Timeline / Before 1800 to 1930
Date Country Theme
1516 - 1916 Jordan Travelling
Between 1516 and the mid-19th century the main interest of the Ottoman authorities in the territories of modern Jordan was to maintain the al-shami pilgrimage route of the holy sanctuaries of Islam in Mecca and Medina. To ensure the safety of the pilgrim caravans good relations were maintained with the local Bedouin tribes. An annual payment was paid by the state (khuwwa or surra) to their chiefs to facilitate the passage of the pilgrims or simply to leave them alone.
1516 - 1916 Jordan Travelling
The region enjoyed relative stability due to being the route of the hajj sharif (pilgrimage) caravans to Mecca. Sultans and governors took great care of the caravans. Khans, water installations and fortifications were built and maintained along the route and military patrols were formed to protect it.
1700 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Political Context
In the early 1700s, the (Al-Qasimi) Qawasim confederation migrates to the coast of the Arab Gulf from the Persian littoral. Here, they establish their main base in Julfar (later Ras al-Khaimah), soon extending their sway all along the lower Gulf, across areas of the east coast and towns on the Persian littoral.
1700 - 1750s Germany Cities And Urban Spaces
The newly built Palace of Schwetzingen (built on the site of a former palace that actually dates back to 1350) flourishes under the Palatine Prince Elector Karl Theodor. Today a heritage site of great cultural significance, it contains some 100 sculptures and is known for its Türkischer Garten, a garden in the Turkish style with a mosque (constructed 1779–91 and the earliest mosque-style and largest structure of its kind in any German garden), designed by French architect Nicolas de Pigage and with “Oriental” details that are for decorative purposes only.
1700 - 1750s Germany Fine And Applied Arts
"Palace Schwetzingen" is bulit and flourised under the Palatine Prince Elector Carl Theodor. The baroque castle complex includes more than 100 sculptures and a "Türkischer Garten" ("Turkish Garden") with a mosque, biult from 1779 to 1791, that makes it the earliest mosque- style in Germany and the largest structure of its kind in a german garden. It was designed by Nicolas de Pigage. However the oriental details are not for religious but for decorative purposes.
During the 18th and 19th Germany Travelling centuries
Travellers from Europe approached the notion of the Near East with dreams of a “holy world” and “treasuries of wisdom”. The European desire for the “Orient” arose partly as a result of the Enlightenment, which since the 1800s had already changed the public psyche, filtering down from the rationalism of intellectuals to the scientification of the public. In addition, the many wars of the period, especially the Napoleonic Wars, produced in the people nostalgia; a desire for distance, the unknown, and the halcyon days of the past. Romantic-era authors and philosophers, much disturbed by these very topics (e.g. Friedrich Schlegel), Date Country Theme thus attempted to escape into something magical – the “Orient” seemed to them, and their readers, an ideal imaginary world.
1745 - 1747 Germany Cities And Urban Spaces
Prussian King Friedrick II commissions G. W. von Knobelsdorff to build Sanssouci Palace in Potsdam.
1765 - 1800 Saudi Arabia Political Context
In 1765 Imam Muhammad bin Saud establishes the First Saudi State in Arabia, starting with the Najd region, and making its capital the city of Dir‘iyya.
1769 - 1785 Germany Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The era of Sturm und Drang (Storm and Stress) in literature (i.e. the works of Goethe, Schiller, Hölderlin and Herder) is characterised by lyricism, fantasy, freedom, juvenility and idealism, which is felt most keenly in the dramatic writing of the period.
1770 - 1830 Germany Fine And Applied Arts
The painting by Johann Heinrich Wilhelm Tischbein, Goethe in der Campagna (1786/87), exemplifies Classicism in art at this time.
1772 - 1807 Germany Cities And Urban Spaces
Karl Eugen, Duke of Wittenberg, built three important palaces: one in the centre of Stuttgart, Neues Schloss (1746–1807); Schloss Solitude (1763–9); and Schloss Hohenheim (1772–93).
1777 - 1810 Portugal Fine And Applied Arts
Under Queen Maria I (1734–1816) and King João VI (1767–1826) a new neoclassical decorative grammar replaces the dominant rococo style. Besides French and English influences, the main features of the furniture are the carving of classical inspiration and the inlay work using various woods, creating both geometrical and floral compositions.
Around 1800 Germany Travelling
The wealthiest among the bourgeoisie begin to undertake more exploratory and scientific journeys to “discover” the rest of the world.
1782 - 1813 Tunisia Reforms And Social Changes
The reign of Hammuda Pasha Bey, known as the “Founder” of modern Tunisia. He made possible the renovation of the city walls of Tunis and the restoration of its fortifications, and undertook similar projects in cities such as Bizerte and Le Kef.
1782 - 1813 Tunisia Political Context Date Country Theme
During the reign of Hammuda Pasha Bey, known as the “Founder” of modern Tunisia, the Regency of Tunis enjoys a thriving economy and an overall sense of security.
1786 United Kingdom Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Scotland’s most famous poet Robert Burns (b. Alloway, Scotland 1759; d. Dumfries, Scotland 1796) is set to immigrate to the West Indies when a collection of his poems, chiefly in the Scottish dialect, is published in the county town of Kilmarnock in 1786. The publication launches Burns’ career.
1786 - 1832 Germany Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The Classical era in literature (i.e. the work of Goethe, Schiller, Wieland and Herder) is characterised by a will to preserve beauty, maintain goodness in order to gain harmony, and sees nature as an entity. The centre for this movement in literature is the city of Weimar.
1787 Spain Rediscovering The Past
Antigüedades Árabes de España published by Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando – it marks the beginning of the rediscovery of the Arab past.
1789 - 1791 Germany Travelling
The Brandenburg Gate is built, today it a famous landmark of German reunification.
1790 - 1800 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Political Context
Between around 1790 and the early 1800s, threatened by increasing British inroads into traditional Gulf economies and politics, and supported by the Persians and Omanis, the Qawasim attack British vessels to defend their economic empire in the Lower Gulf.
About 1790 - About 1850 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The Romantic movement develops at the beginning of the 19th century under the influence of writers such as François-René de Chateaubriand. The movement, inspired by imagination, individualism, a taste for the outrageous, and exoticism, is marked by the poetry of Alphonse de Lamartine and Victor Hugo and then extends to the theatre with Hugo’s masterpiece Battle of Hernani, and then to literature. Hugo was the uncontested leader of this literary movement. Music and dance were both influenced by Romanticism; in choreography and in costume design (the tutu and points) the feminine was accentuated.
About 1790 - About 1850 France Fine And Applied Arts
As in literature, painting sees a similar confrontation between Neoclassicism (e.g. the work of Ingres) and Romanticism, the latter also influencing sculpture. Academicism endured throughout the 19th century (i.e. Bouguereau, Gérôme and Cabanel).
1790 - 1840 Germany Fine And Applied Arts Date Country Theme
The painting by Caspar David Friedrich, Der Wanderer über dem Nebelmeer (1818), exemplifies Romanticism in art at this time.
Around 1800 Germany Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
"Disire for the orient" arises because of the breakovers around 1800, as the Enlightenment already had changed peoples life to a more rationalistic way of thinking and the scientification of the public. Also the sumless wars, especially the Napoleonic Wars, produced nostalgia and desire for the distance, the unknown, the paradise... Authors and philosophers from the era of romanticism bothered this topics (e.g. Friedrich Schlegel) and they tried to escape into something magical- the orient seemed to be a imaginary world.
1795 - 1848 Germany Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The era of Romanticism or Blaue Blume in literature (i.e. the works of Tieck, von Kleist, Hebel, Hoffmann, the Brothers Grimm and von Eichendorff) is characterised by the desire for far-away places, and imbued with irony, passion, nocturnal mystery and mythical creatures.
1796 Egypt Cities And Urban Spaces
The residence, Bayt al-Suhaymi is built.
1797 Austria Political Context
Austria and France conclude the Treaty of Campo Formio on 17 October. Austria then cedes to Belgium and Lombardy. To compensate, it gains the eastern part of the Venetian Republic up to the Adige, including Venice, Istria and Dalmatia.
1800s United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Cities And Urban Spaces
In around 1800, the Sharjah town is estimated to have around 2,000 to 3,000 inhabitants.
Early 1800s United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Economy And Trade
The Qawasim possess a fleet of over 700 long-distance trading vessels, venturing all over the Gulf as well as in India and East Africa.
1800 - 1814 Italy Cities And Urban Spaces
In the Napoleonic age, monumental architecture is intended to celebrate the glory of the new regime. An example of that is the Foro Bonaparte, in the area around the Sforza’s Castle in Milan (a project by Giovanni Antonio Antolini).
1800s - 1850s Italy Travelling
The “Grand Tour” falls out of vogue; it used to be a period of educational travel, popular among the European aristocrats in the 17th and 18th centuries. Its primary destination was Italy. In the second half of the 19th century, vanguard artists no longer looked at Roman antiquities and Renaissance for inspiration. Date Country Theme
1800 - 1803 Saudi Arabia Political Context
Most parts of Arabia become part of the new Saudi State. In 1803, The two holy cities of Mecca (Makkah) and Medina (Madinah), along with the rest of the Hijaz region, join the Saudi State.
1800 United Kingdom Political Context
The Kingdom of Great Britain comes into being under the Treaty of Union of the kingdoms of England (which then included Wales) and Scotland on 1 May 1707. It lasts, controlled under a single parliament and government based at Westminster, up until 31 December 1800.
Beginning of 19th century Germany Cities And Urban Spaces
Garden cities – planned urbanisation to overcome the housing crises in growing cities –come into vogue. Examples include Margarethenhöhe in Essen, Dresden- Hellerau and Dresden-Briesnitz.
1800s - 1900s Germany Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The era marks the genesis of some of the world’s most popular classical compositions, for example: in 1841 Robert Schumann composes Frühlingssinfonie (Spring Symphony) and in 1859 Johannes Brahms finished the concerto Klavierkonzert Nr.1d-Moll op.15 (Piano Concerto No. 1 in D minor, Op.15). In 1889 Gustav Mahler’s 1. Sinfonie D-Dur (Symphony No. 1 in D major) is premiered; followed in 1905 by his Kindertotenlieder (Songs on the Death of Children).
1800 - 1900 Lebanon Cities And Urban Spaces
Some features of 19th-century architecture in Lebanon have their origins in the era of Fakhr al-Din II. He had built khans and caravanserais to encourage trade and he introduced the red-tile technique, which became a typical element in Lebanese architecture. The mashrabiyya (wooden screens), used in buildings of Fakhr al- Din’s era, are still used in 19th-century Lebanese architecture.
1801 Egypt Migrations
Mehmed Hüsrev Pasha commands 6,000 Turkish troops to assist the British in expelling the French from Rashid. For this he is assigned Governor of Egypt.
1801 United Kingdom Political Context
The Irish Rebellion of 1798, which was intended to put an end to what Irish nationalists perceived as the subordination and dependency of Ireland on the British crown, instead contributes to the Irish parliament’s vote to join the union between the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland. On 1 January 1801, Britain, Scotland and Ireland sign the Act of Union and merge, to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
19th century France Fine And Applied Arts
The arts experience rapid growth with the appearance of new techniques and the emergence of photography and cinema. The female sculptor Camille Claudel was Date Country Theme part of this artistic boom. Cultural exchanges with other countries, for example at the International Exhibitions, were extremely fruitful.
19th century France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Dance (i.e. the waltz and quadrille), street song and cabaret (i.e. the sentimental and parody) and operetta all caught the popular imagination. Popular novels (i.e. those by Dumas, Sue, du Terrail) enjoyed huge success too, due to serialisation. The fashion world was influenced by publications of specialist journals and department stores where different fashions mark each period (i.e. the crinoline, the corset and millinery fashions).
19th century Germany Fine And Applied Arts
The so-called Moorish style recalls the Islamic art of Spain and North Africa between the 12th and 15th centuries, which it is said reached its zenith in the Alhambra. The style became fashionable in the 19th century for several reasons, but not least that technical progress and 19th-century industrialisation made a change in architectural styles both desirable and possible. As communications became easier and faster and people were exposed to other cultures, different styles and their functions were fused together in architecture, often to display their patron’s affluence as travel and education were still expensive. For example, the Dampfmaschinenhaus (the Steam Pump House) in Potsdam (1841–3) was designed by Ludwig Persius to resemble a mosque and the Moorish Villa (Wilhelma Park) in Stuttgart (1846) was probably built by Karl Ludwig van Zanth in the Moorish style for King Wilhelm I.
From 19th century onward Germany Migrations
Around 5 million Germans migrate to the USA to meet the need for manpower there, thanks to industrialisation, especially from the Ruhr region.
1802 United Kingdom Rediscovering The Past
The Treaty of Paris is signed. Following defeat by Anglo-Ottoman forces, France surrenders to Britain the Egyptian antiquities it has collected. The way is open for British exploration of Egyptian archaeology.
1802 Germany Rediscovering The Past
The first Chair of Archaeology is appointed at the Christian-Albrechts-Universität in Kiel.
1803 - 1866 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Political Context
Sheikh Sultan bin Saqr succeeds his father as leader of the Qawasim. He expands the Qawasim Empire to the east to encompass the areas now known as Khor Fakkan and Kalba. He delegates the administration of key strongholds to his brothers and later to his sons. His half-brother Salih bin Saqr rules Sharjah from 1803 to 1838, followed by his son Saqr bin Sultan (until 1846), and then his son Abdallah bin Sultan (until 1855).
1803 - 1818 Saudi Arabia Political Context Date Country Theme
The third Imam, Saud ibn ‘Abd al-‘Aziz, faces a hostile reaction from the Ottoman Empire through its powerful viceroy in Egypt Muhammad ‘Ali Pasha. After ‘Abd al-‘Aziz’s death in 1814, his son, Abdallah, battles with the Egyptian army in many regions of the state. Finally Dir‘iyya is surrendered, and Imam Abdallah is then taken to Turkey, where he is executed.
1804 Serbia Political Context
The First Serbian Uprising culminates in the first Serbian Vožd (Grand Leader), a progenitor of the Kara#or#evi# Dynasty, #or#e Petrovi#. He is elected, at a gathering of the Serbs at Orašac on the Feast of the Presentation, having won many famous victories against stronger and better-armed Turkish armies at Ivankovac, Mišar and Varvarin. Following the Treaty of Bucharest and the failure of the Uprising, Petrovi# flees to Austria in 1813, but soon after, eager to continue his efforts at expelling the Turks, he joins the Greek liberation movement. He secretly returns to Serbia in 1817 to discuss a joint plan of action with the Prince of Serbia Miloš Obrenovi#, but Miloš has him assassinated.
Around 1805 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Economy And Trade
The Qawasim demand tribute from the British East India Company in exchange for navigational rights in the Gulf; the British then begin military interventions aimed at destroying the economic hegemony of the Qawasim in the Lower Gulf region.
1805 - 1867 Egypt Political Context
During this time Egypt is a legally nominal Ottoman province governed by a wali on behalf of the Ottoman Sultan, although de facto it is virtually independent, with its walis styling themselves as Khedives. Despite their legally subservient status, Egypt’s walis enjoy far more political power than their descendants, who, decades later, rule the country as nominally independent sultans and kings.
1806 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Political Context
A temporary Peace Accord is achieved between the British East India Company, represented by Captain David Seton the Resident at Muscat, and Sheikh Sultan bin Saqr. This comes following several incidents labelled by the British as “piracy”, which the Qawasim argue is crucial defence of their existentially important economic interests in the Gulf region.
1806 - 1921 Jordan Rediscovering The Past
The 19th century is the age of rediscovery and of opening up the monuments and sites of the Ancient East to Western civilisation. Most ancient sites of Transjordan such as Petra, Jerash, Gadara (Umm Qays), Amra, Umm al-Rasas, Mushatta and many others are explored, documented and identified during the 19th century.
1806 Germany Political Context
The twin battles of Jena and Auerstedt are fought – in the midst of the collapse of the Prussian State and abolition of the Holy Roman Empire by Kaiser Franz II – under pressure from Napoleon Bonaparte.
1807 - 1837 Italy Cities And Urban Spaces Date Country Theme
In Milan, Luigi Cagnola completes the construction of the Arch of Peace, started during the Napoleonic age and inspired by the Arc du Carrousel in Paris. The stunning architectures of the Napoleonic age use arches, obelisks and allegorical groups of Roman and French classical inspiration.
1807 Egypt Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
On 8 May Muhammad ‘Ali Pasha, the Ottoman Governor of Egypt, gives the order to start digging the Mahmudiya Canal, from the River Nile to Alexandria through al- Buhayra, to transport water and as a route for cargo ships.
1807 - 1816 Portugal Political Context
First Napoleonic invasion. Prince Regent João (1767–1826, crowned in 1816) transfers the court and the seat of political power to Brazil, avoiding being deposed and replaced by a Napoleonic nominee as in other European kingdoms. In Portugal, Beresford, the British governor, intervenes in Portuguese general politics disregarding national needs.
1808 United Kingdom Rediscovering The Past
Claudius Rich is appointed East India Company Resident at Baghdad. His work at Babylon and Nineveh stimulates European interest in the archaeology of Iraq. East India Company men play a major role in the exploration and mapping of the Middle East.
1808 - 1814 Tunisia Cities And Urban Spaces
The construction of the Yussef Sahib al-Taba‘a Mosque is the last great architectural ensemble overseen by the Husaynid Regency of Tunis. The mosque is the main unit of this integrated complex, known as a kulliye, which also includes a mosque and two madrasas (schools), two mausoleums, a funduq (inn), hammam (steamroom), sabil (public fountain) and a suq (market).
1808 Egypt Cities And Urban Spaces
Muhammad ‘Ali Pasha builds Shubra Palace on the site of a former kiosk where walis went for recreation during the Ottoman era.
1808 - 1813 Spain Political Context
Guerra de la Independencia (Peninsular War) during the French occupation of the Iberian Peninsula and the rule of King Joseph-Napoleon Bonaparte.
1809 - 1810 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Political Context
Repeated skirmishes between British and Qawasim vessels are labelled “piracy” by the former and taken as justification to plot the final destruction of the Qawasim by the latter. The British launch naval attacks against the Qawasim strongholds at Ras al-Khaimah along the Gulf and on the Persian littoral. However, the Qawasim succeed in rebuilding their fleet and positions to resume their defensive trade-war against the British and their Omani allies. Date Country Theme
1809 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Giacomo Leopardi (1798–1837), philosopher, scholar and one of the greatest Italian poets of all times, writes his first poem.
1809 - 1829 Egypt Migrations
Description de l'Egypte first appears in 1809 and continues to be published as a series until the final volume appears in 1829. It offers a comprehensive scientific description of ancient and modern Egypt as well as its natural history.
1809 - 1899 Spain Political Context
The beginning of the independence process in the Spanish territories in South America and Mexico, influenced by the American and French revolutions. The first Declaration of Independence is in Ecuador in 1809 and the American process ends in 1898 with Cuba, followed by the independence of the Philippines and the selling of the Carolinas and the Mariana islands to Germany in 1899.
1809 Germany Reforms And Social Changes
Establishment of Berlin’s first university, the Humboldt-Universität.
1810 - 1880 Tunisia Fine And Applied Arts
Buildings present innovation in their architecture, decoration and positioning. Palaces, patrician houses and mosques incorporate elements of Baroque style; new European techniques and decorative touches that recall Italian arts are evident at the same time as the increased use of foreign labour.
1810 - 1880 Tunisia Fine And Applied Arts
A new lifestyle develops in the luxurious mansions inside the medina and also in the large properties of the surrounding area. Mirrors and consoles, chandeliers from Venice etc., are set alongside Spanish-North African furniture. All manner of interior items, as well as women’s clothing and jewellery, experience the same mutations.
1810 - 1830 Tunisia Economy And Trade
Situated at the confluence of the seas of the Mediterranean, Tunis is seen as a great commercial city that many of her neighbours fear. Food and luxury goods are in abundance and considerable fortunes are created through international trade and the trade-race at sea.
1810 - 1845 Tunisia Migrations
Taking advantage of treaties known as Capitulations an increasing number of Europeans arrive to seek their fortune in the commerce and industry of the regency, in particular the Leghorn Jews, Italians and Maltese.
1810 - 1850 Tunisia Migrations Date Country Theme
Important increase in the arrival of black slaves. The slave market is supplied by seasonal caravans and the Fezzan from Ghadames and the sub-Saharan region in general.
1810 - 1930 Tunisia Migrations
The end of the race in the Mediterranean. For over 200 years the Regency of Tunis saw many free or enslaved Christians arrive from all over the Mediterranean Basin. The Oriental influx is due also to the presence of Turkish power.
1810 - 1850 Tunisia Rediscovering The Past
Travellers and explorers of modern times have scoured and described the Regency of Tunis. Their missions to the region provided occasions to discover the remains of antiquity and open up new fields of research to European scholars.
1810 - 1920 Tunisia Travelling
Multiple exploratory missions and studies scoured the Regency of Tunis. These missions provided the first opportunity to discover the remains of antiquity and to open up new fields of research.
1810 - 1822 Morocco Political Context
In relation to trade policy, Mulay Sulayman opposes the liberalism of his father Muhammad Ibn ‘Abd Allah by passing an edict in 1814 imposing a 50 per cent duty on imports, and takes restrictive measures by banning the export of most Moroccan commodities to Europe, including grain, oil, wool, animal hides and livestock. The years of drought and swarms of locusts that devastated all crops between 1810 and 1816 caused a shortage of basic commodities, price increases and famine, on top of the plague epidemics that swept the country. All of these factors necessarily weakened the country financially and demographically. This could help to explain the inward-looking policies adopted by the sovereign Mulay Sulayman, who—according to some historical sources—claimed that he did not need Europe and hoped that Europe did not need him. A desperate and exhausted Mulay Sulayman resigned and chose his nephew Mulay ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn Hisham as his successor.
1810 - 1830 Republic of Macedonia Fine And Applied Arts (FYROM)
A masterpiece of Byzantine sculpture, the iconostasis in the Monastery of St John at Bigor near Debar is created in this period by Petre Filipovski Garkata (d. 1854) and his group of craftsmen. Carved in walnut, the iconostasis depicts scenes from the Old and New Testaments and varied floral motifs. This Macedonian master of woodcarving and his associates also executed the iconostases in Lesnovo Monastery.
1810 - 1862 Republic of Macedonia Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion (FYROM)
One of the most prominent Macedonian poets, folklorists and educators, Dimitar Miladinov(1810–62) is born in Struga. He spends most of his life teaching in the Date Country Theme Ohrid region. His greatest achievement is the collection of folk songs between 1854 and 1860.
1811 - 1886 Austria Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Franz Liszt is born in Austria. He becomes one the leading composers and a piano virtuoso of the 19th century. He dies in Bayreuth.
1811 Austria Reforms And Social Changes
A commission under the chairmanship of Franz von Zeiller drafts the General Civil Code.
1811 Egypt Political Context
On 1 March, Muhammad ‘Ali invites some 470 Mamluk beys to the Citadel for a feast to celebrate his son’s imminent departure for Mecca. When the feasting is over the Mamluks mount their lavishly decorated horses and are led in procession down the narrow, high-sided defile, below what is now the Police Museum. As they approach Bab al-Azab, the great gates swing closed and gunfire rains down on them from above. After the fusillades, Muhammad ‘Ali’s soldiers wade in with swords and axes to finish the job. Legend relates that only one Mamluk escaped alive, leaping over the wall on his horse.
1812 Romania Political Context
After the Russian–Ottoman war of 1806–12 Russia annexes the eastern part of Moldavia (Bessarabia).
1812 Spain Political Context
Spain's first Constitution of 1812, influenced by the French Revolution, is revolutionary because it declares the Spanish American colonies to be provinces and all their inhabitants citizens. The constitution reduces some of the powers and privileges of the monarchy, aristocracy and church and will influence future post- independence South American constitutions. Up to 1876 Spain will change its constitution four times (1837, 1845, 1869, 1876).
1812 - 1817 Germany Travelling
John Lewis Burckhardt from Switzerland journeyed to the “Orient”, especially to Aleppo in Syria, to study the Near East and Islam. While there, under the pseudonym Sheikh Ibrahim ibn ‘Abd-Allah and living as a Muslim businessman, he not only translated from English to Arabic Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe, but also rediscovered the city of Petra (Jordan) in 1812.
1813 Romania Fine And Applied Arts
Gheorghe Asachi teaches a class of drawing and history of art at the School for Surveying Engineers (Moldavia).
1813 Spain Political Context Date Country Theme
The Valençay Treaty ends the war between Spain and France. Return of King Fernando VII and absolutist restoration.
1813 - 1815 Germany Political Context
The Liberation Wars (and the decisive Battle of Leipzig in 1913) were between Napoleon Bonaparte’s French troops and Central Europe; Napoleon is overthrown.
1814 Tunisia Cities And Urban Spaces
The reign of Hammuda Pasha Bey, known as the “Founder” of modern Tunisia, comes to an end.
1814 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Cities And Urban Spaces
Sharjah becomes the main seat of the ruling Sheikh, Sultan bin Saqr al-Qasimi I, and the centre of the government of the Sharjah Emirate.
1814 Greece Political Context
Foundation of the secret organisation Filiki Etaireia (Friendly Society) prepares the ground for the Greek Revolution.
1814 Republic of Macedonia Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion (FYROM)
The first book in Macedonian, History of the Frightening and Second Communion of Jesus, written by Joakim Krchovski (c.1750–1820) is published in Budim. Krchovski was a herald of the Macedonian cultural revival and went on to publish more books on religious matters. In the early 19th century in Macedonia only priests and other Christian dignitaries were educated enough to enlighten Macedonian people through literature in their mother tongue.
1814 France Political Context
Abdication of Napoleon I on 6 April sees the end of the First French Empire (1804– 14).
1814 - 1815 France Political Context
First Restoration: the return of the monarchy, referred to as the Bourbon Restoration. Louis XVIII (brother of Louis XVI) facilitated this by accepting a return to the monarchy by means of the Charter of 1814. This Charter combined the more moderate ideas of the Revolution with certain monarchist traditions.
1814 - 1815 Germany Political Context
The Wiener Kongress (Congress of Vienna) saw the restoration of the political state (the 1792 Ancien Régime), realignment of the borders, and creation of a loosely arranged German Bund (Federation).
1814 - 1815 Germany Reforms And Social Changes Date Country Theme
The Wiener Kongress (Congress of Vienna) decides on territorial realignment and the constitutional restoration of Europe.
1814 - 1815 Austria Political Context
The Great Peace Congress is held in Vienna from 18 September 1814 to 9 June 1815. Clemens Wenzel Duke of Metternich organises the Austrian predominance in Italy. Austria exchanges the Austrian Netherlands for the territory of the Venetian Republic and creates the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia.
1815 - 1816 Tunisia Political Context
The English Admiral Edward Pellow, 1st Viscount Exmouth imposes on the regencies of Algiers, Tunis and Tripoli new recommendations to slow the race at sea. He inaugurates the so-called Gunboat diplomacy, which involves the threat of military force.
1815 - 1920 Jordan Political Context
Jordan is a part of Ottoman Syria. Its importance lies in being a land bridge connecting Anatolia and Syria with north Arabia, Egypt and North Africa and hence the necessity of establishing Ottoman fortresses to guard the Syrian and Egyptian pilgrimage routes.
1815 - 1859 Italy Economy And Trade
Italy is an agricultural country. Political fragmentation is an obstacle to trade and economic development. The different states use not only different currencies, but also different systems of measurement.
1815 - 1920 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Triumph of the opera (or melodrama), a form of theatre born in the 17th century, in which the characters express themselves by singing. In the 19th century, this form of art becomes very popular in Europe. In Italy, the opera becomes the most important musical genre and overshadows all other musical forms.
1815 - 1816 Italy Rediscovering The Past
Antonio Canova, acting on behalf of Pope Pio VII, recovers from France several pieces of art belonging to the Papal States, which had been brought to Paris by Napoleon, including the Villa Borghese’s archaeological collection.
1815 Italy Political Context
The Congress of Vienna decides the restoration of pre-Napoleonic monarchies: Kingdom of Sardinia (Piedmont, Genoa, Sardinia); Kingdom of Two Sicilies (Southern Italy and Sicily), the Papal States (part of Central Italy), Grand Duchy of Tuscany and other smaller states. Much of northern Italy (Milan, Venice, Trieste etc.) is under the Austrian empire.
1815 - 1860 Italy Political Context Date Country Theme
Italian “Risorgimento” (movement for national unification).
1815 Serbia Political Context
The Second Serbian Uprising – the Takovo Uprising – represents the second stage of the Serbian revolt against the Ottoman Empire, which breaks out soon after. The revolt leads to recognition of Serbian autonomy within the Ottoman Empire and establishment of the Kneževina (Principality) of Serbia, which obtained its own Assembly, Constitution and ruling dynasty.
1815 France Political Context
March–July, the Cent Jours (Hundred Days) between which Napoleon I returns to power and then finally abdicates after defeat at Waterloo.
1815 - 1830 France Political Context
Second Restoration: the reign of Louis XVIII and his brother Charles X. France experiences an economic boom (i.e. the development of the railways), but discontent grows over the king’s authoritarian policies.
1815 - 1848 France Economy And Trade
The development of transport networks: the creation of railway lines from 1832, expansion of the road network and construction of a large number of canals.
1815 - 1848 France Economy And Trade
The pace of industrialisation picks up significantly: millions of tons of coal and iron are produced and production in the textile industry is enhanced by the Jacquard loom.
1815 - 1866 Germany Political Context
German Confederation.
1815 - 1920s Germany Cities And Urban Spaces
Up until 1815 Hamburg had been a free city, which began to be developed under the German Confederation. A huge fire in 1842 then called for a huge rebuilding programme that continues up until 1897, with development of the customs examination area in 1888, and the Speicherstadt, the world’s largest warehouse district. In 1892, cholera caused some 8,000 deaths, but by 1900 the population is 1 million. A social housing scheme is implemented in the 1920s.
1815 - 1848 Germany Fine And Applied Arts
The painting by Carl Spitzweg, Der Sonntagsspaziergang (The Sunday Walk, 1841), exemplifies the Biedermeier era (an expression of the popular present reality) in art at this time. Incidentally, Spitzweg’s painting Der arme Poet (The Poor Poet) was the most popular painting in Germany in the 19th century.
1815 - 1848 Germany Migrations Date Country Theme
An estimated 60,000 German citizens leave the territory that later becomes the German Bund (Federation).
1815 - 1848 Germany Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The Biedermeier era in literature (i.e. works by Mörike and von Droste-Hülshoff) is characterised by melancholia, a desire to escape to an idyll and to recapture religion and the homeland.
1815 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes
Mahmud II leaves Topkap# Palace to live in Be#ikta# Palace.
1816 Tunisia Travelling
Queen Caroline of Brunswick visits the Regency of Tunis as a guest of the Bey. She is hosted at the Palais de la Rose in Manouba.
1816 France Reforms And Social Changes
The stethoscope is invented by Dr René Laennec.
1816 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Gioachino Rossini (1795–1868), the young director of the San Carlo Theatre of Naples, the most important opera house at the time, puts on stage in Rome the Barber of Seville. The opera, thanks to its easy and passionate pacing, sets a new benchmark for the light operatic style, namely, the opera buffa (comic opera).
1816 Italy Rediscovering The Past
In Naples, inauguration of the Royal Bourbon Museum, whose holdings include the rich collection of archaeological items belonged to Elisabetta Farnese and the pieces excavated in Pompei during the 18th century. All such holdings are personal properties of the king.
1816 Egypt Reforms And Social Changes
Modern education in Egypt starts with the School of Engineering, which is established by Muhammad ‘Ali in the Castle during 1816, to train and prepare specialists in that area.
1816 Egypt Political Context
Ibrahim Pasha leads Egypt’s expedition to Hijaz and crushes the Wahhabi Revolution.
1816 Republic of Macedonia Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion (FYROM)
The book titled Mirror by Kiril Pejchinovic (1771–1845) is published in Budim. This great Macedonian educator was born in Tearce near Tetovo. The first books in Date Country Theme Macedonian published in the early 19th century were on religious subjects, which was understandable given that they were written by people of the Church.
1816 - 1830 France Economy And Trade
The rise of the Stock Exchange in Paris, the financial capital of Europe.
1816 - 1830 Germany Fine And Applied Arts
Architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel engraved a certain style on Berlin, starting with the Neue Wache (New Guardhouse, 1816–18) and followed by the Konzerthaus at Berlin’s Gandarmenmarkt (1818–21). Opposite the Lustgarten (Pleasure gardens) on what is now known as Museum Island in Berlin, Schinkel built the first royal museum, the Altes Museum (opened 1830), marking the beginning of the Island’s history.
1817 Romania Travelling
August–September: Habsburg Emperor Francis I and his wife Carolina visit the cities of Transylvania and are very well received by the population.
1817 Spain Reforms And Social Changes
Slave trade (trata de negros) abolished by the Spanish Parliament at Cádiz. Following the influence of the French Revolution the anti-slavery movement grew in Europe. In 1837 slavery was abolished in Spain but not in the colonies. The government later freed the slaves of Puerto Rico (1873) and Cuba (1878).
1817 - 1821 Portugal Political Context
The emergence of liberal ideas. In Porto a Provisional Ruling Council is created (1820) and pursues the rebellion against British rule that started in Lisbon. Liberal revolution breaks out in Porto (August 1820), spreads to Lisbon, beginning the radical cycle known as Vintismo. King João VI is forced to return to Portugal from Brazil in 1821.
1817 Germany Reforms And Social Changes
Rise of the Wartburgfest, an assembly of radical students who want to implement the idea of a German National State.
1818 - 1819 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Construction of the first steamboats. The first steamboat lines in the Mediterranean: Naples shipyards build the steamboat Ferdinando I (for the line Naples–Genoa–Marseille); Genoa shipyards build the steamboat Eridano (to be used in the Adriatic Sea).
1818 Germany Reforms And Social Changes
Arthur Schopenhauer publishes Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung (The World as Will and Representation is the title of the latest, 2008, English translation; the first was published in 1883).The second, expanded German edition appeared in 1944. Date Country Theme
1819 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Political Context
The British put a stop to Qawasim hegemony in the Lower Gulf region by destroying their ports, strongholds, and fleets on both shores of the Arab Gulf.
1819 Spain Fine And Applied Arts
Founding of the Museo Nacional del Prado with the Royal collection of paintings as one the first museums in Spain.
1819 France Fine And Applied Arts
The Raft of the Medusa, by the Romantic painter Théodore Géricault.
1819 Germany Political Context
The Karlsbader Beschlüsse (Carlsbad Decrees) was intended to suppress liberal and national movements through censorship of the press and political persecution.
1820 - 1870 France Economy And Trade
An exponential growth in agriculture sees increased land cultivation, mechanisation and expansion of crops grown for fodder.
1820 France Migrations
The first German immigrants enter France.
1820 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Cities And Urban Spaces
British Royal Navy surveyors visit Sharjah.
1820 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Political Context
The British impose a Peace Treaty on the Qawasim and other sheikhs of the Arab littoral of the Gulf. The signing is preceded by a preliminary agreement forcing the sheikhs to turn over all remaining vessels, fortifications and weapons in exchange for the restoration of their fishing and pearling vessels. The Treaty enjoins all signatories to fly a specific red-and-white flag.
After 1820 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Economy And Trade
Pearling becomes the major industry of the Qawasim and other sheikhdoms of the Arab littoral of the Gulf; exports provide the most important revenues.
1820s - 1850s Italy Economy And Trade
Industrialisation begins at a slower pace compared with other Western European countries. It concentrates in Northern Italy (Piedmont, Lombardy) and in the Kingdom of Two Sicilies. Silk production is the strongest industrial sector.
1820 Italy Rediscovering The Past Date Country Theme
Edict by Cardinal Bartolomeo Pacca (1756–1844) dictating a comprehensive set of measures for the protection of cultural heritage in the Papal States: it is the first comprehensive law on the protection of cultural heritage issued in Italy and it will become a model for the other Italian states.
1820 - 1831 Italy Political Context
In 1820–21 and 1830–31, uprisings in different parts of Italy in favour of national unification and constitutional rule. They meet harsh repression.
1820s United Kingdom Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
British interest in classical Arabic culture including literature sometimes originates in India where the first printed Arabic version of One Thousand and One Nights is published.
1820 Egypt Reforms And Social Changes
Muhammad ‘Ali sends the first educational “mission” of Egyptian students to Europe.
1820 - 1823 Spain Political Context
In 1820, the army mutiny led by Rafael del Riego leads to King Fernando VII accepting the Constitution, in spite of his former opposition to constitutional monarchy, bringing in the Trienio Liberal period of popular rule. The Congress of Verona in 1822 gives France a mandate to restore Fernando as absolute monarch. In 1823 the French army invades Spain to restore absolutism, ending the Trienio Liberal.
1820 Portugal Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
14 October: The steamship Conde de Palmela arrives on the Tagus River. Built in Liverpool by Mottershead and Hays, it was commissioned by the Portuguese consul there. It is said to be the first ship to cross the Biscay, a journey of 1,000 miles, and the first steamship to be seen in Portugal.
1820 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Les Méditations Poétiques by the Romantic poet Alphonse de Lamartine.
1820 - 1825 Germany Rediscovering The Past
The German naturalists and explorers Wilhelm Friedrich Hemprich and Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg embark on a research tour in cooperation with Martin Lichtenstein (who published Reisen im südlichen Afrika (Tourism in Southern Africa) in 1810 and was appointed director of the Berlin Zoological Museum in 1813) from Cairo to Derna in Libya, along the Nile, and through the Sinai Desert and Lebanon, collecting natural and historical specimens.
1820s - 1860s Germany Travelling
The formation of modern tourism grows in stages, first the nobility, then the educated middle classes and finally citizens of much more modest means. Karl Date Country Theme Baedeker, who published the first successful travel book in 1827, was one of the innovators of modern mass tourism. The first group- and corporation-travel tours were inaugurated by the English firm Thomas Cook in 1840. In 1863 the first travel agency opened in Breslau, followed in 1869 by the founding of the German Alp Society, which opened up the Alps to tourism.
1821 - 1822 Romania Political Context
January 1821–July 1822: revolution in Moldavia and Wallachia against the Phanariotes (Greek rulers imposed by the Ottoman Empire since the beginning of the 18th century) and for social and economic measures to improve the lives of the people. After the suppression of the revolution the Empire appoints Romanian rulers in Moldavia (Ioni## Sandu Sturdza) and Walachia (Grigore Dimitrie Ghica).
1821 Austria Economy And Trade
In Trieste, Josef Ressel equips the steamship Civetta with a ship’s propeller for the first time.
1821 - 1822 Italy Cities And Urban Spaces
Giuseppe Valadier’s neoclassical project for the area next to the Rome northern gate is completed: it encompasses Piazza del Popolo and a new scenographic access to the Pincio hill.
1821 - 1822 Italy Fine And Applied Arts
Francesco Hayez paints I Vespri Siciliani, a historical painting expressing the new revolutionary and independence ideas that are taking root in Italy.
1821 - 1859 Italy Migrations
Harsh repression of pro-national unification and pro-constitution movement forces many activists – including Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi – to flee abroad.
1821 Greece Political Context
The Greek Revolution against the Ottoman Empire begins.
1821 - 1825 Lebanon Political Context
Bashir Shihab II, who was elected as amir in 1788 under Ottoman suzerainty, is overthrown when he backs Acre, and flees to Egypt, later to return and form an army. Bashir Jumblatt, the Druze leader, gathers the Druze factions and declares a rebellion that leads to massacres and battles with the Maronites who support Bashir Shihab.
