly valid until today. smuggled to and from Moscow I received Andrei Sakharov’s article NU- FRANTIŠEK JANOUCH CLEAR ENERGY AND THE FREEDOM Coordinator of the Government of OF THE WESTi in December 1977 the Czech Republic for the European with a handwritten request to have it Nuclear Forum published in the West. Prague, May 2008 To publish it was, however, no easy task. At that time, the antinuclear move- i Sakharov used in his article instead of „nuclear ment in the West was growing and energy“ more precise Russian words „nuclear ener- European and US mass media reported getics“ leaving no space for speculations: he speaks about production of energy (electricity) by means of on the somewhat irrational tide of anti- nuclear reactors. nuclear sentiments rather than on scien- ii Translation of Sakharov’s handwritten text: For tific and political arguments. I first of- František, with best wishes and feelings of sincere fered the article to the weekly Der solidarity. In my opinion this article should be pub- Spiegel where I had personal contacts. lished in sev.(eral) countries. A.S. F., I think, will be in Rome or at the Biennale (in Venice, FJ). Initially, Der Spiegel refused to publish Sakharov’s article, but a week later I 8 5

Physics Today, December 2005

Sakharov Is Tokamak's Originator The idea for the tokamak, a thermonuclear reactor whose construction is based on the toroidal magnetic confinement of a high-temperature fusion plasma, was first proposed in 1950 by Andrei Sakharov, my late husband. In collaboration with Igor Tamm, Sakharov wrote the first papers on the tokamak. The papers were classified until 1956, when Igor Kurchatov reported them at a conference in Harwell, UK, and were subsequently published in the Proceedings of the Second International Con- ference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy (Pergamon Press, 1961). This was the beginning of the worldwide work on controlled thermonuclear reaction. Because Sakharov and Tamm were working full-time on the development of a fusion bomb, Lev Artsimovich and Mikhail Leontovich were put in charge of work on the construction of a practical thermonuclear reactor in the USSR. Since Leontovich's death in 1981, Evgenii Velikhov, who succeeded him, has been mistakenly perceived as the originator of the tokamak. In the USSR, Sakharov's role was initially concealed due to the highly secret na- ture of his work on nuclear weapons, and then due to his ousting from the Soviet elite in 1968 when he took a public stand on human rights and other political issues. Now there is no reason to conceal his being the originator. In chapter 9 of his Mem- oirs (Alfred Knopf, 1990), Sakharov describes in some detail the early Soviet work on a thermonuclear reactor.

Elena Bonner

Andrei Sakharov Foundation Moscow

Three quotes from Andrey Sakharov

1975 Nobel Prize speech: “We cannot condemn the construction of bigger nuclear power stations ... since energetics is one of the bases of our civilization.”

1978 The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists Nuclear Energy and the Freedom of the West: “What is involved.. is the preservation of freedom for their children and grandchildren”

1987 Conference on a Nuclear Free World in Moscow, he reproved a speaker from Germany. “Don’t spend time attacking nuclear power. Use your energies to make it safer” 6 7