Introduction

his issue of TR News highlights the role of inland waterways in the growth and development of the nation’s economy. The lead article traces the development of the T Erie Canal, observing that just about everything a person needs to know about transportation—particularly planning,but also financing strategies and practical education— can be learned through insights from the canal’s rich history. Readers also will glimpse how Europe is rediscovering its historic waterways to accommodate the anticipated increase in cargo shipments within the eastward-expanding European Union (EU). National and international initiatives are integrating inland navigation into the EU transportation network, and the Rhine-Main-Danube Waterway,which links to ports on the North Sea and the Black Sea, is a major focus. Europe increasingly views waterways as an environmentally friendly means of providing low-cost transportation for cargo and of relieving roadway congestion. Two other articles examine economic measurements that are key to waterway system development and maintenance policy in the United States. One offers a perspective on allo- cating federal funds to maintain the inland waterways’ aging infrastructure. The other provides an overview of a model developed by the Tennessee Valley Authority for estimating river efficiencies and fuel tax collections, with insights gained from applications to data from the Ohio and Lower Mississippi Rivers and their tributaries. Other features in this theme issue report on safety efforts that have contributed to the downward trend in waterway incidents and on more effective, high-tech ways to integrate inland waterways into the intermodal transportation system. A Point of View article illustrates the transportation system’s vital need for the redundancy of water freight routes. Channels also are opened to other waterways topics in brief articles on bringing the ocean to Oklahoma and on a collision test in Florida that will affect future bridge design specifications—a subject of immediate interest with the recent collapse of an I-40 bridge in Okla- homa after a river tow crashed into a support pier. The TRB Committee on Inland Water Transportation has assembled an interesting, informative, and comprehensive collection of articles on inland waterway transportation, offering historical, international, and domestic perspectives.

EDITOR’S NOTE:Appreciation is expressed to Joedy Cambridge, Marine and Inter- modal Specialist, TRB, for her efforts in Robert W.Portiss coordinating this issue of TR News. Port Director, Tulsa Port of Catoosa, Oklahoma Chair, TRB Committee on Inland Water Transportation 2002 JULY–AUGUST 221 NEWS TR

3 4 TR NEWS 221 JULY–AUGUST 2002 New York. University atAlbany, Planning Program, in UrbanandRegional Director oftheMasters Planning, andInterim Professor, Geographyand The authorisAssistant to thistie-up(circa 1900). ra ncnlwl,added break incanalwall, rmtebgnig with from thebeginning, most backupsoccurring ee,perhaps causedby level, problems onErieCanal Just About Everything About Just erlcs Low water near locks. About TransportationAbout Congestion caused YouToNeed Know B the Erie Canal plan remarkable was the because accessibility and mobility. The implementation of newas appreciation benefits ofthe of associated planning and building ofinland waterways, well as River, brought new dimensions to the with Erie on Albany Lake the Hudson York uilt with shovels and strong backs, New ’ s Erie Canal,s Erie connecting Buffalo on on the Erie Canal Erie on the You CanLearn planning on the role ofeducation, offinanc- the use of the offers for canal unique transportation lessons new opportunities travel. for The passenger history activities, improved mobility for goods, and opened but westward expand promoted also economic federal government. state from received nofinancial assistance the The notonly canal provided connections to AHRN .LAWSON CATHERINE T. ing strategies, the impact on economic activities, lators hoping to profit from the increased values of and the opportunities to serve passengers. adjacent property after the canal’s construction; A levy on items sold at auctions; Brief History Lotteries; In its original form, the Erie Canal was a trench 40 Taxes on properties within 25 miles of the feet wide, 4 feet deep, and 363 miles long, connect- canal; ing the Hudson River at the east with Lake Erie in the A tax on salt; and west. The difference in elevation between the two A tax on Hudson River steamboat travel, endpoints was nearly 600 feet. When the project was which was expected to increase with the opening of planned, the technology for building a system of the canal (2). locks—including the necessary five-tiered set of double locks at Lockport near Buffalo—had yet to be Even before the canal was completed, portions were developed (1). put to use by farmers, merchants, and passengers mak- Construction began in 1817. State legislation ing both short and long trips. The boats were pulled established the Canal Fund, to be administered by by mules led by men or boys walking at a steady pace elected officials. Sources of revenue included along towpaths above the canal. Completed in 1825, the canal was so successful that it immediately became A state loan, to be repaid with tolls collected congested, overwhelming even the strongest early crit- from canal users; ics of the project. The Erie Canal experience offers The sale of land donated to the state by specu- insights into many aspects of transportation planning. P OOCUTS OF COURTESY HOTO Building Infrastructure Long-Range Planning The vision of the construction of a single facility to E RIE connect Lake Erie with the Hudson River and C ANAL beyond is an early example of long-range planning M

USEUM in the United States. The concept also took advan-

,S tage of a phasing strategy—the project did not begin YRACUSE at one destination point and move progressively to