1822 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Cities And Urban Spaces
A survey of Sharjah records it as having fortified towers and walls, a large mosque, as well as single- and two-storey houses. Date Country Theme
1822 Italy Rediscovering The Past
Inauguration of the Vatican Museums’ Braccio Nuovo (new wing), which completes the Chiaramonti Museum, whose construction had started in 1807, under the impulse of Pope Pius VII (Barnaba Chiaramonti). The Museum’s collection was set up by the sculptor Antonio Canova and included a large body of archaeological items.
1822 Italy Travelling
The Grand Duchy of Tuscany issues the first official ruling in Italy regarding “those who bathe in the sea in the open air”. Around that time, in Viareggio two wooden bathing establishments are built (one for men, the other for women). They are intended for seawater therapy.
1822 United Kingdom Rediscovering The Past
Champollion deciphers Egyptian hieroglyphs, giving voice to the wealth of ancient inscriptions. This heralds the beginning of Egyptology.
1822 - 1859 Morocco Political Context
At the beginning of his reign, Mulay Sulayman adopts a policy to isolate the country, excluding contact with the European and even Turkish worlds. He leant on the national brotherhoods and maintained mediaeval, feudal ways of life that eschewed Western technical innovations which he deemed to be dangerous. He nonetheless signed agreements with Portugal in 1823, England in 1824 and France in 1825, under pressure to change his position on account of the international situation. During the first third of the 19th century, Morocco was subject to systematic pressure from rapidly expanding European imperialism.
1822 Portugal Political Context
King João VI asks his heir Prince Pedro, Duke of Braganza (1798–1834) to remain in Brazil. Part of the court decides to stay there. Facing revolt against the anti- Brazilian policy of Portugal, Pedro proclaims the independence of Brazil on 7 September (Grito do Ipiranga). In October he is acclaimed as the first Brazilian Emperor, Pedro I.
1822 Portugal Political Context
1 October: Inspired by Cadiz Constitution members of Parliament authored the first liberal Constitution. King João VI (1767-1826) promulgated the document on 1 October 1822, in Lisbon. Royal prerogatives and the nobles and clergy privileges were limited, though with a weak impact.
1822 Portugal Reforms And Social Changes
1 October: Unavoidable recognition by King João VI of the first liberal Constitution approved by Parliament on 23 September. Inspired by the Spanish Constitution of 1812 and the French ones of 1791, 1793 and 1795, royal prerogatives and the privileges of nobles and clergy are to be limited, though this has only weak impact.
1822 France Rediscovering The Past Date Country Theme
The scholar, philologist and Orientalist Jean-François Champollion (1790–1832) deciphers the Rosetta Stone hieroglyphs.
1822 - 1829 Germany Political Context
The War between Greece and the Ottoman Empire concludes with Greece attaining its independence with the help of Russia and the Western nations.
1822 - 1930 Germany Travelling
The building of Museumsinsel (Museum Island) in Berlin.
1823 - 1825 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Political Context
After the defeat of the Qawasim by the British, a British Residency is established at Bushire on the Persian littoral to represent Britain’s political, economic and military interests there. Shortly after, a “Native Agent” is based in Sharjah as his representative. Native agents were generally non-Arab but Arabic-speaking Muslims from the Indian subcontinent or the Persian littoral of the Gulf, chosen for their loyalty to Britain and their in-depth local and regional knowledge. Their task was to monitor activities on the Trucial Coast and liaise with local powers on Britain’s behalf.
1823 Spain Reforms And Social Changes
The French army, known as “Los cien mil hijos de San Luis” (“the hundred thousand sons of St. Louis”), invades Spain to restore absolutism ending the Trienio Liberal (1820 –1823). In 1820 King Fernando VII had agreed to the Constitution, in spite of his opposition to a constitutional monarchy. The Congress of Verona in 1822 gave France a mandate to restore Fernando as absolute monarch.
1823 Turkey Political Context
28 July: Treaty of Erzurum, which ends the Ottoman–Iranian war and restores the previous border.
1824 Romania Cities And Urban Spaces
During the reign of Prince Grigore IV Ghica, the major streets in Bucharest, which used to be covered with wooden planks, are covered with cobblestones.
1824 Italy Rediscovering The Past
In Turin, inauguration of the Royal Museum of Egyptian Antiquities. The Museum holding includes 5,268 Egyptian items brought to Italy by Bernardino Drovetti and bought by the King of Sardinia, Charles Felix of Savoy.
1824 - 1891 Saudi Arabia Political Context
Following the events of 1818, the Hijaz returns to Ottoman rule. Then in 1824 the Second Saudi State emerges, led by Imam Turki bin Abdullah, and with its capital now in Riyad following the destruction of Dir‘iyya. Imam Turki is then succeeded by the sons Imam Abdallah and ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn Faisal. In ‘Abd al-Rahman’s Date Country Theme reign, in 1891, the Second Saudi State falls into the hands of his enemy al-Rashid. This prompts the king to leave Riyad for Kuwait with his family.
1824 Republic of Macedonia Fine And Applied Arts (FYROM)
Petre Filipovski Garkata and fellow artisans, including the master carver Makarie Frchkovski, create the iconostasis in the Church of Holy Salvation, Skopje. Petre Filipovski developed his own recognisable style of wood carving depicting scenes from the Old and New Testaments in which biblical figures were rendered wearing traditional costumes of Macedonia. The iconostasis also depicts the artists who created it as their “signature”.
1824 Portugal Rediscovering The Past
Publication of O Alfageme de Santarém, a drama by Almeida Garret (1799– 1854). The subject is the dynastic crisis of 1383–85 when the Portuguese kingdom was invaded by Juan I of Castille, married to the heir to the Portuguese throne, Princess Beatriz. In 1385, acclaimed King João I of Avis with Lady Philippa of Lancaster created the dynasty of Avis, responsible for the era of the Discoveries.
1824 France Fine And Applied Arts
The Massacre at Chios by the Romantic painter Eugène Delacroix.
1824 France Fine And Applied Arts
The Pardon of Bonchamps by David d'Angers.
1824 - 1829 Germany Cities And Urban Spaces
Rosenstein Palace is built by Giovanni Salucci under Wilhelm I; it has been a public museum since 1954.
1825 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The first proper British survey of the southern and western waters of the Gulf begins at Ras Musandam.
1825 - 1827 Austria Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
A railway line opens between Budweis (Bohemia) and Linz (Upper Austria). The rolling stock was not yet steam-operated.
1825 Austria Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Johann Strauss creates his Wiener Walzer Kapelle, an orchestra specialising in the Viennese Waltz.
1825 - 1827 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Date Country Theme
Alessandro Manzoni (1785–1873) publishes I promessi sposi (The Betrothed), one of the most widely read Italian novels. His use of the Italian language stands out as a model.
1825 Italy Travelling
More than half a million pilgrims visit Rome on the occasion of the Catholic “Holy Year”. In the Roman Catholic tradition, a Holy Year or Jubilee is a year of forgiveness of sins and reconciliation. Other Holy Years were celebrated in 1875 and in 1900. Rome always attracted Catholic pilgrims, especially during Holy Years.
1825 Greece Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The poets Alexandros and Panayotis Soutsos compile their first works, and introduce European Romanticism to a newly liberated Greece.
1825 Lebanon Political Context
Bashir Shihab II, helped by the Ottomans and by Ahmad Pasha al-Jazzar (governor of Acre), defeats his rival in the Battle of Simqanieh. Bashir Jumblatt dies in Acre at the order of al-Jazzar. Bashir II represses the Druze rebellion, particularly in and around Beirut. This makes Bashir II the only leader of Mount Lebanon.
1825 Portugal Rediscovering The Past
Almeida Garrett writes the poems Camões (1825) and Dona Branca (1826), considered the first romantic works in Portuguese. The hero, Camões, is presented as an outcast who, returning to the motherland, dies in the year when Portugal loses its independence (1580). The fantasy of medieval wizardry traditions is represented in Dona Branca.
Circa 1825 France Fine And Applied Arts
The inventor Nicéphore Niépce is credited with the creation of the first “photograph”.
1825 - 1848 Germany Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
This era, one marked by the politician and statesman Klemens von Metternich, a supporter of restoration politics and conditions prior to the French Revolution, is satirised by the Junges Deutschland, a movement in literature (i.e. the works of Büchner, Heine and Grabbe) that is characterised by a rejection of these beliefs in support of a free press and freedom of expression.
1826 France Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The invention of photography by Nicéphore Niépce.
1826 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Cities And Urban Spaces Date Country Theme
Sharjah is recorded as having 175 stone buildings and 2,000 areesh (palm-frond) houses.
1826 - 1832 Portugal Political Context
With the death of his father, Emperor Pedro I of Brazil becomes Pedro IV of Portugal but gives up the throne to his daughter, future Queen Maria II. The proclamation of a moderate Constitutional Charter does not stop the absolutist movement led by his brother, Prince Miguel (1802–66), who disregards the rights of his niece Princess Maria and Pedro’s decision.
1826 Turkey Political Context
15–17 June: The abolition and extermination of the Janissary corps (the so-called Auspicious Incident) in #stanbul by troops loyal to Sultan Mahmud II. This act provides the conditions for institutional modernisation.
1827 Austria Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Franz Schubert composes his Winterreise.
1827 Greece Political Context
The London Treaty: England, Russia and France suggest to the Ottoman Sultan that he should recognise Greek independence. This is the first step towards foundation of the Greek State.
1827 Egypt Migrations
The French physician Antoine Barthelemy Clot, Clot Bey as he was known in Egypt, becomes the first director of the Medical School and Hospital in Egypt.
1827 Egypt Reforms And Social Changes
A School of Medicine is established at Abu Za‘bal and annexed to the Military Hospital there due to the efforts of Clot Bek, a French physician. A fatwa is then issued by Sheikh Hasan al-Attar, which allowed anatomizing cadavers as long as it was done in order to prevent disease.
1827 - 1831 Egypt Reforms And Social Changes
A School of Veterinary Medicine emerges in Rashid in 1827, which then transfers to a building beside the School of Medicine at Abu Za‘bal in 1831. Here the veterinary hospital is able to accommodate up to 110 horses and includes a Pharmacy, a Hall of Anatomy and areas for student and staff subsistence.
1827 Egypt Political Context
When under the command of an Ottoman representative the entire Egyptian navy is sunk by the European Allied fleet, Muhammad ‘Ali asks for the territory of Syria in compensation.
1827 Turkey Great Inventions Of The 19th Century Date Country Theme
First steamboat in the Ottoman Empire is launched.
1827 Turkey Political Context
20 October: A joint British, French and Russian fleet destroys the Ottoman and Egyptian navy at Navarino as the Sublime Porte did not accept the declaration of the UK, France and Russia for an autonomous Greece (in the Protocol of London, 6 July 1827).
1828 - 1829 Italy Rediscovering The Past
The Grand Duke of Tuscany Leopold II and Charles X of France finance the archaeological expedition to Egypt headed by Ippolito Rossellini and Jean-Francois Champollion.
1828 Greece Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The First Governor of the new Greek nation, Ioannis Kapodistrias, orders the foundation of the postal service.
1828 Greece Rediscovering The Past
Ioannis Kapodistrias oversees the establishment of Greece’s first museum, the Archaeological Museum of Aegina.
1828 Greece Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The poem Hymn to Liberty by Dionysios Solomos becomes the Greek National Anthem with music composed by Nikolaos Mantzaros.
1828 - 1848 Egypt Cities And Urban Spaces
The Mosque of Muhammad ‘Ali is built between 1828 and 1848. Perched on the summit of the Citadel, the Ottoman mosque with its animated silhouette and twin minarets, the largest to be built in the first half of the 19th century, is the most visible mosque in Cairo.
1828 - 1910 Spain Rediscovering The Past
Beginning of the restoration of the Alhambra by the Contreras family. The restoration is more an “adornment” of the monument following ideas from Orientalism. The Contreras' casting workshop reproduces plaster decorations from the palace sold as souvenirs and displayed at international exhibitions, spreading the Alhambrismo or Alhambresque style.
1829 Romania Political Context
The peace Treaty of Edirne institutes the Russian protectorate over Moldavia and Wallachia, which lasts until 1856. The Romanian countries remain under Russian occupation until 1834. Under the supervision of the Russian authorities in 1830– 31 the Organic Regulations, considered to be the first Romanian constitutions, are drawn up and adopted. Date Country Theme
1829 Romania Economy And Trade
14 September: the Treaty of Edirne annuls the Ottoman monopoly on Wallachia and Moldavia’s commerce.
1829 Austria Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The Austrian Danube Steamboat Shipping Company is established.
1829 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Gioachino Rossini puts on stage in Paris his last opera, Guillaume Tell, featuring the fight of the Swiss people for freedom from Habsburg domination. He wrote 39 operas, characterised by a style aiming at pure musical beauty (bel canto). Great attention is paid to the sound of the voice and to technical virtuosity, with little emphasis on the different dramatic situations and to the personality of the different characters.
1829 United Kingdom Economy And Trade
The Treaty of Adrianople, following a Russian-Turkish war, opens up the Black Sea to international trade. Trebizond becomes a major port for Persia and India. Constantinople, Smyrna (Izmir) and Aleppo, which have been major international trading communities for many centuries now, flourish with the expansion of steam power.
1829 United Kingdom Political Context
The poet Lord Byron epitomises Romantic support for Greek independence from the Ottoman Empire. Over the next century, British opinion wavers between seeing the Ottoman Empire as a force for stability or one oppressing Christian populations – the Armenians and Balkan Christians.
1829 Egypt Migrations
Al-Waqa'i`a al-Masriya is established by order of Khedive Muhammad ‘Ali. It is the first indigenous Middle Eastern newspaper, initially written in both Ottoman Turkish and Arabic.
1829 Spain Economy And Trade
The Banco Español de San Fernando absorbs the highly indebted Banco Nacional de San Carlos, founded in 1782, thus becoming in fact the first Spanish bank. The bank continues as such until 1856, when it becomes Banco de España, the central Bank of Spain.
1829 United Kingdom Political Context
Irish lawyer Daniel O’Connell leads the campaign for concession of Catholic Emancipation, which will allow Roman Catholics to sit in the UK Parliament. The campaign is successful, helped along by the death of George III, but O’Connell’s long-term goal is to repeal Ireland’s Act of Union with Great Britain. Date Country Theme
1829 France Fine And Applied Arts
École Centrale des Arts et Manufactures, Paris.
1829 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes
3 March: Clothing regulation: the Ottoman state mandates the fez as the common headgear for all Ottoman men.
1829 Turkey Political Context
14 September: Treaty of Adrianople (present-day Edirne). This treaty secures Greek independence and strengthens the autonomy of Wallachia, Moldavia (Romania), and Serbia.
1830 - 1880 Tunisia Cities And Urban Spaces
Tunis is a cosmopolitan city. According to M. J. Henry Dunant, when visiting the regency in 1856, he noted that: “more than 15 Christian nations are represented by a number of their nationals in Tunis”.
1830 Tunisia Political Context
With the capture of Algiers, France ousts the Ottoman Empire and asserts its claim to the western Mediterranean. The beys and the regency’s elite then become aware of the dangers posed by the Europeans.
1830 Romania Migrations
The beginning of Greek immigration into Br#ila. Many Greeks emigrate to Wallachia and settle in the Romanian ports on the Danube after the liberalisation of commerce on the Danube and Black Sea (1828).
1830 France Migrations
Polish intellectuals arrive in Paris, which becomes the capital of exiled Poland.
1830 France Travelling
From 1830, among artists and intellectuals of the 19th century the journey to the ‘Orient’ to discover ancient civilisations becomes a kind of ritual.
1830 - 1840 Jordan Political Context
Bilad al-Sham (Greater Syria, including Jordan) is under Ibrahim Pasha who is ruling on behalf of his father, Muhammad 'Ali of Egypt. Ibrahim Pasha is forced to retreat to Egypt through Transjordan where the Egyptian army suffers severe casualties on its way back to Egypt.
1830s Greece Cities And Urban Spaces Date Country Theme
Eduard Schaubert and Stamatios Kleanthis pioneer the urban redevelopment of Athens, initially under Ioannis Kapodistrias. They produce topographical plans of Athens and, in doing so, lay the foundations for the new capital.
1830s United Kingdom Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The development of steam power in the early 19th century also applies to marine transport. Steamships shorten distances, but they also require fuelling stations. In 1839, Britain acquires Aden as one fuelling station on the route to India. Before construction of the Suez Canal, travellers sailed to Alexandria and continued overland to Suez, picking up a steamer there.
1830s United Kingdom Migrations
With the new Kingdom of Greece, guaranteed by Britain, some Greeks migrate to Athens and the new state, while others migrate from Greece to Constantinople, which has a huge Greek community. Relations between Turks and Greeks suffer during the 19th century, leading to a slow cantonisation of the region, culminating with the exchange of populations (Greeks from Turkey to Greece and Turks from Greece to Turkey) after World War I. From the same period, expansion of the old Hellenic port of Alexandria witnesses a mass migration of Greeks, mostly from the Aegean islands to the city, making them, by the end of the century, the wealthiest and most influential community in Alexandria.
1830 - 1844 Morocco Political Context
The French expedition to Algeria arouses strong emotions in Morocco. It was understood to be a direct threat, in particular following incursions by French troops into eastern Morocco. Mulay ‘Abd al-Rahman accepted the call of the people of Tlemcen and gave his support to the religious and military leader ‘Abd al-Qadir.
1830 Spain Fine And Applied Arts
From the 1830s onwards the Moorish or Alhambresque style is popular in Europe, especially in Spain, but also in England, Austria, Russia, Germany and the USA. This style is found not only in applied arts but also in architecture and interior decoration including the well-known “Moorish” smoking or retiring rooms.
1830 Spain Migrations
From 1830 onwards many Spaniards emigrate to North Africa (Morocco and Algeria), coinciding with the French occupation of Algiers and as a consequence of the economic crises in Spain. The emigrants are mostly from the Mediterranean regions such as Alicante, Almería and the Balearic Islands.
1830 Spain Reforms And Social Changes
Fernando VII has no sons, only daughters, so abolishes under Pragmática Sanción, the Salic Law, introduced by the Spanish branch of the Bourbon dynasty, which forbids women to reign. After the death of Fernando VII in 1833, his eldest daughter becomes Queen of Spain as Isabel II.
1830 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Date Country Theme
Battle of Hernani, a drama by Victor Hugo.
1830 France Political Context
June–July: the invasion of Algiers.
1830 France Political Context
27–29 July: the Second French Revolution of July 1830 results in the fall of Charles X, who is succeeded by his cousin Louis-Philippe.
1830 France Political Context
The July Monarchy: Louis-Philippe becomes “Citizen-King”, and economic growth is joined by increased poverty.
1830 - 1847 Germany Political Context
Stimulated by the French July Revolution, the Vormärz (pre-March) Revolution refers to the formation of political programmes and factional movements.
1830 - 1871 Germany Cities And Urban Spaces
Due to the rise of industrialisation in Germany, in 1862, the Hobrecht-Plan aims to modernise Berlin over the following 50 years.
1830 - 1840 Germany Economy And Trade
Industrialisation and the Industrial Revolution.
Since 1830 Germany Migrations
Transatlantic migration from Europe, to America, Canada, Brazil, Argentina and Australia.
1830 Germany Reforms And Social Changes
The French July Revolution strengthens the power of the Besitzbürgertum (the landed gentry). Revolutions in central and north Germany enforce constitutional state reforms.
1831 France Rediscovering The Past
The Chair in Egyptology at the Collège de France is created by a decree made by King Louis-Philippe of France on 12 March.
1831 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Cities And Urban Spaces
The population of Sharjah rises to 13,900 inhabitants, its urban features are now much more substantial in terms of its domestic, commercial and official architecture. Date Country Theme
1831 - 1835 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Once Rossini has left the stage, his place is taken by Gaetano Donizetti (1797– 1848) and Vincenzo Bellini (1801–1835). They introduce the new romantic spirit into melodrama and establish a tighter link between words and music. Their style is characterised by greater attention to the psychology of the different characters.
1831 Italy Political Context
Giuseppe Mazzini founds the republican movement for national unification, Giovine Italia (Young Italy).
1831 Greece Political Context
The First Governor of Greece, Conte Ioannis Kapodistrias, is assassinated.
1831 Spain Economy And Trade
Foundation of the Madrid stock exchange (Bolsa de Madrid), driven by the state's need to raise funds to cover, among other things, debts arising from the Carlist wars.
1831 Lebanon Political Context
Bashir II breaks away from the Ottoman Empire, allies with Muhammad ‘Ali Pasha of Egypt and assists his son Ibrahim Pasha in a siege of Acre. This siege lasts seven months before the fall of the city on 27 May 1832. They also conquer Damascus on 14 June 1832.
1831 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
George Sand (Amantine Aurore Dupin) writes Indiana, a novel about a woman’s emotional journey.
1831 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
11 November: The first newspaper in Ottoman Turkish, Takvim-I Vekayi, published by the state.
1832 Romania Fine And Applied Arts
Gheorghe Asachi founds in Ia#i a lithographic printing press called Institutul Albinei (The Bee Institute).
1832 France Travelling
Like many artists, the painter Eugène Delacroix travelled to North Africa, Morocco and Algeria, returning with many paintings and sources for inspiration.
1832 Spain Economy And Trade Date Country Theme
Mechanisation of the textile industry in Catalonia with the introduction of steam- powered machines. Progress in the textile industry continues in Catalonia until the 1920 crisis.
1832 Spain Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Publication of Washington Irving's Tales of the Alhambra, a collection of essays, verbal sketches and stories that Irving began to write while he was staying in the Alhambra in Granada. The book is influenced by Romanticism and includes Spanish legends and traditions.
1832 - 1834 Portugal Political Context
Civil war. Pedro returns to Portugal as Regent to defend his daughter’s rights. He launches military operations from Azores and Porto against the absolutist faction of Prince Miguel favored by the Quadruple Alliance. After the Miguelists’ defeat, peace terms depend on the Évora-Monte Convention and Prince Miguel’s exile.
1832 Portugal Economy And Trade
Statesman and jurist José Mouzinho da Silveira (1780–1851) abolishes old taxes over real estate income, privileges and immunities detrimental to the kingdom’s economy. He creates the Tribunal do Tesouro Público for tax collection and Treasury administration. He defines the powers of the Minister of Finance and regulates Customs administration, among other reforms.
1832 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
La Sylphide is a Romantic ballet by Fillippo Taglioni in which his daughter, Marie, danced en pointe in the title role.
1832 Germany Political Context
From 27 to 30 May an apparently non-political country fair, the “Hambacher Fest”, was held by a German national democratic assembly, demanding freedom, national entity and popular sovereignty.
1832 Germany Reforms And Social Changes
The “Hambacher Fest” demonstrates the liberal, democratic and national opposition in Germany.
1833 Romania Cities And Urban Spaces
Copou, one of the first public gardens in Romania, is laid out in Ia#i, Moldavia, at the initiative of Prince Mihail Sturdza.
1833 Spain Political Context
Isabel II becomes Queen of Spain. The Salic Law forbidding women to reign had been abolished in 1830 because Fernando VII's only heirs were female. His brother, Carlos de Borbón, asserts his claim to the throne against his niece (first Carlist War, 1836–39); two further Carlist wars will follow (1846–49, 1872–76). Date Country Theme
1833 - 1835 Portugal Economy And Trade
18 September: The first Commercial Code by jurist José Ferreira Borges grants free trade and distribution of goods, abolishing monopolies, privileges and real estate transfer taxes. Article 2 defines a commercial act and the nature of intervening actors.
1833 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The death of Luísa Todi (b. 1753), the most celebrated mezzo-soprano opera singer in Portugal. Luísa began her musical career when she was 14 years old. She performed in major European cities and was invited to perform in the courts of Catherine of Russia and Frederick William of Prussia.
1833 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
First communication by telegram.
1833 Turkey Political Context
8 April: Treaty of Kütahya with Egypt. The Ottomans recognise Syria, Palestine and Lebanon as within the sphere of the Egyptian control.
1833 Turkey Political Context
8 July: Defensive Treaty of Hünkar #skelesi with Russia establishes Russian naval superiority in the Black Sea.
1834 Greece Cities And Urban Spaces
Athens becomes the capital of the newly established state.
1834 Greece Cities And Urban Spaces
In October, King Otto issues a decree for reconstruction of the city of Sparta. Over the ancient city Bavarian city-planners, headed by Fr. Staufert, design a city for 100,000 inhabitants based on the Ippodamia system, with wide roads and many squares.
1834 Greece Rediscovering The Past
The Numismatic Museum is established. In 1843, it is amalgamated with the National Library and housed in a room at the University of Athens.
1834 United Kingdom Travelling
A. W. Kinglake’s Eothen is the best known of the many travel books to the East. William M. Thackeray, Benjamin Disraeli and Anthony Trollope all travel to the Near East, others wander around Asia Minor and the Levant recording their impressions, often in search of classical inscriptions.
1834 United Kingdom Political Context Date Country Theme
The development of steam power brings increased trade and travel to the eastern Mediterranean. This leads to the publication of travel literature and an interest in the archaeology of the Bible. A. W. Kinglake’s Eothen is the most widely read of the travel books.
1834 Serbia Political Context
In Vienna in 1813 Dimitrije Davidovi#, politician, diplomat, author of the Candlemas Constitution and one of the founders of journalism in Serbia, launches Novine Serbske, Serbia’s first daily newspaper. The newspapers are printed in Serbia for the first time in 1834.
1834 Egypt Economy And Trade
A Khedival Decree promulgates the issue of an Egyptian currency consisting of a bi-metallic base of gold and silver. The Egyptian pound, known as the geneih is introduced, which replaces the Egyptian piastre (ersh) as the main unit of currency.
1834 Spain Fine And Applied Arts
During his Grand Tour, after visiting Italy, Greece and Egypt, Owen Jones visits Granada and the Alhambra. His six month stay in the Alhambra is very important in the development of his ideas about polychromy and design.
1834 Spain Political Context
Estatuto Real signed by the Queen Regent, María Cristina de Borbón, as a royal charter similar to the one under the French King Louis XVIII. There is no constitution, but it has two chambers (similar to the British House of Lords and House of Commons) and a government, with a president and ministers.
1834 Republic of Macedonia Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion (FYROM)
The birth in Ohrid of Kuzman Shapkarev (1834–1909), eminent Macedonian folklorist, ethnographer, educator and author of textbooks. Owing to his collecting activities a great deal of Macedonian intangible heritage was spared from oblivion. He was a teacher in Ohrid, Bitola, Prilep and Kukush. Later he worked and lived in Sofia. Although his collections of oral folk literature were published as Bulgarian, most of his works originated from Macedonia.
1834 - 1836 Portugal Political Context
Queen Maria II (1819–53) regains the crown after her father’s death and the liberals’ victory. The Queen has to cope with the transition from absolutism to constitutionalism and disputes between opposing factions, conservatives on one side (Cartismo supporters of the 1826 Charter) and radicals on the other (Vintismo defenders of the Constitution of 1822).
1834 Portugal Reforms And Social Changes
May: Religious orders are abolished and expropriated by decree; some of the assets of the crown, the Queen’s household and the absolutist aristocracy are Date Country Theme nationalised. Monasteries are closed immediately and their buildings adapted, but women's convents remain open until the departure or death of the last nun.
1834 Germany Reforms And Social Changes
Standardisation of the Abitur (equivalent to the A-Level system used elsewhere) which allows students to enter German universities.
1834 Germany Travelling
The Sanssouci Palace in Potsdam is connected to Berlin by rail, one of the first electrified railway sections in Old Germany. Since 1911, the Palace has been used as a film location (i.e. The Blue Angel, 1930).
1835 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Political Context
The British impose a Treaty to prohibit maritime warfare among the Arab littoral sheikhdoms during the pearling season from May to November with Britain as enforcer of the peace. The British now term the lands of the signatory sheikhdoms as “The Trucial Coast” or “Trucial Oman”. The Treaty is renewed regularly until 1853, when a Perpetual Treaty is put into place.
1835 - 1837 Italy Reforms And Social Changes
For the first time, a cholera epidemic hits Italy, killing more than 140,000 (26,000 in Palermo and 19,600 in Naples). Its causes remain unknown until the 1880s. Its spread is favoured by poor sanitation in urban centres. Cholera epidemics hit poor people especially and often occasion social unrest.
1835 Serbia Political Context
The First Constitution of the Principality of Serbia (the Candlemas Constitution) is prompted by the autocratic rule of Miloš Obrenovi#, founder of the Obrenovi# Dynasty and Serbian Prince (1815–39; 1858–60). It is signed in 1835 in the city of Kragujevac, with the intention to limit the absolute power of Miloš, but under pressure from the Porte (Turkish Government), Austria and Russia the Constitution is abolished as early as the following year.
1835 Egypt Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Opening of shipping routes between Alexandria and Marseille.
1835 Spain Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The premiere of Don Álvaro o la fuerza del sino by the Duke of Rivas marks the beginnings of Spanish Romanticism in the theatre, especially tragedy, further developed in Don Juan Tenorio by José Zorrilla. All the Romantic plays have elements from poetry and novels and some have a historical background.
1835 Portugal Reforms And Social Changes
The buildings and portable heritage collected from the confiscations are sold in public auction to an emergent new aristocracy and a newly empowered upper middle class and the proceeds used to fund part of the state deficit. Date Country Theme
1835 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Le Père Goriot by Honoré de Balzac tells the tragic story of a father’s love for his two daughters.
1835 Turkey Political Context
Reorganisation of the bureaucracy and introduction of a new system of rank.
1835 France Fine And Applied Arts
The daguerreotype process.
1835 - 1838 Germany Cities And Urban Spaces
The first section of railway is established between Nürnberg and Fürth (6 km); the building of the long-haul between Leipzig and Dresden is finished in 1838.
1835 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes
1 July: The War Academy is founded.
1835 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes
Bureaucracy is reorganised and a new rank system is introduced.
1836 Lebanon Travelling
The discovery of the Jeita Grotto, credited to Reverend William Thomson. Further expeditions reveal the depth and the importance of the cave.
1836 Austria Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Austrian Lloyd, the main steamship company on the Mediterranean, with headquarters in Trieste, is established.
1836 Austria Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
A stretch of the Northern Railway between Floridsdorf and Deutsch-Wagram comes into operation using steam-powered locomotives.
1836 - 1862 Greece Cities And Urban Spaces
The Royal Palace (today’s Parliament) is erected under the auspices of the director of the Munich Academy of Arts and official architect of the Bavarian court, Friedrich von Gaertner.
1836 Egypt Reforms And Social Changes
Rifa’a al-Rafi’ al-Tahtawi founds the School of Languages to educate and train professional interpreters and translators. Date Country Theme
1836 - 1845 Spain Fine And Applied Arts
Publication of Owen Jones's Plan, Elevations, Sections and Details of the Alhambra (with an essay by Pascual de Gayangos on the history of the Nasrid Dynasty) in 12 volumes, using the new technique of chromolithography.
1836 Spain Political Context
The Queen Regent, María Cristina, is forced to reinstate the 1812 Constitution after a military coup (pronunciamiento) in order to get support from the liberals in the First Carlist War. Under the Desamortización de Mendizábal Church properties are disentailed to fund the war. General Espartero takes over the Regency from the Queen in 1841.
1836 - 1876 Spain Political Context
As a consequence of political instability and of a woman taking over the rule of Spain, the deeply conservative and ultra-Catholic Carlist party rises three times in three dynastic wars against the State (1836–39, 1846–49 and 1872–76).
1836 - 1842 Portugal Political Context
Period of Setembrismo: lower-middle-class rebellion against corruption and upper- middle-class privileges. An industrialisation process takes off to counteract foreign dominance. To overcome the loss of Brazilian revenues the colonisation of African possessions is boosted. The slave trade is prohibited in 1836 by abolitionist Marquis of Sá da Bandeira.
1836 - 1842 Portugal Economy And Trade
Under the framework of liberal Setembrismo, which seeks to fight against corruption and the privileges of the elite, an industrialisation process is promoted and protectionist customs taxes are adopted. One of the main reasons is to reduce the import of English products. The colonisation of African possessions is also developed.
1836 - 1842 Portugal Reforms And Social Changes
Under Septembrismo the educational system is reformed by Passos Manuel (1801–62). To improve public education, the Plano Nacional dos Lyceus Nacionais equips each district capital with a lyceu (based on the French republican idea of lycée). The curriculum includes humanities and sciences and proposes an inductive and experimental learning process.
1836 Portugal Reforms And Social Changes
The slave trade is prohibited in possessions south of the Equator by a law introduced by Marquis of Sá da Bandeira (1795–1876) for philanthropic and economic reasons. The loss of Brazil, and British pressure, persuades the rulers to endorse abolition to retain in Africa the African labour needed to develop the colonies there. In 1869, King Louis I (1838–89) decrees abolition.
1837 - 1855 Tunisia Reforms And Social Changes Date Country Theme
Ahmad Pasha Bey is known as the “Great Reformer” of modern Tunisia. Enlightened and open-minded, he tries to modernise both State and Army.
1837 - 1840 Tunisia Reforms And Social Changes
Foundation of the Polytechnic or military school of Bardo, responsible for the education of executives of the army and public administration. The School provides education in the art of military strategy, scientific disciplines, foreign languages, literature and religion.
1837 - 1854 Tunisia Political Context
Rule of Ahmad Pasha Bey, known as the “Great Reformer” of modern Tunisia. His greatest achievements include modernisation of the army and the abolition of slavery.
1837 Romania Rediscovering The Past
Two peasants find a Gothic hoard (4th–5th centuries AD) – the Pietroasa Treasure – near a village from Buz#u county (Wallachia). Unfortunately, only 12 of the 22 golden pieces – jewellery and vases – were preserved.
1837 Romania Reforms And Social Changes
Based on the Organic Regulations adopted in 1831, the National Assembly of Wallachia includes for the first time, apart from its traditional categories (the clergy and the aristocracy), representatives of the middle classes.
1837 France Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Inauguration of the first passenger railway line in France to and from Paris and Saint-Germain-en-Laye.
1837 Lebanon Travelling
The Galilee earthquake. In the 17th century, Fakhr-al-Din II took over Beaufort castle, but was defeated by the Ottomans who destroyed the upper portion. The earthquake causes further damage to the structure and the ruins become a quarry and a shelter for sheep.
1837 - 1840 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Naples and Turin are the first Italian towns to have gas street lightning.
1837 Greece Fine And Applied Arts
Athens School of the Fine Arts is established with three departments: the School of Crafts, School of Industrial Crafts and the School of Fine Arts.
1837 Greece Rediscovering The Past
The Archaeological Society of Athens is established. Its aim is to encourage archaeological-excavation management of antiquities in Greece. Date Country Theme
1837 Greece Reforms And Social Changes
The University of Athens opens. It is the first university to be established in the eastern Mediterranean.
1837 Egypt Reforms And Social Changes
The year sees the founding of Egypt’s oldest commercial science study centre, when the School of Account is established during Muhammad ‘Ali’s Era.
1837 Spain Economy And Trade
The feudal system had been abolished under the Cádiz Constitution of 1812 but not completely enacted until 1837.
1837 - 1844 Spain Economy And Trade
First state confiscation and sale of Church properties known, after the minister who developed the law, as Desamortización de Mendizábal (Mendizábal's Disentailment) to fund the Carlist war.
1837 Turkey Cities And Urban Spaces
The first blueprints for a new Istanbul are prepared by Helmuth von Moltke, a general in the Ottoman army working for its modernisation, under direct orders from Mustafa Re#id Pa#a.
1838 - 1847 United Kingdom Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The financial success of the Stockton and Darlington Railway encourages large- scale investment in railways, leading to massive growth in the network. The many passengers are entertained on their journeys with inexpensive books, such as John Murray’s “Reading for the Rail” series.
1838 Serbia Political Context
Founding of Belgrade University.
1838 Portugal Rediscovering The Past
Auto de Gil Vicente written by Almeida Garrett (1799–1854). The plot revives the 16th-century court of King Manuel I where a play by Gil Vicente (founder of Portuguese modern theatre) is performed during the celebrations for the marriage of his daughter Princess Beatriz.
1838 Portugal Travelling
Building of Pena Palace in Sintra, close to Lisbon, begins. This eclectic summer residence, commissioned by King Fernando II, combines Neo-Manueline, Neo- Islamic and Neo-Renaissance styles. The use of the Islamic decorative influences in a royal palace contributes to the Portuguese society’s acknowledgement of its Islamic past. Date Country Theme
1838 Turkey Political Context
Founding of the Ministry of Finance and formation of Sublime Council for Judicial Ordinances. The title “grand vizier” becomes “prime minister".
1838 Turkey Rediscovering The Past
Sultan Mahmud II gave some parts of the bas reliefs of the temple of Assos to France and he also authorises French archaeologist Charles Texier (1802– 71) to take away parts of the frieze from the temple of Artemis in Magnesia ad Meandrum.
1839 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
First Italian railway line (Napoli–Portici, 8 km). In the following years, other railway lines are inaugurated in other Italian states, e.g. Milano–Monza (1840), Pisa- Livorno (1844), Padova–Venezia (1846), Torino–Moncalieri (1848). Political fragmentation is an obstacle to the construction of long railway lines.
1839 United Kingdom Reforms And Social Changes
The British Ambassador in Constantinople, Stratford Canning, has been credited with influencing the reforms in Turkey during the 19th century, in particular the decree of 1839, initiating a programme of liberal reform in the Ottoman Empire. Some of the changes are superficial, but nonetheless highly visible, such as the adoption of Western dress and titles. Other changes are seen in the culmination of social transformations within the Empire.
1839 United Kingdom Political Context
British control of India is driven by trade. Steamships require fuelling stations. To this purpose Aden is occupied and controlled imperially from India for a century. Most British control of the Middle East is indirect and informal. Aden becomes a Crown Colony, with partial control of the Hinterland.
1839 Portugal Travelling
Silva Porto, born in poverty in Portugal, trader, farmer and explorer, settles in Bié, Angola, from where he, with his pombeiros (long-distance trade agents), tours Central Africa between 1839 and 1890. The descriptions of his travels that he sent to Lisbon became legendary and a precious source of data.
1839 - 1861 Turkey Political Context
Reign of Sultan Abdülmecid.
1839 Lebanon Cities And Urban Spaces
The Jesuits come to Beirut and build a modest school.
1839 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes
February: A plan for the modernisation of general education is approved. Date Country Theme
1839 Turkey Political Context
3 November: Mustafa Re#id Pa#a declares the Imperial Rescript of Gülhane (the beginning of the Tanzimat reforms), granting basic rights to Ottoman subjects and declaring a policy of state reform. These reforms included the "fair and public trial[s] of all accused regardless of religion”, the creation of a system of "separate competences, religious and civil”, and the validity of non-Muslim testimony.
1840 - 1880 Tunisia Rediscovering The Past
Abbot Bourgade and Father Delattre excavate the Punic and Roman ruins of Carthage and then set up the first archaeological collections of the Saint Louis Museum in Carthage and the Alaoui Museum in Bardo.
1840 - 1855 Tunisia Travelling
Khayr al-Din, the reforming minister of Tunisia, conducts various missions in Europe and to the Sublime Porte (Sublime Gate), the honorific title used for Istanbul during the Ottoman Empire.
1840 Romania Economy And Trade
Austrian engineers Karol and Rafael Hoffmann and Carol Maderspach initiate the extraction of coal in the Jiu Valley (south Transylvania), which was and still is the main coal-mining region of Romania.
Middle of the 19th century Romania Migrations
The mid-19th century is the beginning of Italian immigration in the Romanian countries. For 1868, the presence of approximately 600 Italian workers in Romania is documented. Italian intellectuals and artists also settle in Romania, such as composer, director and music professor Alfons Castaldi.
1840 Romania Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Top hats begin to be worn in the United Principalities, where they were called joben, from the name of Jobin, the French merchant who first sold them in Bucharest.
