religions Article Medieval Monastery Gardens in Iceland and Norway Per Arvid Åsen Natural History Museum and Botanical Garden, University of Agder, 4604 Kristiansand, Norway; [email protected] Abstract: Gardening was an important part of the daily duties within several of the religious orders in Europe during the Middle Ages. The rule of Saint Benedict specified that the monastery should, if possible, contain a garden within itself, and before and above all things, special care should be taken of the sick, so that they may be served in very deed, as Christ himself. The cultivation of medicinal and utility plants was important to meet the material needs of the monastic institutions, but no physical garden has yet been found and excavated in either Scandinavia or Iceland. The Cistercians were particularly well known for being pioneer gardeners, but other orders like the Benedictines and Augustinians also practised gardening. The monasteries and nunneries operating in Iceland during medieval times are assumed to have belonged to either the Augustinian or the Benedictine orders. In Norway, some of the orders were the Dominicans, Fransiscans, Premonstratensians and Knights Hospitallers. Based on botanical investigations at all the Icelandic and Norwegian monastery sites, it is concluded that many of the plants found may have a medieval past as medicinal and utility plants and, with all the evidence combined, they were most probably cultivated in monastery gardens. Keywords: medieval gardening; horticulture; monastery garden; herb; relict plants; medicinal plants Citation: Åsen, Per Arvid. 2021. Medieval Monastery Gardens in 1. Introduction Iceland and Norway. Religions 12: Monasticism originated in Egypt’s desert, and the earliest monastic gardens were 317. https://doi.org/10.3390/ vegetable gardens (McLean 1989; Meyvaert 1986). In approximately 350–400AD, organized rel12050317 monasticism spread from the Eastern Mediterranean to Italy, France and Spain and North Africa (Schumacher 2009). The rule of St. Benedict (c. 480–550) stated that the monastery Academic Editor: should, if possible, be so arranged that all necessary things, such as water, mill, garden, Steinunn Kristjánsdóttir and various crafts may be situated within the enclosure, so that the monks may not be compelled to wander outside, for that is not at all expedient for their souls. It is worth Received: 4 April 2021 noting that the Benedict’s rule was translated into the Old Norse language (Myking 2017). Accepted: 27 April 2021 Published: 29 April 2021 Further, the monastic rule of St. Isidore, bishop of Seville (c. 560–636), specified the need for a garden in the cloister (Harvey 1990). Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral Several thousand monasteries were founded in Europe, the northernmost located with regard to jurisdictional claims in in Greenland (Grayburn 2015), Iceland (Kristjánsdóttir 2017) and in central Norway published maps and institutional affil- (Lunde 1987). iations. The plan of St. Gall (www.stgallplan.org, accessed on 12 January 2021) is the oldest surviving plan of a complete monastery. It originated in the Benedictine monastery Re- ichenau c. 819–826, and is now kept in St. Gallen monastery in Switzerland. The plan is probably a design for an ideal monastic community, complete with a herb garden by the infirmary, a kitchen garden and an orchard associated with the cemetery; for details, see Copyright: © 2021 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. Tremp(2014). Another plan is that of the Priory of Christ Church at Canterbury c. 1165, This article is an open access article with the herb garden located near the infirmary, enclosed between wattled fences, and a distributed under the terms and tree garden included in the cemetery (Harvey 1990). Both plans show the cloister garden at conditions of the Creative Commons the heart of the monastery, alongside the church. It was dominated by a green lawn, maybe Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// with violets, lillies, strawberries and dasies symbolizing the virgin Mary (Behling 1967; creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ Widauer 2009), an evergreen tree, a rose and a fountain. It was a place of retreat, and where 4.0/). the monks processed at regular intervals (Landsberg 1998; Stannard 1983). Religions 2021, 12, 317. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12050317 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/religions Religions 2021, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 21 Religions 2021, 12, 317 maybe with violets, lillies, strawberries and dasies symbolizing the virgin Mary (Behling2 of 20 1967; Widauer 2009), an evergreen tree, a rose and a fountain. It was a place of retreat, and where the monks processed at regular intervals (Landsberg 1998; Stannard 1983). TheThe herb herb garden garden included included general general medicinal medicinal plants, plants, those those that that are are poisonous, poisonous, narcotics, narcot‐ plantsics, plants related related to blood-letting to blood‐letting needs, needs, aromatics aromatics and someand some ornamentals ornamentals that wouldthat would refresh re‐ patientsfresh patients by their by their beauty beauty (Landsberg (Landsberg 1998 1998).). The The inventory inventory would would obviously obviously vary vary with with thethe different monastic communities. communities. Not Not least least would would this this apply apply to the to theIcelandic Icelandic and Nor and‐ Norwegianwegian monasteries monasteries located located at atthe the northern northern borders borders of of Christian Christian civilization, wherewhere thethe establishmentsestablishments were were smaller smaller and and the the climate climate less less favourable. favourable. However,However, before the the monasteries monasteries were were established, established, there there existed existed viking viking gardens, gardens, gar‐ gardensdens in towns in towns and and possibly possibly also also at medieval at medieval farmsteads farmsteads (e.g., (e.g., Helweg Helweg 2020; 2020 Holmboe; Holmboe 1921; 1921Sandvik; Sandvik 2006; Sjögren2006; Sjögren et al. 2021; et al. Øye 2021 2015).; Øye It 2015 seems). It obvious seems obviousthat the religious that the religious orders in ordersIceland in and Iceland Norway and Norwaywould utilize would this utilize knowledge this knowledge when monastic when monastic gardens gardens were estab were‐ established.lished. Both BothNorway Norway and Iceland and Iceland were werehighly highly influenced influenced by Anglo by Anglo-Saxon‐Saxon and Irish and Chris Irish‐ Christianity,tianity, where where monastic monastic gardens gardens were were common common (Coppack (Coppack 2006; 2006 Larsson; Larsson et al. et 2012). al. 2012 ). InIn this this context, context, a a garden garden is understoodis understood as aas fenced-in a fenced area‐in area where where plants plants were were cultivated culti‐ atvated a small at a scale small using scale onlyusing handheld only handheld tools (spade)—this tools (spade)—this in contrast in contrast to agriculture, to agriculture, with largewith cropslarge crops in wider in wider fields, fields, where where the plough the plough was the was main the tool.main tool. InIn Iceland,Iceland, KristjKristjánsdóttiránsdóttir( 2017(2017)) has has described described fourteen fourteen monasteries monasteries and and nunneries, nunneries, dateddated betweenbetween 10301030 andand 1554, 1554, all all assumed assumed to to have have belonged belonged to to either either the the Augustinian Augustinian or or thethe Benedictine Benedictine orders orders (Figure (Figure1 ).1). FigureFigure 1. 1. MedievalMedieval Icelandic Icelandic monasteries monasteries and and nunneries nunneries (red), (red), and and bishoprics bishoprics (blue). (blue). InIn the the first first complete complete description description of of the the 26 26 Norwegian Norwegian monasteries monasteries and and five five nunneries, nunneries, LangeLange( 1847(1847)) stated stated that that «All«All thethe monasteriesmonasteries hadhad aa garden,garden, oftenoften several,several, andand theythey werewere well well tended...thetended...the monks monks brought brought fruit-trees, fruit‐trees, cuttings, cuttings, herbs herbs and and flowers flowers from from abroad, abroad, in order in order to plant to themplant inthem Norwegian in Norwegian soil. And soil. still And today still onetoday can one find can gardens find gardens by the by monasteries the monasteries that contain that contain fruit-trees» fruit.‐ Thetrees» monasteries. The monasteries were all were dissolved all dissolved during theduring Lutheran the Lutheran Reformation Reformation c. 1536. c. 1536. ArchaeobotanicalArchaeobotanical material material from from excavations excavations in in the the medieval medieval towns towns in in Norway Norway (e.g., (e.g., BucklandBuckland andand WallinWallin 2017 2017;; Dunlop Dunlop andand SandvikSandvik 20042004;; ErikssonEriksson 19901990;; GriffinGriffin 19771977,, 19811981,, 19881988;; HjelleHjelle 20072007;; LindhLindh et et al. al. 1984 1984;; Moltsen Moltsen 2016a 2016a,, 2016b 2016b;; Peters Petersénén and and Sandvik Sandvik 2006 2006;; SandvikSandvik 2000a2000a,, 2000b2000b;; StureSture 2017a2017a,, 2017b2017b,, 2017c2017c;; WallinWallin 20172017)) andand sixsix monastic monastic sitessites in in IcelandIceland ( (https://notendur.hi.is/~sjk/KK.htm,https://notendur.hi.is/~sjk/KK.htm accessed, accessed on on 10 10February February 2021) 2021) give give important impor- tant evidence on the kind of plants that were present in the Middle Ages, and possible cultivation in monastic