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ORK The first segment to be built was east of the mid- . point, near Rome, New York, where the soil was easy to dig and the ground was level. Subsequent phases required a variety of strategies—for example, in the swampy areas of the route, workers had to wait until a winter freeze killed off malaria- carrying mosquitoes (3). The planning of the infrastructure was distin- guished by a willingness to begin without detailed plans for the remaining sections. Most notably, 83 locks were needed to raise and lower boats from 2 to 15 feet. The “deep cut” along three miles at Lock- port was accomplished during the last phase of

canal construction, applying the latest technologi- 2002 JULY–AUGUST 221 NEWS TR cal advances in blasting and rock removal (2). As in modern long-range planning, the engineering was not complete when the original resources were committed to the project. Many challenges were yet unsolved, any one of which could have prevented the completion of the project and the full functioning of the water connection. Work Force and Training 5 6 TR NEWS 221 JULY–AUGUST 2002 “ process known as slowing boat post, then moved from postto and located every 25feet, rope topostorcleat wrapped jumped ashore, ropeshort tobow, boatmanattached animals, To stopboatspulledby adjacent tocanalatleft. lock nearMohawk River, Canal boatsapproaching polluted water. and refused todrink notovereat, did footed, because they were sure- Mules were favored along canal(circa 1900). barges andothervessels with mule teampulling Mule driver orhoggee snubbing. ” — a with pulleys to cinch up and extract stumps removal, leading to the invention ofalarge wheel plowed. intree stump The farmers also had expertise that it would to dig beeasier after the land was stumps per day ( per stumps men and ofoxen ateam could remove up to 40 knowledge oflocal soils struction work force. The farmers contributed also a owned byfarmers, who the became project Rome, segment,near The canal first fronted on lands Specialized Skills costs for profit productivity byincreasing while reducing constructionof increasing costs Immigrants provided ofinexpensive astream labor, from Ireland majority ofthe workers ( skills simple using technology. new work force developed knowledge specialized and Hired laborers Small contractors, notthe government, hired the — onto the contractor with the bid. lowest — built the remainder ofthe The canal. 4 ). — often single male immigrants — 2 ). This pushed the risk ). Thispushed for example, they knew — or the potential ’ s first con-s first —

seven

. Y ,N ,S M C E P P . Y ,N ,S M C E ORK EW YRACUSE USEUM ANAL RIE OF COURTESY HOTO ORK EW YRACUSE USEUM ANAL RIE OF COURTESY HOTO lic good, ing property owners ( thenew needs ofthe segment only surround- served an equivalent length ofthe original and each canal, ments ofinfrastructure were greater the than for costs neering school inthe United States ( Institute (RPI),inTroy, NewYork, the civil first engi- School,selaer later Polytechnic renamed Rensselaer president ofthe commission, canal founded the Rens- infrastructure projects ( institution to provide the technical training for builders who recognized the need to an establish jamin Wright were among the original canal Jervis, Nathan White, Roberts, Canvass and Ben- from ofbackgrounds. avariety John James Geddes, cation ofscience to common activities ( methods at aimed instructing students inthe appli- ( students on educational adventures on the ErieCanal a established technical education ( participated insolving project canal challenges. of the faculty AmosEaton, was ageologist who had of engineering ( of engineering in the United aschool States. became The itself canal in 1817,there noadequate was training engineering in civil When engineering. the project canal began brought to the forefront the need for formal education structures,canal and solving technical problems the building earth, the moving of challenges The College ofCivilEngineering Financing Strategies rationale for building the segmentsincluded the to intenseareas development and productivity. The for feeder The canals. feeder opened canals large land close enough for to direct the water access petitioned After construction ofthe property canal, owners not Feeder Canals maintenance. provided astable source offundsfor the constant the bottom ofthe The canal. tolls collected from users maintenance silt as and other materials built up along inthecosts initial construction, but required constant The design ofthe shallow capital minimized canal Maintenance the were canal RPIgraduates ( Wales for work. for Wales a large group ofmen eager to leave Ireland and and the ErieCanal project provided employment for 6 ). Most ofthe). Most who engineers worked to complete In 1824,Stephen Van Rensselaer, amember and The training shouldered was byagroup ofmen Eaton wanted to provide apopular and practical ” even though the for smaller costs seg- these “ traveling school ofscience, 4 ). 