About 1860 France Migrations
Massive rural exodus to Paris, in particular farmers from the Auvergne region.
1840 - 1841 Austria Political Context
Austria cooperates in a settlement to the Turkish–Egyptian crisis of 1840, sending intervention forces to conquer the Ottoman fortresses of Saida (Sidon) and St Jean d’Acre, and concluding with the Dardanelles Treaty signed at the London Straits Convention of 1841.
1840 - 1890 United Kingdom Cities And Urban Spaces Date Country Theme
This half century is a period of great rebuilding and redesign in London and other British cities – of churches, public buildings, and housing with slum clearance. The building boom extends to the cities of the British Empire and especially in India. British architects study Islamic architecture and its influence can be seen in many British buildings. British architects also practise in the major Levantine commercial cities, such as the Crimean Memorial Church in Constantinople (G. E. Street) and St Mark’s Church in Alexandria (J. W. Wild).
1840s United Kingdom Migrations
Aden becomes a British Crown Colony in 1839 administered (until 1937) not from London but from India. Indians migrating to practise trade and the professions help to duplicate what is happening in India, albeit in a smaller way, in the Gulf and Iraq.
1840s United Kingdom Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Western classical music penetrates the courtly circles of the Ottoman Empire. The imperial Ottoman family includes composers, such as Sultan ‘Abd al-‘Aziz who composes dance music. On a visit to London in 1867, the band of the Grenadier Guards plays one of the Sultan’s own compositions at a reception for him.
1840 Lebanon Political Context
Conflicts between the Druze and the Maronite Christians explode. A Maronite revolt against the feudal class erupts, lasting till 1858.
1840 Turkey Political Context
After his term as governor in Samos, Kostaki Musurus Pa#a, a Phanariot Greek becomes the first Ottoman envoy to independent Athens (1840–47) followed by Vienna (1848) and London (1851–55).
1840 - 1880 Germany Cities And Urban Spaces
Development of a railway network across the whole of Germany, much of which still exists today. The most important stations are developed during this period, including: Berlin Ostbahnhof (1842), Nürnberg Central Station (1844), Duisburg Central Station (1846) and Munich Central Station (1849).
Around 1850 - Around 1900 Germany Cities And Urban Spaces
Development of the urban district known as the “Ruhrpott” from where, by around 1850, many factories operated (known particularly for coal mining). Due to rapid urbanisation and lack of housing several important cities expanded rapidly at this time, including Duisburg and Dortmund. The railway network reached the “Ruhrpott” in 1900.
1840 Turkey Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
23 October: The Ottoman Ministry of Post is established in Istanbul.
1840 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes Date Country Theme
7 February: The tax system is reorganised.
1840 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes
12 October: The Ministry of Post is established.
1840 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes
Official recognition of the Mâli Takvim (Rumi calendar) as the second calendar system alongside the Hijra calendar.
1840 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes
The first mixed courts are introduced to hear civil and criminal cases involving Muslims and non-Muslims.
1840 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
3 July: The first newspaper in Ottoman Turkish published by a private individual, Cerîde-I Havâdis (Journal of News), begins to appear in #stanbul as a weekly, published by an English journalist, William Churchill.
1841 United Kingdom Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
William Henry Fox Talbot announces his calotype photography, which, using a developing agent, drastically reduces exposure time. A negative image is created, from which it is possible to produce countless positive images. Talbot is keen to apply the technique to archaeological objects, and photography is then used increasingly for recording objects and sites.
1841 France Reforms And Social Changes
Law of 22 March 1841, inspired by the work of Louis-René Villermé: the Act prohibits the employment of children younger than eight years. It limits the working day to eight hours for ages 8–12 and twelve hours for ages 12–16. Night work (9 p.m.–5 a.m.) is prohibited for anyone under 13 years; and for those who are older two hours is to be paid as three.
1841 Lebanon Economy And Trade
Teams of spinners are brought from France to train young women. This was a real social revolution in this rural and traditional part of the country. According to G. Ducousso’s book The Silk Industry in Syria and Lebanon (1912), the French Consul in Beirut counted no fewer than 183 spinning mills in Lebanon.
1841 Greece Economy And Trade
The National Bank of Greece is founded.
1841 United Kingdom Economy And Trade
The Ottoman Bank is founded in this year, registered in London, to channel overseas investment in the Ottoman Empire. Date Country Theme
1841 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The leading roles in Giselle, a ballet by Adolphe Adam are played by Carlotta Grisi and Lucien Petipa.
1841 - 1844 Germany Travelling
The Berlin Zoological Gardens was established in 1841 and opened to the public in 1844. The oldest zoo in Germany, today, it hosts more visitors than any zoo in Europe (around 3 million visitors per year).
1841 Turkey Political Context
13 July: The Straits Convention, signed by the Ottoman Empire and the great powers, prohibits foreign warships from entering the Bosphorus or the Dardanelles.
1842 Tunisia Reforms And Social Changes
Educational reform and restructuring of the Zaytuna Mosque through the introduction of new disciplines and incentives for teachers in Tunisia.
1842 Austria Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The Wiener Philharmoniker is founded. It becomes one of the most famous orchestras in the world.
1842 Austria Reforms And Social Changes
Child labour under 12 years of age is outlawed in Austria.
1842 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Triumph of Nabuccodonosor by Giuseppe Verdi (1831–1901) at La Scala Theatre (Milan): it marks the appearance of a new operatic style, in which both voice and music show an entirely new heroic passion and strength.
1842 Italy Travelling
A seaside hostel is opened in Viareggio (Tuscany) for the treatment of children affected by tuberculosis (the first of its kind in Italy). In Tuscany, experiments of “marine therapy” for children started in the 1820s. By 1882, 21 seaside hostels for medical purposes are active in Italy.
1842 United Kingdom Political Context
Evangelists in Britain and Germany found the Jerusalem Protestant bishopric. There is an idea of converting Jews – the first bishop is a converted Jew – and the bishopric establishes a British cultural and educational interest in the Levant. It also stimulates archaeological work.
1842 Republic of Macedonia Fine And Applied Arts (FYROM) Date Country Theme
The portrait of Gjurchin Kokale, founder of the Church of St George in Lazaropole, is painted inside the church by Dicho Krstevic Zograph. It is one of the earliest known portraits in Macedonia. In 1854 this prolific artist painted the icon of Archpriest Samoil from the Treskavec Monastery near Prilep.
1842 - 1851 Portugal Political Context
The period of Cabralismo, an authoritarian regime ruled by conservative Bernardo Costa Cabral who rehabilitates the 1826 Constitutional Charter but promoting the public infrastructures and fiscal code revision. Upper middle class and aristocracy regain state control and former privileges. Popular rebellions lead to the fall of his government.
1842 Portugal Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Daguerreotype starts to be used in Portugal two years after its invention in France and is mostly used in commercial portrait lithographs. The oldest ones still existing in Portugal reproduce the Palace (Paços) of Coimbra University in 1842. The University is at the time the major centre for the dissemination of scientific knowledge.
1842 - 1846 Germany Rediscovering The Past
The Egyptologist Karl Richard Lepsius is appointed director of an expedition to Egypt by Friedrich Wilhelm IV.
1843 - 1870 United Kingdom Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Invention of and improvements to the rotary printing press allows for mass production of newspapers and books. The public are eager to read about the latest archaeological discoveries.
1843 Romania Fine And Applied Arts
Carol Popp de Szathmari, the most important Romanian photographer of the 19th century (born in Cluj, Transylvania), moves to Bucharest, where he opens a photo studio.
1843 Austria Reforms And Social Changes
Gas lighting is installed on the streets of Vienna.
1843 Italy Travelling
First bathing establishment created in Rimini.
1843 Greece Fine And Applied Arts
The School of the Fine Arts becomes a five-year higher education institution under its director, the architect Lissandros Kautantzoglou.
1843 Egypt Cities And Urban Spaces Date Country Theme
Muhammad Sharif Pasha builds the Sharif Pasha Palace situated on Kirdassi Street, off Hasan al-Akbar Street, in Cairo. The Pasha held a number of important posts during the reigns of Muhammad ‘Ali and his successors.
1843 - 1868 Spain Political Context
Isabel II comes of age in 1843. During her reign the political parties are divided into liberals and conservatives. The Church regains its privileges under the 2nd Concordat signed in 1851. The Queen's rule ends in 1868 with the revolution known as La Gloriosa (the Glorious Revolution).
1843 - 1851 Portugal Rediscovering The Past
Publication of Romanceiro Português by Almeida Garrett (1799–1854), a two- volume compilation of popular folktales. Almeida Garrett aimed at the creation of a national literature inspired by local and regional traditions.
1843 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Friedrich Gottlob commodifies paper production (the mass production of cheap paper).
1843 - 1876 Germany Fine And Applied Arts
Formation of the Neues Museum (1843–55), built by Friedrich August Stüler, a follower of K. F. Schinkel. Stüler and Carl Busse then design the Alte Nationalgalerie (1867–76).
1843 Turkey Economy And Trade
The first successful attempt to open a modern bank in the Empire. Smyrna Bank is established by foreign merchants (English, French, Austrian, Dutch, Russian, American, Italian, Danish, Spanish and Greek) under the Swedish Consulate in Izmir in order to diminish their dependence on other merchants and bankers. It is closed in the same year for operating without permission.
1844 Morocco Political Context
The Battle of Isly is fought on 14 August 1844 between the Moroccan army employing an archaic strategy against professional soldiers trained in the Napoleonic campaigns and armed with batteries of light guns. The battle ended with the defeat of the Moroccans. The consequences of this defeat were grave for Morocco. It was the first time the country had lost a battle in more than two centuries, and it showed Mulay ‘Abd al-Rahman just how weak his army was.
1844 Serbia Political Context
Serbia’s oldest museum, Museum Serbski, now the National Museum in Belgrade, is founded by the Minister of Education Jovan Sterija Popovi#.
1844 - 1846 Spain Economy And Trade Date Country Theme
British interests in raw material – iron and coal – lead to the foundation of the iron and steel industry in Bilbao and Santander and industrial exploitation of the coal mines in Asturias.
1844 Portugal Rediscovering The Past
Publication of the novel Eurico,O Presbítero by Alexandre Herculano (1810–77). The story takes place during the period of the Arab invasion of Visigoth Hispania, led by Tarik in 711.
1844 Portugal Rediscovering The Past
Frei Luís de Sousa, by Almeida Garrett. A romantic drama on the myth of King Sebastian, killed in the Battle of Alcacer Quibir, Morocco, in 1578. The myth of a disappeared king who will return to regain freedom and independence for his people underlies the plot together with the extreme love of Brother Luís de Sousa for his country.
1844 Portugal Economy And Trade
Foundation of the National Tobacco Company in Xabregas, Lisbon. Following the 18th-century tendency, the profits of tobacco manufacturing and trade became the major source of revenue for oligarchic businessmen (known as the Caixas) seeking its control. The monopoly was rented out by the state, usually on a triennial base.
1844 Germany Reforms And Social Changes
The first Proletariat uprising, the Weber Rebellion, witnesses 3,000 weavers in Silesia protesting against inhumane working conditions and exploitation. The uprising is quashed by the Prussian military – which murders them all.
1844 Germany Reforms And Social Changes
First proletarian uprising: 3000 weavers in Silesia are protesting against the inhumane working conditions and their exploitation. They are all being killed by the Prussian military.
1844 Turkey Economy And Trade
Monetary reform. Ottomans accept bimetallism. Lira, mecidiye and kuru# become official units. 100 kuru# are equal to one Ottoman lira. Silver mecidiyes equal to 20 kuru# are issued.
1844 Turkey Travelling
June–July: Sultan Abdülmecid visits #zmit, Bursa, Gallipoli and the Aegean Islands.
1845 France Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The First electric telegraph in France between Paris and Rouen.
1845 - 1852 United Kingdom Migrations Date Country Theme
The Great Famine, or “Irish Potato Famine” as it is known, is a period of huge significance in Irish national history, not least because the country lost about a quarter of its population: a million people died from starvation and disease and another million emigrated. A number of factors – including absentee landlords, land acquisitions, the corn laws, anti-Catholic sentiment and crop failures due to “potato blight” – brought about the famine at a time when around two-fifths of the population were reliant solely on potatoes.
1846 Tunisia Reforms And Social Changes
Ahmad Pasha Bey promulgates a decree freeing all black slaves in the country. Everyone born in Tunisia is declared free regardless of their parents’ origins.
1846 Tunisia Travelling
Ahmad Pasha Bey is received by King Louis Philippe at the Tuileries Palace. He stays at the Élysée Palace. He visits the parliament, the Hôtel des invalids, Napoleon’s tomb and the Palace of Versailles.
1846 - 1856 Tunisia Travelling
A period of intense diplomatic activity between the Regency of Tunis and Western governments, which sees 20 diplomatic or consular agencies in Europe and the East represent the regency.
1846 Romania Economy And Trade
The rulers of Moldavia and Wallachia, Mihail Sturdza and Gheorghe Bibescu, sign a convention that stipulates the abolishment of the customs between the two countries. The convention becomes effective in January 1847.
1846 Egypt Travelling
Ibrahim Pasha is received with respect and curiosity when he visits western Europe.
1846 - 1891 Portugal Cities And Urban Spaces
National Theatre Dona Maria II opens its doors. Inspired by neoclassical style it was built (1842–46) over the ruins of the former Inquisition headquarters, the Palace of Estaús. The Portuguese royal family as well as the aristocracy and bourgeoisie attend theatre performances.
1846 Portugal Economy And Trade
Merger of Banco de Lisboa and the investment company Companhia Confiança Nacional (1844–46) creating Banco de Portugal, which by 1887 shares the right to issue banknotes with other institutions. By 1891, Banco de Portugal becomes the sole issuer of bank notes for the mainland, the Azores and Madeira.
1846 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Premiere of the opera La damnation de Faust by Hector Berlioz. Date Country Theme
1846 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes
A gendarme organisation is formed.
1846 Turkey Travelling
May: Sultan Abdülmecid visits Varna.
1847 - 1848 Tunisia Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Following creation of, in the Regency of Tunis, the first mail-distribution system, the first aerial telegraph system is inaugurated connecting the Bardo, official headquarters of the Bey’s government, with Tunis and La Goulette.
1847 Romania Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The construction of a road to link Wallachia and Transylvania, crossing through the Predeal Pass in the Southern Carpathians, is begun during the reign of Prince Gheorghe Bibescu.
1847 Austria Reforms And Social Changes
Foundation of the Academy of Science in Vienna.
1847 - 1848 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
First Italian telegraph line (Florence–Pisa–Livorno).
1847 Turkey Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
American John Lawrence Smith, an agricultural chemist and mineralogist in Ottoman employ, demonstrates the electric telegraph invented by Samuel Morse in an elaborate presentation to Sultan Abdülmecid and his officials. The sultan bestows on Morse the prestigious Nishan-# #ftihar (Order of Glory of the Empire), Morse’s first official honour.
1847 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes
September: First government secondary schools (rü#diyye mektebi) are established.
1847 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes
Publication of the first government yearbook (salnâme).
1848 - 1849 Romania Political Context
Revolution in the Romanian countries: in Wallachia and Moldavia revolutionaries demand their countries’ right to self-determination, while in Transylvania Romanians want equal rights to those of the Hungarians and Germans.
1848 Romania Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Date Country Theme
The premiere at the National Theatre in Ia#i of the first Romanian operetta, Baba Hârca, with a script by poet Matei Millo and music composed by Alexandru Flechtenmacher.
1848 Lebanon Travelling
Established by Congregational and Presbyterian American missionaries, the National Evangelical Church of Beirut is the oldest and largest of nine congregations situated outside Beirut.
1848 Austria Reforms And Social Changes
Silesian Deputy Hans Kudlich introduces legislation to abolish the enforced servitude of peasants in the Reichstag.
1848 - 1849 Austria Political Context
Revolution in Austria-Hungary and northern Italy.
1848 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Donizetti dies and Verdi remains the only heir to the Italian melodrama, which is increasingly identified with the Risorgimento movement, becoming a “sound track” of the Italian fight for independence and unification.
1848 - 1849 Italy Political Context
Uprisings in different parts of Italy demand constitutional rule and national unification. In Rome and Venice, short-lived republics are proclaimed. King Carlo Alberto (Kingdom of Sardinia) grants a constitution and wages war against the Austrian Empire, but he is defeated.
1848 Serbia Political Context
The Serbian uprising against the Austrian monarchy sees the formation of Srpsko Vojvodstvo (the Serbian Duchy). Stevan Kni#anin-Vojvoda (military commander) commands Serbian volunteers during the Hungarian Revolution (1848–49).
1848 Spain Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The first railway in Spain is built between Barcelona and Mataró for the transport of goods and passengers. The first railway built by the Spaniards had been built in Cuba in 1837 linking Havana with Güines.
1848 - 1856 Portugal Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Boavista gas factory, owned by Companhia Lisbonense de Iluminação a Gás, begins to operate Lisbon's lightning network. Fearing people's reaction to a gas factory in an urban area, a styled façade is erected in 1856 to disguise it.
About 1850 - About 1900 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Date Country Theme
The Realist movement, which emerges as a reaction to Classicism, focuses on the faithful representation of daily life in both town and country and particularly affects literature and painting.
1848 France Fine And Applied Arts
The "special national school for design, mathematics, architecture and ornamental sculpture applied to the industrial arts", which succeeds the Royal school of design founded in the 18th century, becomes the École nationale supérieure des arts décoratifs in 1877.
1848 France Political Context
Revolution of February 1848: Louis-Philippe abdicates and the Republic is proclaimed.
1848 - 1852 France Political Context
During the Second Republic a number of social reforms take place, including universal male suffrage and the abolition of slavery. In December 1848 Louis- Napoleon Bonaparte (grand-nephew of Napoleon I) takes over as president of the Republic and reverts to a more conservative political position. He sets up an authoritarian regime by coup d'état (December 1851), and declares himself emperor in 1852.
1848 Germany Political Context
The German National Assembly meets in Frankfurt.
1848 Germany Political Context
Establishment of the first parliament in German history (at the Paulskirche, Frankfurt am Main), and elaboration of the German Imperial Constitution.
1848 - 1849 Germany Political Context
The Pre-March Revolution involves a series of protests, gatherings and disturbances, but by July 1849 the Bundes troops are victorious and the revolution fails.
1848 - 1890 Germany Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The era of Realism in literature (i.e. the works of Raabe, Fontane and Busch) is characterised by exact descriptions of reality, subjective narration and irony.
1848 Germany Reforms And Social Changes
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels publish the Communist Manifesto.
1848 Germany Reforms And Social Changes Date Country Theme
Liberal regimes, now with seats in government, herald a series of liberal reforms in all German states. After riots in Berlin, Prussian King Frederick William IV promises liberal and national reforms.
1848 Turkey Cities And Urban Spaces
Ebniye Nizamnamesi (Regulation for Buildings) issued.
1848 Turkey Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The earliest Turkish textbook on chemistry, Usul-i Kimya (Elements of chemistry), is written by Mehmed Emin Dervi# Pa#a, a graduate of the Military Engineering School in Istanbul, based on the chemistry books he used during his studies in the École des Mines in Paris.
1849 - 1850 Austria Migrations
The revolutionary General Józef Zachariasz Bem flees Austria for the Ottoman Empire along with 6,000 Hungarian soldiers. He becomes a Turkish General and in 1850 suppresses a Muslim pogrom against the Christian minority in Aleppo.
1849 Portugal Economy And Trade
The Tribunal de Contas (Supreme Audit Institution), the independent financial control department, is separated from the financial administration. The public accounts are verified by the Tribunal de Contas and approved by Parliament.
1849 Germany Political Context
The German National Assembly approves the Constitution of the German Empire.
1849 Germany Political Context
The Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm IV refuses the German Imperial Crown.
1849 Germany Reforms And Social Changes
Popular movements in Saxony, Baden and the Pfalz attempt to put into effect the Constitution of the Empire, but they are defeated by Prussian troops.
1849 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes
The Teachers’ Seminary is founded in #stanbul.
1849 Turkey Rediscovering The Past
English archaeologist and politician Austen Henry Layard (1817–94) publishes Nineveh and its Remains.
1850 Romania Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Date Country Theme
January: the birth of Mihai Eminescu, who is considered to be the most important Romanian poet of the 19th century.
1850 - 1860 France Economy And Trade
Foundation of numerous banks: the Crédit Industriel et Commercial (1859), the Credit Lyonnais (1863) and the Société générale (1864).
1850 France Migrations
First wave of Italian immigrants to France.
1850 - 1860 France Rediscovering The Past
Excavations of the French scholar, archaeologist and Egyptologist Auguste Mariette (1821–81) in Egypt.
1850 - 1900 Austria Economy And Trade
The majority of fezzes worn as modern headgear in the Ottoman Empire during the second half of the 19th century are produced in the Austrian Empire.
1850 Austria Travelling
Archduke Maximilian visits Asia Minor and Egypt.
1850 - 1855 Italy Fine And Applied Arts
The painters of the School of Posillipo (Naples) develop a new style of more natural observation of landscapes and everyday life.
1850s - 1860s Italy Travelling
Mountaineering on the Alps becomes a sport and tourism activity. Local people had always climbed mountains. Since the end of the 18th century, scientists had started exploring the Alps for scientific purposes (Mont Blanc was first climbed in 1786). In 1857, Irish mountaineer John Ball starts climbing the Dolomites and writing guidebooks about them.
1850s United Kingdom Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Britain also holds a stake in the development of railways in the Near East. Egypt, as part of a global transport network and under British sponsorship, has a railway network before Norway does.
1850s United Kingdom Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The Crimean War brings thousands of British soldiers to Constantinople. After the war, certain innovations can be traced back to it – such as beards! There is a craze for things all things Turkish; the Turkish commander even becomes something of a folk hero in Britain. Date Country Theme
1850 - 1900 Austria Migrations
During the second half of the 19th century the mass migration of Czech-speaking farmers to Vienna to work for Viennese industries finally amounts to half the Viennese population.
1850 Spain Fine And Applied Arts
First photography of Arab monuments such as the Alhambra and the Great Mosque of Córdoba. The development of photography sheds new light on these monuments and these first photographs are important documents on Arab remains in Spain.
1850 - 1860s Spain Fine And Applied Arts
Rafael Contreras begins to make models from the Alhambra that are shown in international exhibitions and acquired by many museums and schools of design. The models are used as examples of wall decoration in the Alhambresque style.
1850 - 1929 Spain Fine And Applied Arts
The style of the Neo-Mudéjar artistic movement is used in buildings and artworks, especially ceramic and metalware. These pieces are displayed in different international exhibitions (e.g. London 1851, Paris 1878).
1850 Spain Rediscovering The Past
First photography of the Islamic monuments and remains in Spain such as the Great Mosque of Córdoba and the Alhambra palace.
2nd half of the 19th century France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Parnassism is a French literary style that grew up as a reaction to Romanticism. Advocating “Art for art's sake”, it rejected lyricism: Leconte de Lisle and José-Maria de Heredia are notable poets of this style.
Circa 1850 - Circa 1900 France Fine And Applied Arts
The Realist movement, which emerges as a reaction to Classicism, focuses on the faithful reproduction of the “reality” of daily life in both town and country. This movement, which affected literature and painting in particular, shocked some people. Orientalism (i.e. the painters Fromentin, Ingres and Gérôme) favoured subjects inspired by travel to the Near East.
1850 France Fine And Applied Arts
A Burial At Ornans by the Realist painter Gustave Courbet.
1850s - 1870s France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The crinoline underskirt increases the volume of women’s skirts.
1850 - 1900 Germany Fine And Applied Arts Date Country Theme
The painting by Max Liebermann, Die Gänserupferinnen (1872), exemplifies Impressionism in art at this time.
1850 - 1870 Germany Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Surveillance, spying and so on, creates fear and leads to political persecution of musicians (e.g. both Richard Wagner and Gottfried Semper are forced into exile). Music of this era falls under the label “late Romanticism” (i.e. when emotional expression and freedom of style are enhanced), and new genres are born; i.e. symphonic poetry (Franz List) and musical drama (Richard Wagner’s Tristan and Isolde, 1865).
1851 United Kingdom Rediscovering The Past
When the Great Exhibition of All Nations opens in London, as well as showcasing technological progress, it also exposes the public to Egyptian, Mesopotamian and other ancient cultures, thus fostering an appetite for museums.
1851 Romania International Exhibitions
Wallachia and Moldavia participate in the Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of all Nations, organised at the Crystal Palace in London. Their products are exhibited in the Ottoman pavilion.
1851 - 1895 Jordan Reforms And Social Changes
Between 1866 and 1871 two administrative districts are created: qada (district) of Ajlun and qada of al-Salt. Ajlun is part of Hawran mutasarrifiyyat (province), while al-Salt is part of al-Balqa mutasarrifiyyat. In 1872 a new administrative region comprising al-Salt, Karak and al-Jawf (Tafila is integrated in 1892) is formed with Ma’an as the administrative centre, subsequently replaced by Karak in 1895.
1851 - 1853 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Verdi composes the so-called popular trilogy (Rigoletto, Il trovatore and La traviata), consolidating his fame and reaching full musical and dramatical maturity.
1851 Greece International Exhibitions
Greece is represented by a small stand at the Great Exhibition in London among the Levantine states.
1851 United Kingdom International Exhibitions
At the Great Exhibition of this year are some examples of Islamic design influenced by Owen Jones, who had “discovered” Al-Andalus (Andalusian) Islamic architecture. Jones was brother-in-law to the architect J. W. Wild who designed St Mark’s Church in Alexandria.
1851 Spain Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
While the Barcelona–Mataró railway is under construction, another line is in progress between Madrid and Aranjuez, opened in 1851, and a third between Date Country Theme Langreo and Gijón, in Asturias. By the end of the 19th century most Spanish cities will be linked by train.
1851 Portugal Rediscovering The Past
Lendas e Narrativas published by Alexandre Herculano (1810–77), a collection of historical short stories set in the context of medieval times and the “Reconquista” process, the Iberian Christian military movement to recover Muslim-occupied territories (10th–15th centuries).
1851 - 1868 Portugal Political Context
Regeneration, led mainly by Minister Fontes Pereira Melo (who gives the period name – Fontism) is a peaceful political cycle of global innovation started in 1851. The kingdom is tired of political unrest. Conditions are created for the middle classes and foreign investors to support economic expansion, the development of infrastructure and industrialisation.
1851 Portugal Economy And Trade
Launch of an ambitious plan of modernisation and the stable Regeneration period mostly led by Minister Fontes Pereira de Melo (1819–87) (and named Fontism after him) Infrastructure building, industrial production and business laws are promoted. Porto wine production and trade thrives and exports increase until the 1860s.
1851 Portugal International Exhibitions
At “The Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations“ in London, Portugal shows 1,293 products from almost all the regions.
1851 Germany International Exhibitions
The First World Fair is opened by Prince Albert in London.
1851 Turkey Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The Ottoman steamship company #irket-i Hayriyye is founded. It provides regular and rapid transportation from Istanbul to points along the Bosporus, replacing the oar-drawn kay#ks that had monopolised this traffic since the 18th century.
1851 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes
Ottoman Academy of Sciences (Encümen-i Dan##) opens.
1852 - 1870 France Cities And Urban Spaces
Georges Haussmann’s works in Paris cover all areas of city planning: streets and boulevards, reconstruction of buildings, parks and street furniture, drainage networks and water supply facilities, equipment and monuments.
1852 Italy Political Context Date Country Theme
Cavour (Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, 1810–61), the architect of the diplomatic strategies that allowed Italian unification, becomes prime minister of the Kingdom of Sardinia (he will remain prime minister until his death).
1852 Austria Reforms And Social Changes
Enactment of a code for Craft Guild regulations offers workers some protection in the Austrian monarchy.
1852 Portugal Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
13 December: Under the framework of the Regeneration modernisation, the adoption of the decimal metric system based on the legal mètre of France is decreed by Queen Maria II. This decree establishes a ten-year deadline for its full enforcement, but the whole process will take longer than that.
1852 Portugal Reforms And Social Changes
Ato Adicional de 1852 (Additional Act) abolishes the death penalty for political crimes, which had not been enforced since 1834. In 1867, in the reign of King Luís I, the abolition of the death penalty is extended to all kinds of crime, except for those under military jurisdiction. Only in 1911 will total abolition be proclaimed by the Republican regime.
1852 - 1870 France Political Context
After an authoritarian period (1852–60), during which time freedoms are severely restricted and political opponents are forced into exile, the Second Empire is declared and the political climate becomes more liberal and the economy grows.
1852 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes
The steamship company #irket-i Hayriyye is founded.
1852 Turkey Rediscovering The Past
A museum of ancient costumes (Elbise-i Atika) is opened in Hippodrome (#stanbul) where old costumes of Janissaries are exhibited on mannequins.
1853 Romania Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
14 February: installation of the first electric telegraph lines in the Romanian territories, connecting Ia#i with Cern#u#i.
1853 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Political Context
A Treaty of Maritime Peace in Perpetuity is concluded between Britain and the Trucial Coast rulers. Britain assumes the right to police maritime peace and commits to protecting the sheikhdoms from external interference and attack.
1853 - 1890 Lebanon Economy And Trade Date Country Theme
Antun Bey Najjar, a merchant who made his fortune in Constantinople, builds Khan Antun Bey in 1853. It becomes a great business center and the building served for many institutions such as Beirut’s foreign consulates, the Ottoman administration, postal services, merchants’ offices and Beirut’s first bank, Imperial Ottoman.
1853 - 1856 Greece Political Context
The Crimean War starts in October 1853. On one side is the Russian Empire and on the other the Ottoman Empire, the British Empire, France and the Kingdom of Sardinia. Greece participates with a volunteer corps of 1,000 men as one of Russia’s few allies.
1853 Spain Migrations
The ban on emigration to America is lifted. Under the Constitution of 1869 free emigration for all the inhabitants is recognised on payment of a fee, which remains until 1873.
1853 Portugal Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
1 July: Portugal starts to use the first adhesive postal stamps on letters, postcards and parcels, in the reign of Queen Mary II. Bearing the Queen’ s effigy they are inspired by the first British stamp.
1853 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Publication of Victor Hugo’s Les Châtiments.
1853 - 1856 Turkey Political Context
War between Russia and the Ottoman Empire and its allies France, UK and Piedmont-Savoy. The Crimean War is a consequence of rivalry over the Eastern Question and France’s support of Catholic claims and Russia’s support of Orthodox claims to control the holy sites in Jerusalem. Russia seeks to exploit Ottoman political weakness to gain diplomatic rights for Orthodox subjects of the Empire. Peace established by the Treaty of Paris (1856).
1853 Germany Economy And Trade
Levi Strauss & Co founds the first company to manufacture blue jeans.
1853 Lebanon Cities And Urban Spaces
Antun Bey Najjar, a merchant who made his fortune in Constantinople, builds Khan Antun Bey in 1853. It becomes a great business centre and the building is used by many institutions such as Beirut’s foreign consulates, the Ottoman administration, postal services, merchants’ offices and Beirut’s first bank, Imperial Ottoman.
1853 - 1856 Turkey Migrations
The Crimean War causes an exodus of the Crimean Tatars, about 200,000 of whom move to the Ottoman Empire in continuing waves of immigration. Date Country Theme
1854 Tunisia Travelling
A contingent of the Tunisian army is called upon to participate alongside the Ottoman Empire, France and England in the Crimean War.
1854 Romania Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
20 August: inauguration of the first railway of Romania, linking Bazia# to Oravi#a (in Banat). Used at first to transport coal, it was opened for passenger transportation in 1856. In the United Principalities, the first railway line, built by the British company J.T. Barkley and J. Staniforth, was inaugurated 31 October 1869.
1854 - 1870 France Cities And Urban Spaces
Construction of workers’ housing includes the utopian city of Familistère de Guise in Aisne (also called the “Social Palace”), set up by Jean-Baptiste André Godin between 1859 and 1870.
1854 Italy Fine And Applied Arts
Leopoldo Alinari, with his brothers Romualdo and Giuseppe, opens in Florence one of the first photography workshope – Fratelli Alinari.
1854 United Kingdom Political Context
Russia’s expansion to the Black Sea and the Caucasus encroach on, seize and annex Ottoman possessions. Britain and France support Ottoman resistance, targeting the Russian naval base in Crimea. Britain provides military and naval support to the Ottoman armed force.
1854 Austria Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The Semmering Railway is the first mainline railway to pass through mountainous territory.
1854 Egypt Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Sa‘id Pasha’s accession to the Viceroyalty of Egypt provides French businessman Ferdinand de Lesseps new impulse to develop the Suez Canal.
1854 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Heinrich Göbel invents the light bulb.
1854 Turkey Economy And Trade
Ottoman Empire obtains its first foreign loan.
1854 Turkey Rediscovering The Past
English amateur archaeologist Frank Calvert (1828–1908) begins excavations in Troy. Date Country Theme
1854 Turkey Political Context
The Tanzimat Council appoints a City Ordering Commission (Intizam-# #ehir Heyeti), comprising Ottoman and foreign residents, charged with developing new regulation to transform the structure of Instanbul into a municipal government. It recommends establishment of a commission to enforce urban regulations and improve the city's physical make-up, financed through a separate tax structure.
1855 - 1856 Romania Reforms And Social Changes
In Moldavia (22 December 1855) and then in Wallachia (20 February 1856) a law for the emancipation of the gypsy slaves of private owners is passed. Gypsies belonging to the church and to the state had already been liberated.
1855 France International Exhibitions
The first World Fair/Expo (Exposition universelle) of industrial products takes place at the Champs-Elysées, Paris, from 15 May to 15 November. More than five million visitors attend and 25 states and their colonies are represented.
1855 France Travelling
From 1855, the spa towns of eastern France are developed: at Vittel, and at Contrexéville near Plombieres-les-Bains in the Pyrenees, where Napoleon III stays.
1855 Lebanon Reforms And Social Changes
A school is built by the Jesuits in Ghazir (Kisruwan district).
1855 Italy Fine And Applied Arts
The Caffé Michelangelo in Florence becomes a meeting place for artists and republican intellectuals close to Giuseppe Mazzini, in opposition to academic and official environments.
1855 Italy Rediscovering The Past
Inauguration of the Egyptian Museum in Florence. The bulk of its holdings are the items collected by Ippolito Rossellini during the 1828–29 Franco-Tuscan expedition to Egypt, together with the Egyptian antiquities that the Medici family had collected during the 18th century.
1855 Italy Political Context
The Kingdom of Sardinia participates in the Crimean war as part of the Anglo- French alliance against Russia.
1855 Spain Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The railways law, Ley General de Caminos de Hierro (Law of the Iron Roads) establishes principles for the railway and its public and private development. It specifies a rail width that is wider than the European rail. Its continued use still causes problems for rail connections between Spain and France today. Date Country Theme
1855 Spain Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The government introduces a law establishing the telegraphic network in Spanish territory, marking the beginning of telecommunications in Spain. Its objective is to link every important city and the provincial capitals.
1855 - 1867 Spain Economy And Trade
The Madoz law introduced in 1855 provides for the state confiscation and sale of the rest of the Church properties and also of municipal properties.
1855 Portugal International Exhibitions
Portugal is present at “Exposition Universelle des Produits de l’Agriculture, de l’Industrie et des Beaux-Arts”, with 441 stands, exhibiting agricultural products and commodities. King Pedro V (1837–61) has a pivotal role in boosting the national presence.
1855 Lebanon Cities And Urban Spaces
A school is built by the Jesuits in Ghazir (Kisruwan district).
1855 Turkey Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The earliest railway line within the Empire is opened between Costanta and Cernovoda (in present-day Romania).
1855 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes
9 September: Telegraphic communication is introduced within the empire.
1855 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Ahmed Cevdet Pa#a, historian, jurist and conservative Tanzimat reformer, completes the first volumes of Târih-I Cevdet (History of Cevdet), which deals with Ottoman history, 1774–1826.
1856 Romania Political Context
At the Congress of Paris peace conference, Wallachia and Moldavia are put under the collective guarantee of the Great Powers (Austria, Russia, Prussia, Piedmont, the UK and France), while remaining under Ottoman sovereignty. The Russian protectorate over the Romanian countries is ended. Moldavia receives the southeast of Bessarabia.
1856 Romania Economy And Trade
The internationalisation of the Danube through the Treaty of Paris has a positive influence on the development of Romanian commerce.
1856 Morocco Political Context Date Country Theme
In 1856 a treaty is signed, initiated by Britain in order to strengthen its influence over Morocco and to maintain its naval supremacy in the Mediterranean, which hugely undermines Moroccan sovereignty. This treaty wrested control over the extent of European penetration away from the governing institution of Morocco the Makhzen. The advantages gained by European traders, combined with their superior technique and the quantity of capital behind them, enabled then to monopolise most of the sea trade and to reduce Moroccan players to mere intermediaries.
1856 - 1860 Spain Cities And Urban Spaces
Ildefonso Cerdá designs the "extension" of Barcelona in 1859. The orthogonal design of the streets creates a new neighbourhood: El Ensanche/L’Eixample. The development of wide streets such as Diagonal or Paseo de Gracia allows a new construction style, Modernismo/Modernisme, with buildings by Antonio Gaudí and Puig i Cadafalch.
1856 Portugal Rediscovering The Past
The Portugaliae Monumenta Historica is published. Acknowledged as a historian, Alexandre Herculano is commissioned by Academia das Ciências de Lisboa to compile this collection of old documents that are at risk of disappearing and being dispersed throughout convent archives. He undertook this task in 1853–54.
1856 Portugal Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Inauguration of the first Portuguese railway between Lisbon and Carregado, 36,454 km north of Lisbon, by King Pedro V and innumerable guests, transported in 14 wooden carriages pulled by two locomotives. The first train trip lasts 40 minutes. A steam engine is adapted to move the locomotives.
1856 Turkey Political Context
28 February: Under diplomatic pressure, the Sublime Porte is forced to declare the Imperial Rescript of Reforms (Islahat Ferman#), giving the empire admission to the Concert of Europe. The Rescript states the equality of Muslims and non-Muslims before law, the right of non-Muslims to be admitted to government and military service, and abolition of the poll tax and freedom in education for non-Muslims.
1856 Germany Rediscovering The Past
A Neanderthal is discovered and examined by Johann Carl Fuhlrott and Hermann Schaaffhausen. Rudolf Virchow, friends with the famous archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann, claims that the Neanderthal is not prehistoric man. He is wrong.
1856 Turkey Cities And Urban Spaces
#stimlak Nizamnamesi (Regulation for Expropriation) issued.
1856 Turkey Cities And Urban Spaces
Fire in Aksaray district, #stanbul, destroys more than 650 buildings and is a major turning point in the history of #stanbul’s urban form. Italian architect Luigi Storari is Date Country Theme appointed to carry out the re-building of the area, which is to conform to the new pattern: hence it is to be regular with straight and wide streets.
1856 Turkey Economy And Trade
The Ottoman Bank is established by English capitalists with capital of #500,000 (equivalent to about US$52 million in 2007). Established on a small scale, the bank becomes an imperial bank by 1863.
1856 Turkey Political Context
30 March: The Paris Treaty marks the end of the Crimean War (1853–56); the Ottoman Empire is admitted into the Concert of Europe.
1857 Tunisia Reforms And Social Changes
Promulgation of the Fundamental Pact by Muhammad Pasha Bey: a “Declaration of Rights” in 11 points. The pact guarantees Tunisians and also foreigners their civil and political rights, security of persons and properties, equality before the law, etc.
1857 Tunisia Political Context
Promulgation of the Fundamental Pact by Muhammad Pasha Bey: a “Declaration of Rights” in 11 points. The pact guarantees Tunisians and also foreigners their civil and political rights, security of persons and properties, equality before the law, etc.
1857 Romania Economy And Trade
March: the first oil refinery in Romania is built by Teodor Mehedin#eanu at Râfov, Prahova.