5 2 ). Hisinnovative theories and ). 2 ). 2 ). 5 ). Named head 6 ). Eaton later ” taking RPI “ pub- TR NEWS 221 JULY–AUGUST 2002 7 ’ — s ’ , p. 626). ). 8 2 The canal offered a means house- of transporting canal offered The com- canal allowed the along built Warehouses canal the along activities increase The in economic Passengers failing to arrive in time for the boat in time for Passengers failing to arrive departure could walk to the nearest bridge over the bridge over departure could walk to the nearest canal, the boat to pass under,and wait for then leap onto the boat, ( below feet or four three holds to the new frontier of the West. The flow The of West. of the frontier new the to holds success long-term the was critical to goods household the and State York of New westward expansion of the were no tolls traffic, this encourage To nation. young canal the on goods household moving for charged more the along, take settlers could goods more the ( West out remain to were they likely Changing Landscapes of demand underestimation the to Also contributing uses in land costs change was as the transportation to accessibility canal decreased. the new With along to farming subsistence from moved farmers markets, expanded Success newly with crops. market-oriented increased put cashcrops and incomes in farmers flow the of goods. regulate to brokers modity land- of the Increased nature the also changed wealth scape uses as services retail became viable. new and keepers and as lock such jobs canal-related (e.g., with to also contributed mules) tow the manage to workers increasethe estab- in cash were Banks transactions. also gained Banks wealth. new the hold lished to and preparation the expertise through valuable 1820s, in the programs canal loan of the management The canal was originally envisioned as a means of canal envisioned wasThe originally canal would the along Farmers freight. transporting from and City, in New York access markets have to In markets. global to be shipped could goods there, have would City in New York merchants addition, salesaccess for of products. prospering farmers to moved who sales distributors the to pockets through chain. supply the harvestthe along Markets and Frontiers Markets and ). 3 , p. 638). 8 s seasonal limitations, freight was freight s seasonal limitations, ’ s benefits from access to the canal were greater canal access were the to from s benefits ’ The rule encouraged new land uses land new conversions or encouraged rule The occurred practice financing interesting Another Private investors, however, were welcome to invest to welcome were however, investors, Private strategies most financing interesting of the One Demand and Land Use of activities where infrastructure investment offered infrastructure where of activities by the added value the illustrating most potential, the contin- who Farmers infrastructure. transportation canal were the before done had farm asued they to in land of their value the received assumed have to profit greater the forgone have to and yields crop new increased its at land of selling the value. goods the for competing began railroads the when passengers At first, only Erie Canal. the on moving However, railroads. the on ride to allowed were because canal of the than the price of the land, the state was not required state the land, price of the than the land. the for pay to The winter. the during railroads on move to allowed that tolls the shippers rail charge was to step next canal ( the using been paid for have would in the new infrastructure. The toll system the and toll The infrastructure. new in the services a created for immediately demand pent-up other with deal to state the of cash, allowing surplus crises.financial Land owners. of land used compensation for involved property if the but be purchased, canal to had the owner The lack of interest from the federal government and government federal the of interest from lack The cap- cities states to and among competition keen the to State led New York growth future of a share ture canal project. the for innovations financing several instead of allowing project, the championed state The venture. private entirely an become canal to the After supper on board an Erie Canal packet boat, Canal packet an Erie After supper on board passengers selected berths of arrival. on order based along each side of erected tiers of bunks were Three the main cabin, sleeping on the floor or with late arrivals ( outside on the cabin roof P OOBY HOTO adapting the financial savvy to the underwriting of Townspeople along the canal, knowing the sched-