1857 France Travelling
Development of resorts and the creation of the seaside resort of Arcachon on the Atlantic in south-west France, which is inaugurated by Emperor Napoleon III and Empress Eugénie.
1857 France Travelling
Visit by the Ambassador of Persia, Ferouk Kahn, to Napoleon III.
1857 - 1863 Lebanon Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
A paved road, 6 meters wide, is built between Beirut and Damascus. It facilitates the circulation of the diligence (the transport company’s horse-drawn vehicles).
1857 Austria Travelling
Sidi Muhammad Bey of Tunis presents a pair of pistols to Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria. Date Country Theme
1857 Spain Reforms And Social Changes
The Ley de Instrucción Pública (Law of Public Education) establishes three stages of education: primary, secondary and university. Primary school is compulsory for all children (boys and girls) providing the basis for combatting illiteracy.
1857 Portugal Rediscovering The Past
Creation of the Museum of the Geological Commission currently called the Museum of Geology of Portugal. It is established under the auspices of the Geological Commission from specimens collected by the Portuguese pioneers of geology Carlos Ribeiro, Nery Delgado, Pereira da Costa, Paul Choffat and others.
1857 Portugal Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The public telegraph service becomes available, one year after its first official connection between the Royal Palace and the Parliament. The Morse telegraph system is also used in the international connection to the telegraphic network in Spain, on the border of Elvas and Badajoz.
1857 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Publication of Gustave Flaubert’s novel Madame Bovary.
1857 France Fine And Applied Arts
The Angelus, by the Realist painter Jean-François Millet.
1857 - 1812 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
A reaction to Naturalism and Parnassism, Symbolism focuses on the imagination and spirituality. Inspired by Charles Baudelaire, the aesthetic developed (i.e. Verlaine, Rimbaud and Mallarmé) and triumphed at the theatre, in music and in the fine arts.
1857 - 1859 Germany Economy And Trade
The Great Depression, which starts in the United states with the panic of 1857, represents the first global economic crisis.
1857 Turkey Migrations
Ottoman Refugee Code/Immigration Law is issued. Forced migrants-turned-settlers are given 70 donums (about 17 acres) to start farming.
1857 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes
March: The Ministry of Public Education is founded.
1858 Tunisia Cities And Urban Spaces
Under the reign of Muhammad Pasha Bey a major reform is carried out: the capital, Tunis, is established as a municipal town and a city council is elected. Further Date Country Theme municipal towns were created in other parts of the country: Sfax, Sousse and Kairouan among others.
1858 Romania Political Context
19 August: the Ottoman Empire, Austria, Russia, Prussia, Piedmont, the UK and France sign the Paris Convention marking the creation of the United Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia, with separate rulers, legislative and executive powers, and only two institutions in common (Supreme Court of Appeals and central legislative commission). The convention replaces the Organic Regulations, becoming the new constitution of the United Principalities.
1858 Romania Reforms And Social Changes
Through the Paris Convention signed in August 1858 by Russia, the UK, France, Piedmont, Prussia, Austria and the Ottoman Empire the privileges and ranks of the Romanian aristocracy in Moldavia and Wallachia are abolished.
1858 France Travelling
Development of pilgrimages in France, in particular to Lourdes, thanks to faster modes of transport such as rail.
1858 - 1910 Austria Cities And Urban Spaces
Vienna’s newly constructed Ringstrasse covers an area of approximately 2,400,000m2 (240 hectares).
1858 Italy International Exhibitions
An industrial exhibition is held in Turin.
1858 - 1859 Greece Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Telephone communication is established between the cities of Piraeus and Syros (underwater), and Athens and Patras.
1858 Austria Economy And Trade
A unified silver currency the Guilder (Gulden) is introduced throughout the Austrian-Hungarian Empire.
1858 Spain Cities And Urban Spaces
Opening of the Isabel II channel, the water system of Madrid diverting water from the river Lozoya to the new fountain in San Bernardo street in the centre of Madrid.
1858 Germany Political Context
King Wilhelm I – later Kaiser (Emperor) of the Second Empire – assumes his regency.
1858 - 1870 Turkey Cities And Urban Spaces Date Country Theme
Planning project for Galata and Karaköy in #stanbul. They are important centres for international trade.
1858 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes
6 June: Promulgation of the Land Law regulating private property in agricultural areas.
1859 - 1861 Romania Political Context
Union of Moldavia and Wallachia. In January 1859 Alexandru Ioan Cuza is elected ruler of both Moldavia and Wallachia, the double election being recognised by the Great Powers and the Ottoman Empire. In November 1861 the sultan issues a ferman approving the political and administrative union of Moldavia and Wallachia during Cuza’s reign. The United Principalities could now have a single government and parliament.
1859 - 1902 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
On the eve of Italian national unification, Italy has only 1,758 km of railways (Piedmont 803 km, Lombardy and Veneto 500 km, Tuscany 256 km, Papal States 101 km, Kingdom of Two Sicilies 98 km). After unification in 1860, there is great development of railways, which by 1902 total 15,613 km.
1859 Italy Reforms And Social Changes
The Casati Law is passed in the Kingdom of Sardinia (and in 1860 extended to the rest of Italy) that defines the organisation of the educational system, from primary school to university. The system is aimed more at educating the ruling elite than the illiterate masses. Humanities are given a much higher status than scientific and technical education.
1859 - 1861 Italy Political Context
The Kingdom of Sardinia, backed by France, wages war against the Austrian Empire and annexes Milan. Pro-unification insurrections in central Italy; Garibaldi leads an expedition of 1,000 volunteers in Southern Italy. Italy is unified under King Victor Emanuel II (formerly King of Sardinia) as a constitutional monarchy.
1859 - 1885 Greece Cities And Urban Spaces
Construction of the so-called classical trilogy – namely the Academy of Athens, the National Library of Greece and the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens – which is designed by the brothers Theophilus and Christian Hansen.
1859 - 1860 Morocco Political Context
The Tétouan war of 6 February 1860: the Spanish, seeking to extend the borders of Ceuta and Melilla, exploit a raid by a neighbouring tribe against a redoubt built outside the walls of Ceuta to launch a major military action and occupy Tétouan. To end the occupation of Tétouan, the Moroccan state was obliged to pay a significant sum (20 million douros), which it was unable to do. As a result, it was forced to seek a foreign loan that it was able to pay back using customs revenues. Date Country Theme
1859 - 1873 Morocco Political Context
Reign of Muhammad Ibn ‘Abd al-Rahman: with a view to overhauling the machinery of administration, Muhammad IV creates an administrative school, the Madrasa Makhzenia, and proceeds to modernise financial and tax services. He also thought about modernising the army, both in terms of soldier training and equipment. This was eventually achieved by his son Mulay al-Hasan I.
1859 Serbia Political Context
The Hatišerif (Turkish edict) is issued in 1838, allowing the Sovjet (Council) to limit the powers of Prince Miloš Obrenovi#. Unwilling to accept this however, Miloš abdicates and leaves Serbia in 1839. Prince Mihailo Obrenovi# reigns for a short time before the Kara#or#evi# Dynasty regains the Serbian throne in 1842. The 1858 Svetoandrejska skupština (Assembly convened on St Andrew’s Day) decides on a change of dynasty, overthrowing Prince Aleksandar Kara#or#evi# and reinstating Miloš Obrenovi#. A 37-strong deputation from the Assembly, with a massive, heavily armed entourage, leaves Belgrade for Bucharest to bring the newly elected prince back to the country, marking the beginning of Miloš’ second, but short-lived reign, which ends when he dies in 1860.
1859 - 1860 Spain Political Context
War declared on Morocco. Battles of Castillejos (Fnidq) and Wad-Ras. A peace agreement is signed with the Moroccan Sultan leaving Tetouan under Spanish rule.
1859 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Johann Phillipp Reis invents the telephone.
1859 Turkey Cities And Urban Spaces
Sokaklara Dair Nizamname (Regulation for Streets) issued.
1859 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
#brahim #inasi completes his stage comedy #âir Evlenmesi (Marriage of a Poet), the first theatre play written by an Ottoman Turkish author.
1859 Austria Political Context
Defeat of the Austrians by a French and Sardinian Army at the Battle of Solferino on 24 June sees terrible losses on both sides.
1859 Austria Political Context
At the Peace of Zürich (10 November) Austria cedes Lombardy, but not Venetia, to Napoleon III; in turn, Napoleon hands the province over to the Kingdom of Sardinia.
1860 - 1900 Tunisia Cities And Urban Spaces Date Country Theme
Following development of the Port of La Goulette, new districts relating to trade and industrial activities are born. The neighbourhood is given the name of “Little Sicily”, which is suggestive of its role as host to a poor immigrant population mainly from southern Italy.
1860 Tunisia Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The restoration of the Aqueduct of Zaghouan is completed, running water arrives in Tunis.
1860 - 1863 Tunisia Economy And Trade
Restoration of the Zaghouan Aqueduct, Tunisia’s largest water-service network, allows supply to the capital and its suburbs.
1860 Romania Fine And Applied Arts
7 November: on the initiative of painter Gheorghe Panaitescu-Bardasare, a School of Fine Arts and an art gallery are founded in Ia#i.
1860 France Travelling
First trip by Napoleon III to Algeria; the second will take place in 1865.
1860s - 1908 Jordan Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
After centuries of neglect the creation of new administrative units late in the 19th century strengthens the Ottoman presence in Transjordan. This trend materialises in the construction of administrative buildings in newly established or re-established towns and investment in infrastructure. New towns mean new roads: Amman, Jerash and Madaba are linked by paved roads and in 1906 Madaba is linked with Karak. Construction of the Hijaz Railway and lines of communication results in extensive urban development along the railway. However, it also creates social disparities and tensions.
1860 - 1918 Jordan Fine And Applied Arts
Newcomers to Transjordan, whether from neighbouring Arab countries such as Syria, Palestine and Hijaz or from further afield such as Caucasus, bring with them not only artefacts of their home culture, including personal ornaments, weapons, costumes and treasured items, but also the necessary skills and social habits that help them to adapt in their new homeland.
1860 - 1921 Jordan Economy And Trade
Palestinian and Damascene merchants have long-established trade relations with Transjordan villages. There is a steady trade between al-Salt and Nablus, Karak and Hebron and between Ma’an and Gaza. Large families of these merchants move to these towns. They build many structures and become major landowners and form the elite of Transjordan society. These merchants become the dominant economic force and open up Transjordan to regional trade.
1860 - 1921 Jordan Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Date Country Theme
Due to the very diverse composition of the Transjordanians with their different backgrounds – Arabs and non-Arabs, Muslims and Christians, settlers and nomads – Transjordan becomes the melting pot for different cultures. This is reflected in very diverse cultural artefacts (fashion and costumes, musical instruments and music, and dances) but more importantly in traditions and social behaviour.
1860 - 1870 Jordan Reforms And Social Changes
By the 1860s, population density has decreased drastically. The border of the sawn cultivated land had been pushed westwards under the pressure of the nomadic tribes from the east. Several reasons are suggested for this decline, including maladministration and the taxation policies of the Ottoman Empire. Some of the regions south of Ajlun, including Amman area, and along the escarpment of the Jordan valley were almost completely abandoned. Recovery starts during the last quarter of the 19th century.
1860 Italy Cities And Urban Spaces
The unification of Italy leads to urban expansion outside the old city walls, which have lost their defensive value. Medieval urban buildings are often demolished in order to build monumental architecture.
1860 - 1870 Italy Fine And Applied Arts
In opposition to academic painting, the Macchiaioli movement (Telemaco Signorini, Vincenzo Cabianca and Silvestro Lega) experiments with “spot painting”, based on the strong contrast between light and shadow.
1860 Italy Political Context
The right to vote is reserved for a small elite of men who have certain levels of income and education: only 2.2% of the Italians can vote.
1860 - 1865 Greece Fine And Applied Arts
Both Nikolaos Gyzis and Nikiphoros Lytras win scholarships to the Royal Academy of Fine Arts, Munich.
1860 - 1874 Greece Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Konstantinos Paparrigopoulos writes a five-volume History of the Greek Nation, a highly influential historiographical work about the continuity of Greek history since antiquity.
1860 Austria Migrations
Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) is born in Moravia; he emigrates from Moravia to Vienna.
1860 Spain Fine And Applied Arts
The Manises pottery begins to produce objects in lustreware. Date Country Theme
1860 Republic of Macedonia Fine And Applied Arts (FYROM)
The icon “Seven Holy Teachers” (Sedmochislenitzi) is painted by the most significant representative of Christian religious art in Macedonia, Dicho Krstevic Zograph, at the peak of his creativity. It represents the Slav missionaries Sts Cyril and Methodius and their disciples Clement, Nahum, Gorazd, Sabbas and Angelarij in a solo composition. His icons are distinguished by bright colour and baroque features.
1860 Republic of Macedonia Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion (FYROM)
The birth in Prilep of the first Macedonian composer Atanas Badev (d. 1908). He studied music in Russia and was conductor of several school choirs and of the first city choir in Prilep.
1860 - 1870 Republic of Macedonia Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion (FYROM)
Marko K. Cepenkov (1829–1920) was born in Prilep. Among the greatest collectors of Macedonian oral folk literature, during the 1860s he was prolific in recording folklore creations. The importance of his collecting activities lies not only in the volume but also in the diversity of folklore traditions recorded, including proverbs, sayings, tales, songs, riddles, charms, beliefs, dreams and interpretation, and children's games.
1860 Republic of Macedonia Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion (FYROM)
Grigor Prlichev's epic poem "The Serdar", written in Greek, wins first prize at the annual poetry competition held in Athens. Prlichev (1830–93) was born in Ohrid. This prolific Macedonian poet and translator was a dedicated advocate of introducing the native spoken language in Macedonian schools. He was referred to as a second Homer, having translated the "Iliad" into the Macedonian language.
1860 Lebanon Political Context
Yusuf Bek Butros Karam, a Lebanese Maronite born in 1823 fights in the 1860 civil war and leads a rebellion in 1866-67 against the Ottoman Empire’s rule in Mount Lebanon. His proclamations have been interpreted as an early expression of Lebanese nationalism.
1860 Lebanon Political Context
A full-scale war erupts between Maronites and Druze. Napoleon III of France sends 7,000 troops to Beirut and helps impose a partition: Druze control of the territory is recognised as the fact on the ground, and the Maronites are forced into an enclave. This is ratified by the Concert of Europe in 1861.
1860 Portugal Reforms And Social Changes
Under the liberal educational reforms, Lyceu Nacional de Aveiro (Aveiro High School) is the first school in Portugal to occupy a building designed specifically for Date Country Theme this function. Previously schools occupied existing buildings, often old convents. The school had been created as Colégio de Aveiro in 1848.
1860 Portugal Travelling
Travelling became a great cultural and social phenomenon with Romanticism. The “Grand Tour” through the countries of the known world, namely around the Mediterranean, became a means of developing cultural and social skills. Travel became refined and even a simple journey to the countryside required such accessories as this travel case for meals.
Circa 1870 - Circa 1900 France Fine And Applied Arts
Impressionist painters capture the effects of light in outdoor and everyday scenes.
1860 - 1910 Germany Fine And Applied Arts
Realism (a backlash to both Classicism and Romanticism) is exemplified by French artist Gustave Courbet’s Die Steinklopfer (1849), although long before then Albrecht Dürer had painted his highly realistic Junger Feldhase (1502).
1860 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes
October: First private newspaper to be published by Turkish journalists,Tercüman- # Ahvâl, published by Agah Efendi and #brahim #inasi.
1860 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
October: Journalists #brahim #inasi and Agah Efendi publish the first private Muslim newspaper Tercümân-# Ahvâl (Interpreter of Events).
1861 Tunisia Political Context
Muhammad Sadiq Bey promulgates a constitution limiting his powers. Tunisia’s first constitution is the culmination of the reformist policies of the 19th-century Husaynid beys.
1861 France Travelling
Embassy sent by King Mongkut of Siam (now Thailand) to Napoleon III.
1861 - 1921 Italy Cities And Urban Spaces
Urban growth in Italy: Naples is the biggest city (1861: 447,000; 1921: 772,000), but population growth is higher in Rome, the “political capital city” (1871: 244,000; 1921: 692,000) and in Milan, the “industrial capital city” (1861: 96,000; 1921: 719,000). (Rounded to nearest 1,000.)
1861 Italy International Exhibitions
First Italian National Exhibition of Agricultural and Industrial Products and Fine Arts opens in Florence. Date Country Theme
1861 - 1921 Italy Migrations
The Italian population grows from 22 million in 1861 to almost 33 million in 1901, to 38.4 million in 1921. Part of the increases are due to annexations of new territories. During the same period average annual migration to European and Mediterranean countries is 99, 000 in the 1860s and170,000 in the 1910s, peaking in the 1900s at 251,000. Average annual migration to non-European countries is 22,000 in the 1860s and 213,000 in the 1910s, peaking in the 1900s at 351,000. (Figures, rounded to the nearest 1,000, include both permanent and temporary migration.
1861 Italy Rediscovering The Past
The pre-unification laws on the protection of cultural heritage of the individual Italian states remain in force even after unification. Until 1902, different Italian regions are thus subject to different disciplines.
1861 Republic of Macedonia Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion (FYROM)
Collection of Macedonian poems compiled by the Miladinov brothers is published in Zagreb. Konstantin Miladinov (1830–62), a prominent Macedonian poet, folklorist and educator is a major contributor. Despite a reference to Bulgarian songs in the title, the folk literature recorded by the Miladinovs originated mostly from the areas of Struga, Ohrid, Prilep, Kukush and Bitola.
1861 Lebanon Political Context
In the aftermath of the Lebanese civil war in 1860, the Ottoman authorities impose a new system of government for the mountain districts of Lebanon. Formerly, the region had been divided into two districts, one with a Maronite Christian administrator and the other with a Druze. The Ottomans combine them into a single district, known as the mutasarrifiyya.
1861 - 1876 Turkey Political Context
Reign of Sultan Abdülaziz.
1862 France Rediscovering The Past
Creation of the Museum of Celtic and Gallo-Roman Antiquities by Napoleon III in Saint-Germain-en-Laye.
1862 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The British India Company establishes a regular steamer service in the Arabian Gulf, first as a mail service, and later enhanced by cargo and passenger services.
1862 Italy Economy And Trade
Law on the unification of currencies passed: the lira becomes the Italian currency.
1862 Portugal International Exhibitions Date Country Theme
The “International Exhibition on Industry and Art” in London distinguishes Portugal with 165 Medals of Honor and 240 mentions.
1862 France Fine And Applied Arts
The Picnic on the Grass by Édouard Manet marks a transition from Realism to Impressionism
1862 Germany Political Context
Otto von Bismarck becomes prime minister of Prussia.
1862 Turkey Travelling
Steamship company Fevâid-I Osmâniyye is founded.
1862 Turkey Travelling
April: Sultan Abdülaziz visits Egypt.
1863 Romania Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The literary society Junimea, which had an important role in promoting Romanian literature, is founded in Ia#i. In 1867 it begins publishing a periodical in which the works of Romanian writers appear and also translations from worldwide literature.
1863 Romania Reforms And Social Changes
December: the National Gathering of the United Principalities adopts the law through which the land owned by monasteries (more than a quarter of Romania’s surface) becomes property of the state.
1863 - 1889 Italy Cities And Urban Spaces
Construction of the 167.5 m high Mole Antonelliana in Turin, initially conceived as a synagogue. It soon becomes the city’s landmark building.
1863 - 1885 Italy Fine And Applied Arts
Opening of applied art schools, often attached to museums: Industrial Museum of Turin (1863), Artistic Industrial Museum of Rome (1873), Naples (1882) and Palermo (1885).
1863 Italy Travelling
The Club Alpino Italiano is founded in Turin. Its goal is “to promote the knowledge of mountains, and especially of Italian mountains, their ascent and scientific expeditions”. In 25 years, membership reaches 4,500 with 34 local branches. By 1900 it had built 57 mountain huts.
1863 Austria Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Date Country Theme
Bedrich Smetana's (1824–1884) opera Verkaufte Braut (The Bartered Bride) had its first performance in Prague.
1863 Morocco Political Context
The intention of the trade treaty signed with France in August 1863 is to curb the damaging effects of protectionism and to limit the extent of European penetration but, subverted from its original purpose, it becomes one of the causes of the protectionism problem. The Dahir of June 1864 then proclaimed freedom of trade throughout the Sharifian Empire. The conventions of 1856, 1860–1 and 1863 established the legal bases for relations between Morocco and Europe. Europe’s influence then began to grow.
1863 Egypt Cities And Urban Spaces
On 18 October, under the rule of Khedive Isma‘il, the Egyptian Museum opens in the Caireen district of Bulaq under the management of French Egyptologist Auguste Mariette, known as Mariette Pasha.
1863 Egypt Migrations
Muhammad Sa‘id Pasha dispatches part of a Sudanese battalion to help stop a rebellion against the Second Mexican Empire.
1863 - 1879 Egypt Reforms And Social Changes
Education attracts renewed interest during Isma‘il Pasha’s era. His government establishes schools and reviews students’ expenses, including their living expenses, which sees the restoration of the Diwan (or ministry) of Schools that Sa‘id had annulled. Now as the education budget increased, gradually, the government also returned to dispatching missions to Europe, mostly to France. A number of primary schools were established across the country: from Alexandria in the north to Minya in the south.
1863 Spain Fine And Applied Arts
The painters Mariano Fortuny y Marsal and Francisco Lameyer travel to North Africa. Fortuny buys different artworks and textiles for his collection.
1863 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Publication of the novel Amor de Perdição (Fatal Love) by Camilo Castelo-Branco (1825–90). Written very quickly, this romance has everything to be a major work of passion: tragic intensity, speed of action, balance of characters and simplicity of style.
1863 Turkey International Exhibitions
Sergi-i Umumi-I Osmani (Ottoman General Exhibition), its format borrowed from Western exhibitions, is opened in #stanbul.
1864 Tunisia Political Context Date Country Theme
The popular uprising sounds the death knell for reform. The great figure of this insurrection, ‘Ali bin Ghedham, comes from the region of Kasserine.
1864 Romania Fine And Applied Arts
Dimitrie Bolintineanu, the Minister of Religion and Public Instruction, organises in Bucharest an exhibition displaying works of contemporary Romanian artists, the most important of the time being painters Theodor Aman, Gheorghe Tattarescu and Carol Popp de Szathmari.
1864 Romania Cities And Urban Spaces
14 April: the Commune Law is adopted by which cities and towns become urban communes, led by a mayor and a council. All urban communes must have a fire department and a hospital.
1864 Romania Political Context
14 May: coup d’état of Alexandru Ioan Cuza, who dissolves parliament and proposes a new constitutional project, which is voted the same month and ratified by the Ottoman Empire and the guaranteeing Powers in June 1864. The Statute Expanding the Paris Convention assigned greater power to the prince and the government.
1864 Romania Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
4 August: establishment of the General Directorate of the Post and the Telegraph in the United Principalities.
1864 Romania Cities And Urban Spaces
19 August: establishment of Bucharest’s city hall. Bucharest had been the United Principalities’ capital since 1861.
1864 Romania Reforms And Social Changes
26 August: Alexandru Ioan Cuza promulgates the first Romanian land reform, which transforms peasants into owners of the land on which they had been working on the estates of the aristocracy. Peasants are also freed from the duties they had to perform for the nobility.
1864 Romania Economy And Trade
27 October: foundation of the Romanian Chamber of Commerce and Industry.
1864 Romania Fine And Applied Arts
14 November: a School of Fine Arts (which today is the National University of Art) is founded in Bucharest by painters Gheorghe Tattarescu and Theodor Aman.
1864 Romania Reforms And Social Changes Date Country Theme
December: the law of public instruction establishes free, compulsory primary education.
1864 - 1865 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The Qawasim and other sheikhdoms of the Arab littoral are held by Britain to sign a Treaty pledging to abstain from any interference with British Gulf Telegraph installations and to punish any aggressions made against them.
1864 Lebanon Travelling
Inauguration of the Capuchin cathedral dedicated to Saint Louis IX King of France. The Capuchins had arrived in Beirut in 1628, practising their rites in the old Saint George church where the current Maronite cathedral now stands. Before moving to their present location the Capuchins built their first church, also dedicated to Saint Louis, in Beirut in 1732.
1864 Italy Reforms And Social Changes
A governmental survey reveals the existence of 443 friendly societies (Società di mutuo soccorso), all located in Central and Northern Italy (Milan has 38 societies with a total of 9,923 members, Turin 13 with 14,864 members). Their number and membership grows considerably over time until the development of modern welfare.
1864 Greece Political Context
The Ionian islands are incorporated within the newly established Greek State.
1864 Lebanon Political Context
Dawud Pasha (the mutasarrif [governor] of Lebanon, appointed by the Ottomans) restores to Lebanon a part of its lost territory, establishes for the Druze a school in Abayh that still bears his name and struggles against the feudal lords in the south and the clerical party in the north.
1864 Portugal Rediscovering The Past
Creation of the Carmo Archaeological Museum by the Portuguese Association of Civil Architects, which in 1867 adopts the title of Royal Association of Civil Architects and Portuguese Archaeologists. The museum is located in the ruins of medieval Convento do Carmo, destroyed by the 1755 earthquake.
1864 Portugal Economy And Trade
Banco Nacional Ultramarino is established in Lisbon, as the issuing bank for Portuguese overseas territories. BNU has a significant role in supporting the economic development of the country and the former colonies. Its savings, investment and issuing role facilitates the currency circulation throughout them.
1864 Portugal Economy And Trade
The unpopular tobacco monopoly is ended by parliamentary law. Hereafter tobacco will be auctioned and exploited by those offering the best price to the state. Date Country Theme Some of the main tobacco companies merge into bigger companies to ensure its exploration. The Companhia Lisbonense de Tabacos, founded in 1865, becomes a major player.
1864 Germany Political Context
As a consequence of the Prussian–Danish war, Denmark retracts its demand for Schleswig and Holstein.
1864 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The chemist Julius Lothar Meyer (1830–95) develops the first periodic table of chemical elements.
1864 - 1910 Lebanon Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
During this period the Beirut Tram covers 12 km around Beirut’s centre. It runs until 1910.
1864 Turkey Cities And Urban Spaces
Imperial decree orders that all civil servants have to light one or two street gas lamps in front of their houses both in summer and winter.
1865 Romania Fine And Applied Arts
The first showing of the “Living Artists Exhibition” (for painters and sculptors), organised by painter Theodor Aman, takes place in Ia#i. The annual organisation of such an exhibition is established by a decree issued in December 1864.
1865 Italy Reforms And Social Changes
The new-born Italian state approves a civil code that places women in a subordinate position in the family. Boys and girls can inherit equally, but married women need “marital authorisation” to manage their property. Male and female adultery are treated differently. The “defence of honour” is accepted as attenuating circumstance in murder cases.
1865 - 1867 Italy Reforms And Social Changes
The worst of the five cholera epidemics that hit Italy during the 19th century kills more than 160,000. The most affected towns are always Naples and Palermo.
1865 Egypt Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The royal yacht Mahroussa is built for Isma‘il Pasha, the Khedive of Egypt.
1865 Portugal Cities And Urban Spaces
1 May: Santa Apolónia Central Railway Station of Lisbon, connecting to the East and North Railways, is inaugurated. It is sited in the north bank of the Tagus River, close to Praça do Comércio in Lisbon. It is an example of 19th-century iron buildings. Date Country Theme
1865 Portugal Fine And Applied Arts
The stuccoes of the corridor of the Monserrate Palace are inspired by those of Alhambra Palace in Granada. The profusion of columns is considered to recall those in the Hypostyle Hall of the Cordova Mosque.
1865 Portugal International Exhibitions
“A Exposição Internacional”, in Porto, is the first international exhibition organised in Portugal. Designed by the English architect Thomas Dillen Jones, it follows the London model and was conceived to accommodate the Portuguese International Exhibition.
1865 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Bom-senso e Bom-gosto (Good Sense and Good Taste) by Antero de Quental (1842–91) is an open letter published as pamphlet, replying to and ridiculing the poetry of António Feliciano de Castilho (1800–75) and urging young writers to take a revolutionary position instead. This controversy became known as the "Questão Coimbrã” (the Coimbra Question).
1865 Turkey Political Context
Formation of Young Ottoman opposition against the bureaucratic domination of Ali Pa#a and Fuad Pa#a.
Circa 1865 - Circa 1900 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Naturalism, a literary movement that draws inspiration from descriptions of life, science and documentary observation, and which on occasion makes use of crude vocabulary to give it greater veracity, causes widespread offence. The movement was led by Émile Zola, with his Rougon-Macquart cycle.
1865 Lebanon Cities And Urban Spaces
Sultan ‘Abd al-‘Aziz orders the building of a hospital known as the military infirmary. It will later be turned into a courthouse after the French Mandate and then become the Insitute of Fine Arts of the Lebanese University.
1865 Turkey Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The first comprehensive physics textbook in Turkish, Mehmed Emin Dervi# Pa#a’s (1817–79) Usul-i Hikmet-i Tabiiyye (Elements of physics) is published in Istanbul.
1866 Romania Political Context
February: because of his authoritative regime, Cuza is forced to abdicate by a coalition of conservative and liberal-radical politicians.
1866 Romania Political Context
14–20 April: plebiscite leading to German Prince Carol de Hohenzollern- Sigmaringen being elected ruler of the United Principalities and recognised by the Date Country Theme Ottoman Empire in October. On 13 July a new constitution is adopted, based on the Belgian one from 1835.
1866 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Political Context
Qawasim lands are divided among the four sons of Sheikh Sultan bin Saqr following his death. The number of Trucial States rises from five to nine.
1866 Austria Migrations
Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen from south-western Germany is elected as Prince of Romania.
1866 Italy Economy And Trade
A law confiscates the properties of religious orders and congregations, and establishes a state fund to support the clergy and monks.
1866 Italy Political Context
Italy participates in the Austro-Prussian War on the side of Prussia and annexes Venice.
1866 Greece Fine And Applied Arts
Nikiphoros Lytras takes up a professorship at the School of the Arts in Athens.
1866 Greece Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The poet Kostis Palamas publishes his first collection of verse entitled the Songs of My Fatherland. A major figure on the Greek literary scene, Palamas writes the Olympic Anthem and is nominated for the Nobel Prize for Literature.
1866 Greece Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Emmanuel Roidis, one of Greece’s most influential authors, publishes his novel Pope Joan, which is translated into a number of languages.
1866 Egypt Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The first Egyptian stamps are issued on 1 January.
1866 - 1867 Egypt Reforms And Social Changes
In 1866 the School of Irrigation and Architecture is inaugurated at al-Za‘faran Saray in ‘Abbasiyya in Cairo; it then transfers to Mustafa Fadil Saray at Darb al-Jama‘iz in 1867. The School provides a study programme of five years: a preparatory year followed by a further four years; two years respectively specialising in irrigation and architecture.
1866 Spain Economy And Trade Date Country Theme
Financial crisis during the last years of Queen Isabel II's government because of public investments in the construction of the railway.
1866 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Werner von Siemens invents the dynamo.
1866 - 1905 Germany Economy And Trade
Henri Nestlé founds the company Nestlé, which becomes the world’s largest corporation for comestible goods.
1866 - 1871 Germany Economy And Trade
Formation of the North German Confederation in 1866/7 sees a federation of the 22 independent states of northern Germany, with nearly 30 million inhabitants. It was the first modern German nation-state and the basis for the later German Empire (1871–1918).
1866 Turkey Economy And Trade
#zmir-Ayd#n railway is built.
1866 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes
The Civil Medical School is opened.
1866 Austria Political Context
Following defeat at the Battle of Königgrätz (3 October), at the Peace of Vienna, Austria is forced to cede the Venetian province to Italy.
1867 Romania Political Context
The centre of present-day Transylvania is integrated into the Hungarian kingdom after the creation of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. Partium and Banat had already been included in Hungary.
1867 Romania Economy And Trade
4 May: proclamation of the law for the introduction of a new monetary system and for the issuing of national coins; 1870 is the year when the first Romanian coins are minted in Romania having previously been minted abroad.
1867 Romania International Exhibitions
At the International Exposition held in Paris, the United Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia have their own pavilions.
1867 Romania International Exhibitions Date Country Theme
On the occasion of the International Exposition of Paris a book with information about Romania’s agriculture, commerce, industry and resources is published in Paris by a commission coordinated by Alexandru Odobescu.
1867 Romania Rediscovering The Past
The Pietroasa Treasure is displayed at the International Exposition in Paris.
1867 France International Exhibitions
The exposition known as the Universal World Exhibition of Art and Industry – the seventh World Expo/Fair and the second held in Paris after that of 1855; it ran from 1 April to 3 November 1867 on the Champ-de-Mars in Paris; 41 countries were represented.
1867 Austria Fine And Applied Arts
The Austrian Museum of Applied Arts purchases the minbar from the Ibn Tulun Mosque in Cairo.
1867 Italy Economy And Trade
Law on the abolition of religious bodies: the real estate properties of 25,000 religious bodies are auctioned.
1867 Italy Reforms And Social Changes
Around 60 per cent of men and 80 per cent of women are unable to sign their marriage certificate because they are unable to write.
1867 Italy Political Context
Uprising in Rome demanding unification with Italy. At the same time, Garibaldi leads an expedition of volunteers that enters the Papal States and tries to seize Rome. Roman rebels are defeated and executed. Garibaldi is defeated by Papal troops backed by a French expeditionary corps (France protects the Papal States).
1867 Italy Travelling
The Società Geografica Italiana is founded. In 1869-70, it organises an exploratory expedition to East Africa, in 1875 to Tunisia and in 1876 to Ethiopia. Many other journeys to Africa, and also to Central Asia, South America and Papua follow. Such travels generally combined scientific purposes and political agendas.
1867 United Kingdom International Exhibitions
The Paris Exhibition is the major international exhibition of the century. In the aftermath of the Crimean War (1854–56), when France, Britain and Turkey ally against Russia, there is a boost of friendship with and interest in the Ottoman Empire. The Sultan visits the Paris Exhibition and then continues to London where he was made a Knight of the Garter.
1867 United Kingdom Political Context Date Country Theme
The 1850s and 1860s sees close political, commercial and cultural relations between the Ottoman Empire and Britain. The zenith of this relationship is the state visit of Ottoman Sultan ‘Abd al-‘Aziz to France and then Britain. The Prince of Wales then reciprocates with a visit to Constantinople, Damascus and Jerusalem in 1869.
1867 Austria Reforms And Social Changes
The Austrian-Hungarian compromise creates a dual-monarchy that has common ministries only for foreign affairs, defence and public finance.
1867 Egypt Travelling
Khedive Isma‘il Pasha visits Paris and then London, where he is received by Queen Victoria and welcomed by the Lord Mayor. He attends a British Royal Navy fleet review alongside the Ottoman Sultan.
1867 Spain Rediscovering The Past
Foundation of the Museo Arqueológico Nacional in Madrid following the European movement to create national museums holding the remains of a country's past in tandem with the development of archaeology as a discipline. The museum covers prehistory to modern times, and from its opening in 1871 Spanish Moorish objects are displayed in its Medieval galleries.
1867 Portugal Rediscovering The Past
Febo Moniz published by Joaquim Pedro de Oliveira Martins (1845–94). Subtitled "Romance Histórico Português do Século XVI", the action takes place in Lisbon in 1580. The protagonist is the prosecutor Febo Moniz, the sole representative of the state to protest against the acclamation of Philip II of Spain as King of Portugal.
1867 Portugal Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The opening of the Lisbon Astronomical Observatory, Portugal’s national observatory, which has legal responsibility for national timekeeping. It is located in the Tapada da Ajuda, a green area in the west of Lisbon.
1867 Portugal Economy And Trade
First phylloxera disease reaches the Portugal countryside. Porto wine and Portuguese wine production in general is reduced dramatically. This disease causes economic, financial and social distress and leads to the abandonment of vineyard farms. The loss of revenues and unemployment increases emigration, especially to Brazil.
1867 - 1880 Portugal Economy And Trade
Phylloxera Commission created by the government in order to protect vineyards from the disease. To combat the disease demands new methods of planting and production. New organisations of wine producers claim from central government the preservation of regional varieties as well as the definition and defence of Port and Douro wine “Denominação de Origem Controlada”. Date Country Theme
1867 Portugal International Exhibitions
At the “Exposition Universelle” in Paris, the Portugal Pavilion employs a neo- Manueline architectural style. The exoticism is a symbol of the Portuguese Empire built by the discoveries of the 15th and 16th centuries.
1867 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Birth of the poet António Nobre (1867–1900). Só, written during his exile in Paris (1892), is the only work published in his lifetime. The nostalgia of this work, a landmark of the symbolist movement, is tempered by a certain self- irony, alternating a symbolist refined vocabulary with a more colloquial one. He influenced the work of the main Portuguese modernists.
1867 Portugal Reforms And Social Changes
July: The first Portuguese major Civil Code is entrusted to António Luís Seabra (1798–1895), the first methodical code maker in Portugal. It is intended to meet the liberal need to regulate the juridical system as happened with French Napoleonic Code. One of its main concerns is the regulation of civil marriage. The Code will remain in force for nearly a century.
1867 Portugal Reforms And Social Changes
Foundling wheels for babies left anonymously to be cared for were used between the 15th and the 19th century. From 1867 they are gradually abolished and replaced by asylums for orphans, foundlings and abandoned older children. Organised childcare is promoted from 1870 through the foundation of childcare centres and public support for families.
1867 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Premiere of the opera Roméo et Juliet by Charles-François Gounod.
1867 - 1885 Germany Fine And Applied Arts
King Ludwig II of Bavaria sets in motion the building of his second palace, Linderhof (1869–85), the smallest of the large palaces he had built, and the only one he lived to see completed. The king’s penchant for the so called Moorish style can be seen in several elements, such as the Moorish Kiosk (1867) and the Moroccan House (1878). The King’s House on the Schachen (1869–72), built with a Turkish Hall by Georg von Dollmann, further attests to Ludwig’s admiration for the “Oriental” style.
1867 Turkey International Exhibitions
The Ottoman Empire participates in the International Exhibition in Paris. The Ottoman pavilions are designed in #stanbul by a self-taught French architect named Léon Parvillée in collaboration with the Italian architect Barborini. Sultan Abdülaziz travels to Paris at the invitation of Emperor Napoleon III to attend the opening of the World Exhibition.
1867 Turkey Travelling Date Country Theme
Sultan Abdülaziz makes state visits to European powers.
1867 Turkey Political Context
8 June: The Egyptian governor receives from the Sublime Porte the title of “khedive,” which provides him legislative independence.
1867 Austria Travelling
Sultan ‘Abd al-‘Aziz visits Vienna on 18 July.
1868 Romania Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
29 April: the Romanian Philharmonic Society is founded by conductor Eduard Wachmann with the aim of organising a permanent symphony orchestra. The inaugural concert takes place in the same year on 15 December.
1868 Lebanon Rediscovering The Past
Luigi Palma di Cesnola, the American Consul in Cyprus, gives a collection of Cyprian pottery to the Syrian Protestant College (now the American University) in Beirut. This event is the first step towards the foundation of the Archaeological Museum of the American University.
1868 Lebanon Travelling
Foundation of the Archaeological Museum of the American University of Beirut after Luigi Palma di Cesnola gives a collection of Cypriot pottery to the newly formed university.
1868 Austria Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The railway across the Brenner Pass (via the Alps) opens.
1868 Austria Migrations
Michael Latos is born in Croatia (Austrian Empire) in 1828. He later deserts the Austrian army and flees to the Ottoman Empire, where he makes a military career as Omar Pasha and becomes Minister of War in 1868.