C railroad investments in the 1840s (1). ules, would leap off low bridges onto the packet ATHERINE Several typical New England factories developed boats just before meals, helping themselves to a

L on the Erie Canal, including textile mills and the meal and then paying the captain 5 cents to stop AWSON Remington Arms plant at German Flats. Most of momentarily so they could debark. To stem this 2002. , the industries centered on processing harvests from practice, packets charged all passengers a flat, base farm and forest, including rapidly growing ship- fee of 15 to 25 cents. ments of grain from the West. The flour mills of Buf- Often more than 100 passengers would ride a falo, Lockport, Rochester, Oswego, and Fulton were packet during the daytime, and at night if the bunks nationally known (7). were full, many would sleep outside on the decks. Riding on the outside of the boat provided some Passenger Travel with the educational opportunity to view aspects of Although built to move freight, the Erie Canal soon the local geology revealed through the canal con- attracted passengers. Canal travel offered a smooth- struction and the cuts in the terrain. riding means of transportation, compared with horse- drawn modes over terrain. In addition, the service Time and Distance At the juncture of the Erie was more frequent, with several canal boats passing The canal raised expectations of traveling easily and Canal with the Hudson most towns along the canal every day. Stage coaches quickly from one location to the next, of shipping River in Albany, New York, were less frequent and less reliable (2). and buying goods inexpensively, and of communi- sign provides brief history, Passengers sought a variety of services—short cating with family and friends through speedy mail part of a promotional and educational outreach. trips, long trips, trips for leisure, trips for business, deliveries (2). However, the congestion—primarily trips to gain knowledge of the natural features of the caused by lock operations—occasionally provoked West, and trips that never ended for households that some captains, pressured to move goods quickly, lived on canal boats. Each type of trip required a dif- into “canal rage” (3). ferent kind of boat or service. The congestion delays for passengers often A special vessel, known as a canal packet, offered occurred at the locks in Albany. Leaving female tourists an amazing ride. Only 78 feet long and 14-1/2 companions behind on the packet boat, male trav- feet wide, the packet could carry up to 40 passengers, elers would take a fast ride by stagecoach to trans- who could sleep on board, paying 5 cents a mile, act business in Schenectady, demonstrating the including the cost of a bunk and meals (8). In the concept of the “value of time.” morning the central cabin sleeping area served as a The canal boats also speeded mail from New breakfast room, then converted into a sitting room, York City to the Old Northwest. People who moved with comfortable chairs and entertainment, including out West were able to remain in regular contact Double locks at Beech live music, and changed back to a dining area for with relatives, reducing the pain of separation (2). Street, Syracuse, New lunch and again for dinner. Canal packets were an York,date back to 1835 early version of “mixed use” development. Next Chapters enlargement of canal (circa 1900). The regularity of the services soon led to abuse. Expansion and Advances

P The immediate success of the Erie Canal prompted OOCUTS OF COURTESY HOTO a plan to expand the system. In 1835, the canal was enlarged to 70 feet wide and 7 feet deep. The stone- reinforced infrastructure required new construction E RIE

C technologies. Incremental implementation again ANAL had allowed time for the development of the tech- M USEUM nology necessary to add capacity. ,S

YRACUSE Despite the expanded capacity, more and more canal traffic began to shift to the railroads. At the ,N

EW turn of the century, a modernization plan called for Y ORK the creation of the Barge Canal to regain a compet- . itive edge for water transport. The use of cement, the replacement of animal power with towboats, additional expansion of the canal, and new electri- cal technologies were all strategies to make the waterway competitive (9).