1868 - 1883 Italy Migrations
Different circular letters by the Minister of Interior place obstacles on migration: migrants are supposed to have work contracts or to prove they have enough funding to repatriate. Such circular letters have only limited effect. Landowners put pressure on government to discourage migration.
1868 Italy Reforms And Social Changes
Gualberta Alaide Beccari (a feminist with republican ideas, much influenced by Mazzini) founds the periodical La donna, which campaigns for women’s rights. La donna’s main contributor is Anna Maria Mozzoni, who since 1865 had campaigned against “marital authorisation” and for women’s right to vote. Date Country Theme
1868 - 1874 Egypt Cities And Urban Spaces
Construction of the Abdeen Palace in Cairo begins in 1868 and inauguration takes place some six years later.
1868 - 1886 Egypt Reforms And Social Changes
A Law School is established during Isma‘il Pasha’s era in 1868. Known then as the School of Management and Languages, the two schools separate in 1882 and remain as such until July 1886. That year, it becomes the School of Law with two departments, primary and high.
1868 Spain Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The “Generation of ‘68” writers begin to publish after the 1868 revolution; the group is named by one of its members, Leopoldo Alas, known as Clarín. Their characteristics are middle-class consciousness and a realist style. Authors in this group include Pedro Antonio de Alarcón, José María Pereda, Benito Pérez Galdós and Emilia Pardo Bazán.
1868 Spain Political Context
Carlist wars, economic crisis (1866–68) and disgruntlement with Queen Isabel II and the government explode in the September revolution known as La Gloriosa. The revolution is followed by six years of democratic government under Amadeo I, from the Italian Saboya family, (1870–73) and then under the first Spanish Republic (1873–74), causing the 3rd Carlist war.
1868 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The birth of José Viana da Motta (d. 1948). Pianist, composer, conductor and pedagogue, he studied piano and composition in Berlin and performed in concerts around the world. He was professor of Piano at the Conservatory of Geneva and Director of the Conservatório Nacional de Lisboa, maintaining his concert career alongside teaching.
1868 - 1886 Germany Cities And Urban Spaces
Ludwig II (r. 1864–86) had several palaces built during his reign. The most famous among these are Neuschwanenstein (1868–92, still in construction when Ludwig died), Neues Schloss Herrenchiemsee (1878–86, built along the lines of Versailles, but never completed), and Linderhof (1869–85), the only palace the king lived to see completed.
1868 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
29 June: Nam#k Kemal and Ziya Pa#a publish oppositional weekly newspaper in London, where they had fled to.
1869 United Kingdom Rediscovering The Past
The opening of the Suez Canal sparks a second burst of British popular interest in ancient Egypt. Date Country Theme
1869 Romania Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Timi#oara is the first city in Romania to use horse-drawn trams for public transportation. In Bucharest they are introduced in 1871.
1869 Austria Cities And Urban Spaces
Opening of the new State Opera House in Vienna.
1869 Austria Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria attends the opening of the Suez Canal on 17 November.
1869 Austria Travelling
Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria visits Jerusalem.
After 1869 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Economy And Trade
Banyan (Hindu) merchants from British India increase their commercial, shipping and banking activities throughout the Trucial Coast, particularly within the pearling sector. Soon the Banyan becomes the main financiers, controlling all processes involving the preparation and pricing of pearls for export to Europe.
1869 Greece Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The railway line from the Thesion district in central Athens to the Port of Piraeus opens.
1869 - 1878 United Kingdom Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Under French direction the Suez Canal opens in 1869, improving the route to India. Britain then acquires a financial interest in the Canal in 1875. When in 1878 Cyprus becomes part of the British Empire, another fuelling station on the imperial route to India is achieved.
1869 United Kingdom Political Context
Built largely with French expertise and capital, the Suez Canal shortens the journey to India. The British government secures a major financial interest in the Canal in 1876, and its security becomes a major British interest for the following century.
1869 Egypt Cities And Urban Spaces
Khedive Isma‘il commissions a French company to construct the first bridge across the River Nile in Cairo, the Qasr al-Nil Bridge.
1869 Egypt Cities And Urban Spaces Date Country Theme
The Opera House is inaugurated in November 1869 with Verdi’s Opera Rigoletto. In attendance, seated in the Royal loge, are Khedive Isma‘il Pasha, Empress Eugénie and her husband Napoleon III, and François Joseph I of Austria.
1869 Egypt Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
With completion of the Suez Canal a number of dignitaries and high-profile personalities arrive in Egypt for the inauguration, including Empress Eugénie of France.
1869 Egypt Travelling
Khedive Isma‘il Pasha visits Britain.
1869 Romania Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Installation of the first public telephone line in Romania (in Bucharest between the Minister of Internal Affairs and the Central Post Office).
1870 - 1875 United Kingdom Rediscovering The Past
Academic interest and geopolitical concerns combine to stimulate the state-of- the-art mapping of Palestine. There is strong interest in the lands of the Bible. In addition, following the opening of the Suez Canal, threats to British routes to India loom from the north, first from Russia and then from the Ottoman Empire and Germany.
1870 France Cities And Urban Spaces
From 1870, the suburbs appear around major French cities such as Paris, Lyon, Bordeaux and Marseille.
1870 France Political Context
The Third Republic had a difficult start: the Treaty of Versailles with Prussia granting Alsace and Lorraine to the German Empire, and repression of the Commune. After a period known as the “Moral Order”, the Opportunist (1879–98) or Radical Republic (1898–1914) set up a large number of reforms in all areas, which include among others: a law on primary education (1881–2); a law on freedom of the press (1881); the restoration of the law on divorce (1884); a law allowing Trades Unions (1884); and a law on the separation of Church and State (1905).
1870 France Travelling
From 1870 onwards, as the peripheries around the big French cities like Paris, Lyon, Bordeaux and Marseille start growing, they develop into a real suburban belt around the city.
Around 1870 - Around 1920 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Economy And Trade
The period marks the peak of the pearling industry as the main export-commodity industry of the Gulf region. Date Country Theme
1870 Italy Cities And Urban Spaces
Renewal and urban modernisation of Rome starts with the opening of a long road linking Porta Pia (where the Italian army broke into the city in 1870) to the Quirinale Palace, residence of the King (formerly a papal palace). The headquarters of some ministries are located along this road.
1870 - 1912 Italy Political Context
In 1870, taking advantage of French defeat at the hands of Prussia, the Italian army captures Rome, which becomes the capital of Italy. The Pope considers Italian rule on Rome to be illegitimate and bans Catholics from participating in Italian political life. In the following decades the ban is progressively lifted to counter socialist growth.
1876 - 1899 Republic of Macedonia Migrations (FYROM)
Extensive emigration of intellectuals from Macedonia to neighbouring countries and Russia. With unfavourable conditions at home for science and research, many Macedonian students stay in the country where they studied to contribute to the development of science, culture and arts. They often organised societies such as the Sofia Circle of Macedonian Students run by Petar Pop-Arsov (1872–1941), which began issuing Loza newspaper in 1882.
1870 Lebanon Political Context
Ottomans appoint Rustam Pasha as mutasarrif (governor). He is an equally firm and economical administrator.
1870 Portugal Reforms And Social Changes
Publication of Joao de Deus’s Cartilha Maternal, a beginner’s reading book that was to be in use for a long time. João de Deus was a follower of Maria Montessori’s pedagogical theories and founded in Portugal the “Escola Nova” movement.
1870s - 1900s France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The corset introduces the fashion for a more slender figure.
1870 France Political Context
The Franco-Prussian War: France's defeat to Prussia results in the abdication of Napoleon III. Proclamation of the Third Republic.
1870 Germany Economy And Trade
The Deutsche Bank is founded by Georg von Siemens.
1870 - 1913 Germany Economy And Trade
The rail network transforms German industry, and merchant shipping multiplies. Date Country Theme
Since 1870 Germany Migrations
The so-called Ruhrpolen migrate to the Ruhr, where many work in coal mining.
1870 Turkey Cities And Urban Spaces
Fire in Beyo#lu (#stanbul) destroys about 3,000 houses; 80 people are killed. After that incident using brick and stone to build houses becomes obligatory.
1870 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Ahmed Mithat Efendi (1844–1912), who introduced the novel from the Ottoman community begins to publish Letaif-I Rivayat (Finest Stories), which includes long stories and novellas.
1871 Romania Rediscovering The Past
Alexandru Odobescu sends an archaeological questionnaire to teachers all over the country, who have to return information about archaeological discoveries or vestiges of antique monuments existing in the areas where they live or work.
1871 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Fréjus Rail Tunnel under Alps, between Italy and France, inaugurated (12.8 km long).
1871 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
24 December: first world performance of the new opera by Verdi, Aida, set in ancient Egypt, at the Khedivial Opera House in Cairo.
1871 Greece Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Nikolaos Politis publishes the first volume of his pioneering work on Greek folklore, Study of the Life of Modern Greeks: Modern Greek Mythology.
1871 - 1877 Egypt Cities And Urban Spaces
Jezira Bridge is constructed in 1871 and opens to traffic in 1877. The intention is to link the districts of Dokki and Bulaq al-Dakrur with Zamalek. Construction requires redirection of the Nile bed.
1871 Egypt Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Giuseppe Verdi’s Egyptian-themed Aida premiers in Cairo on 24 December.
1871 - 1896 Spain Cities And Urban Spaces
By the end of the 19th century tram lines have increased in cities. Madrid has horse-drawn trams from 1871 and Barcelona from 1872 but the first city with an electric tram is Bilbao in 1896, followed by Cartagena. Date Country Theme
1871 Spain Rediscovering The Past
Voyage of the frigate Arapiles to the Near East. The ship was commissioned by the Spanish government to travel to the Near East with Spanish archaeologists and curators to document ancient monuments and buy antiquities. It sailed from Naples to Greece, Istanbul, Rhodes, Cyprus, Lebanon and Egypt and brought back drawings, notes and artworks to be kept in the Museo Arqueológico Nacional of Madrid.
1871 France Political Context
When the people of Paris refuse to accept defeat and take up arms the Versailles- based government resist and harshly repress the "Commune".
1871 Germany Political Context
The German Empire, a union of sovereign states and free cities, is established under Prussian leadership.
1871 Germany Cities And Urban Spaces
Berlin becomes the imperial capital.
1871 - 1910 Germany Cities And Urban Spaces
The second Industrial Revolution sees massive immigration; the population rises from 41 to 65 million, and from only eight cities with no more than 100,000 inhabitants, more than 48 cities are formed.
1871 - 1914 Germany Cities And Urban Spaces
The process of urbanisation begins: in 1907 Berlin had more than 2 million citizens of which around 40% are locals, 20% German immigrants and 40% foreign immigrants.
From 1871 Germany Economy And Trade
The capital market is enlivened by France’s payment of 5 million French francs, paid to Germany as compensation following the war between the two countries (1870–1).
From 1871 - 1914 Germany Economy And Trade
Germany’s industrial production is now six times what it had been.
1871 Turkey Economy And Trade
Ottoman railway policy is formulated by the decree of Sultan Abdülaziz to establish a main line between #stanbul and Baghdad, with secondary lines to the Black Sea and Mediterranean coasts.
1871 Turkey Rediscovering The Past Date Country Theme
German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann (1822–90) begins excavations in Troy.
1872 - 1874 Tunisia Cities And Urban Spaces
The city of Tunis benefits from the first installation of public street lighting. An English company builds a gasometer and installs the pipelines necessary to supply gas for street lighting of the city’s main arteries.
1872 Austria Economy And Trade
Foundation of the Austrian Agricultural University in Vienna.
1872 - 1891 Austria International Exhibitions
The Kunsthistorisches Museum (Museum of Fine Arts) in Vienna is built.
1872 United Kingdom Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The Italian composer Verdi is commissioned by the Egyptian Khedive to compose the opera Aida for celebrations to mark the opening of the Suez Canal. Later Verdi is also commissioned to compose the Egyptian National Anthem.
1872 - 1874 Portugal Fine And Applied Arts
O Desterrado (The Outcast), a sculpture by António Soares dos Reis (1847–89) is an idealised self-portrait. It conveys the collective feelings of his contemporary intellectuals and the feelings of loneliness and longing common to those who had left their homeland. The sculptor’s romantic sensibility enabled him to shape feelings and psychological tensions in the marble.
1872 France Fine And Applied Arts
Impression, Sunrise by the Impressionist painter Claude Monet.
1872 - 1879 Germany Reforms And Social Changes
As a consequence of the Kulturkampf the influence of the Catholic Church is limited in Germany.
1873 - 1877 Tunisia Economy And Trade
Khayr al-Din undertakes reform of the Tunisian economy.
1873 - 1877 Tunisia Political Context
The regency of Khayr al-Din, the Grand Vizier reformer, who reorganises institutions and the economy. His major cultural works are the creation of Sadiki College and major reform of the Zaytuna Mosque.
1873 Romania International Exhibitions Date Country Theme
Two Romanians are members of the international jury of the Vienna International Exposition: agronomist and economist P.S. Aurelian and doctor Carol Davila.
1873 Romania Travelling
The first tourism organisation from Romania, called the Alpine Association of Transylvania, is founded in Bra#ov.
1873 Austria Cities And Urban Spaces
Construction of a new water-supply pipeline from the Alps to Vienna.
1873 Austria International Exhibitions
Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria opens the Weltausstellung, Vienna’s World Trade Fair.
1873 Austria International Exhibitions
A copy of the decoration from the Tomb of Khnumhotep is exhibited in the Egyptian Pavilion of the World Trade Fair.
1873 Austria International Exhibitions
At the World Trade Fair in Vienna, the Austrian Museum of Applied Art purchases a pair of jugs from Tunisia for the museum.
1873 Austria Rediscovering The Past
The Austrian archaeologist Alexander Conze organizes excavations in Samothrace.
1873 Greece Economy And Trade
Foundation of the Greek Stock Market.
1873 - 1894 Morocco Political Context
Reign of Mulay al-Hasan I: Mulay al-Hasan I maintains the political independence of the country. He attempted to adapt the country to its new circumstances and employed a policy of reforms, affecting all areas of political and economic life, to improve the management of public affairs.
1873 Spain Economy And Trade
Development of the Minas de Riotinto (Huelva, Andalucía). Bought by a British company, the mines bring important economic progress to this region. The dangerous chemicals used in metal extraction spark the first environmental protest by mine workers. (The first fooball match took place in this mine, thanks to the British engineers.) Date Country Theme
1873 Republic of Macedonia Great Inventions Of The 19th Century (FYROM)
The first railway in Macedonia runs from Thessalonica via Skopje to Belgrade. Its construction, financed with foreign investments, began in 1871 and the track to Skopje is finished in 1873. The Skopje–Mitrovica line is completed in 1878. In 1888 it is connected to Serbian railways at the border crossing Zibevche near Vranje.
1873 Republic of Macedonia Great Inventions Of The 19th Century (FYROM)
Construction of the first railway station in Macedonia in Skopje.
1873 Portugal Reforms And Social Changes
A primary school building to be built in wood attracts the attention of visitors to the Portuguese stand at the “Weltausstellung” (world exposition) in Vienna.
1873 Germany Rediscovering The Past
The development of Classical Archaeology is strongly influenced by Heinrich Schliemann in the second half of the 18th century when for example he finds the “Gold of Troy”.
1873 Germany Economy And Trade
The Krupp Corporation is the largest industrial concern in Europe.
1873 - 1880 Germany Economy And Trade
The economic crash known as the Gründerkrise sees companies and banks shut down and a rise in unemployment and social dissatisfaction.
1873 - 1878 Germany International Exhibitions
The Moorish Kiosk, built for the World Exhibition in Paris in 1878, was subsequently bought for Linderhof Palace Park by Ludwig II. The Moroccan House, which was actually built in Morocco for the International Exhibition in Vienna in 1873 and acquired by a private individual after the king’s death, was bought by the German state in 1980 and reconstructed in the Palace Park in 1998.
1873 Germany Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Levi Strauss, a German citizen in exile in America, requests the patent for blue Jeans.
1873 Lebanon Economy And Trade
Beirut Water Works factory is founded, providing water for daily use by the Lebanese people, taking water from Nahr al-Kalb and distributing it through an extensive water network.
1873 Turkey Fine And Applied Arts Date Country Theme
First art exhibition in #stanbul, organised by #eker Ahmed Pa#a.
1873 Turkey International Exhibitions
Ottoman participates in Vienna World Exhibition with a faithful full-scale replica of the Sultan Ahmed Fountain near Hagia Sophia in #stanbul. Ottoman artisans crafted the details of the façade panels, and the most of the materials were brought from Turkey.
1873 Turkey Rediscovering The Past
Heinrich Schliemann finds what he calls “Priam’s Treasure” in Troy.
1873 Turkey Political Context
1 April: Nam#k Kemal’s play Vatan Yahud Silistre arouses patriotic sentiments in #stanbul.
1874 Romania Rediscovering The Past
18 April: decree for the founding of the Commission of Public Monuments to record the public monuments on Romanian territory and to ensure their conservation.
1874 Romania Reforms And Social Changes
Issue of the first sanitation law in the United Principalities. The sanitation system is organised hierarchically and a Superior Medical Council, with a consultative role, is created.
1874 Austria Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Joseph Strauss composes the opera Die Fledermaus.
1874 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The first Emirati historian Abdullah Saleh al-Mutawa’ is born in Sharjah.
1874 Austria Fine And Applied Arts
Kasper von Zumbusch (1830–1915) begins work on a monument to Empress Maria Theresia, situated on Maria-Theresien-Platz at the Ringstrasse in Vienna.
1874 Egypt Migrations
Khedive Isma‘il attempts to reduce slave trading and extends Egypt’s rule in Africa. Managing to annex Darfur in 1874, he is prevented from further expansion into Ethiopia when his army is defeated by the Emperor Yohannes IV.
1874 - 1885 Spain Political Context Date Country Theme
Restoration of the monarchy. A military uprising under General Martínez Campos in Sagunto against the Republic returns the throne to the Bourbon Dynasty, with Alfonso XII (son of Isabel II) as King.
1874 Republic of Macedonia Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion (FYROM)
Beginnings of the Macedonian amateur theatre in Veles initiated by educator and playwright Jordan Hadzi Konstantinov-Dzinot (1821–82). Professional theatres open in the late 19th century. Vojadan Chernodrinski (1875–1951) is considered one of the founders of the Macedonian theatre. The premiere for his best-known play, the tragedy Macedonian Bloody Wedding was held in Sofia, Bulgaria, on 7 November 1900.
1874 - 1890 Germany Reforms And Social Changes
“Medicine is a social science, and politics is nothing more than medicine on a large scale”, Rudolf Virchow stated in defence of public health and the building of hospitals in Berlin (i.e. Friedrichshain (1874), Moabit (1875, now closed) and Am Urban (1890); even parks and playgrounds were important to improve city life for the proletariat, Virchow continued.
1874 Turkey Cities And Urban Spaces
Construction of the residential blocks of Akaretler (Istanbul) by the architect Agob Balian. They are built for the elite staff of the nearby Dolmabahçe Palace.
1875 Tunisia Rediscovering The Past
The Saint Louis Museum in Carthage is founded in the former seminary of the White Fathers.
1875 Tunisia Reforms And Social Changes
The creation of Sadiki College based on a modern concept of education: the school separates from the mosque and a distinction is made between educational structures and those of the religious life.
1875 - 1893 Romania Political Context
Creation of the first Romanian political parties: the Liberal Party (1875), the Conservative Party (1880), the Radical-Democratic Party (1888), and the Social- Democratic Party of Romanian Labourers (1893).
1875 France Rediscovering The Past
Creation of the French School of Rome (excavations at Pompeii and Herculaneum).
1875 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Gray, Paul and Co, a British Company, establishes a shipping office in Lingah, a city within Qawasim territory, located on the Persian littoral of the Arabian Gulf. The port first served for mail delivery and as a transshipment centre for traffic to Date Country Theme and from Bahrain and the Trucial Coast. Later until 1902 all pearls from the Trucial Coast were exported to British India via this port.
1875 Lebanon Reforms And Social Changes
Maronite clergy move their school from Ghazir to Beirut. Granted the title of university by the authorities, which allows it to grant academic degrees, mainly doctoral degrees in philosophy and theology, the school takes the name of Saint Joseph’s University. Faculties and institutes are founded in subsequent years including, in 1883, a Faculty of Medicine.
1875 Austria Reforms And Social Changes
Edmund Count Széchényi establishes Turkey’s first fire brigade in Istanbul.
1875 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Economy And Trade
Gray, Paul and Co, a British Company, establishes a shipping office in Lingah, a city within Qawasim territory, located on the Persian littoral of the Arabian Gulf. The port first served for mail delivery and as a transshipment centre for traffic to and from Bahrain and the Trucial Coast. Later until 1902 all pearls from the Trucial Coast were exported to British India via this port.
1875 - 1887 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Economy And Trade
Lingah, on the Persian littoral of the Gulf, serves as a conduit for the Trucial Coast’s imports from British India, including cloth, coffee, flour and rice. It is governed as a free port under Qawasim administration.
Late 19th century Greece Cities And Urban Spaces
Mavrokordatos Mansion is built in the Kipseli neighbourhood in Athens for the well- known political family of that name.
Late 19th century Greece Cities And Urban Spaces
Construction of the Greek Orthodox Church of Evangelismos in Br#ila, Romania.
1875 Greece Rediscovering The Past
Excavations begin at Olympia under the German archaeologist Ernst Curtius; they continue under German leadership until World War II.
Late 19th century Greece Rediscovering The Past
The “early conservator” Panagiotis Kaloudis works on the restoration of the Chaironia Lion.
1875 Austria Migrations
Gustav Mahler (1860–1911) is born in Kališt# in Bohemia; he emigrates from there to Vienna in 1875. Date Country Theme
1875 - 1878 Serbia Political Context
During the 1875 Bosnia-Herzegovina rebellion against Ottoman authority, the principalities of Serbia and Montenegro provide the insurgents with moral, material and military support, which leads to the first Serbo-Turkish War in 1876. Having been a long time in preparation, the rebellion is widespread and raises questions not only about Serbia but also about the East, thus becoming an event of European importance. Its outcome is the convocation of the Berlin Congress (1878), at which both Serbia and Montenegro gain independence, and Austria- Hungary takes over Bosnia-Herzegovina.
1875 - 1876 Egypt Economy And Trade
In December 1875 Stephen Cave and John Stokes are sent by the British Government to inquire into the finances of Egypt. Their report, published in April 1876, advises that in view of the perceived “waste and extravagance” it is necessary for foreign powers to interfere to restore credit.
1875 Egypt Migrations
The Egyptian Geographic Society is established by a decree of Khedive Isma‘il Pasha on 19 May 1875. Its first president is the German botanist, traveller and ethnologist Georg August Schweinfurth.
1875 Republic of Macedonia Migrations (FYROM)
The Dictionary of Three Languages by Gjorgji Pulevski (d. 1893) is published in Belgrade. It shows the political context and coexistence of Macedonians, Albanians and Turks in the territory of Macedonia. It gives words in Macedonian, Albanian and Turkish in three columns. Pulevski was also the author of the Dictionary of Four Languages.
1875 - 1876 Portugal Economy And Trade
In 1875 the French government convenes the Diplomatic Conference of the Metre that proclaims the Metre Convention. Portugal receives the tenth copies of the metric and kilogram standards.
1875 Portugal Travelling
Aware that Portuguese empirical knowledge of Central Africa was being overtaken by other countries, the “Sociedade de Geografia de Lisboa” is founded to "promote and assist the study and progress of geography and related sciences in Portugal". To raise awareness of the colonial Portuguese possessions in Africa and Asia was also a goal.
1875 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Opening of the Palais Garnier.
1875 Lebanon Cities And Urban Spaces Date Country Theme
Maronite clergy move their school from Ghazir to Beirut. Granted the title of university by the authorities, which allows it to grant academic degrees, mainly doctoral degrees in philosophy and theology, the school takes the name of Saint Joseph’s University. Faculties and institutes are founded in subsequent years.
1875 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Publication of the novel Taa##uk-u Talat ve Fitnat (The Romance of Talat and Fitnat) by #emseddin Sami (1850–1904). This book is considered to be the starting point of the Ottoman novel.
1876 Romania Fine And Applied Arts
19 February: birth of the great Romanian sculptor Constantin Brâncu#i, author of sculptures such as Mademoiselle Pogany, The Kiss, Bird in Space, and The Endless Column. His works are today exhibited in museums in France, the USA and Romania.
1876 Romania Reforms And Social Changes
Foundation of the Romanian Red Cross.
1876 Italy Rediscovering The Past
In Rome, Luigi Pigorini founds the National Prehistoric Ethnographic Museum, enriching with new acquisitions the ethnographic and prehistoric collection previously belonging to the Kircher Museum, founded in the 17th century.
1876 Spain Reforms And Social Changes
Following the curtailment of academic freedom in the university, a group of professors expelled from Madrid University introduces in Spain a new education system under the Institución Libre de Enseñanza (Free Institution for Education), a secular private project that would modernise all levels of the education system between 1876 and 1936. This initiative was to have an important impact on some of the most important Spanish intellectuals.
1876 United Kingdom Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
In 1870, after attending universities in Edinburgh and London, Scottish-born Alexander Graham Bell (1847–1922) immigrates to Canada before becoming professor of vocal physiology at Boston. There, in pursuit of a device to help the deaf, Bell invented the telephone, which he patented in February 1876 only days ahead of other rivals. It was not until 10 March 1876 that the famous words “Mr Watson, come here; I want you” were transmitted by telephone. He formed the Bell Telephone Company in 1877.
1876 Portugal Political Context
Partido Histórico and Partido Reformista merge into the Partido Progressista in September. Power alternation with the Partido Regenerador framed rotativism. They were able to carry out some urgent reforms but in the end the system soon degenerated into political conformism. Date Country Theme
1876 - 1881 Portugal Cities And Urban Spaces
The "Urban General Improvements Plan for Lisbon" (Commission of 1876–81) designs wide, straight roads – modern boulevards – to define orthogonal blocks for buildings, with roundabouts, pavements, vegetation and street furniture namely at Avenida 24 de Julho, Avenida da Liberdade and covering the area from Picoas to Campo Grande.
1876 Portugal International Exhibitions
“Centennial International Exhibition” Philadelphia, USA. Support for visitors and accommodation of the Portuguese Commissariat were the main purposes of a stylish and exotic Portugal Pavilion.
1876 - 1909 Turkey Political Context
Reign of Sultan Abdülhamid II.
1876 France Fine And Applied Arts
Dance at Le moulin de la Galette by the Impressionist painter Pierre-Auguste Renoir.
1876 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Robert Koch discovers bacteriology.
1876 Lebanon Cities And Urban Spaces
By 1876 Beirut has increased 10–12 times its size in 1841. Eleven districts are added and Danish acting Consul Julius Loyvted draws the new map and presents it to Sultan ‘Abd al-Hamid II. Banks, quarantine office, quays, railway office, telegraph, post office, police stations and offices for foreign agencies are all established in the existing city centre.
1876 Turkey Cities And Urban Spaces
The construction of Dolmabahçe Mosque by Agob Balian.
1876 Turkey Political Context
23 December: Promulgation of the first Ottoman constitution.
1877 - 1881 Romania Political Context
After Parliament declares Romania’s independence (May 1877), Romania participates alongside Russia in the Russian-Ottoman war. The Congress of Berlin (1878) recognises the independence of Romania, which receives the greater part of Dobruja, but cedes the south of Bessarabia to Russia. In March 1881 Romania is proclaimed a kingdom. Prince Carol and his wife Elizabeth are crowned as King and Queen of Romania in May in Bucharest.
1877 - 1882 Romania Fine And Applied Arts Date Country Theme
Ion Georgescu, considered to be the first Romanian modern sculptor, studies in Paris, where he exhibits his first works.
1877 Austria Fine And Applied Arts
The Austrian glass manufacture Lobmayr produces glass cups in the Oriental Style.
1877 Italy Reforms And Social Changes
The “Coppino Law” makes elementary schools mandatory and free of charge.
1877 Austria Fine And Applied Arts
The Viennese Stock Market is completed to a design by Theophil Hansen.
1877 Austria Migrations
Karl Krauss (1874–1936) is born in Ji#ín in Bohemia; he emigrates from Bohemia to Vienna in 1877, where his famous journal Die Fackel (The Torch) is published in 1898.
1877 Egypt Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Yaqub Sanu‘ founds the satirical magazine Abu Naddara early in this year. It has immediate and wide appeal to both the literate and the illiterate, who find someone to read it to them.
1877 Portugal Cities And Urban Spaces
Ponte Dona Maria Pia, a bridge over the Douro River, completes the Lisbon–Porto railway line. Designed by Gustave Eiffel and Théophile Seyrig, the bridge keeps the beauty of the Douro unchanged. It was built where the banks are closer. It was named after the Queen.
1877 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Birth of Teixeira de Pascoaes (d. 1952). This poet was the main representative of the aesthetic and doctrinal movement called “saudosismo”, a form of existentialism, and a leader of the movement Renascença Portuguesa. In 1910 he launched in Porto the magazine A Águia, the main resource of the “saudosismo” movement .
1877 Portugal Travelling
Hermenegildo Capelo, Roberto Ivens and Serpa Pinto appointed to organise an expedition to southern Africa. After a briefing by Silva Porto in Bié, they chose separate itineraries. Capelo and Ivens focus on the Kwanza and Kuangu rivers and on the Yaka people. Serpa Pinto picks the Zambezi River and eventually reaches the Transvaal.
1877 - 1878 Turkey Migrations Date Country Theme
Mass Balkan migration. After the Russo-Turkish War (called the ’93 War by Turks) between 1 and 1.5 million people are driven from the Balkans to the Ottoman heartlands.
1877 Turkey Rediscovering The Past
German archaeologist Carl Humann (1839–96) begins excavating Pergamon. He would later conduct excavations in Zincirli (1888) and Magnesia (1892).
1877 Turkey Political Context
19 March: Opening of the parliament.
1878 - 1921 Jordan Cities And Urban Spaces
Centrally positioned in the northern part of Jordan at the edge of the cultivated lands and the desert, thus having access to both ecological zones and demographies, Amman is the perfect choice for the capital of the Emirate of Transjordan. It develops rapidly from small village to relatively big town within a few decades. Being one of the important stations on the Hijaz Railway adds to its geopolitical and economic significance.
1878 - 1906 Jordan Migrations
Circassian and Chechen refugees settled by the Ottomans help to create new agricultural villages in Transjordan. Two waves of immigrants reach Jordan between 1878 and 1906. The first wave (1878–84) settles in Amman, Wadi al-Sir and Jerash, and the second wave (1901–06) in Na’ur, al-Zarqa, Sukhna, Rusayfa and Suwaylih. A Turkmen community founds a village at al-Rumman in the area of Jerash. Christian families from al-Salt establish new villages in al-Fuhays and Rumaymin while Christian settlers from Karak settle in Madaba. Palestinian and Damascene merchants to settle in al-Salt, Karak, Ajlun and, later, Amman.
1878 - 1881 Greece Cities And Urban Spaces
The Iliou Melathron is designed by architect Ernst Ziller as the residence of the archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann and his family.
1878 United Kingdom Political Context
Uprisings in the Balkan Ottoman territories lead to disproportionate reprisals. Popular protests in Britain oppose support for the Ottoman Empire. In contrast to the Crimean War, Britain provides no military aid to the Ottomans in their war with Russia. Diplomatic support is rewarded however, with Britain’s occupation of Cyprus confirmed at the Congress of Berlin.
1878 Portugal Cities And Urban Spaces
Opening of Lisbon Botanical Garden. During the 19th century Portugal aspires to reach the level of economic and social “progress” of other European countries in, for example, education and teaching. Natural History Museum and the Lisbon Botanical Garden were important institutions for scientific research and the exchange and circulation of ideas and natural knowledge. Date Country Theme
1878 Portugal Cities And Urban Spaces
28 September: The first electric lighting on the terrace of the Citadel of Cascais to celebrate the 15th birthday of future King Carlos I (ruling from 1889). A ball commemorates the electric lighting premiere. The daily press celebrate the occasion, saying that the electric light turned the entrance and the royal residence balconies into “a clear and luminous day’’.
1878 Portugal International Exhibitions
At the Paris “Exposition Universelle”, the Portuguese Pavilion sets up a sophisticated, emblematic scenario, portraying the monasteries of Batalha and Jerónimos, two of the magnificent symbols of the 15th and 16th Portuguese Discoveries.
1878 - 1890 Germany Reforms And Social Changes
The anti-Socialist laws known as Sozialistengesetz prohibit socialist organisations, meetings and publications.
1878 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes
The Law School is opened.
1878 Turkey Political Context
3 March: Russo-Turco Treaty of St Stefano defines Bulgaria, which includes present-day Bulgaria, present-day Macedonia and northern Greece.
1878 Turkey Political Context
13 March: Abdülhamid II dissolves parliament.
1878 Austria Political Context
In June the signatories at the Congress of Berlin grant Austria the right to occupy and fully administer Bosnia and Herzegovina for an undetermined period.
1879 Romania Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
18–20 January: the National Theatre of Bucharest premieres the comedy A Stormy Night by Ion Luca Caragiale, the greatest Romanian playwright. It is Caragiale’s first staged play and is a great public success.
1879 France Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Creation of the telephone network in France.
1879 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Economy And Trade
A British-enforced Treaty is signed to ensure the mutual surrender of fraudulently absconding debtors in the pearling industry. It is signed by the Trucial Sheikhs in the presence of Haji Abdul Rahman, the Residency Agent at Sharjah, and Haji Date Country Theme Abdul al-Qasimi, the Residency Munshi who had been deputed from Bushire to convey the directives of the British Resident.
1879 Austria Fine And Applied Arts
Hans Makart (1840–84) designs the “Makart Parade” to celebrate the Silver wedding anniversary of the Imperial couple, Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria and Empress Elisabeth (“Sisi”).
1879 - 1882 Egypt Political Context
The ’Urabi Revolution, led by Colonel Ahmed ’Urabi, erupts in February 1879 and continues until 1882. It is the first revolution of the modern age in Egypt.
1879 Spain Rediscovering The Past
Marcelino Sanz de Sautuola and his daughter discover the cave paintings of Altamira. De Sautuola and Juan Vilanova y Piera in an 1880 publication identify them as Palaeolithic, meeting scepticism and ridicule until the discovery of similar paintings elsewhere results in recognition of their findings in 1902. Famous for drawings and polychrome paintings of animals and human hands the cave is now a national museum and World Heritage site.
1879 - 1888 Spain Reforms And Social Changes
Pablo Iglesias founds the Partido Socialista Obrero Español (PSOE – Spanish Socialist Party) in 1879; under his leadership the socialists institute the Unión General de Trabajadores (UGT – General Workers' Union) in 1888, with liberals in power. At the same time the anarchist movement creates associations that later will become trade unions.
1879 Portugal Reforms And Social Changes
11 October: The labour association Voz do Operário is founded in Lisbon by Custódio Gomes and Custódio Braz Pacheco, two factory workers in the tobacco industry, to defend the rights of the workers more disrespected and threatened than ever by the tobacco industry crisis of 1879.
1879 Germany Economy And Trade
The German Empire moves from a free-trade system to protective duty.
1879 Germany International Exhibitions
The Great Industrial Exposition is held at the Lehrter Bahnhof in Berlin, where one of main attractions is the first electric locomotive from Siemens & Halske.
1879 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes
4 May: Judicial reform extends the administrative authority of Ministry of Justice over mixed courts.
1880 - 1890 Tunisia Fine And Applied Arts Date Country Theme
It was the era of eclecticism. The French Protectorate builds the regency’s infrastructure in the European classical tradition, constructing monuments in the impressive Greco-Roman style.
1880 - 1914 Tunisia Migrations
Italian and French farmers settle in agricultural areas of the Regency of Tunis.
1880 Romania Economy And Trade
29 April: promulgation of the law for the founding of the National Bank of Romania.
1880 Romania Rediscovering The Past
Grigore Tocilescu’s book Dacia before the Romans is awarded the grand prize of the Academic Society, for the best work on the history of Dacia before the Roman conquest.
1880 - 1920 France Economy And Trade
The industrial boom is fuelled by technological innovations (i.e. electricity, cinema, the car and aeroplane). Advances in metallurgy results in construction of the Eiffel Tower in 1889.
1880 France Rediscovering The Past
Excavations of French Egyptologist Gaston Maspero (1846–1916) in Egypt.
1880 Lebanon Migrations
A small number of Lebanese people emigrate to the USA, the first of a wave of migration abroad.
1880 - 1887 Italy Economy And Trade
Italy is hit by the international agricultural crisis and annual per capita income decreases.
1880 - 1887 Italy Migrations
As a consequence of agricultural crisis, mass migration starts.
1880 - 1889 Italy Migrations
Average annual Italian migration (temporary and permanent, to nearest 1,000): France 37,000; USA 24,000; Argentina 39,000; Brazil 22,000.
1880 Italy Reforms And Social Changes
Anna Maria Mozzoni and Paolina Schiff (an academic) found the League for the Promotion of Women’s Interests, the first feminist organisation in Italy. Date Country Theme
1880s - 1910s Italy Travelling
The growth of a European middle class and the improvement of transportation make tourism possible for increasing numbers of European citizens. According to very tentative estimates, 450,000 foreign tourists visited Italy in 1897 and 900,000 in 1911.
1880 - 1893 Greece Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The Corinth Canal opens.
1880 - 1920 Greece Migrations
Approximately 400,000 Greeks migrate to America due to widespread unemployment and economic problems.
1880s United Kingdom Migrations
European Zionism initiates a small migration, mostly from Russia – especially after the pogroms – to Palestine. Among the Jewish community in Palestine are ancestors of Jewish migrants from the 15th and 16th centuries who fled the Iberian Peninsula after their expulsion by Ferdinand and Isabella.
1880 Morocco Political Context
The intention of the 1880 Madrid Conference, reflected in the agreements signed by Morocco under the reign of Mulay al-Hasan I and the countries of Europe, is to enhance the benefits of reform in Morocco and to provide a legal and regulatory framework for Mulay al-Hasan I. Following these agreements, the European countries won the right to own land and assets throughout Morocco. The agreements were the result of globalisation of Moroccan business.
1880 - 1910 Spain Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The emergence of musical nationalism. Various musicians and composers, such as Isaac Albéniz, Enrique Granados and Manuel de Falla, develop musical styles identified with Spanish traditions and folklore, including flamenco.
1880s onwards Spain Travelling
Travelling to North Africa, Egypt or the Turkish Empire becomes part of the leisure travels of wealthy families of Spain.
1880 Portugal Rediscovering The Past
Celebration of the third centenary of the death of Luís de Camões. His poetry is considered the epitome of Portuguese literature both for The Lusiads, the epic national poem in which Vasco da Gama tells the history of Portugal to the Samorim (king) of Calcutta upon his arrival in India in 1498, and for his love sonnets.
1880 Portugal Rediscovering The Past Date Country Theme
The 11th International Congress of Anthropology and Prehistoric Archaeology is held in Lisbon. This important conference gives international recognition to the dynamism that Portuguese archaeology has demonstrated since 1850.
1880 Portugal Rediscovering The Past
The remains of the poet Luís de Camões and the explorer Vasco da Gama are moved to the Jerónimos Monastery. Vasco da Gama and Luís de Camões (north and south side respectively), the two main representatives of the 16th-century The Lusiads epic poem, are honored and rest beside members of the Avis dynasty buried in Jerónimos.
1880 Portugal Cities And Urban Spaces
3 October: Barbadinhos steam pumping station is inaugurated. The water from the Alviela Canal starts to be pumped thus increasing the water supply to Lisbon.
1880 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Publication of the novella O Mandarim (The Mandarin) by Eça de Queirós (Queiroz) (1845–1900).
1880 - 1900 France Fine And Applied Arts
Trends in painting in this period include: "Post-Impressionism" (i.e. Cézanne, Gauguin, Toulouse-Lautrec, van Gogh); Pointillism (i.e. Seurat, Signac); Symbolism (i.e. Moreau, Puvis de Chavannes, Redon); Les Nabis (i.e. Bonnard, Denis, Sérusier, Vuillard) and Primitivism (i.e. Matisse, Rousseau).
Late 19th century - Early 20th France Fine And Applied Arts century
Art Nouveau, a movement of the so-called Belle Époque, favours curves and decoration inspired by plant forms, and media such as stained glass. Art Deco, which followed in the so called Golden Twenties, affected architecture and the arts and crafts in particular on account of its preponderance for symmetry.
1880 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The Soirées de Médan, a collection of short stories by Guy de Maupassant, Émile Zola, etc., is considered to be the Naturalist manifesto.
1880 - 1900 Germany Fine And Applied Arts
The painting by Franz von Stuck, Die Sünde (1893), exemplifies the period in art known as Post-Imperialism and Symbolism.
1880 - 1914 Germany Migrations
More than 5 million migrants from Russia and the Habsburg Empire journey through Germany on their way to America.
Since 1880 Germany Migrations Date Country Theme
Foreign workers (especially from Austria-Hungary, Russia and Poland) arrive in the German Empire in increasing numbers to work in seasonal agriculture.
From 1880 Germany Migrations
As the process of Industrialisation in the so-called Ruhrgebiet region develops, Polish miners and farmhands migrate to the Ruhr, which becomes a place known as Ruhrpoland.
From 1880 Germany Migrations
Germany’s colonisation of Namibia, Tanzania, Cameroon and Togo.
1880 - 1900 Germany Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The era of “Naturalism” in literature (i.e. the works of Hauptmann, Holz and Schlaf) is characterised by a reality without embellishment or subjective insight (the radicalisation of realism).
1880 Germany Travelling
The dome of Cologne is completed (construction began in 1248). It is the tallest church building in the world at the time.
1881 - 1920 Tunisia Economy And Trade
Crises, both within the country’s social structures and the national economy, are the result of the protectorate’s grip over all the regency’s administration.
1881 - 1883 Tunisia Political Context
At the metropolitan palace, Muhammad Sadiq Bey signs the treaty imposed by the French Protectorate known as the Treaty of Bardo (or Treaty of Kasser al-Sa‘id). This is followed by the Convention of Marsa in 1883. The Regency of Tunis passes from Ottoman suzerainty to French domination.
1881 - 1884 Tunisia Political Context
Tunisians put up stiff resistance to French occupation without any external support. The Sublime Porte, itself threatened by the Western powers, limits the show of protest against the French occupation.
1881 France International Exhibitions
The Paris-based International Exhibition of Electricity presents the telephone and light bulbs.
1881 France Reforms And Social Changes
The (Jules) Ferry Law establishes free, compulsory and secular primary education for all French children. Date Country Theme
1881 Austria Cities And Urban Spaces
Designs for a telephone network in Vienna.
1881 Austria Reforms And Social Changes
Construction of the telephone network in Vienna.
1881 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The first Italian telephone services run by private companies start operating.
1881 Italy International Exhibitions
The first Italian National Industrial Exhibition is held in Milan.
1881 - 1901 Italy Migrations
2,251,463 people migrate from Italy; 67 per cent of them go to the USA.
1881 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
At La Scala Theatre in Milan, premiere of Excelsior, mimic ballet by Luigi Manzotti, music by Romualdo Marenco. Through 11 allegorical scenes glorifying 19th- century scientific and industrial progress (steam-engine, electric light, telegraph, Suez Canal, Fréjus Rail Tunnel, etc.), it celebrates the triumph of Light over Obscurantism.
1881 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Giovanni Verga (1840–1922) publishes the novel I malavoglia (published in English as The House by the Medlar-Tree), which describes the life of a family of Sicilian fishermen. Verga was the most important author of the Italian realist school known as verismo.
1881 United Kingdom Economy And Trade
When the Ottoman Empire is declared bankrupt, an Ottoman Public Debt Commission is established made up of an international body – mainly British, French and German – to manage the Empire’s finances. This becomes a form of veiled European control of Turkey’s economy. This followed a similar imposition of financial control over Egypt’s finances.
1881 Austria Economy And Trade
The Osterreichische-Alpine Montan-Gesellschaft is founded to mine the rich iron resources of north-west Styria.
1881 Spain Fine And Applied Arts Date Country Theme
Birth of Pablo Picasso in Málaga. In Spain Picasso’s birth date would be established as the boundary between works of art in the Academic style and the avant-garde style.
1881 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Publication of Portugal Contemporâneo, by Joaquim Pedro de Oliveira Martins (1845–94). Detailed analysis of the events between 1826 and 1868, it is considered the most clear-sighted study of Portugal in the 19th century. The author makes a general criticism of Portuguese liberalism, presented as a historical account.
1881 Portugal Travelling
With a thorough knowledge of the African hinterland, António da Silva Porto appeals to the Sociedade de Geografia to sponsor a plan for the scientific and commercial exploitation of Africa. The remote hinterland was about to be discovered by explorers and Africa’s boundaries defined by the colonial powers.
1881 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Werner von Siemens develops the tram.
1881 Austria Political Context
The alliance of the three Emperors of Germany, Russia and Austria recognise the Habsburg Empire’s predominance in the western Balkans. In June, Austria reaches an agreement with King Milan I of Serbia, whereby Austria promises to support an eventual Serbian expansion in the south, while Serbia agrees to exclude any agreement with other powers without Austria’s prior approval.
1882 Tunisia Migrations
Inauguration of the new Catholic Cathedral in Tunis, designed in the monumental Greco-Roman style, in line with the image France intends to convey in the early days of its protectorate over the regency.
1882 Tunisia Rediscovering The Past
The Alaoui Museum is founded in the bey’s palace in Bardo, in a wing of the complex formerly used to host the bey’s harem.
1882 - 1888 Romania Cities And Urban Spaces
Swiss engineers Carl Culmann and Arnold Burkly-Ziegler are contracted to develop a water supply network for Bucharest.
1882 Romania Cities And Urban Spaces
In Bucharest the first electric generators are installed and used to illuminate some important buildings of the city (the Royal Palace, the Cotroceni Palace, the National Theatre), Victory Avenue and Ci#migiu Park. Date Country Theme
1882 Romania Rediscovering The Past
Grigore Tocilescu begins to research the remains of the Roman town Tropaeum Traiani (modern Adamclisi in Dobruja).
1882 - 1884 Italy Cities And Urban Spaces
On the occasion of the 1884 General Exhibition of Turin, construction of the Rocca (castle) and the Borgo Medievale (medieval village) in Parco del Valentino (Valentino Park) in order to promote appreciation for 15th-century Piedmont architecture. In 1884, the Municipality of Turin buys part of this area, where it will later locate the Civic Museums.
1882 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The Gotthard Rail Tunnel between Italy and Switzerland opens (14.9 km). The construction work had started in 1872.
1882 Italy Fine And Applied Arts
Brera Picture Gallery, originally created by Maria Teresa of Austria in 1776, becomes an independent museum.
1882 Italy Reforms And Social Changes
In order to fight malaria, Parliament approves a law on drainage of swamps. Malaria plagues about one-third of Italian territory, where 10 per cent of the population lives.
1882 Italy Political Context
Electoral reform: the right to vote is extended to 7 per cent of the Italian population, by lowering the age limit (from 25 to 21) and the level of income required.
1882 Italy Political Context
The Triple Alliance formed (Italy, Germany, Austria-Hungary).
1882 - 1896 Italy Political Context
Italy’s first African war: in 1882 Italy starts colonial expansion in the Horn of Africa; in 1890, Eritrea becomes an Italian colony. Afterwards, Italy attempts to penetrate into Ethiopia and suffers a crushing defeat at Adwa (the biggest African victory over a colonial army): Italy loses 4,000 Italian and 2,000 colonial soldiers. The Crispi government resigns.
1882 Italy Travelling
The municipality of Cervia (on the Adriatic Sea) builds a bathing establishment explicitly intended for the middle class: previously a prerogative of the elite, beach tourism starts to become a more widely practised activity.
1882 - 1898 United Kingdom Great Inventions Of The 19th Century Date Country Theme
Weaponry is developed with lethal effect during the 19th century. The Civil War in the United States stimulates this expansion, but weapons of mass destruction – notably the Maxim gun – spread with European imperial ambitions. A huge disparity of power is created, shown by British military victories in Egypt (1882) and Sudan (1898).
1882 United Kingdom Reforms And Social Changes
With the British occupation of Egypt comes growth in European-imported ideas and fashions. Egypt becomes a significant tourist destination for wealthier Europeans. English and French –especially French – become commonly used languages.
1882 United Kingdom Political Context
Britain also acquires indirect control over Egypt, with an occupying army and control over Egyptian finances and administration. Egyptian tourism flourishes and with it a superficial economic development – an affluent class, construction of railways and building projects. However, European cultural influences in Egypt are mostly French.
1882 Serbia Political Context
The first king of Serbia in the modern age is Milan Obrenovi#, Prince (1822–82) and King (1882–89). From the start of his independent reign, Knez Milan works to build up the military, and sides with Russia in his foreign policy. He declares war on Turkey in 1876, but it ends in Serbia’s defeat due to poorly prepared diplomatic policy. The signing of the Treaty of San Stefano (made between the two countries after the Russo-Turkish War) is followed by an about-face in Knez Milan’s policy as he turns more and more to Austria-Hungary. A decision by the Congress of Berlin in 1878 grants Serbia independence, while the Secret Convention (between Serbia and Austria-Hungary) binds Austria-Hungary into declaring Serbia a kingdom in 1882.
1882 Egypt Political Context
Britain occupies Egypt.
1882 Spain Cities And Urban Spaces
Madrid has two "extensions": the first had been designed by the Marquis of Salamanca in 1860; the second, in 1882, is a modern design by Arturo Soria known as “Ciudad Lineal” (linear city), a plan for an elongated urban formation. The city will consist of a series of functionally specialised parallel sectors.
1882 Portugal Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The concession for telephone lines is signed and they are first installed in Lisbon and Porto. The first telephone list of Lisbon is published with 22 numbers located around 1.5 km from the telephone exchange. Public telephone cabins were installed and opened from 8 a.m. to 9 p.m. though always available to firemen, police and doctors.
1882 Portugal Fine And Applied Arts Date Country Theme
White Houses of Capri by naturalist painter António Carvalho da Silva Porto (1850– 93) represents the new interest in travelling and other cultures.
1882 Portugal Reforms And Social Changes
Inauguration of the first public kindergarten in Lisbon and Porto by followers of the Froebel method. The pupils, aged from 3 to 7 years, are divided into four age groups, each with a classroom; the plan includes a games room, toilets, offices and a refectory. The method respected the learning rhythm of the children and created didactic tools.
1882 France Fine And Applied Arts
The Thinker by the sculptor Auguste Rodin.
1882 Germany Reforms And Social Changes
Robert Koch discovers the cause of tuberculosis.
1882 Turkey Fine And Applied Arts
Birth of #brahim Çall# (d. 1960). He was a prominent painter who was sent to Paris between 1910 and 1914 where he studied in the workshop of Fernand Cormon.
1882 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes
28 September: Bayezid Kütüphânesi, the first public library in #stanbul is founded.
1883 (18 October) - 1883 (30 Romania Political Context October)
30 October: by signing a treaty with Austro-Hungary, to which Germany adheres the same day and Italy in 1888, Romania becomes part of the Triple Alliance.
1883 Romania Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
6 June: the death of Romanian composer Ciprian Porumbescu, at the age of only 29. One of the melodies he composed will be adopted for Albania’s national anthem in 1912.
1883 Italy Cities And Urban Spaces
A credit-fuelled “construction fever” explodes in Rome and in the other urban centres.
1883 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
In Milan, the first thermoelectric power station in Europe is inaugurated.
1883 Italy Fine And Applied Arts Date Country Theme
Inauguration of the National Gallery of Modern Art in Rome, in the Exhibition Palace by Pio Piacentini. It is intended to focus on “national” art.
1883 - 1914 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Sheikh Saqr II bin Khalid bin Sultan al-Qasimi, ruler of Sharjah, is also acknowledged as one of the greatest poets of his time. He is the grandfather of the current Sheikh of Sharjah (Sheikh Sultan bin Mohammad al-Qasimi).
1883 Austria Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The Czech writer Frank Kafka is born in Prague; he dies in Klosterneuburg, Austria, in 1924.
1883 - 1903 Egypt Economy And Trade
The Egyptian Exchange, one of the oldest stock markets in the Middle East, traces its origins to 1883 when the Alexandria Stock Exchange is established, followed by the Cairo Stock Exchange in 1903.
1883 Egypt Travelling
Arriving in Egypt as diplomatic agent and Consul-General of Britain, Sir Evelyn Baring’s (Lord Cromer’s) first task is to demand that Khedive Muhammad Tawfiq should abandon Sudan. Tawfiq consents reluctantly, but having done so he then does everything he can to ensure success of the policy that Baring has been sent to carry out.
1883 - 1926 Spain Cities And Urban Spaces
Construction of Antonio Gaudí’s buildings related to Ildefonso Cerdá's Plan and the new urban space in Barcelona. Gaudí is the most important of the architects in the Catalan Modernismo/Modernisme movement, which relates to European movements such as Jungendstil and Art Nouveau. Inspired by nature, the style is mostly developed in architecture but also found in painting and decorative arts.
1883 Portugal Travelling
A Commission of Cartography is created to prepare an atlas of all Portuguese colonies and map three expeditions to Africa. The first expedition (1884–85), undertaken by Roberto Ivens and Hermenegildo Capelo, starts in Moçâmedes in Angola (in present-day Namibia) aiming to reach to the east coast. The expedition members would face risks from hunger, cold, harsh nature, the wildlife and the tsetse fly.
1883 - 1889 Germany Reforms And Social Changes
Imperial Chancellor Otto von Bismarck initiates German social laws and the basic system for a modern social state.
1883 - 1927 Germany Travelling
The warehouse district known as Speicherstadt Hamburg develops. Date Country Theme
1883 Turkey Fine And Applied Arts
Opening of the School of Fine Arts (Sanâyi-i Nefise Mektebi) by Osman Hamdi Bey. It consists of sections for painting, sculpture and architecture.
1883 Turkey Rediscovering The Past
Osman Hamdi Bey, Ottoman administrator and archaeologist excavates in Nemrud. Publication of his book Le Tumulus de Nemroud-Dagh.
1883 Turkey Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Nam#k Kemal writes Renan Müdafanamesi (Critique of Renan), a book on Islam and science.
1883 Austria Political Context
In October, the Austrian Emperor Franz Josef concludes a secret alliance with the Hohenzollern King of Romania, Carol I, against Russia.
1884 Romania Cities And Urban Spaces
12 October: Timi#oara is the first European city where electric street lighting is introduced not only on some streets, but also across the entire city. An electric plant is built and 731 incandescent lamps with coal filament installed, covering an area of 10 km2.
1884 Romania Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The inauguration of the first railway line (Buz#u–M#r##e#ti) designed and built by Romanian engineers.
1884 France Reforms And Social Changes
Unionism (“workers’ and employers professional associations”) becomes legal in France.
1884 - 1919 Lebanon Economy And Trade
The old Egyptian port undergoes several important changes: buildings are extended, a commercial tribunal is constructed, and the land area is expanded by infilling with rocks brought by railway from Nahr al-Kalb.
1884 - 1885 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
First experiments of electric street lighting in Turin and Milan.
1884 Italy International Exhibitions
The General Italian Exhibition in Turin attracts 3 million visitors.
1884 - 1885 Italy Reforms And Social Changes Date Country Theme
Cholera epidemic causes 7,000 deaths in Naples and 2,500 in Palermo (out of a total 21,000 deaths). The government starts programmes of urban renewal in Naples and other towns (the most effective tool to prevent new epidemics).
1884 Serbia Political Context
The first Serbian railway and railway bridge is built in Belgrade.
1884 Serbia Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The first Serbian railway and railway bridge is built in Belgrade.
1884 - 1885 Portugal Political Context
Berlin Conference called by Portugal to regulate European colonisation and convened by German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck. The Portuguese government presents the "Pink Map”, a project uniting the colonies of Angola and Mozambique through the corridor of land that separates them. The proposal is rejected by England although endorsed by the majority of countries.
1884 Portugal Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Estacio Pharmacy in Porto founded in 1883 starts to produce the first pills for medication. The preparation of manipulated medicines in the apothecaries of the Catholic monasteries and convents (Boticas de Convento) is replaced by the production of medicines by laboratory pharmacies.
1884 - 1888 Portugal Travelling
The Muatiânvua Expedition to Angolan’s Lunda territory led by Major Henrique de Carvalho provides exceptional scientific data on meteorology, zoology, ethnography and linguistics and photographic records. This second great expedition aims to counter the diversion of trade from Malanje to Zaire implemented by other colonial countries.
1884 - 1890 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Gottlieb Daimler develops the petrol engine and Rudolf Diesel invents the diesel engine.
1884 Germany Reforms And Social Changes
The goal in founding the Society for German Colonization was to acquire colonial territories overseas.
1884 - 1885 Germany Reforms And Social Changes
Germany establishes protectorates in south-west Africa, Cameroon, Togo, East Africa and New Guinea.
1884 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes
7 May: An industrial school for girls is opened in #stanbul. Date Country Theme
1885 Romania Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
8 May: The renowned Romanian soprano Hariclea Darclée makes her debut at the Paris Opéra, as Marguerite in Charles Gounod’s Faust.
1885 Italy Cities And Urban Spaces
After the 1884–85 cholera epidemic hits Naples (the fourth cholera epidemic hitting the city since 1835), the government starts a redevelopment plan to clear Naples of slums and improve its sewerage and water systems. Similar renewal plans will be extended to other cities.
1885 Egypt Economy And Trade
Alexandria’s Futures Market is one of the oldest in the world. The first recorded local cotton transaction takes place in 1885 in Café de l’Europe on the Place des Consuls, later renamed Muhammad ‘Ali Square. It is here that cotton merchants meet and cut deals based on supply and demand for the long staple, Karnak and Menuf, or the short to medium staple, Ashmuni, Giza and Zagora. Over the years, deals extend to cottonseed varieties such as Hull, Afifi and Sakellaridis.
1885 - 1889 Egypt Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The singer Salama Hijazi turns to acting with the Kirdahi and al-Haddad troupes. Through his contributions, many musical theatre troupes emerge such as Aziz Eed, Naguib al-Rihani and ‘Ali al-Kassar. As one of the first artists to travel abroad, Hijazi achieves worldwide acclaim for his musical and theatrical works. Warmly welcomed in Italy, Syria and Tunisia, he is granted awards of appreciation by many international governments. Hijazi’s statue stands at the Museum of Napoli.
1885 Spain Political Context
Death of King Alfonso XII. Alfonso XIII born posthumously. Pacto de El Pardo: agreement between liberals and conservatives to rule the country by turns. Regency of Queen María Cristina until 1902 when King Alfonso XIII comes of age.
1885 Republic of Macedonia Fine And Applied Arts (FYROM)
The earliest portrait in Macedonian art that is not part of religious depiction, a portrait of a child is painted by Dimitar Andonov of Papradishte (1859–1954). Dimitar Andonov was one of the last Macedonian “zographs” (icon painters) and the founder of Macedonian profane art.
1885 Portugal Fine And Applied Arts
O Grupo Do Leão painted by Columbano Bordalo Pinheiro is a landmark in 19th- century painting both for its quality and for its subject matter. The depicted group of artists in the Leão beer house were linked to the Portuguese Naturalist and Realist painting movement. This work became famous and marked the beginning of a period of great artistic activity.
1885 Portugal International Exhibitions Date Country Theme
“Exposition Universelle”, Antwerp. Sponsored by the Sociedade de Geografia de Lisboa and Banco Nacional Ultramarino, the Portuguese Pavilion reflects a strong Islamic influence.
1885 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The birth of Guilhermina Suggia (d. 1950). This great Portuguese cellist was a pupil of Pablo Casals, with whom she lived for some years. The two were considered the world’s greatest cellists. She played as a soloist with prestigious orchestras. She devoted the last years of her life to teaching but continued to give concerts.
1885 Portugal Travelling
21 June: the expedition of Roberto Ivens and Hermenegildo Capelo reaches Quelimane, Mozambique, after 14 months. Throughout their 8,300 km expedition across the African hinterland, Ivens wrote and drew sketches and maps, while Capelo collected specimens of plants, rocks and animals. The constant desertions and sickness and death of the bearers increased the danger and uncertainty.
1885 Portugal Travelling
20 September: After their return to Lisbon a triumphal reception was offered to Capelo and Ivens by several Portuguese associations. During the solemn session organised by the Sociedade de Geografia de Lisboa (SGL) at the Teatro Real de S. Carlos, following their lectures, the explorers receive the SGL gold medal from King Luís I.
1885 - 1887 Portugal Travelling
The third great expedition, undertaken by Serpa Pinto and Augusto Cardoso, aims to establish a trade corridor between the eastern region of lakes, and the coast of Mozambique. Major Serpa Pinto fell ill and was replaced by Augusto Cardoso who reached Quelimane after a journey of 2,500 km lasting 20 months, during which some agreements were signed with African chiefs.
1885 Lebanon Cities And Urban Spaces
Part of the Old Serail in Zahlé is used to house the local prison, with severe overcrowding. The prison was moved to a better location in 2009. Still known as the Old Serail, the restored monument today serves as the Town Hall and houses the offices of the municipality and a museum illustrating Zahlé’s history.
1886 Tunisia Travelling
Muhammad Sadiq Bey on a visit to Algiers is received by Napoleon III.
1886 Italy Reforms And Social Changes
Legislation passed prohibiting children under the age of 9 from working in factories and mines and those under the age of 12 from working at night.
1886 Greece Fine And Applied Arts Date Country Theme
Nikolaos Gyzis, one of Greece’s most important 19th-century painters, becomes professor at the Academy of Fine Arts, Munich.
1886 Portugal Cities And Urban Spaces
Completion of the construction of Avenida da Liberdade in Lisbon. Engineer Frederico Ressano Garcia (1847–1911) followed Joseph Pezarat’s plans. Inspired by Haussmann’s Parisian boulevards, Avenida da Liberdade is testimony to the economic boom of the Fontismo period, with new residential areas built for investment and profit.
1886 Portugal Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Opening of D. Luís I road bridge over the Douro River in Porto. At the time this iconic bridge held the record for the longest iron arch in the world (180 m.) It was a huge advance for the urban traffic network since it allowed a road connection between Porto and Vila Nova de Gaia over the Douro.
1886 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Augusto Hilário (1864–96), the quintessential fado singer of Coimbra, enrols at the University of Coimbra and became a symbol of “Coimbra Serenade”. "Fado Hilário" is his best known work as a composer and writer.
1886 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Karl Benz and Gottlieb Daimler invent the modern automobile.
Since 1886 Germany Travelling
Seven weeks after the death of King Ludwig II in 1886, Neuschwanstein Castle – built in order that the king could withdraw from public life – opened to the public.
1886 Turkey Fine And Applied Arts
26 February: Mihri Mü#fik Han#m, one of the first female painters of renown, is born.
1887 France Travelling
The birth of the French Riviera, originally frequented by wealthy English patrons.
1887 - 1918 Austria Migrations
The son of an Austrian general, Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha becomes King of Bulgaria; he leaves Bulgaria and immigrates to Germany in 1918.
1887 - 1906 Jordan Reforms And Social Changes
In 1887 a land register is established for the district of Ajlun. In the district of al- Balqa communal land is converted to private ownership. In 1906 the land register is extended to southern regions including al-Salt, Karak, Tafila and Ma’an. As a consequence many agricultural villages are founded and re-founded in the Date Country Theme area between Amman and Karak, leading to a significant increase in agricultural production, especially cereal crops.
1887 Italy Economy And Trade
Adoption of a protectionist policy aimed at boosting industrial development.
1887 Italy Economy And Trade
Federation of Italian Cooperatives is funded (from 1893 known as the League of Cooperatives).
1887 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
After long silence, Verdi composes a new opera on a text by Arrigo Boito: Othello, based on Shakespeare’s tragedy. In Othello, Verdi adopts a more fluent narrative structure that goes beyond the traditional division into separate units (arias, duets, concertatos, choirs).
1887 - 1914 Italy Reforms And Social Changes
Thanks to improved public health services and living conditions there has been a strong decrease in the annual number of deaths by disease since 1887 (e.g. deaths from measles have decreased by 73 percent; from diptheria by 86 per cent; from smallpox by 99 per cent).
1887 Egypt Cities And Urban Spaces
El-Hakaneia Palace on Manshieh Square in Alexandria is designed by Alfonso Maniscalco in the Beaux-Arts tradition. Constructed as the seat of the “Mixed Tribunals” the building is still used as a courthouse today.
1887 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Publication of A Relíquia (The Relic) by Eça de Queirós. The novel criticises the hypocrisy of the Portuguese society.
1887 Portugal Travelling
The Naval Academy is founded for teaching and research on Portuguese tropical medicine. Its purpose is to provide access to tropical medicine for general medical students and as a specialty for naval doctors. The Academy had a small laboratory for some diagnostic tests.
1887 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Emil Berliner invents the phonograph.
1887 Lebanon Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The foundation, under Wassa Pasha’s rule, of the port of Beirut on the eastern part of the Saint George Bay on Beirut’s northern Mediterranean cost, west of Beirut River. It is one of the largest and busiest ports on the eastern Mediterranean. Date Country Theme
1887 Turkey Rediscovering The Past
Osman Hamdi Bey excavates in Saida.
1888 - 1892 Tunisia Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Establishment of the Tunisian Post and Telegraphs Office; during this time the first Tunisian postage stamp was issued and the Hôtel des postes (Post Office building) was inaugurated in Tunis.
1888 - 1893 Tunisia Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Completion of the Port of La Goulette; a large, modern complex accessible to large vessels, brings development to the city of Tunis.
1888 - 1893 Tunisia Economy And Trade
Completion of the Port of La Goulette. After five years in construction, the port complex opens to trade on 28 May 1893.
1888 Austria Reforms And Social Changes
Austria’s Legislation is passed for the mandatory insurance of workers (employees).
1888 - 1889 Italy Cities And Urban Spaces
Construction of Piazza Esedra (now Piazza della Repubblica) in Rome, designed by Gaetano Koch. The newly built palaces with porticos around the square are opposite the Terme di Diocleziano (Baths of Diocletian) and connect the area of Termini railway station to via Nazionale, providing an attractive entrance to the city.
1888 - 1890 Italy Economy And Trade
Tariff war with France.
1888 Italy Migrations
The first law on migration introduces measures aimed at preventing a married woman from migrating without her husband’s consent; at preventing men to migrate to avoid military service; and at granting migrants some protection against abuses.
1888 Italy Reforms And Social Changes
First comprehensive law on health services.
1888 Austria Cities And Urban Spaces
The Burgtheater (National Theatre) moves from its former residence at the Hofburg (Imperial Castle) to purpose-built premises at the Ringstrasse. Date Country Theme
1888 Spain Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Building of a submarine (aparato de profundidades) designed by a naval officer, Isaac Peral. The boat (22 x 2.87 metres) is driven by electric engines and has a periscope and three torpedos. In spite of a successful test, the Spanish Navy decides not to put the prototype into production.
1888 Spain International Exhibitions
The Barcelona Universal Exhibition held in the Parc de la Ciutadella from April to December attracts exhibitors from 22 countries and more than two million visitors. The park displays monuments in the Modernismo/Modernisme and Neo-Mudéjar styles.
1888 Republic of Macedonia Migrations (FYROM)
A movement to awaken national awareness leads to the establishment of many independent associations of Macedonian emigrants, such as the Macedonian Literary Society established by Gjorgji Pulevski in Sofia in 1888.
1888 Portugal International Exhibitions
Portuguese Industrial Exhibition in Avenida da Liberdade in Lisbon.
1888 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Publication of Os Maias by Eça de Queirós. A mature romance and perhaps his best known. Focused on the saga of the Maia family through three generations, it debates the issue of the country’s destiny, in the context of the Constitutionalist ennobled bourgeoisie, whose good intentions end up capsizing.
1888 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Birth of Fernando Pessoa (d. 1935) is the classic author of Portuguese modernism. His books are published under different names, which he called heteronyms (not pseudonyms), each one corresponding to a cycle of experimental attitudes, which unfold in contradictions.
1888 Portugal Travelling
The neo-Manueline Palace of Bussaco, modelled on the Manueline Belém Tower of Lisbon is commissioned by King Carlos I as a royal retreat. It combines the architectural fashion of castle romanticism (German Burgenromantik) with the neo- Manueline gothic style that evokes the Portuguese Discoveries.
1888 Germany Rediscovering The Past
Julius Stinde writes Frau Buchholz im Orient. He has already documented the cities of Cairo, Jerusalem, Athens, and Constantinople (now Istanbul, Turkey).
1888 Turkey Economy And Trade Date Country Theme
The Agricultural Bank (Ziraat Bankas#) is founded as the first state-funded bank of the empire.
1888 Turkey Travelling
12 August: Direct rail connection is established between Paris and #stanbul.
1889 Romania International Exhibitions
The two Romanian pavilions at the International Exposition in Paris – a restaurant and a pavilion for wine tasting – are built by architect Ion Mincu, who uses elements of traditional rustic Romanian architecture.
1889 - 1900 Romania Rediscovering The Past
Archaeologist Alexandru Odobescu publishes in France a book about the Pietroasa Treasure (a historical description and a study on antique silver work).
1889 France International Exhibitions
The Exposition universelle of 1889 in Paris is the tenth registered World Fair held from 6 May to 31 October. It commemorates the French Revolution on the occasion of its centenary. The Eiffel Tower is built for this Expo.
1889 France Political Context
The World Fair in Paris showcases the development of the latest industrial processes, and the Eiffel Tower is constructed for it.
1889 Italy Rediscovering The Past
Establishment of the National Roman Museum, in the stunning structure of the Terme di Diocleziano (Baths of Diocletian) in Rome.
1889 Italy Rediscovering The Past
Establishment of the Museum of the pre-Roman Antiquities of Latium in the 16th- century Villa Giulia, in Rome. The museum would be later renamed the National Etruscan Museum.
1889 Greece Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Founding of the first commercial unit for electricity in Athens. The Royal Palace was the first building in the capital to benefit from electric lighting.
1889 Austria Cities And Urban Spaces
The Deutsche Volkstheater (German People’s Theatre) opens in Vienna.
1889 Austria Reforms And Social Changes
The Social Democratic Party is founded during the Hainfeld Congress. Date Country Theme
1889 Portugal Political Context
10 October: Coronation of King Carlos I (28 September 1863 – 1 February 1908) Despite the King’s attempt to reform the political system, the growing urban influence of the Republican Party and the people´s discontent were fostered by cash payments made to the Royal House.
1889 Portugal International Exhibitions
At the Paris “Exposition Universelle” Bordalo Pinheiro’s (1846–1905) famous ceramics decorating the interior of the Portuguese Pavilion are a main attraction for the cosmopolitan visitor.
1889 France Fine And Applied Arts
The inauguration of the Eiffel Tower and the use of iron in architectural structures.
1889 - 1917 Germany Travelling
Kaiser Wilhelm II visits the Ottoman Empire three times, in 1889, 1898 and 1917. On his second official tour he visits Constantinople, Haifa, Jaffa, Jerusalem, Beirut and Damascus, largely to show his support for Ottoman sultan ‘Abd al-Hamid II whose Empire was already unstable. The strong connection between the countries is further cemented by a gift from the Kaiser to ‘Abd al Hamid: a “German fountain” that stands in Jerusalem to this day.
1889 Turkey International Exhibitions
Although the Ottoman government does not participate in the 1889 Paris Exhibition, the architecture of the Sultan Ahmed Fountain (from the Vienna Exhibition in 1873) is recycled in the exhibition in the Pavilion of Turkish Tobacco.
1890 - 1920 Tunisia Cities And Urban Spaces
The 20th century is undoubtedly one of urbanisation. Outside the Arab medina a new city develops to host the many Europeans who have arrived to promote development of the colonial economy.
1890 - 1900 Tunisia Fine And Applied Arts
Construction of public and private buildings in the arabisance style, which proposes a synthesis of European architectural styles with Arab and Spanish-North African architecture.
1890 - 1910 Tunisia Migrations
Emergence of a new European-inspired city outside the Arab medina with a multitude of buildings built in the European style.
1890 - 1892 Romania Cities And Urban Spaces
In Bucharest a fire tower is built from the plans of the chief architect of the city, George Mandrea. It is both a watchtower, used by firemen to keep the city Date Country Theme under observation to rapidly intervene in case of a fire, and a reservoir for water distribution in the eastern part of Bucharest.
1890 France Reforms And Social Changes
On 1 May, Labour Day is celebrated for the first time.
1890s United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Political Context
There is a notable increase in the activity of foreign powers – especially Ottoman Turkey, France and Russia – in the Gulf region. Germany also makes its first appearance. The main interests for all of them are economic and geostrategic.
1890 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The Cavalleria rusticana by Pietro Mascagni (1863–1945) has a great success, marking the beginning of verismo (Italian realism) in music, which intends to portray the world of peasants and the poor through strong and passionate drama. The singing style changes radically, leaving behind the aesthetics of bel canto and turning to reciting, even shouting, and spoken parts in the most exciting dramatic moments.
1890 Italy Reforms And Social Changes
For the first time, trade unions organise celebrations for May Day as the International Worker’s Day.
1890 Egypt Reforms And Social Changes
The Alexandria Sporting Club is built; it is one of the oldest clubs in Egypt.
1890 - 1920 Spain Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
“Alhambrismo” in music. From 1890 many composers produce pieces showing the influence of the Alhambra, e.g.Chapi's Los Gnomos de la Alhambra (1889), Debussy’s Lindaraja (composed in 1901) and La puerta del vino (1912–13). The most important piece is the first movement of Noches en los Jardines de España (1909–15) by Manuel de Falla, titled "En los Jardines del Generalife".
1890 Spain Reforms And Social Changes
Suffrage established for men aged 25 years and above. Although the 1812 Constitution had theoretically established “universal” suffrage for men, during most of the 19th century it had been limited to men above a certain economic level. It was not until 1931, under the Second Republic, that the suffrage became truly universal, including women.
1890 - 1908 Portugal Political Context
The British Ultimatum (11 January 1890) pressures Portugal to withdraw from southern Africa resulting in popular outrage and unrest. The bankruptcy of 1892, anti-monarchic sentiment against King Carlos I, the cost of living and unfulfilled popular needs are major drivers of the Republican movement. Date Country Theme
1890 Portugal Cities And Urban Spaces
The railway station of Rossio (Lisbon) designed by the Portuguese architect José Luís Monteiro, begun in 1886 and inaugurated on 23 November of 1890. Located in the historical centre, the Rossio station follows the neo-Manueline architectural style and is an important building of the 19th-century late Romantic style.
1890 - 1899 Italy Migrations
Average annual Italian migration (temporary and permanent, to nearest 1,000): France 26,000, USA 51,000; Argentina 37,000; Brazil 58,000.
1890 - 1910 Germany Fine And Applied Arts
The paintings by Heinrich Vogeler, Das Konzert (Sommerabend) (1893), and Gustav Klimt, Der Kuss (1908), exemplify the period in art known as Jugendstil or Art Nouveau.
1890s - Around 1900 Germany Migrations
After the United States, the German Empire was the most popular country of immigration.
1890s Germany Migrations
The Prussian policy of Abwehrpolitik sees Polish seasonal workers in agriculture forced to leave the German Empire during winter.
1890 - 1910 Germany Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The era of Modern literature (i.e. the works of Hesse, Hauptmann, Mann and Zweig) is characterised by pluralism, the merging of Art Nouveau, Symbolism, Impressionism, etc.
1890s Germany Reforms And Social Changes
Sigmund Freud formulates his theory of psychoanalysis in Vienna.
1890 Germany Reforms And Social Changes
Emperor Wilhelm II dismisses Bismarck; and so begins the era of the emperor’s personal regiment.
1890 Lebanon Cities And Urban Spaces
Khan Antun Bey Square evolves after the construction of the great Ottoman jetty and quays from 1890 that changes the design of the urban area.
1890 Turkey Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
16 September: Sailing frigate Ertu#rul sinks while returning from a goodwill voyage to Japan off the coast of Oshima in a typhoon that kills all but 69 of its 609 crew. Date Country Theme
1890 Turkey Fine And Applied Arts
Müfide Kadri is born (d. 1912). One of the early female painters, she took private classes from Osman Hamdi Bey.
1891 Tunisia Economy And Trade
Monetary reform: the administration of the protectorate decides to replace the Tunisian monetary unit the “piastre” with the French Franc.
1891 Austria Fine And Applied Arts
The Museum of Applied Arts in Vienna purchases the Karabakh carpet in Istanbul.
1891 Italy Reforms And Social Changes
First Chambers of Labour (territorial trade unions) founded in Milan.
1891 Greece Economy And Trade
An insurance company for sea transportation is founded on the island of Chios.
1891 Portugal Reforms And Social Changes
October: Domitilia de Carvalho is the first woman to study at the University of Coimbra. She is obliged to wear black, sober costumes and a discreet hat to go unnoticed among her male colleagues. A brilliant student she graduated in mathematics (1894), philosophy (1895) and medicine (1904).
1891 Germany Reforms And Social Changes
Founding of the Pan-German League (Allgemeine Deutsche Verband; since 1894 the General German Association or Alldeutscher Verband) to advance an active, nationalistic German foreign policy in Europe and overseas.
1891 Turkey Fine And Applied Arts
Fausto Zonaro (1854–1929) arrives in #stanbul as an independent artist. He receives the title of court painter in 1896.
1891 Turkey Rediscovering The Past
13 June: The Archaeology Museum in Istanbul is opened.
1891 - 1892 Turkey Rediscovering The Past
Osman Hamdi Bey excavates in Lagina.
1891 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Date Country Theme
Ahmed Vefik Pa#a dies. Besides his administrative positions, he is regarded as a precursor of Turkish cultural nationalism and remembered also for contributing to the development of Western theatre in the empire by translating French plays.
1892 - 1914 Tunisia Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Development of the railway network connects the city of Tunis with its hinterland. The network serves the large cities by connecting them with the agricultural centres created by colonisation.
1892 - 1914 Tunisia Economy And Trade
Development of a railway network connecting the city of Tunis with its hinterland.
1892 - 1895 Romania Political Context
In 1892 a delegation of 237 Romanians sends Emperor Franz Joseph a Memorandum protesting against the discriminatory effects of the union of Transylvania with Hungary (1867). In 1893 the signatories of the petition are sent for trial at the end of which, in May 1894, they are sentenced to prison. However, in 1895 the Emperor amnesties them.
1892 France Rediscovering The Past
Excavations at Delos and Delphi by the French School of Athens.
1892 France Reforms And Social Changes
The Law on Health and Hygiene at work is passed.
1892 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Political Context
The British government effectively becomes the ruler of the Trucial Coast when the sheikhs are forced to pledge that neither they nor their descendants will enter agreements with or grant territorial rights to any government or their representatives other than Britain.
1892 - 1898 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Hydroelectric power plants are built in Tivoli (1892) and Paderno d’Adda (1898) and the power they generated is transported to, respectively, Rome and Milan.
1892 Italy Political Context
Italian Socialist Party founded.
1892 Egypt Cities And Urban Spaces
Muntazah Palace is constructed for Khedive ‘Abbas, which he uses as both a hunting lodge and residence for his companion.
1892 Egypt Travelling Date Country Theme
The Greco-Roman Museum of Alexandria is created.