TR NEWS 221 JULY–AUGUST 2002 The purpose of the Barge Canal was to accommo- 8 date 1,000-ton barges. The new facility opened in P 1918 and operated until the late 1950s. OF COURTESY HOTO

Recent Initiatives E

In 1995, steps were under way to develop a New RIE C

York State Canal Recreation Plan to foster develop- ANAL ment of a recreational system (10). In 1997, the M USEUM

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Develop- ,S ment created a pooled fund for economic develop- YRACUSE ment grants and a guaranteed loans program. ,N EW Y

A new approach, the Canal Corridor Initiative, cre- ORK ated a partnership of federal and local governments . and the private sector. The initiative calls for a series of Community Development Block Grants for small cities to begin neighborhood revitalization, economic development, and improvements in facilities and services, using the canal as a unifying theme (11). In addition, the canal offers opportunities for on-the- water and along-the-water recreation. Barge Canal (circa 1940). Lessons Learned The history of the Erie Canal is a fascinating story of References achievements, rewards, and reuse of a transportation 1. Cornog, E. The Birth of Empire: De Witt Clinton and the facility. The story also offers today’s transportation American Experience, 1769–1828. Oxford University Press, New York, 1998. planning community several lessons: 2. Sheriff, C. The Artificial River: The Erie Canal and the Para- dox of Progress, 1817–1862. Hill and Wang, New York, 1996. Education is a critical link to real-world appli- 3. The Erie Canal. Video presentation, The History Channel, cations. The Erie Canal exemplifies the importance 2001. of education, research, and the sharing of ideas to 4. Shaw, R. E. Erie Water West: A History of The Erie Canal 1792–1854. The University Press of Kentucky, Lexington, develop a successful transportation system. These 1966. efforts produced cost savings through innovation, 5. Phelan, T., and R. T. Carroll. Hudson Mohawk Gateway: An even as the project was under way. Universities can Illustrated History. American Historical Press, Sun Valley, explore solutions for long-range planning challenges Calif., 2001. in partnership with local, state, and federal agencies. 6. Rezneck, S. A Traveling School of Science on the Erie Canal in 1826. New York History, Vol. 40, No. 3, 1959, pp. Creative financing strategies should involve a 255–289. broad set of stakeholders. The various strategies to 7. Meinig, D. W. The Shaping of America: A Geographical Per- finance the Erie Canal illustrate how private-sector spective of 500 Years of History, Volume 2: Continental Amer- investors can share in the risks and rewards of new ica, 1800–1867. Vail-Ballou Press, Binghamton, N.Y., 1993. infrastructure, how system users can ensure infra- 8. Dunbar, S. A History of Travel in America. Van Rees Press, New York, 1937. structure performance through a long-term com- 9. O’Malley, C. T. Low Bridges and High Water on the New York mitment to tolls, and how it may be appropriate to State Barge Canal. North Country Books, Inc., Utica, N.Y., tax properties for accessibility within the “geogra- 1991. phy of benefits.” In addition, payments for land 10. Canal Corridor Initiative, Connecting Communities: A Frame- used for transportation projects can deduct the work for Comprehensive Development. U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development and Office of Community value of the new accessibility gained by the seller. Planning and Development, 1996. Understand the range of trip purposes and 11. New York State Canal Recreationway Commission. New potential uses. Estimating demand requires a careful York State Canal Recreationway Plan [Draft]. New York examination of who, what, where, and why busi- Thruway Authority and the New York State Canal Corpo- 2002 JULY–AUGUST 221 NEWS TR nesses and citizens will use a transportation facility. ration, 1995. The Erie Canal served a variety of trip purposes, including many new trips from previously untapped Websites commercial and leisure markets. Differentiated ves- Erie Canal Museum, www.eriecanalmuseum.org/ sels, service frequencies, and routings all function New York State Canal Corporation, www.nycanal.com/ best when meeting the needs of users. Moreover, New York State Canals, www.canals.state.ny.us/ users quickly become spoiled by a higher quality of transportation service and demand more. 9 10 TR NEWS 221 JULY–AUGUST 2002 lo,Illinois. Alton, near Mississippi River, Locks andDam, Tow enteringMelvinPrice Virginia. Navigation, Alexandria, Water Resources Engineers, Institutefor U.S. ArmyCorpsof The authoriswiththe Levels ofInlandWaterways — Measuring theService Measuring T on projects volume the greatest that serve ofcommerce upkeep ofan aging inland infrastructure. maintenance (O&M)fundsare stretched for the $450million.than Each limited operations year and 200locksthan and dams, at an annual ofmore cost miles ofinland and intracoastal waterways with more benefits will the over project costs exceed a50-year life. ments ifadetailed economic analysis shows that the government constructs inland navigation improve- ing works, and navigation locks and dams. The structure with acombination train- river ofdredging, Budget proposals therefore focus O&Mresources The Corps operates 12,000 and maintainsnearly nation indevelopinglead and maintaining the takenArmy Corpshas ofEngineers, the he federal government, through the U.S. ’ s extensive inland waterways infra- Alternative Approaches for Approaches Alternative Budget Decision Making Decision Budget interior. U.S. inland waterways Inrecent years, traffic deep have rivers providedthese achannel 1). Navigation infrastructure improvements along Tennessee,Arkansas, and Rivers (Figure Cumberland includingtaries, the Ohio, Illinois, Missouri, centers on River and its the major Mississippi tribu- domestic commerce. The inland waterways system andcargoes manufactured goods for foreign and The U.S.inland waterways are vital inmoving bulk Vital System consequences ofreducing the investment? is the return on the federal and what are investment, the ment weigh projects? inthese interest What continued mining athreshold? How should the federal govern- waterway levels service and forfor deter- assessing threshold. arespecified appropriate Butwhat measures and reduce funding for projects that do notmeet a points ofproduction or consumption inthe nation bulk between cargoes deepwater and distant ports itive movement ofhuge quantities ofliquid and dry respectively.west, the Atlantic and theserving Coast Pacific North- Snake Waterway are separate systems shallow-draft coastal Waterway (AIWW) and the Columbia channel along the Gulf The Atlantic Coast. Intra- Louisiana and Texas with aprotected, shallow-draft Louisiana, providing the petrochemical in industry coastal Waterway (GIWW) at NewOrleans, around Chicago, Illinois. and the manufacturing Minnesota; Cities, centers burgh, Pennsylvania; the grainexporters ofthe Twin Gulf with the Coast coal and ofPitts- steel industries The inland waterways allows system the compet- connects system The with the river Gulf Intra- — into the nation ’ s heartland, connectings heartland, the AI .GRIER DAVID V. — at least 9feetat least ’ – s