1892 Spain International Exhibitions
European and American Historical Exhibitions held in the Palacio de la Biblioteca y Museos Nacionales, Madrid, celebrating the fourth centennial of the discovery of America.
1892 Portugal Cities And Urban Spaces
18 August: Praça de Touros do Campo Pequeno (Campo Pequeno Bullring) opens its doors with a gala show. Built in an area assigned to the Casa Pia (educational establishment for children in need) by the city of Lisbon in 1889 the bullring was designed by the architect António José Dias da Silva (1848–1912) and inspired by Madrid's bullring.
1892 Portugal Economy And Trade
13 June: bankruptcy is declared in Portugal causing tremendous popular outrage. The deficit in the public finances, the dependence on foreign funding and incipient industrialisation are contributing factors to this crisis.
1892 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Fatma Âliye (1862–1939), female novelist and publisher, publishes Muhâdarât (Reminiscence). Her feminist attitude was apparent in her rejection of marriage for economic reasons, believing in the need for women to join the workforce.
1893 Qatar Political Context
The Battle of al-Wajba is a victory for Sheikh Jassim and Qatar. This represents a decisive moment in the nation's history, asserting Qatar's independence from direct Ottoman interference.
1893 Tunisia Reforms And Social Changes
Creation of the first analytical laboratory as part of the services that later became the Pasteur Institute, initially providing a rabies treatment service, and then offering a vaccination centre.
1893 Austria Rediscovering The Past
The Egyptian authorities give the head of a Sphinx of Sesostris III to the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna.
1893 - 1895 Italy Cities And Urban Spaces
Construction of Piazza Vittorio Emanuele (today Piazza della Repubblica) in Florence, after clearing the area of the Ancient Market.
1893 - 1894 Italy Economy And Trade Date Country Theme
A comprehensive law on banking establishes the Bank of Italy, which starts operating on 1 January 1894.
1893 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
At the age of 80, Verdi composes his last opera, Falstaff, an opera buffa that opens new avenues towards the theatre of the 20th century. The music underscores all the subtle nuances of the psychology of the different characters.
1893 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Manon Lescaut by Giacomo Puccini (1858–1924) has a great success in Turin and Puccini becomes the most promising opera composer of the new generation.
1893 Greece Rediscovering The Past
Foundation of the National Archaeological Museum of Athens.
1893 Portugal Rediscovering The Past
Creation of the Portuguese Ethnological Museum, which in 1906 opened its doors to the public at the Jerónimos Monastery in the Belém area of Lisbon. The museum is currently designated the National Museum of Archaeology.
1893 - 1902 Turkey Migrations
72,000 Muslims and Jews are forced out of Bulgaria. Unlike earlier migrants, they are resettled in towns in Thrace as well as in rural areas of central and eastern Anatolia.
1893 Turkey International Exhibitions
At the World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago, the main Ottoman pavilion refers to the Sultan Ahmed Fountain, but it experiments with a different approach, being designed as an exhibition building.
1894 - 1898 France Political Context
The Dreyfus Affair: Captain Dreyfus is unjustly accused of espionage, is militarily degraded, and then deported at the end of the trial. The writer Émile Zola denounces this situation in a pamphlet entitled J’accuse. The case divides France; it is recognised that Dreyfus is innocent.
1894 - 1913 Italy Economy And Trade
The chemical industry takes off. The production of fertilisers grows from 85,700 tons in 1894 to 1 million tons in 1913.
1894 Italy Travelling
The Touring Club d’Italia is founded. Its main goal is “to make Italians know Italy”. It conceives of tourism as a tool for the cultural growth and modernisation of the country. Date Country Theme
1894 - 1908 Morocco Political Context
Having ascended to the throne too young, Mulay ‘Abd al ‘Aziz must act under the regency of his father mulay al-Hasan I’s chamberlain for almost six years. Upon his father death in 1900, Mulay ‘Abd al ‘Aziz took up the reins of power and made clear his desire to restructure the governing institution of Morocco, the Makhzen. He worked on the modernisation of the army and stabilisation of the currency. He relaunched the project to ensure universal application of the tartib tax, which he wanted to apply to all foreigners and protégés. This project naturally displeased the consular corps.
1894 - 1900 Egypt Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Qasim Amin publishes his book Les Egyptiens in French in 1894. In it he rejects the negative claims against the traditions of Oriental society made by Duke Drocom in his book, L’Egypte et les Egyptiens. In defence of Islam, Amin compares the rights of women according to Islam with those of civilized European women. In 1899, he then publishes The Emancipation of Women, which is severely criticized. In 1900, Amin refutes the arguments of his critics with The New Woman, a work that provides fresh fuel to his ardent battle for the emancipation of women.
1894 - 1900 France Fine And Applied Arts
The Salon des Cent (Salon of the One Hundred) neither focused on any one school of art nor paid attention to any of the official bodies.
1894 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Otto Lilienthal invents the glider.
1895 Romania Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The Romanian Maritime Service, the first civil naval institution of Romania, is founded. It is intended to buy and build ships and it ensures passenger and freight transportation on the route Br#ila–Constan#a–Istanbul, later extended to Alexandria and to ports on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean: Pireu, Smyrna, Haifa and Beirut.
1895 Romania Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
9 December: the first electric tramway is introduced in Bucharest.
1895 Romania Economy And Trade
Promulgation of the Mining Law, which stipulates separation between the ownership of land and of the subsoil resources, which, except for oil, belong to the state. Concessions of oil exploitation by the state (in cases where the owner of the land did not want to do it) are regulated.
1895 Austria Rediscovering The Past
A statue of an athlete is found in Ephesus, Turkey; ‘Abd al-Hamid II, the Ottoman Sultan at the time, gives it as a gift to the Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph I. Date Country Theme
1895 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Gugliemo Marconi makes the first successful experiments of radio broadcasts.
1895 - 1913 Italy Economy And Trade
Major growth of iron and steel industry: cast iron production rises from 9,000 tons in 1895 to 426,000 tons in 1913; steel production rises from 50,000 tons in 1895 to 933,000 tons in 1913.
1895 Italy International Exhibitions
Opening of the First International Art Exhibition of the City of Venice, known as the Venice Biennale. The exhibition – organised to bring the city out of isolation – meets with great public acclaim (224,000 visitors).
1895 Greece Political Context
Prime Minister Charilaos Trikoupis declares that Greece is bankrupt.
1895 Portugal Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The first car in Portugal, a Panhard et Levassor, is personally imported from Paris by the fourth Count of Avilez. The Lisbon Customs did not know how to tax this awkward item. Was it a farm machine or a locomotive? They chose the second option. Count Jorge Avilez drove from Lisbon to his farm in Santiago do Cacém at 15 km an hour.
1895 France Fine And Applied Arts
Castel Béranger by Hector Guimard is in the Art Nouveau style.
1895 France Fine And Applied Arts
The Maison de l'Art nouveau by Samuel Bing.
1895 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The Roentgen ray (X-Ray) is discovered by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen.
1895 Turkey Rediscovering The Past
German archaeologist Theodor Wiegand begins to excavate ancient Greek city of Priene. He would start to excavate in Miletos in 1896.
1896 Tunisia Reforms And Social Changes
Creation of Khaldunia. The purpose of this institution located near the Zaytuna Mosque was to spread scientific knowledge among the Arab communities, and especially among students of Zaytuna University. Its name refers to the great Arab thinker Ibn Khaldun. Date Country Theme
1896 France Travelling
Tsar Nicolas II visits France and inaugurates the Pont Alexandre III bridge in Paris.
1896 Austria Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Austrian composer Anton Bruckner dies.
1896 Austria Political Context
Russia recognises Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg, a former Austrian officer, as the new Prince of Bulgaria.
1896 - 1914 Italy Economy And Trade
Sustained economic growth (except for short crises in 1900 and 1907–08); industrialisation makes a leap forward.
1896 Greece Travelling
Revival of the Olympic Games.
1896 Portugal Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
First X-ray made in Portugal by Henrique Teixeira Bastos, Professor of Physics at Coimbra University. In 1895 Roentgen had discovered X-rays and the news was published in Portugal in the newspaper Novidades in January 1896. This first X-ray of the right hand of a boy with bone tuberculosis was made one week after.
1896 Germany International Exhibitions
The Great Industrial Exposition opens at Treptower Park, south of central Berlin.
1896 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Recaîzâde Mahmud Ekrem publishes the novel Araba Sevdas# (A Carriage Affair). He was prominent in literary circles and promoted the Westernisation of Ottoman Turkish literature.
1897 Tunisia Reforms And Social Changes
Creation of the French civil hospital provides a surgery and two general medical services to meet the needs of the European population from the outset.
1897 Romania Fine And Applied Arts
The National School of Architecture is founded as a section of the School of Fine Arts in Bucharest. It becomes an independent institution in 1904, under the name the Superior School of Architecture.
1897 - 1899 Romania Travelling Date Country Theme
Romanian biologist and speleologist Emil Racovi## participates in the Belgian Antarctic Expedition, the first winter research expedition in the Antarctica region.
1897 - 1898 Italy Political Context
Widespread demonstrations and riots against high bread price. The government uses the army to repress protests: in Milan 85 demonstrators are killed.
1897 Greece Political Context
Defeat of the Greek Army during the Greek–Turkish War.
1897 Austria Fine And Applied Arts
Gustav Klimt (1867–1918) founds, along with other Viennese artists, the Viennese Secession, a society of Austrian Art Nouveaux artists.
1897 - 1909 United Kingdom Cities And Urban Spaces
Charles Rennie Mackintosh (b. Glasgow, Scotland 1868; d. London, England 1928), artist, designer and architect, is perhaps best known for the Charles Rennie Mackintosh building at Glasgow School of Art, which was built in two stages (1897–9 and 1907–9) due to lack of funding. Designed in the Art and Crafts style, and owing much to Scotland’s baronial tradition, Mackintosh eschewed the architectural styles of Greece and Rome in his design. Achieving the acclaim he felt he deserved in Europe, Mackintosh’s originality was never fully appreciated in the United Kingdom, except by a few loyal supporters and patrons, during his lifetime.
1897 - 1904 Germany Fine And Applied Arts
Formation of the Kaiser-Friedrich-Museum (now the Bode Museum), proposed by Wilhelm von Bode, and built by Ernst von Ihne and Max Hasak.
1897 Lebanon Cities And Urban Spaces
On 9 January 1897 and in celebration of the 10th anniversary of the Ottoman Sultan ‘Abd al-Hamid II’s coronation, a clock tower is built near the Grand Serail, Beirut, to make up for the absence of a public clock indicating mandatory Muslim prayer times especially as many foreign institutions had built Western-style clock towers.
1898 - 1899 Romania Travelling
Bazil G. Assan is the first Romanian to go on an expedition around the world, taking the route Constan#a–Istanbul–Cairo–Ceylon–China–Japan–Pacific Ocean– USA–Europe.
1898 Italy Political Context
Anarchist Gaetano Bresci kills the King Umberto I, in revenge for the protesters killed in Milan in 1898. Victor Emanuel III becomes King of Italy. Date Country Theme
1898 United Kingdom Political Context
Sudan is in possession of the Egyptians until a Sudanese revolt under the Mahdi severs the connection. It is brought back to Anglo-Egyptian rule with a military conquest led by an Egyptian army officered by the British. Control of Sudan facilitated British colonial expansion in Sub-Saharan Africa.
1898 Egypt Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Shahin Pasha Aqueduct, constructed under Muhammad ‘Ali and located between the Omar Shah and Tukuz Tamar (Darb el-Jamamiz) aqueducts, is infilled with earth.
1898 - 1902 Egypt Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The British begin construction of the first Dam across the Nile in 1898 and work continues to 1902. Opened on 10 December 1902, the Aswan Low Dam is a gravity (masonry) buttress dam on the Nile in Aswan.
1898 Spain Reforms And Social Changes
The lost of the last overseas territories causes a big crisis. It is the moment for important writers and intellectuals such as Unamuno and Joaquin Costa, all members of what is called "Generación del ‘98” (Generation of ’98) to analyse the reasons for the crisis and look critically at Spain's past and its future.
1898 Portugal Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The teaching of astronomy as an individual science starts, taking advantage of the astronomy teaching experience acquired since 1837 at the Lisbon Polytechnic School. This school was meant to provide training for cartography surveys and military preparation.
1898 Portugal Economy And Trade
Industrialist Alfredo da Silva refounds CUF (Companhia União Fabril), in Barreiro in the beginning of the 20th century. CUF produced soap, candles and vegetable oils, later becoming a leader of the fertilizer and other chemical products sector. Da Silva gave residential quarters and free education to all his employees nationwide.
1898 - 1917 Germany Rediscovering The Past
Foundation of the Deutsche-Orient Gesellschaft (DOG) in Berlin is to promote research in the field of “Oriental” archaeology and bring it to a wider audience. One of the first archaeological excavations undertaken by the DOG was in Babylon, with the discovery of the Ishtar Gate (now at the Museum of the Ancient Near East in Berlin). DOG was responsible for finds at Tell el-Amarna, the capital of the Pharaonic Empire where the famous bust of Queen Nefertiti was found (now at the Neues Museum). Kaiser Wilhelm II assumed patronage of DOG in 1901.
1898 - 1900 Germany Political Context
Development and rearmament (Aufrüstung) of the German Navy. Date Country Theme
1898 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Ay#e S#d#ka (d.1903), the first female Ottoman pedagogue, publishes Usûl-i Talim ve Terbiye Dersleri (Lectures on Methods of Teaching and Education). She was the instructor for courses in geography, ethics and handicrafts at the Female Teachers’ Seminary in #stanbul.
1899 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Economy And Trade
By 1899 private British, French and other European arms dealers import some 20,000 rifles into the Trucial Coast region and Oman annually.
1899 - 1904 Italy Cities And Urban Spaces
Construction of the new Synagogue in Rome (architects: Vincenzo Costa and Osvaldo Armanni), an imposing building of eclectic style, with decorative elements inspired by Assyro-Babylonian architecture.
1899 - 1920s Italy Cities And Urban Spaces
Construction of some remarkable Liberty-style buildings, such as the Villino Florio in Palermo and the new building of Palazzo Montecitorio (seat of the Italian Chamber of Deputies in Rome), both by Ernesto Basile, some pavilions for the 1902 national exhibition in Turin, and the small Coppedè neighbourhood in Rome. Overall, however, Liberty style leaves a smaller mark on Italian cities than eclecticism.
1899 Italy Economy And Trade
In Turin, Giovanni Agnelli founds the car factory FIAT.
1899 Egypt Cities And Urban Spaces
Prince Muhammad ‘Ali Tawfiq is responsible for opening the Al-Manyal Palace Museum in 1899, which is set in a large garden of thirty feddans (approx 31 acres).
1899 Egypt Economy And Trade
The National Bank of Egypt introduces notes in denominations of 50 piasters, and one, five, ten, 50 and 100 Egyptian pounds.
1899 Egypt Migrations
British diplomat Alfred Mitchell-Innes was appointed Under-Secretary of State for Finance in Egypt.
1899 Egypt Travelling
British diplomat Alfred Mitchell-Innes is appointed Undersecretary of State for Finance in Egypt.
1900 - 1920 Tunisia Fine And Applied Arts Date Country Theme
Art Nouveau marks the city’s landscape.
1900 - 1910 Tunisia Migrations
The colonial era: social and cultural life are organised around Europeans striving for modernity and accustomed to the cultural life of European cities; hence construction of theatres, hotels, casinos, etc.
1900s United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
British records note that an industry of weaving fine sheep’s-wool ‘aba’ (cloaks) had been developed in Sharjah but, as insufficient quantities were being made to meet local demand, they were also imported from Bahrain and al-Ahsa. Most of the cloth used in the Trucial States at the time was imported from India and elsewhere.
1900 - 1930s United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Reforms And Social Changes
Wealthy pearl merchants from the Arabian Gulf establish new educational institutions on the Trucial Coast. In addition to religious subjects, the schools – housed in purpose-built structures with proper classrooms – offer an expanded curriculum. In Sharjah, al-Taimiyyah (later al-Islah) and al-Nabudah schools are established.
1900 - 1930s United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Reforms And Social Changes
Sharjah’s Taimiyyah School, which also incorporated a library, would send promising students farther afield to continue their studies. Students from outside Sharjah were offered free board and accommodation at the school.
1900s - 1915 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Reforms And Social Changes
Media from Egypt and India critical of British politics penetrates the Trucial Coast. The Cairo-based newspapers Al-Mu’ayyad and Al-Liwa have numerous subscribers on the Trucial Coast.
1900 Romania International Exhibitions
At the International Exposition in Paris, Romania has four pavilions, the central one designed by French architect Jean-Camille Formigé.
1900 Romania Travelling
Al. Saabner-Tuduri publishes a book on the Mineral Waters and the Spas of Romania, the first paper about Romanian balneology, which used to be a very important component of Romanian tourism.
1900 France Economy And Trade
The first line of the Paris Metro is built for the second Universal Exhibition.
1900 France International Exhibitions Date Country Theme
The World Fair in Paris as the symbol of the Belle Époque with its theme “the balance of a century”. The exhibition bequeaths to Paris several buildings including the Petit Palais and the Grand Palais.
1900 France Reforms And Social Changes
The law on the working conditions of women and children (Millerand Law) decreases the working day to 11 hours.
1900 Lebanon Migrations
A group of about a dozen Lebanese, dissatisfied with the dismal prospect of earning a livelihood from the stubborn northern Lebanese soil, set out to stake their claim on the mythical riches in the new land of Australia.
1900 - 1908 Jordan Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Hijaz Railway is developed by ‘Abd al-Hamid II (1876–1908) for various reasons, not least of which is to strengthen the Empire’s control in an area that is the only window for the Ottomans to trade with the Far East after the British took control of the major international trade routes (Suez Canal and Arab-Persian Gulf). Supported by Germany, which is seeking control in this area to oppose the British, work on the project, and inauguration of stations coincides with the annual anniversary of the Sultan’s accession on 1 September. The line reaches Amman in 1903, Ma’an in 1904 and Mudawwara in 1906. The 1,450 km railway reaches Medina in 1908.
1900 - 1909 Italy Economy And Trade
Annual per capita income increases by 18.5% during the decade because of industrialisation.
1900 Italy International Exhibitions
In the 19th and 20th centuries, Italian companies participate in many international exhibition, such as the 1900 Paris World Fair.
1900 - 1909 Italy Migrations
Italians who had migrated to the USA, Argentina and Brazil repatriate to Italy in large numbers during the 1900s: the annual average is 119,857 from the USA; 31,712 from Argentina; 19,864 from Brazil.
1900 Italy Reforms And Social Changes
Law on “state quinine” passed: in order to fight malaria, the state will produce quinine and sell it at a low price not only in the 5,000 pharmacies, but also in the 27,000 tobacconists.
1900 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Birth of the celebrated poet Mubarak bin Saif al-Nakhi in Sharjah. Date Country Theme
1900 Greece Fine And Applied Arts
Foundation of the National Gallery in Athens. Its chief curator is the acclaimed painter Georgios Iakovidis.
1900 Egypt Travelling
On a visit to Britain, ‘Abbas Hilmi II tells the authorities that he thinks the British have carried out good work in Egypt. He declares himself ready to cooperate with British officials administering Egypt and Sudan.
1900 Portugal Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
By this year Portugal has 8,345 km of telegraphic lines and 443 telegraphic stations. The telegraph is an urban phenomenon hand in hand with city development. Due to the demand for telegraphic operators, several schools were created. Submarine cables assured the telegraphic service between Portugal and the United Kingdom, the United States of America, and Africa.
1900 Portugal International Exhibitions
At the Paris “Exposition Universelle et Internationale”, the Portuguese pavilion is called “Portugal and Portuguese Overseas Colonies”. Inside, on the ground floor, are two main exhibitions: one on the works of João Vaz (1859–1931) painter of harbours and fishing scenes, the other on natural forest products such as cork.
1900 - 1909 Italy Migrations
Average annual Italian migration (temporary and permanent, to nearest 1,000): France 57,000; USA 233,000; Argentina 73,000; Brazil 30,000.
1900 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The establishment of the beneficence “Nobel Prize” by Alfred Nobel.
1900 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Planck’s Law, which describes electromagnetic radiation.
1900 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Ferdinand Graf von Zeppelin invents the zeppelin, a steerable airship.
1900 Turkey International Exhibitions
As if to compensate for its absence from the Paris 1878 and 1889 exhibitions, the Ottoman government spends a considerable sum on the pavilion for the Paris Internation Exhibition of 1900, designed by the French architect Adrien-René Dubuisson.
1901 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Great Inventions Of The 19th Century Date Country Theme
The Russian Steam Navigation and Trading Company begin commercial and passenger operations in the Gulf.
1901 Italy Fine And Applied Arts
Giuseppe Pellizza da Volpedo paints The Fourth Estate, showing workers on strike. The painting will become an icon of the workers’ movement.
1901 Italy Migrations
Comprehensive law on migration creates the Commissariato generale per l’emigrazione and introduces other measures aimed at ensuring migrants’ welfare, such as medical inspections on boats.
1901 - 1910 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Giacomo Puccini consolidates his reputation. He develops a very personal language that is deeply rooted in the Italian melodic tradition, despite his attention to international trends and his choice of exotic subjects (Madama Butterfly, La fanciulla del West, Turandot).
1901 - 1914 Italy Political Context
Almost uninterrupted rule by Giovanni Giolitti, who allows more freedom of action to trade unions, introduces some social reforms and makes some openings for Socialists and Catholics.
1901 Italy Travelling
Liguria (the region of Genoa) is the Italian region with the highest number of foreigners (12,000). It has a mild climate that attracts foreigners escaping north Europe’s harsh climate for health reasons. All through the 19th and early 20th centuries, many foreigners affected by tuberculosis and other illness resided in Italy for extended periods.
1901 - 1903 Greece Political Context
Under the leadership of King Constantine I and Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos, Greece defeats the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria during the Balkan Wars.
1901 Greece Economy And Trade
The Greek Chamber of Commerce is founded in Alexandria, Egypt, with Emmanouil Benakis as its president.
1901 United Kingdom Travelling
Age 42, a young and energetic Viceroy of India, Lord Curzon, visits the Arab Gulf sheikhdoms to confirm treaties of British protection of them, a policy that prevails until 1970.
1901 United Kingdom Political Context Date Country Theme
The British Viceroy, Lord Curzon, visits the sheikhdoms of the Gulf to confirm treaties of protection that exclude other European powers. Iraq and Arabia fall under a British- Indian sphere of influence with the Indian rupee as the principal currency. Curzon’s policy lasts until 1970.
1901 Austria Cities And Urban Spaces
Otto Wagner designs and overseas construction of the Viennese metro, the Wiener Stadtbahn.
1901 - 1909 Saudi Arabia Political Context
Under the Ottoman Sultan ‘Abd al-Hamid, the Hijaz Railway is built, running from Istanbul to the Medina (Madinah) province.
1901 Republic of Macedonia Fine And Applied Arts (FYROM)
One of the founders of Macedonian modern art, Lazar Lichenoski (d. 1964) is born in Galichnik. After graduating from Belgrade Art School he attended prestigeous art schools in Paris. He is best known for his landscapes, which reveal the harmonious beauty of nature through endless views from the peak of Bistra Mountain. Lichenoski introduced expressionism in Macedonian art.
1901 Portugal Cities And Urban Spaces
31 August: Inauguration of the first electric tram route in Lisbon, connecting Cais do Sodré to Ribamar (Algés). The more efficient electric tramway, with tracks, overhead power lines and the construction of Santos Central Power Station, replaces the popular “Americanos” horse-drawn trams of Lisbon.
1901 Portugal Fine And Applied Arts
The Sociedade Promotora de Belas Artes (1861) and the Grémio Artístico (1890) created by the Grupo do Leão (1880) merge into the National Society of Fine Arts (SNBA) headed by Malhoa Columbano and António Ramalho. In Porto, the Centro Artístico Portuense (CAP) (founded in 1870) did not survive the death of the painter Silva Porto in 1903.
1901 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Posthumous publication of the Livro de Cesário Verde, a compilation of the poetry of Cesário Verde (1855–86) by his friend, Silva Pinto, author of the Preface. An original poet who described a world previously unknown to poetry, Cesário Verde completely modernised the traditional style of the Portuguese lyricism.
1901 Turkey Cities And Urban Spaces
Izmir Clock Tower is built to commemorate the 25th anniversary of Abdülhamid II’s accession to the throne. It is designed by Levantine French architect Raymond Charles Père.
1902 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Economy And Trade Date Country Theme
The Qawasim and other sheikhs of the Arab littoral agree by Treaty to prohibit the import of arms into their territories.
1902 Italy International Exhibitions
First International Exhibition of Modern Decorative Arts in Turin, featuring the best production of architecture, furniture and applied arts.
1902 - 1903 Italy Rediscovering The Past
The Italian state buys the 15th-century building of Villa Borghese in Rome and the park around it, including the astounding collection of paintings and sculptures that the villa housed. The villa will be transformed into the Borghese Gallery and Museum.
1902 - 1909 Italy Rediscovering The Past
First Italian national laws on the protection of cultural heritage. The new laws establish the principle of inalienability of national heritage and create a state administration (with national and local branches) dedicated to caring for cultural heritage.
1902 Italy Reforms And Social Changes
Legislation passed prohibiting children under the age of 12 from working, women from working in mines and under-age women from working at night. First provisions for maternity leave (four weeks after delivery).
1902 - 1920 Saudi Arabia Political Context
In 1902, age 19, King ‘Abd al-‘Aziz ibn ‘Abd al-Rahman, along with a small army, returns to Riyad to reclaim his family legacy. Managing to take Riyad, ‘Abd al- Rahman then begins to unify modern Saudi Arabia.
1902 Republic of Macedonia Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion (FYROM)
Birth of writer Stale Popov in Melnca, Mariovo Region. He began writing early immortalising tales from Macedonian folk tradition about Itar Pejo (Smart Pejo). He achieved eminence after publication of his first novel Patchwork Life. His talent lay in introducing themes from social life. His other well-known novels are Kalesh Angja and Tole Pasha.
1902 Portugal Cities And Urban Spaces
Opening of Santa Justa Lift, an iconic example of iron architecture. Planned since 1874, it was designed to bridge the 25 metre gap in height between Ouro and Carmo streets, thus making pedestrian traffic between Lisbon’s hills easier. The inauguration of the gangway by King Carlos I is held on 10 July.
1902 Portugal Travelling
Inauguration of the Escola de Medicina Tropical de Lisboa (Lisbon Academy of Tropical Medicine), founded like its European counterparts to provide specialised Date Country Theme training, spread knowledge and undertake field research. One of its main subjects was sleeping sickness for whose treatment the Academy undertook five field missions (1904–11) to São Tomé and Mozambique.
1902 Lebanon Rediscovering The Past
Opening of the Archaeological Museum of the American University of Beirut. It is the third oldest museum in the Mashriq, after those in Cairo and Istanbul.
1902 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Naz#m Hikmet Ran, famous Turkish poet, playwright and novelist, is born.
1903 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Political Context
British Viceroy and Governor-General of India, Lord Curzon, visits the Trucial sheikhs at Sharjah to reaffirm Britain’s commitment to “guardianship and protection” and the British Government’s position as “your overlords and protectors”. Curzon asserts that continued British control of India depends on maintaining British supremacy in the Gulf.
1903 Austria Fine And Applied Arts
The Wiener Werkstätte, an association of designers such as Joseph Hofmann and Koloman Moser is founded, covering all aspects of design from fashion to furniture.
1903 Serbia Political Context
A military coup brings about restitution of the Kara#or#evi# Dynasty.
1903 Egypt Cities And Urban Spaces
The House of Arab Antiquities opens on 28 December 1903, located on Bab al- Khalq Square which is famous for its Islamic infrastructure: the mosques of Ahmad ibn Tulun and Muhammad ‘Ali, and the Citadel of Saladin. The Museum is only the second concrete-iron building to be constructed after the Egyptian Museum.
1903 Republic of Macedonia Fine And Applied Arts (FYROM)
A founder of contemporary Macedonian art, Nikola Martinoski is born in Krushevo (d. 1973). He learned painting in the Skopje workshop of the icon painter Dimitar Andonov, and in Bucharest and Paris. His distinctive expressionist style depicts social themes and portraits, influenced by Macedonian frescos and the modern Parisian school. His outstanding work is the painting "Mother and Child".
1903 Republic of Macedonia Migrations (FYROM)
The Slav-Macedonian Scientific Literary Society, also known as the St Petersburg Colony, is established. It plays an important role in the national awakening of Macedonians and raising the issue of the independence of Macedonia within the international community. Date Country Theme
1903 Republic of Macedonia Migrations (FYROM)
Publication in Sofia of On Macedonian Matters by Krste Petkov Misirkov (1874– 1926). This book was a starting point in explaining factors about Macedonian people as a distinct nation and laid the foundations of the Macedonian modern language and grammar.
1903 Germany Rediscovering The Past
A large part of the richly ornamented south facade of Qasr al-Mushatta – one of the most important works of early Islamic architecture – was presented as a gift from the Ottoman Sultan ‘Abd al-Hamid II to Emperor Wilhelm II and transported from Jordan to Berlin via rail and sea.
1903 Austria Political Context
The young King Alexander of Serbia is brutally murdered in an officers’ conspiracy in June. The replacement of the pro-Austrian Obrenovi# Dynasty by the pro- Russian House of Kara#or#evi# under Peter I, changes the balance of power in the Balkans.
1904 Austria Reforms And Social Changes
Theodor Herzl, founder of the Zionist movement, dies.
1904 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Luigi Pirandello (1867–1936), Italian dramatist, novelist, poet and short story writer, publishes the novel Il fu Mattia Pascal. In 1934, he will be awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature.
1904 Italy Reforms And Social Changes
Law on free distribution of quinine to peasants and workers in malaria-infested areas.
1904 Italy Reforms And Social Changes
First general strike at a national level held as a protest at police violence against workers (in repeated instances, the police had opened fire against workers on strike, killing several of them).
1904 Austria Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
First performance of Leoš Janá#ek’s (1854–1928) opera Janufa.
1904 Egypt Cities And Urban Spaces
The Egyptian Geological Museum (EGM) is established and opened to the public as part of the Egyptian Geological Survey (EGS), founded earlier in 1896. The Museum supports the theses that Egyptians are pioneers in extraction and utilization of metals and stones, the essential basics of civilization, and that they Date Country Theme were the first to discover gold and copper and mine them from the Eastern Desert and Sinai.
1904 - 1912 Spain Political Context
After the loss of its last colonies, Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Philippines, Spain focuses on North Africa in the framework of the colonial interests of other European powers such as France, the UK and Germany. After different international talks and agreements – Spanish–French Agreement (1904), Algeciras Conference (1906), Cartagena Declarations (1907) – Spain and France sign in November 1912 the Treaty establishing the French and Spanish Protectorates in Morocco.
1904 Portugal Cities And Urban Spaces
Avenida Ressano Garcia, a main residential area and development axis opens in the north of Lisbon as part of the “Avenidas Novas” plan. Part of a later phase of the Lisbon Improvements Plan, led by Frederico Ressano Garcia, it also included sanitation improvement. Today the street is known as Avenida da República.
Around 1914 - 1918 Germany Economy And Trade
In 1914 Germany becomes the biggest industrial nation within Europe as a result of munitions production before and during World War I.
1904 Germany Reforms And Social Changes
Publication of Max Weber’s The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. Weber is known as the originator of social science.
1905 - 1907 Romania Travelling
The construction of the seaside resort Mamaia, on the shore of the Black Sea, which became and remains one of the most popular Romanian resorts.
1905 France Reforms And Social Changes
On 29 June, the working day for minors is reduced to eight hours.
1905 Italy Economy And Trade
Nationalisation of the railways.
1905 Italy Travelling
The Automobile Club d’Italia is founded.
1905 Morocco Political Context
Emperor Wilhelm II visits Tangiers on 3 March 1905, keen to prevent diplomatic isolation of his country and to safeguard Germany’s economic interests.
1905 Egypt Reforms And Social Changes Date Country Theme
The Egyptian Olympic Athletes Club is built in Alexandria.
1905 Republic of Macedonia Great Inventions Of The 19th Century (FYROM)
The first film in the Balkans is shot by the Manaki brothers. Pioneers of Macedonian film, Janaki (1878–1945) and Milton (1880–1964) shot their first film only 10 years after the Lumiere Brothers. It shows their grandmother Despina spinning wool. Their first film of ethnographic value was shot soon after. It documents celebration of the feast of Sts Cyril and Methodius in front of the church devoted to these saints in Bitola.
1905 Republic of Macedonia Migrations (FYROM)
Publication of the journal Autonomous Macedonia begins in Belgrade. This attempt to propagate the idea of an independent state initiated by Grigorie Tashkovic ends after only a few issues.
1905 - 1916 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Physician Albert Einstein formulates his Theory and publishes Relativity: The Special and General Theory.
1905 Germany Migrations
Foundation of the German field-workers central office (Deutsche Feldarbeiter Zentralstelle; later Deutsche Arbeitszentrale), initiated by the Prussian Ministry of Agriculture, in order to control work-based migration to Germany.
1906 Tunisia Rediscovering The Past
The Archaeological Museum of Sfax is established in one of the city’s hotels.
1906 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The German Hamburg–America Line offers a steamer service between Europe and the Gulf.
1906 Romania Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
18 March: Romanian pilot and inventor Traian Vuia tests in France (near Paris) his heavier-than-air, fully self-propelled, fixed-wing aircraft. The plane leaves the ground and flies at a height of 1 m for a distance of about 12 m, but the engine cuts out and it comes down.
1906 France Reforms And Social Changes
Introduction of a compulsory weekly rest period of 24 hours (voted on 3 July).
1906 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century Date Country Theme
Simplon Tunnel between Domodossola (Italy) and Brig (Switzerland) inaugurated. The construction works had started in 1898. At the time, it was the longest tunnel in the world (19.7 km).
1906 Italy International Exhibitions
International Exhibition in Milan to celebrate the opening of the Simplon Tunnel. The main focus is on transport. There are 35,000 exhibitors, coming from dozens of different countries, and more than 5 million visitors.
1906 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Italian poet Giosuè Carducci (1835–1907) is awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature.
1906 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Sibilla Aleramo (pseudonym of Rina Faccio, 1876–1960) publishes Una donna (A woman), a fictionalised memoir that describes a woman’s desperate struggle to assert her individuality in a male-dominated society. The book is considered a feminist manifesto.
1906 Italy Rediscovering The Past
Ethnographer Lamberto Loria (1855–1913) creates an Ethnography Museum in Florence.
1906 Italy Reforms And Social Changes
The Confederazione Generale del Lavoro (CGL – national confederation of trade unions) is founded. Argentina Altobelli becomes Secretary General of the Farm Workers Union (the first woman to become national union leader).
1906 Greece Travelling
The Intercalated or Olympic Games are held in Athens. An international multi-sport event, many people consider them to be the Olympic Games. The International Olympic Committee refers to them as the “Second International Olympic Games in Athens”.
1906 Morocco Political Context
The Algeciras Conference of 1906 endorses the intervention of Western powers in Morocco, granting special rights to both Spain and France.
1906 Portugal Reforms And Social Changes
Opening of the Lyceu Maria Pia, Lisbon, the first secondary school for girls. Though planned since 1887, female access to secondary level education faced lengthy resistance from Parliament. In 1888 the government was authorised to set up girls’ secondary schools run by district, municipal and charitable entities in Lisbon, Porto and Coimbra.
1906 Germany Reforms And Social Changes Date Country Theme
Alois Alzheimer describes a type of dementia, Alzheimer’s, for the first time.
1906 Lebanon Cities And Urban Spaces
In celebration of the 30th year of ‘Abd al-Hamid II as sultan of the Ottoman Empire, the Tell Clock Tower is erected in Tripoli as a gift to the city. It is similar to the Jaffa Clock Tower and many others throughout the Empire.
1906 Lebanon Cities And Urban Spaces
Hotel Kadri is built in Zahlé. In 1914 it is taken over by the Turkish army and used as a military headquarters.
1906 Lebanon Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The Ottoman government decides to build the Electric Tramway Station in Beirut. The electric tramway passes through Beirut on seven tram lines built in 1891 heading to the coast and linking Beirut and Mameltein.
1906 Lebanon Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The second railway in Lebanon is opened connecting with the first line at Riyaq and running to Aleppo, connecting it with Beirut.
1907 - 1912 Tunisia Political Context
The Young Tunisians found the first French-language newspaper Le Tunisien. Echoes of their militant action are seen in the riots of Djellaz on 11 November 2011 and the tramway accident on 8 February 1912.
1907 Lebanon Travelling
Khalil Pasha (1864–1923), commander of the Turkish Sixth Army during World War I orders the creation of the Hamidi Public Garden, which later becomes the Sanayeh Garden. It is one of the oldest public open-air spaces in the capital.
1907 Austria Reforms And Social Changes
Introduction of the general equal franchise means that all Austrian male citizens have the right to vote for members of the parliament; prior to 1907 only males paying a minimum amount of tax were allowed a vote.
1907 Morocco Political Context
Colonial rivalries: the Moroccan crisis brings about a new raft of trade agreements between the English and the French, with the participation of the Spanish, sharing out Morocco and Egypt, which is greeted with dismay by Moroccans.
1907 - 1912 Morocco Political Context
A series of incidents provoke the intervention of the French army when in August 1907 the French land in Casablanca and occupy Oujda, Casablanca and Fez, despite opposition from Germany. Date Country Theme
1907 Spain International Exhibitions
Colonial Exhibition in Paris. After the success of the first international exhibition known as the Great Exhibition in London in 1851, international exhibitions become more specialised as colonial exhibitions from 1866. These exhibitions, held in European cities until 1948, depict life in the colonial territories.
1907 Spain Reforms And Social Changes
Creation of the Junta para Ampliación de Estudios e Investigaciones Científicas (JAE) (Board for Advanced Studies and Research), a public institution founded to provide scholarships for Spanish university students to attend European universities. Intended to promote contact with European culture and science, this public programme created a basis for reforms needed in education, culture and science. The JAE, ideologically related to the Institución Libre de Enseñanza (Free Institution for Education), was abolished by Franco’s government in 1938 and replaced by the Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC – Higher Council for Scientific Research) in 1939.
1907 Republic of Macedonia Fine And Applied Arts (FYROM)
Gjorgji Zografski paints what is considered to be the earliest depiction of an actual historic event. It shows the plundering raid on the village of Papradishte near Veles that occurred in 1884.
1907 - 1920 Portugal Cities And Urban Spaces
In Aveiro, art nouveau buildings are associated with a local middle class looking for cultural and social status. Some are “brasileiros”, coming back from Brazil to their homeland, and investors in trade and industrial businesses, thus contributing to local economic development. The art nouveau of Aveiro is inspired by French patterns.
1908 Tunisia Reforms And Social Changes
The School of Pasha Street, the first school for Muslim girls, opens in Tunis.
1908 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Cities And Urban Spaces
The population of Sharjah has reached around 19,000 inhabitants. The suq boasts some 200 shops, with a multicultural mix of local and resident merchants, pearl traders, and trade-related professionals originating from as far away as India and East Africa. The Emirate of Sharjah as a whole is estimated as having around 45,500 inhabitants at this time.
1908 France Reforms And Social Changes
Manifestation of French suffragettes for women’s right to vote.
1908 Greece Fine And Applied Arts Date Country Theme
An exhibition by members of the Omada Technis (Art Group), which includes Nikolaos Lytras, Konstantinos Parthenis, Konstantinos Malea and others, reacts to the conservative academicism of the Munich school.
1908 Portugal Political Context
1 February: The assassination of King Carlos I and his heir-apparent Prince Royal Luis Filipe in Terreiro do Paço in central Lisbon, fomented by, among other things, the King’s appointment of João Franco as head of government in 1906; with the King’s consent he set up a dictatorship one year later. Queen Amelia and Prince Manuel escape and the prince is enthroned as King Manuel II.
1908 Germany Political Context
Austria-Hungary annexes the Ottoman provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Following international protests, Germany shows solidarity with Austria.
Since 1908 Germany Reforms And Social Changes
Women are admitted to study at German universities.
1908 Turkey Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Hijaz Railway is opened.
1908 Turkey Political Context
4 July: Young Turk Revolution.
1908 Turkey Political Context
23 July: The Constitution of 1876 is restored and the Committee of the Union and Congress (CUP) takes control over the administration.
1908 Austria Political Context
The Austrian Government proclaims the annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina and the evacuation of Austrian troops from the Sanjak on 6 October. The Austrian annexation then escalates into a major international crisis, which sees Serbia’s future hope to establish a Yugoslav empire shattered.
1909 France Reforms And Social Changes
On 7 December the law is passed guaranteeing the payment of wages at regular intervals (every 15 days for workers, every month for employees).
1909 Italy Fine And Applied Arts
Filippo Marinetti publishes the Futurist Manifesto in Le Figaro.
1909 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Date Country Theme
Filippo Tommaso Marinetti (b. Alexandria, Egypt, 1876, d. Bellagio, Italy, 1944) publishes the Futurist Manifesto. The Futurist artistic movement emphasised speed, energy, vitality, and the power of machine and technology. Marinetti also glorified violence and war, which he considered “the world’s only hygiene”.
1909 United Kingdom International Exhibitions
Heliopolis, Egypt, in this year, sees one of the first aviation exhibitions with an “Aviation Week”. While, initially, aviation was a sport, during World War I it became a weapon. It is only after the end of the war that aviation starts to be used as a form of “mass” transport for the wealthy.
1909 Egypt Economy And Trade
Trading had hardly started that day (30 April) at Shari‘ al-Borsa al-Jadida or New Bourse Street when it was announced that Raphael Suares, the leading laissez- faire banker-industrialist in Egypt, had passed away. The Bourse closed for the rest of the day. It was largely thanks to Saures’ efforts that Cairo had a bourse in the first place. His unexpected and early death meant that Suares missed by only a few months the imposition of the first ever bourse regulations.
1909 - 1926 Spain Political Context
Military actions in northern Morocco to prevent attacks by local tribesmen around Melilla are very unpopular in Spain because of forced levies. The levy decree of 1909 causes uprisings in Barcelona and other Catalonian cities known as Semana Trágica/Setmana Tràgica (Tragic Week). Spain is ultimately successful in the lengthy Rif War (1921–26) in preserving its rule over northern Morocco although in 1921 its army retreats with huge losses.
1909 Turkey Fine And Applied Arts
A Turkish group of painters, Association of Ottoman Painters, is founded by students from the Fine Arts Academy in #stanbul.
1909 Turkey Political Context
The 31 March Incident (31 Mart Vakas#/Olay# or Hadisesi) is a rebellion on 13 April (31 March in official Rumi calendar) in Constantinople against restoration of the constitutional system. It is the culmination of the Ottoman countercoup that attempted to end the Second Constitutional Era in the empire and the newly established influence of the Committee of Union and Progress in order to reaffirm Abdülhamid II as absolute monarch.
1909 Turkey Political Context
27 April: Unseating of Sultan Abdülhamid II and accession of Sultan Mehmed V.
1910 Romania Rediscovering The Past
27 April: the establishment of the Historical Commission of Romania, which is intended to publish critical editions of the Romanian medieval chronicles. Date Country Theme
1910 - 1920 France Migrations
The Spanish community is France’s most important.
1910 France Reforms And Social Changes
On 28 December, the Act establishing the Labour Code is passed.
1910 - 1912 Italy Reforms And Social Changes
Maternity fund for female workers established. Voluntary pension fund established.
1910 Austria Cities And Urban Spaces
When Adolf Loos designs the Michaelaplatz in Vienna for the textile company Goldman & Salatsch, unusually, there is no ornamentation around the windows.
1910 Spain International Exhibitions
“Meisterwerke muhammedanischer Kunst” (Masterpieces of Islamic Art) exhibition in Munich displaying more than 3,600 artefacts. The exhibition gives Islamic art and archaeology a new push in the academic world and is considered a turning point in the orientalist view of and romantic passion for Islamic art and culture.
1910 Portugal Political Context
The Republic is proclaimed in Lisbon on 5 October. King Manuel II is forced to exile in England together with his mother Queen Amelia who ends up in her homeland France. A Provisional Government is set up, headed by Teófilo Braga, a well- known respected jurist and writer. The new cabinet ruled until the first republican Constitution was enacted.
1910 - 1919 Italy Migrations
Average annual Italian migration (temporary and permanent, to nearest 1,000): France 44,000; USA 157,000; Argentina 32,000; Brazil 13,000.
1910 - 1930 Germany Fine And Applied Arts
Foundation of the Pergamon Museum (including the Museum of Islamic Art), conceptualised by Wilhelm von Bode, and built by Alfred Messel and Ludwig Hoffmann.
1910 Germany International Exhibitions
A groundbreaking exhibition on Islamic art opens in Munich, “Ausstellung von Meisterwerken Muhammedanischer Kunst”.
1910 - 1925 Germany Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The era of Expressionism in literature (i.e. the works of Benn, Kafka, Lasker- Schüler, Mann and Döblin) is influenced by the human experience of World Date Country Theme War I and other influences such as Darwinism, Friedrich Nietzsche’s “despair of civilisation” and Freud’s Psychoanalytic theory.
1911 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Economy And Trade
The Qawasim and other sheikhs of the Arab littoral sign a Treaty with the British that enjoins them to request permission from the British Resident in the Arabian Gulf prior to responding to foreign requests for pearling or sponge-fishing rights along the Trucial Coast.
1911 Lebanon Travelling
A private residence in Beirut’s Zokak el-Blat quarter is turned into the Robert Muawad private museum, presenting precious collection of fine arts and antique pieces.
1911 Italy Cities And Urban Spaces
In Rome, inauguration of the neoclassical monument to King Victor Emanuel II (built after clearing the Capitol Hill area of medieval buildings) and of the new building for the National Gallery of Modern Art, built for the Fine Arts International Exhibitions, combining elements of different styles (neoclassical, neo-Renaissance, Liberty).
1911 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Italy is the first country to use a plane in war (the Italo-Turkish war, for the conquest of Libya). Planes cannot carry heavy weights, so the pilot carries in his pocket 1 kg bombs that he drops manually.
1911 Italy International Exhibitions
To celebrate the fiftieth anniversary of Italian unification, international exhibitions are organized in Rome, Florence and Turin.
1911 - 1912 Italy Political Context
Italo-Turkish war: Italy gains possession of Libya and the Dodecanese Islands.
1911 Greece Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The Alexandrian poet Constantine P. Cavafy publishes his poem Ithaca.
1911 - 1930 Spain Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Mariano Fortuny y Madrazo designs dresses, cloaks and tunics influenced by Arab and North African garments such as the abas or the bournous. He is best known for his dresses inspired by the garments of Antiquity such as his Delphos dresses, or in the orientalist style.
1911 Portugal Political Context
April: First Republican Constitution enacted. Manuel de Arriaga is elected as the first President. It is believed that the Republic will address the economic crisis Date Country Theme and promote progress. Though bringing together political forces, the regime is too vague to achieve the necessary economic and social reforms and soon ends up in political fragmentation and infighting.
1911 Portugal Fine And Applied Arts
The painters Dórdio Gomes (1890–1976) and Guilherme de Santa Rita (1889– 1918) introduce modernism in Portugal. Largely unaccepted by the critics, as was happening in other European countries, the main focus of the modernists was to fight against the conservatism of techniques and themes still cherished by Portuguese art consumers.
1911 Portugal Reforms And Social Changes
28 May: Carolina Beatriz Angelo (1878–1911), a gynaecologist, succeeds in voting in the 1911 elections. Challenged at the poll because she is a woman and therefore ineligible to vote, she insists, replying that she is “a doctor, over 21 and head of a family” and therefore she fulfils all the conditions required to vote. The electoral law is revised soon after this event.
1911 Portugal Travelling
12–20 May: The 4th International Congress of Tourism is held in Lisbon organised in collaboration with the Sociedade de Propaganda (founded 1906). Before the end of the meeting (18 May), the provisional government of the newly proclaimed Portuguese Republic (5 October 1910) creates a Bureau of Tourism at the Ministério do Fomento (Ministry of Development).
1911 - 1913 Germany Rediscovering The Past
The international reputations of the Orientalist, archaeologist and investigator of inscriptions Ernst Herzfeld and art historian Friedrich Sarre were assured when they found 8,000-year old (6th-century) painted pottery known as Samarra-Ware. Some of these finds from Samarra are in the Museum of Islamic Art, Berlin.
1911 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Foundation of the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft (later Max-Planck-Gesellschaft).
1911 Lebanon Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
In the reign of Yusuf Pasha, the train station in Beirut begins operating and is connected to the Syrian city of Homs with a single track. From the 1920s to the 1940s It formed the terminus of the Orient Express line.
1912 - 1929 Austria Rediscovering The Past
The Austrian archaeologist Hermann Junker organises an excavation to Giza in Egypt.
1912 - 1920 Italy Fine And Applied Arts
Giorgio de Chirico’s first metaphysical paintings (L’enigma dell’ora, 1912; Le muse inquietanti, 1916; Ettore e Andromaca, 1917; Il Grande Metafisico, 1917). Date Country Theme
1912 Italy Economy And Trade
Law establishes state monopoly of life insurance and creates the Istituto nazionale delle assicurazioni (INA).
1912 Italy Political Context
The right to vote is extended to all men above the age of 30 (or aged 21 if they completed primary school). The Pope allows Catholics to vote.
1912 - 1913 Greece Political Context
The Treaty of Sèvres is ratified after the victory of the Balkan Wars and the end of World War I. Consequently, Greece gains administration of the area of Smyrna.
1912 Austria Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The Italian writer Scipio Slataper publishes his autobiography in which he describes the multinational character of the Littoral (the countryside around his home in Trieste).
1912 Austria Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Jaroslav Hašek (1883–1923) publishes his parody on the Austrian army, The Good Soldier Švejk.
1912 Morocco Political Context
Mulay ‘Abd al ‘Aziz is deposed and replaced by his brother Mulay ‘Abd al-Hafiz (1908–12), who is proclaimed ruler in Marrakesh on 6 August 1907. He was then obliged to sign the treaty establishing the protectorate in Fez on 20 March 1912.
1912 Morocco Political Context
In November 1912 the Madrid Convention makes northern Morocco a Spanish protectorate.
1912 - 1913 Serbia Political Context
The First Balkan War begins in October 1912 between Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro and the Ottoman Empire; Montenegro is accused of igniting it by attacking Skadar. At the request of Turkey, an armistice is concluded in December 1912. Negotiations in London fail and the war continues into 1913. A Peace Treaty is signed in London in May 1913. Turkey surrenders all territories west of the Enos- Midija. The Serbian Navy withdraws from the sea; in November 1912, Albania is formed due to Austrian pressure.
1912 Egypt Cities And Urban Spaces
Bulaq Abu-l-‘Ala Bridge is inaugurated during the reign of Khedive ‘Abbas Hilmi II. It is seen as an architectural marvel that will link Cairo with Zamalek Island.
1912 Egypt Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Date Country Theme
Muhammad Husayn Haykal publishes the first volume of Jean-Jacques Rousseau. He intended the book to create a cultural intermarriage between the East and West and hoped it would lead to a new intellectual revolution by providing an example to the West.
1912 Spain Fine And Applied Arts
Foundation of the Museo Nacional de Artes Decorativas, an important step in the progress of applied arts and design, especially because its main objective is the education of workers, students and the public in the styles, decoration and other aspects of the applied arts.
1912 Republic of Macedonia Migrations (FYROM)
First publication of the Macedonian and Russian language journal Makedonski Golos (Macedonian Voice). Krste Petkov Misirkov and Dimitrija Chupovski, central figures of the Slav-Macedonian Scientific Literary Society, were largely responsible for its publishing.
1912 Portugal Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The first Portuguese experimental psychology laboratory is created in the new Faculty of Humanities of the University of Coimbra by Professor Joaquim Augusto Alves dos Santos (1866–1924). The laboratory enabled the development of research on knowledge and memory and had a major impact on pedagogy and republican didactics.
1912 Portugal Fine And Applied Arts
A reaction to academic teaching of the National Society of Fine Arts (SNBA) emerges in 1911 with the first free exhibition of young modernist painters. This is highlighted in the first Exhibition of the Humoristas of 1912, which includes painters Cristiano Cruz, Almada Negreiros, Eduardo Viana, Stuart de Carvalhais, José Pacheko and Emmerico Nunes and sculptor Diogo de Macedo.
1912 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Paul Claudel's de L'Annonce faite à Marie opens at the Théâtre de l'Œuvre, a Symbolist theatre set up as a reaction to André Antoine’s “Naturalist” Théâtre Libre.
1912 - 1913 Turkey Migrations
Balkan Wars. Large wave of Muslims and Jews flee the Balkans for Ottoman lands to the south. This involuntary migration is estimated to involve 64,000 persons.
1913 Romania Political Context
In 1913 Romania participates in the Second Balkan War and under the Treaty of Bucharest receives the south of Dobruja from Bulgaria.
1913 Italy Fine And Applied Arts Date Country Theme
Umberto Boccioni made the sculpture Unique Forms of Continuity in Space, considered a masterpiece of Italian Futurism.
1913 Italy Migrations
Italian migration reaches its peak: 870,000 Italians migrate abroad.
1913 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Grazia Deledda (1871–1936) publishes the novel Canne al vento. Thirteen years later, she will be awarded the Nobel Prize (the second woman to be Nobel laureate in literature).
1913 Italy Reforms And Social Changes
Average life expectancy, which in 1861 was 30 years, is now 47 years.
1913 Austria Fine And Applied Arts
Egon Schiele (1890–1918) becomes a member of the Bund Österreichischer Künstler (Society of Austrian Artists).
1913 Serbia Political Context
The Second Balkan War begins due to a quarrel between Serbia and Bulgaria over the division of joint conquests. Bulgaria attacks Serbia and Greece in 1923; the Bulgarians are defeated on both fronts. Subsequently, Turkey and Romania declare war on Bulgaria and the Bulgarians soon request an armistice. The war ends with a Peace Treaty signed in Bucharest in August 1913. During the Balkan Wars, Serbia expands its territory by 39,500 square kilometres.
1913 - 1914 Portugal Political Context
Afonso Costa is appointed Prime Minister. Republican achievements fall short of people’s expectations, fuelling the resistance of monarchists, capitalists and landlords. Inflation, public debt, trade deficit, strikes, the rise of anarcho- syndicalism, middle-class disillusion, and fear of communism will invite the establishment of the 1915 military dictatorship.
1913 Portugal Fine And Applied Arts
February–March: Amadeo Sousa Cardoso, at the invitation of Walter Pach (1883– 1958), exhibits eight works at the Armory Show (1st Show of European Art, USA) in New York, Chicago and Boston. The Chicago art collector Arthur J. Eddy acquires three paintings by Cardoso and promotes his work in his book Cubists and Post-Impressionism book, emphasising his colour techniques.
1913 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Publication of Marcel Proust’s Du côté de chez Swann.
1913 - 1917 Germany Cities And Urban Spaces Date Country Theme
The last palace (Cicilienhof) of the House of Hohenzollern (a dynasty of former princes, electors, kings and emperors) was built under Wilhelm II. The palace hosted the Conference of Potsdam in 1945.
1913 Turkey Political Context
23 July: Edirne retaken by the Ottoman Army under the command of Enver Pa#a.
1913 Turkey Political Context
23 January: Bab-# Ali coup d'état in the empire (Turkish: Bâb-# Âlî Bask#n#) results in Grand Vizier Kamil Pa#a being driven from power and replacement of Minister of War Naz#m Pa#a by #smail Enver. Effectively ending the London Peace Conference, it marks a significant point in the Ottoman government's progress towards centralisation, giving de facto power to the triumvirate known as the Three Pashas.
1914 Qatar Economy And Trade
Sheikh Abdullah bin Jassim regulates the activity of pearling. He issued and publishes the first written document on pearling activities identifying the start and the end dates of the season and the dividend rates of workers in pearling dhows.
1914s United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Economy And Trade
Around 1914, 80 per cent of the Trucial Coast’s labour force is involved in the wider pearling sector, including 950 major pearl merchants, 1,300 pearling ship-owners and some 21,000 general employees. The remainder are employed in agriculture, fisheries and other forms of commerce. Gulf pearling exports amount to 2 million pounds sterling.
1914 Romania Political Context
Death of King Carol I. As he only had one daughter, who died at the age of three, Ferdinand, his fraternal nephew, had been designated heir to the Romanian throne in 1880.
1914 Romania Rediscovering The Past
Vasile Pârvan initiates archaeological digs at Histria (Dobruja), the earliest documented city in the territory of Romania, and in 1915 discovers the ruins of the ancient Greek city Istros.
1914 France Reforms And Social Changes
The first French Doctorate in literature, Docteur en lettres, is received by a woman.
1914 - 1918 France Political Context
The First World War, which left millions dead in France, leaves a lasting impact on society.
1914 United Kingdom Political Context Date Country Theme
War catches the people by surprise: British troops are fighting the Ottomans on three fronts. They are repelled at Gallipoli, pushed back in Southern Arabia, and British forces are captured in Iraq. By the end of the war these setbacks are reversed and Britain and her allies occupy Constantinople, Egypt, Iraq and the Levant.
1914 Austria Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The Austrian expressionist writer Georg Trakl commits suicide following his experiences in battle during World War I.
1914 - 1918 Serbia Political Context
The duration of World War I.
1914 Egypt Reforms And Social Changes
Laying of the Foundation Stone of the University of Fuad I.
1914 Egypt Political Context
On 25 July, at the onset of World War I, ‘Abbas Hilmi II is in Constantinople where he suffers wounds to his hands and cheeks during a failed assassination attempt. On 5 November of that same year, when Britain declares war on Turkey, ‘Abbas is accused of deserting his country because he did not return home forthwith. In addition, because the British believe that he has been plotting against their rule, when the Ottoman Empire joins the central powers in the war, Britain declares Egypt an independent Sultanate under British Protectorate on 18 December, and ‘Abbas is deposed.
1914 - 1920 Spain Economy And Trade
Due to Spain's neutrality in World War I, the economy witnesses increased production and industrial growth. The end of the war produces the beginning of a crisis that causes the end of the monarchy in 1931.
1914 Lebanon Political Context
The privileged position enjoyed by Lebanon is ended by the Ottomans in World War I: Lebanon’s semi-automous status is abolished and Mount Lebanon, an important territory at the international level, is put under martial law by the Ottomans. The Turkish commander Jamal Pasha occupies Lebanon militarily.
1914 United Kingdom Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The Welsh poet and writer Dylan Marlais Thomas is born in Swansea on 27 October 1914. His best known works include the poem “Do not go gentle into that good night” (1951) and the play for voices Under Milk Wood (written 1951, first broadcast 1954). In later life, Thomas encouraged his reputation as a “roistering, drunken and doomed poet”; dying prematurely in New York in 1953.
1914 Portugal Fine And Applied Arts Date Country Theme
With the outbreak of World War I, the modernist movement thrives in Portugal with the return from France of a group of avant-garde artists including the painters Manuel Bentes (1885–1961), Eduardo Viana (1881–1967), José Pacheko (1885– 1934) and Amadeo de Souza Cardoso, and the sculptors Diogo de Macedo (1889– 1959), and Francisco Franco (1885–1955).
1914 - 1926 Portugal Economy And Trade
Crisis of the First Republic (1914–26). Lack of political stability due to the absence of parliamentary majorities able to undertake much-needed reforms, together with the political consequences of Portugal’s participation in World War I from 1916, contributes to the deterioration of the economic situation, hastening the fall of the Republican regime.
1914 Germany Political Context
The heir apparent of Austria, Franz Ferdinand, is murdered in Sarajevo by a member of the Serbian intelligence service known as the “Black Hand”. As a consequence, the Austrian government issues an ultimatum to Serbia; Germany declares war on the Russian Empire and on France; and Great Britain declares war on the German Empire.
1914 - 1918 Germany Political Context
World War I is declared and fought.
1914 - 1918 Germany Migrations
One in every ten members of the workforce in the German Empire is foreign (many of them prisoners of war).
1914 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes
The School of Fine Arts for female students (#nâs Sanâyi-i Nefise Mektebi) is opened.
1914 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
A school for theatre (Dârülbedayi) is founded.
1914 Austria Political Context
On 28 June the heir-apparent Archduke Francis Ferdinand is shot in Sarajevo by a Bosnian youth of Serb origin.
1914 Austria Political Context
Austria declares war on Serbia in July: she is supported by Russia, France and Britain. Turkey and Bulgaria enter the war on the side of the German–Austrian Alliance.
1914 Turkey Political Context Date Country Theme
29 October: German warships, officially designated as Ottoman vessels, shell Russian Black Sea ports, an action that leads the Ottoman Empire to enter World War I.
1915 Qatar Political Context
The Ottomans suddenly abandon Doha, leaving behind guns, shells and ammunition.
1915 - 1918 Italy Economy And Trade
When the war breaks out, the state takes a leading role in organising industrial production. Dramatic growth of steel, mechanic, chemical and textile productions. Workers in industries of strategic value are submitted to military discipline.
1915 - 1918 Italy Political Context
Italy participates in World War I on the side of the UK, France and Russia, despite widespread opposition to entering the war. On the Austrian front, Italy suffers a crushing defeat at Caporetto in 1917, but wins in 1918. In Libya, Arab revolt: Italy keeps control only of coastal towns. Casualties are 650,000 military deaths, 950,000 wounded, 600,000 prisoners of war or missing.
1915 Lebanon Political Context
Turkish commander Jamal Pasha initiates a blockade of the entire eastern Mediterranean coast. Lebanon witnesses thousands of deaths from widespread famine and plague.
1915 Portugal Fine And Applied Arts
In the 1910s several modernist painters such as Eduardo Viana rejected the current teaching of academic naturalism, still deeply rooted in the national taste. Their focus was the cubism, futurism and Dada movements in Paris, but also the Orphism of French painters Sonia and Robert Delaunay, living in Portugal in 1915– 16.
1915 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Publication of the only two issues of Orpheu magazine, thanks to the contribution of the most gifted figures of the modernist group. Without anything specifically programmatic, the magazine shows an iconoclastic irreverence, seeking notoriety by scandalising those holding traditional attitudes and customs.
1915 Germany Migrations
Introduction of the Legitimationszwang in Prussia allows police to tag foreign workers and their German employers.
1915 Turkey Political Context
Allied forces occupy #stanbul (16 March); Greece occupies #zmir (15 May). Date Country Theme
1916 Qatar Political Context
Treaty with the UK. This recognises Sheikh Abdullah bin Jassim as the ruler of Qatar, and places the sheikhdom under British maritime protection.
1916 - 1918 Romania Political Context
After two years of neutrality, Romania fights in the World War I on the side of the Triple Entente. At the end of the war, following the dissolution of the Austro- Hungarian monarchy and of the Russian Empire, the national gatherings of Bessarabia, Transylvania, Banat and Bukovina vote for their union with the Romanian kingdom. Greater Romania is thus created.
1916 France Migrations
First Chinese immigration wave to France: 35,000 Chinese workers are recruited to France during World War I.
1916 Jordan Political Context
Sykes–Picot Agreement signed by the British, French and Russian governments on 16 May 1916 concerning the division of Ottoman lands in Greater Syria between the two colonial powers, the UK and France. According to this secret treaty southern Syria (Palestine and Jordan) and Iraq are to fall under British mandate and Syria and Lebanon under the French.
1916 - 1920 Jordan Political Context
Supported by the UK, on 10 June 1916 Husayn ibn ‘Ali, the Sharif of Mecca, declares the Great Arab Revolt against the Turks with the aim of establishing an independent Arab state under his leadership in Bilad al-Sham (Greater Syria). Aqaba in Jordan is captured in 1917, becoming the headquarters of the northern army headed by Husayn’s son Prince Faysal, who becomes King of Syria in 1920. British promises to Sharif Husayn have contradicted other secret agreements of the UK with its allies, e.g. Sykes–Picot. These mandates put an end to the Arab Kingdom of Syria under King Faysal on 24 July 1920.
1916 United Kingdom Political Context
British interests in the Middle East are driven partly by the British Indian administration and partly by the strategic alliance with France. Mark Sykes for Britain and George Picot for France come to a diplomatic agreement to divide the Ottoman Levantine possessions for their respective countries. This conflicts with an earlier British promise of independence.
1916 - 1917 Saudi Arabia Political Context
The Arab Revolt begins on 10 June 1916 led by the Governor of Mecca (Makkah), Sharif Husayn ibn ‘Ali, and his sons, the amirs ‘Ali and Faisal. His forces seize the city of Riyad and force the small Ottoman garrison to seek refuge in the local fortress. Another of Husayn’s sons, Amir Abdallah, manages to surround and then take the town of Ta’if.
1916 - 1917 Saudi Arabia Political Context Date Country Theme
Rebel clans allied to Sharif Husayn attack Jeddah (Jidda) and other seaports along the Arabian coast of the Red Sea.
1916 Saudi Arabia Political Context
By the end of July 1916, the seaports of Jeddah, Yanbu and Rabigh are in Arab hands. This allows the British to increase their supply of arms and equipment to the Arab forces fighting in the Hijaz.
1916 - 1917 Egypt Economy And Trade
More paper currency enters circulation: the 25 piaster together with the five and 10 piaster.
1916 Lebanon Political Context
Turkish authorities publicly execute 21 Syrians and Lebanese in Damascus and Beirut, respectively, for alleged anti-Turkish activities; the place of execution in each city will be renamed Martyrs' Square.
1916 Austria Political Context
Death of Emperor Francis Joseph and accession of Emperor Charles I to the Austro-Hungarian throne.
1916 Austria Political Context
Romania declares war on the Central Powers: Germany, Austria and Bulgaria.
1916 Portugal Political Context
Germany declares war on Portugal. Portugal enters World War I, complying with international commitments in Europe and defending the Portuguese strategic possessions in Africa, mainly Angola and Mozambique. The Portuguese army fought on the western European Front and in the south of Angola (border with Namibia) and the north of Mozambique (Nevala).
1917 - 1920 France Cities And Urban Spaces
The planning and development of several cities in Morocco (Casablanca, Fez, Marrakech, Meknes and Rabat) are carried out by French architects.
1917 - 1918 Saudi Arabia Political Context
In June 1917 the coastal city of Aqaba in Jordan becomes the new base for Faisal’s army, renamed the “Arab Northern Army”. Attacks on the Hijaz Railway continue, extending now as far north as southern Jordan. T. E. Lawrence, “Lawrence of Arabia” himself led reconnaissance parties into Syria and made contact with Arab nationalists in Damascus. The spectacular victory of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force (EEF) at the Third Battle of Gaza (Beersheba) in October 1917, and the subsequent British advance into the Jordan Valley, gave renewed impetus to Faisal’s “railway war” further east. Meanwhile, Amir Faisal, with Lawrence as his adviser, had captured the seaport of Wejh (al-Wagh) on the Red Sea, 150 km north of Yanbu. From there, Faisal’s men spent most of Date Country Theme 1917 attacking the Hijaz Railway. Small raiding parties blew up sections of track, destroyed bridges, water towers and even some weakly defended railway stations. The British, planning to invade Palestine, were keen for the Arab rebels to keep the 12,000 Ottoman troops tied down in Medina (Madinah).
1917 Egypt Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Strong cultural pressure at this time puts constraints on female performers. When the singer Munira al-Mahdiyya begins her career, she is the first female Muslim performer to appear onstage.
1917 Germany Political Context
The United States declares war on the German Empire.
1917 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The conservatoire (Dârülelhân) is founded.
1918 Lebanon Migrations
The Lebanese buy homes from the Italians and Jews, who are moving away. They learn about clothes, home improvements, insurance and credit. Businesses are branching out, with dry goods and notions business replaced by grocery stores, butcher shops, coffee houses and sales of farm produce from vehicles.
1918 - 1919 Italy Reforms And Social Changes
600,000 die in the Spanish influenza pandemic.
1918 Greece Reforms And Social Changes
The General Confederation of Greek Workers (GSEE) is founded.
1918 - 1920 Saudi Arabia Political Context
Squabbling among the allies (those that had betrayed the Arab Revolution) delays the signing of the Peace Treaty with the Ottomans, which is being negotiated at Sèvres in France up until 10 August 1920. The Treaty confirmed French and British possession of Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Jordan and Iraq in the guise of League of Nations mandates. Sharif Husayn ibn ‘Ali is rewarded for his leadership of the Arab Revolt with international recognition of the Hijaz as an independent kingdom.
1918 Egypt Migrations
George Park begins building work on Alexandria Opera House, known also as Sayyid Darwish Theatre, which opens in 1921.
1918 Egypt Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Najib al-Rihani introduces a new type of theatre known as Musical Theatre or Operette. Cooperating with the famous Egyptian singer and composer Sayyid Date Country Theme Darwish and the actor and writer Badi‘ Khayri, together, they produce several successful Operettes.
1918 Spain Political Context
Spain's neutrality in World War I brings important economic upturn.
1918 Lebanon Political Context
British General Edmund Allenby and Faysal I, son of Sharif Husayn of Mecca, move into Palestine with British and Arab forces, thus opening the way for the occupation of Lebanon.
1918 Austria Political Context
The Peace (or Treaty) of Bucharest between Romania and Austria.
1918 Austria Political Context
Armistice between Austro-Hungary and the Entente Powers (France, Russia and the United Kingdom).
1918 Austria Political Context
Emperor Charles I renounces his participation to the government of Germany- Austria (Deutsch Österreich). The Austrian republic is founded in Vienna.
1918 Germany Political Context
Woodrow Wilson declares his “14 points” program in front of Congress.
1918 Germany Reforms And Social Changes
The so-called November Revolution results in the withdrawal of Emperor Wilhelm II; the Council of People’s Deputies (SPD and USPD members) take over government.
1919 United Kingdom Rediscovering The Past
At the Paris Peace conference held after the end of the World War I, the Ottoman provinces of Basra, Baghdad and Mosul are unified into Iraq, governed by Britain, under a League of Nations mandate. Gertrude Bell helps found the Iraq Museum (1926) and draft antiquities laws.
1919 France Reforms And Social Changes
The official working day is recognised as eight hours; the official working week is set at 48 hours.
1919 - 1920 Lebanon Economy And Trade
New currency is adopted when the Lebanese Bank is linked to the Syrian Bank. Date Country Theme
1919 Italy Reforms And Social Changes
Law 1176/1919 abolishes “marital authorisation” and allows women to practise most professions and to take up public employment. But some limitations on women working persist: they are still not allowed to become magistrates, diplomats and police officers or reach the highest grades in the civil service.
1919 - 1920 Italy Reforms And Social Changes
The “Two Red Years”: 2 million unemployed. Introduction of compulsory old- age, unemployment and disability insurances. High inflation and decrease of salaries. Intense workers’ mobilisation: strikes and occupations of land, factories and shipyards. Trade unions achieve minimum wage, 8-hour working day and recognition of factory commissions.
1919 Italy Political Context
Introduction of universal male suffrage and of an electoral system of proportional representation. The Popular Party (antecedent to the Christian Democrats) is founded. Mussolini creates the first Fascio di combattimento (embryo of the Fascist Party).
1919 Italy Travelling
The Ente nazionale per le industrie turistiche (ENIT – a state-funded body aimed at promoting tourism in Italy) is founded. In the last decades of the 19th century, local associations and bodies aimed at promoting tourism started to be created, under public or private initiative.
1919 Egypt Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Taha Husayn is appointed Professor of History at Fuad I University, where, through his own will and craving for knowledge, he becomes the leader of the Arab cultural renaissance.
1919 Egypt Reforms And Social Changes
The 1919 Egyptian Revolution is a milestone, not only in terms of the nationalist struggle, but also in the history of popular revolutions in general. Its overall influence, extending well beyond the politics and political parties of Egypt, exceeds the impact of the earlier ’Urabi Revolution.
1919 Spain Cities And Urban Spaces
The beginning of the Madrid subway system, the first in Spain, heralding a major advance in public transport in cities.
1919 Austria Political Context
Austria signs the Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye with the Entente Powers.
1919 Germany Political Context Date Country Theme
On signature of the Treaty of Versailles, Germany must face up to its responsibility to make reparation payments, abandon territory and let go of its colonies. The League of Nations is founded.
1919 Germany Reforms And Social Changes
Rudolf Steiner, originator of the Waldorfpädagogik, opens the first Steiner School in Stuttgart (the basis of which is human anthropology).
1920 Tunisia Political Context
The first Tunisian political party is established as the Constitutional Liberal Party of Tunisia: “Le destour’’. In a pamphlet published anonymously in Paris, one of its founders, Abdelaziz al-Thalibi, specified the party’s demands.
1920 - 1921 Jordan Political Context
The people of Transjordan, encouraged by the UK, establish local governments in Ajlun, Balqa and Karak. British advisers are assigned to help these governments.
1920 Italy International Exhibitions
First Milan Fair of industrial products: 1,233 exhibitors (including 224 foreigners) and 360,000 visitors.
1920 - 1922 Italy Rediscovering The Past
Philosopher, senator and minister of education (1920–21) Benedetto Croce promotes the approval of the first law on safeguarding the natural landscape.
1920 - 1922 Greece Political Context
Following the “Asia Minor catastrophe”, almost 1.5 million Greek nationals arrive as refugees at Greece’s coastal regions, for example at Pontus, having been uprooted from their homes in Asia Minor (Anatolia).
1920 United Kingdom Political Context
The letter from the British Foreign Secretary, Arthur Balfour, to Lord Rothschild in November 1917 offers British support to Zionist aspirations for Palestine to be a national home for Jews. This is internationally confirmed by the League of Nations handing over Palestine to Britain as a Mandate.
1920 Egypt Cities And Urban Spaces
Tal‘at Harb Pasha founds Banque Misr.
1920 Lebanon Political Context
France takes control over Lebanese territory after the San Remo Conference.
1920 Austria Political Context Date Country Theme
The population of Carinthia in southernmost Austria votes in favour of remaining within Austria.
1920 Portugal Fine And Applied Arts
Although it reproduces a traditional technique, the use of azulejo (ceramic tilework) meets the need for modernisation of shops and public buildings in main cities throughout Portugal at the beginning of the 20th century.
1920s - 1930s Germany Rediscovering The Past
The Museum of Islamic Art, the German Oriental Society and the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, undertake two excavations during which several iwans and stucco ornaments, as well as numerous other finds from houses, in layers of occupation from the late Sasanian period through to the early Islamic periods, are found. The stucco finds form the foundations for later stylistic developments in Samarra. Many of the stuccos are now found at the Museum of Islamic Art, Berlin, and the Metropolitan Museum of Art.
1920 Germany Political Context
Foundation of the National Socialist German Workers Party (NSDAP); the party’s first selection for the German Reichstag is on 6 July.
1920 Germany Political Context
The Conference of San Remo was an international meeting convened to decide which parts of its territories the Ottoman Empire would lose, to become the mandated territory under the League of Nations. For example, France received mandated territory for Syria and Lebanon (and King Faysal of Iraq goes into exile after losing Greater Syria to the French).
1920 Turkey Political Context
23 April: Formation of Turkish National Assembly in Ankara.
1920 Turkey Political Context
10 August: Treaty of Sévres, which divides Anatolia between the Allies, Greeks, Armenians and Kurds.
1921 Jordan Political Context
By August 1921 this British policy has been changed and it is decided to establish the Emirate of Transjordan under the leadership of Husayn ibn ’Ali’s son, Prince ‘Abdallah, who will become King of Jordan in 1946.
1921 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The number of motorvehicles grows rapidly; by 1921 there are 30,000 motorcyles, 34,000 cars, 1,000 buses and 22000 trucks circulating in Italy.
1921 Italy Economy And Trade Date Country Theme
Electricity production is 4,450 million kWh.
1921 Italy Rediscovering The Past
Inauguration of the National Museum of Palazzo Venezia, in the 15th-century palace that used to house the Embassy of the Republic of Venice in Rome. The museum progressively focuses on applied arts: ceramics, furniture, silverware, jewellery, arms and armours, carpets and a variety of other items dating from the Middle Ages to modern times.
1921 Italy Reforms And Social Changes
Some 12 per cent of men and 20 per cent of women are unable to sign their marriage certificate because they cannot write, a considerable improvement in literacy rates since 1867.
1922 Greece Migrations
Many thousands of refugees arrive from Asia Minor.
1922 Egypt Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Mrs Dawlat Abyad writes a play to address the various problems experienced by Egyptian women in the early 20th century.
1922 Egypt Political Context
Britain declares Egyptian independence, but retains control of Egyptian foreign policy and the basic administration of the country. On 15 March of this year, Fuad I issues a decree changing his title from Sultan of Egypt to King of Egypt.
1922 United Kingdom Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Irish writer and poet James Augustine Aloysius Joyce’s (1822–1941) best-known work Ulysses is published in this year.
1922 United Kingdom Political Context
Of the 32 counties of Ireland, twenty-six southern counties vote to secede from the United Kingdom to become the Irish Free State.
1922 United Kingdom Political Context
Following Ireland’s decision to secede from the United Kingdom, Northern Ireland immediately exercises its right to opt out of the new dominion and remain one of the four countries of the United Kingdom.
1922 Turkey Migrations
Exchange of population between Greece and Turkey. c. 1923 Greece Great Inventions Of The 19th Century Date Country Theme
Building of the Arzan-Amatovo Dam in Kilkis.
1923 Egypt Reforms And Social Changes
Huda Sha‘rawi becomes the first president of the Egyptian Feminist Union having returned from the International Woman Suffrage Alliance Congress in Rome.
1923 Turkey Political Context
24 July: Treaty of Lausanne, which officially dissolves the Ottoman Empire.
1923 Turkey Political Context
30 August: Final battle in western Anatolia results in the collapse of the Greek army.
1923 Turkey Political Context
29 October: Proclamation of the Republic of Turkey. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk becomes the first president of Turkey.
1924 Austria Economy And Trade
The counterstamp of Austrian Maria Theresia Thaler (“MTT”) is seen on silver bullion coins from the Arabian mint in Najd.
1925 Qatar Economy And Trade
Sanat al-Tabaa: the year in which a relentless storm hits Qatar and the Gulf region, destroying many of the pearling and fishing fleets and killing more that 8,000 people.
1925 France Fine And Applied Arts
Promotion of Art Deco at the International Exhibition of Modern Industrial and Decorative Arts, Paris.
1925 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Oskar Barnack invents the compact camera.
1926 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Puccini’s last opera Turandot, which he left unfinished, is performed at La Scala in Milan under the direction of Arturo Toscanini.
1926 Egypt Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
On 4 December, in the city of Luxor, the Minister of Transportation, Muhammad Mahmud along with a group of Ministers inaugurates the Luxor–Aswan Railway. The railway is considered one of Mahmud Pasha’s greatest accomplishments as Minister of Transportation. Date Country Theme
1927 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Political Context
The British dismiss a former teacher of al-Taimiyyah School and a Qadi in Sharjah for sympathising publicly with the Tawhidi (Wahhabi) movement in Najd.
1927 Egypt Travelling
King Fuad I of Egypt’s visit to Italy.
1927 United Kingdom Political Context
The Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act renames parliament to reflect the change following secession of Southern Ireland. The state is now known as the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.
1927 Germany Travelling
The first stage of the racing circuit Nürburgring is constructed comprising the old “North loop” built around the village of Nürburg in the Eifel mountains.