TR NEWS 221 JULY–AUGUST 2002 11

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illa W FY2003 uses for Request O&M costs Budget per ’ In addition, the construction schedules of many schedules construction the In addition, to necessitated have attempts constraints Budget 12.6% Chemicals 9.8% Petroleum larger replacement locks are being delayed, increasing delayed, being are locks replacement larger Other benefits. project reducing and congestion not start Yet may asauthorized planned. projects is locks many at rehabilitation major or replacement necessary nav- inland preserve of the to integrity the igation system. com- funds among construction O&M and prioritize Presi- The projects. works civil and navigation peting dent FIGURE 2 U.S. (305 billion ton- commodity group ton-miles by inland waterways miles total), 1999. mercial-tonnage inland waterway projects waterway inland mercial-tonnage postponing critical maintenance. The Administration The critical maintenance. postponing has example, for request, (FY) 2003 budget Fiscal Year in O&M for $108 million about omitted s ’ and — ). The esti-). The 3 accounting for about for accounting — ) 1 ). 2 Inland waterways O&M is funded through Corps through O&M is funded waterways Inland for need system the ages, waterways inland As the However, if distance is factored in and commodi- in and is factored if distance However, Principal commodity groups on inland waterways inland on groups commodity Principal appropriations from general federal revenues. The revenues. federal general from appropriations replacement and investment in new capital annual improve- infrastructure other and dams and locks for Funding $250 million. to is $200 million ments gen- most between is shared of these evenly projects Trust Waterways Inland the and revenues federal eral indus- towing waterways inland (IWTF). The Fund try tax of a fuel by paying IWTF revenues generates 20 cents per gallon. increases.maintenance and Nearly locks of the half exceeded 50-year lives. their have design dams But O&M funding kept have constraints budget federal stretching dollars, of constant in terms static relatively and projects of aging portfolio a growing funds over mated replacement value of these improvements is of these improvements value replacement mated O&M costs annual and than $120 billion, more exceed $450 million. The federal government develops and maintains the and develops government federal The a combination with infrastructure waterways inland river works, dams, training of dredging, navigable ( sites 230 lock at 276 chambers and Funding Decisions has approximated 630 million tons annually tons 630 million has approximated about 300 billion ton-miles ( ton-miles 300 billion about ties are measured on a ton-mile basis, products farm measured a ton-mile ties are on inland the on group commodity largest the become ton-miles, of all than 31 percent more at waterways 21 percent at of petroleum and shares the of coal with 2). This statistic respectively (Figure 13 percent, and in providing waterways of inland role the highlights travel U.S. grain exports, which low-cost transport for distances by river com- than other average greater Midwest farms in the east- and from groups, modity Lower the on terminals deepwater ern Great Plains to Mississippi. coal. Crude petroleum moves by waterways to refiner- to by waterways moves petroleum Crude coal. Coast, and western the Gulf ies, along particularly through- terminals to shipped are products petroleum network. waterways inland the out include coal, petroleum, farm products, chemicals, farm products, petroleum, coal, include construc- for as aggregates such materials, crude and the are petroleum and Coal minerals. other and tion 167 million at volume by groups commodity largest (24 percent), tons 150 million and (27 percent) tons elec- the than half more generates Coal respectively. inland the and States, United in the produced tricity nation of the 20 percent about transport waterways 15 percent of total intercity commerce by volume. commerce intercity of total 15 percent on of U.S. grain exports depend than 50 percent More ( this river network 12 TR NEWS 221 JULY–AUGUST 2002 FIGURE 5Total hoursofscheduledand unschedulednavigation lockunavailability. FIGURE 3Aginginventory ofinlandwaterways locks. Hours Unavailable 1990 pertow, FIGURE 4Average hoursofdelay atlocks, Age (Years) Age (Years) Inner Harbor 100,000 120,000 140,000 Bayou Sorrel 20,000 40,000 60,000 80,000 Port Allen 71 61 51 41 31 21 11 McAlpine Calcasieu Kentucky Greenup Lagrange 0 Ohio 52 Marmet >80 Miss 21 Miss 14 Miss 15 Miss 18 Miss 17 Miss 20 Miss 24 Miss 25 Miss 22 Miss 12 Miss 13 Miss 11 Miss 16 – – – – – – – – 0 Peoria 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1991 Scheduled 234567891011120 6 1 1992 7 02 04 50 40 30 20 10 11 Unscheduled 13 1993 18 1994 Number ofChambers 22 1995 1999 Traffic as%ofEstimatedCapacity 32 1996 Over 75% – 1999. 1997 1998 49 Under 75% 53 1999 60 and away from waterways. smaller tributary directs O&Mfunding to larger mainstem waterways commercial navigation benefits stantially reduce funding for that provide those minor that provide economic the greatest return and [to] sub- in the 1930s(Figure 3)and are for undersized today and modernization. Many facilities were constructed maintenance,requires major increased rehabilitation, The aging U.S.inland waterways infrastructure Infrastructure Challenges ton-mile ofcargo to allocate the 1950s typical inland waterway tow of15or more barges. be the GIWW and Illinois Waterway and Tennessee the Mississippi as Upper Rivers and nate other principal high-volume waterways barge tows. But600-foot lock chambers still domi- new 1,200-foot facilities accommodate that can 15- 600-foot lock chambers enlarged or replaced with tenance and rehabilitation. remained at 1977levels, creating abacklog for main- dollars,stant Corps O&Mfunding for navigation has Yet design engineering lives. 50-year interms ofcon- halfthan the locks on will their the system exceed the higher maintenance. Inthe next more 10years growth ofabout 1.3percent annually through 2020. little room to accommodate projected traffic system 75percent exceeds oftheties lock capacity, leaving tow. Annual tonnage through 9ofthe 24lock facili- 24hoursduring often the per autumn peaks surpass age more 4hours than ofdelay tow, per and delays the GIWW. toweach at Inner the Harbor NewOrleans Lockon to12 on 12hours the nearly Mississippi Upper for facilities ranged from about 1hour at Lockand Dam between 1990and 1999.The average delays at these average hours ofdelay tow per at 24major locks traffic delays are shown inFigure 4,which displays about $160million ( of hours to cost in1999,with industry an estimated lock.each The lock delays totaled 500,000 nearly producetimes huge oftows queues and costly at cially during seasonal peaks cially during seasonal traffic traffic Butas periods. volumes grow are times generallycessing manageable during lower theincreasing transportation the costs, longer pro- hour through to pass a1,200-foot lock. Although hours or more at lock, each compared with ahalf- “ Some modernization beenunder way has since Another challenge ofan aging infrastructure is Several locks now on aver- the Mississippi Upper The impacts locks ofundersized and increasing Cutting tows increases processing times to times two processing Cutting tows increases cut ” into at least two sections to pass. twosections into to at least pass. — mainly along the Ohio River 6 ). “ funds to waterways those — ” lengthy processing ( — 5 requiring tows to tows requiring ). Thisdecision — with older — — espe- such ’ s Large mixed-commodity tow on Lower Deteriorated wall at Monongahela River Tow cuts passing through Lock and Mississippi River. Lock and Dam 3, which opened in 1907. Dam 22 on Upper Mississippi River.

The aging of the inland navigation infrastructure $96 million in FY 2002 to $61 million. In addition, and the budget constraints for ongoing maintenance small funding decreases affect three mainstem and repairs have increased the scheduled and unsched- waterways—the Ohio and Tennessee Rivers and the uled downtime at locks. Lock unavailability has more GIWW. than doubled since the early 1990s, from about 60,000 Generally, projects with less than 1 billion ton- hours to more than 120,000 hours annually (Figure 5). miles suffered the most drastic reductions in O&M Shippers can prepare for scheduled lock down- funds. Until recently, the Corps’ Waterborne Com- time by stockpiling or increasing shipments. merce Statistics Center generated the only published Unscheduled downtime, however, disrupts shipments annual data on waterway use, in tons and ton-miles. and contractual commitments, forcing shippers to scramble for alternatives that typically cost much Flawed Metric more. But the number of ton-miles on a waterway has flaws as a metric for budget decisions, especially in com- Funding Challenges paring waterways. Waterways act as a system—the Another concern is the uncertainty of O&M funding, same shipment can move over several waterway seg- caused by a lack of consensus between the executive ments. The ton-mile figure only applies to traffic on a and legislative branches. The Administration’s FY single waterway and only for the distance traveled on 2002 budget request included about $406 million in the waterway—the figure does not encompass the O&M funding for 23 specific inland waterways proj- entire movement of shipments. ects, but in the final appropriation for FY 2002, Con- By not capturing systemwide impacts, this gress increased the requested amount by nearly 9 approach minimizes the importance of tributary percent to $442 million. Yet the Administration’s FY waterways. Just as a trip on neighborhood streets is 2003 budget request would reduce O&M by more usually a small but important part of a car journey, the than 6 percent, and individual projects would face trip on the tributaries is usually a small part of the more drastic reductions. journey from producer to consumer—the tributary The Administration’s request, for example, would traffic joins the mainstem and becomes part of the reduce funding for 12 tributary waterways—in par- more impressive statistics for the waterway “Inter- ticular, the Apalachicola–Chattahoochee–Flint (ACF) states.” system, the Alabama River, the Allegheny River, the In a real-world example, a barge load of 1,500 tons Red River Waterway, the Ouachita–Black system, and of coal leaves a mine tipple on the Kanawha River, in the AIWW—by amounts ranging from 5 to nearly 90 West Virginia, for the recently opened Red River percent (7, 8). Congress had increased O&M fund- Waterway in Louisiana. Unpublished data from the ing for most of these projects in the final FY 2002 1998 Waterborne Commerce Statistics Center docu- 2002 JULY–AUGUST 221 NEWS TR appropriation—in the extreme case of the ACF, Con- ment the shipment as follows: gress authorized a more than tenfold increase. River Miles Tons Ton-miles Percent Alternative Funding Criteria Kanawha 83 1500 124,500 5.0% The reduction in O&M funding for these projects Ohio 715 1500 1,072,500 43.2% reflects lower commercial use in ton-miles. The pro- Mississippi 650 1500 975,000 39.3% posed FY 2003 budget would reduce the O&M for Atchafalaya 6 1500 9,000 0.4% 12 tributary waterways by about one-third, from Red 200 1500 300,000 12.1% 13 14 TR NEWS 221 JULY–AUGUST 2002 (N Ton-Mile Measures TABLE 1InlandWaterway OperationsandMaintenanceCostsCompared to IWW =Intracoastal Waterway eetdTiuayRvr1995 River Selected Tributary re 0 ,9 .923 .30.08 0.63 0.27 0.55 0.33 2.35 0.63 0.93 0.41 1.33 1.37 0.29 2.52 4.96 2.97 1.80 1.75 0.30 1,792 1.47 2.13 0.88 0.74 5.51 0.42 109 0.46 3.97 3.56 0.08 13,559 3.18 0.29 9,844 9.50 5,738 234 10.18 14.66 7.74 0.70 1,906 732 0.73 8,720 141 0.10 13.42 0.42 0.19 296 0.61 16.61 212 11.85 0.20 Green 0.06 23.28 TennTom 0.02 0.05 1.42 25.48 0.28 6,472 Missouri 0.02 5,708 Snake 0.01 1,905 7,738 0.06 21,886 332 305 White 0.01 36 289 1,142 Red 0.00 9,932 Ouachita/Black 3,285 72 AIWW/IWW 887 82 Alabama Kaskaskia 26 ACF Allegheny Kentucky Willamette aewyMls(00 blin)(ilos cns (cents) (cents) (billions) (billions) ($000) Miles Waterway OTES ACF =Apalachicola : – Chattahoochee – akovlet im.S Jacksonville to Miami. Savannah, Georgia, and Miami, Florida, combined. Washington,of Seattle, or more the than of ports nearly 28millionnearly tons ofcargo River inIllinoisKaskaskia would have to generate 2003budgetthe FY request, the 36-mile long 1 billion ton-mile threshold for full O&Mfunding in of amainstem waterway. For example, to approach the short as extensionswaterways. serve Some tributaries only 5and 12percent ofthe movement, respectively. customer on the Red River, which are credited with to the River and demandaccess Kanawha byacoal Yet the movement could nothave occurred without Rivers are credited with 83percent ofthe ton-miles. OA ,5 5024100100.0% 2,481,000 1500 1,654 TOTAL That statistic documents the Red River portion ofall Red 335.5million River handled ton-miles in1999. the totalsent distance from origin to destination. trip. The totalmiles repre- for trip-miles vessel each summing the products ofthe tons the times total trip- plied that has the inland waterway and vessel carrying are commercial computed byidentifying every cargo- tion to the whole waterways System system. ton-miles all waterways. able only recently notyet and has beencalculated for ciated with awaterway. avail- became Thismeasure A better may ton-miles measure bethe system asso- Better Alternative vrg vrg ytmOMCostper O&M System Average Average The ton-miles metric, therefore, shorter penalizes The mainstem, high-use Ohio and Mississippi For example, according to published statistics, the System ton-miles awaterway measure & o-ie o-ie otprSystem per Cost Ton-Miles Ton-Miles O&M – 981995 1998 – ln,AIWW=AtlanticIntracoastal Waterway,Flint, – 991995 1999 OURCE ..Army CorpsofEngineers.) U.S. : vrg O&M Average – 99TnMl Ton-Mile Ton-Mile 1999 — more the than port ’ s contribu- not designed and constructed. not envisioned byplanners and for which it was generateway must commerce and sustain at levels sis. Ineffect, to qualify for O&M,awater- continued a higher standard the than initial economic analy- Thisapproachinvestment. may hold awaterway to ing determines its relative for federal worthiness funding. The implication isthat awaterway ison ofwaterways for decision making about O&M ton-miles metricsystem still encourages acompar- way the Allegheny, extent, the ACF. and to alesser pare more favorably ton-mile, waterways system per com- several ofthese waterways (Table 1).However, interms ofO&Mcost have much higher ton-mile per costs mainstem than shown inTable 1( inland waterways for14 tributary 1995to 1999are miles moving throughout the system. generatetaries more 22.5percent than ofthe ton- inland waterways ton-miles, terminals on the tribu- about 4.5percent waterways of carry 19 tributary the Red River inpublished statistics. Although ate more the times ton-miles seven than credited to the Red River. throughout that depend the on system terminals on miles would translate into 2.4billion ton-miles lated for Red River traffic, 335.5million those ton- ton-miles from cargo origin to destination are calcu- totrips or from the Red River. However, ifthe total Perhaps amore appropriate the return way to assess Transportation Savings system million ton-miles the as cargo moves throughout the about 20million ton-miles but generates 420 nearly extreme example which isthe only Kaskaskia, handles thethan waterway. ton-miles on the tributary An generatebut nevertheless traffic systemwide fargreater Others still fall short ofthe 1billion ton-miles mark, substantially more 1billion than ton-miles (Table 1). Allegheny Rivers including Snake, the Green, and Red, Missouri, substantially 1billion than less ton-miles directly waterways. Several waterways that handleof tributary forports export. which then convey the cargo to distant terminals or ways feed cargo onto the mainstem waterways, ton-miles. ofthe most Tributary system water- carry ACF, Allegheny, Kentucky, and Willamette Although introducing the concept ofawater- The average ton-miles ton-miles and for system In other words, terminals on the Red River gener- The system ton-milesThe metric system reveals the importance Smaller tributaries ’ s contribution to the network awhole, as the — a figure greater. 21times — in a systemwide contextin asystemwide generate — 9 ). Major mainstem waterways specifically the Kaskaskia and thespecifically Kaskaskia — particularly the Kaskaskia, — generally ’ s rank- — on continued O&M funding of lower-use tributaries TABLE 2 Average Waterway Operations and Maintenance Cost and Estimated would be to measure the impact in terms of Transportation Savings, 1995–1999 Average Average Ratio of transportation savings—a basic step in a Corps ben- O&M Tons Average Total Estimated efit analysis of any navigation project proposal. Does Selected Tributary 1995–1998 1995–1999 Savings per Savings Savings/ Waterway Segment ($million) ($million) Ton ($) ($million) O&M Cost a waterway continue to produce transportation sav- Green 1.79 6.4 7.5 48.1 26.86 ings in terms of national resources, and do these sav- Williamette 0.89 1.2 7.8 9.4 10.59 ings exceed the cost? The analysis requires a detailed review of the costs Snake 5.74 6.1 9.6 58.0 10.11 of barge and alternate mode transport, by origin and Missouri 9.84 7.9 8.9 70.8 7.19 destination, for all commodity movements on a trib- TennTom 13.56 8.2 10.5 86.1 6.35 utary. Other project benefits also should be Red 8.72 2.3 10.5 24.4 2.79 reassessed, as well as the impacts that changes in AIWW/IWW 21.89 4.3 18.3 78.1 3.57 O&M may have on other project purposes. Such a Kaskaskia 1.90 0.8 7.7 6.6 3.45 study would be appropriate before considering Allegheny 9.93 3.7 9.0 33.1 3.33 whether or not to maintain a waterway for navigation, Ouachita/Black 6.47 1.5 11.7 18.1 2.80 or before divestiture to a nonfederal entity—which White 1.90 0.5 9.6 4.9 2.58 was the fate of the Fox River in Wisconsin and of the Alabama 5.71 0.7 11.1 7.6 1.33 upper reaches of the Kentucky River. ACF 7.74 0.5 14.3 7.1 0.92 Some rough estimates of transportation savings Kentucky 3.28 0.3 7.3 1.9 0.58 are possible using national-level analyses prepared by the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) from regional (NOTES: AIWW = Atlantic Intracoastal Waterway, IWW = Intracoastal Waterway–Jacksonville surveys. TVA has estimated the average transportation to Miami. SOURCES: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers; Tennessee Valley Authority, 1999 data.) savings by commodity group for inland waterways traffic annually since the late 1990s. The nationwide their average O&M expenditures. averages are based on surveys comparing barge and Figure 6 displays O&M cost and estimated sav- rail linehaul transportation costs for more than 8,000 ings for 11 tributary waterways targeted for O&M origin–destination pairs throughout the inland water- reductions in the FY 2003 budget request and highway system. For 1999, TVA estimated that savings lights the substantial estimated transportation sav- ranged from $6.92 per ton for coal to $29.65 per ton ings for several of the waterways, including the for chemicals and averaged $10.54 per ton for all Missouri, TennTom, and AIWW–Intracoastal Water- cargo. way. Although not as dramatic, estimated savings Applying these average savings by commodity to are more than triple the O&M costs for the traffic on the tributaries provides a rough estimate of Allegheny and Kaskaskia, and more than double for the transportation savings for the waterway. This the Red, Ouachita, and White. macro analysis may not represent the marginal The figure also shows marginal estimated savings transportation savings for traffic on individual water- for the Alabama and savings less than O&M costs for ways. However, most of the tributary traffic moves to the ACF and Kentucky. However, these estimates are and from points throughout the waterway system and based on national averages and do not capture unique also enjoys the economies of scale associated with characteristics of localized movements on these mainstem waterways—a reason for using national averages until more detailed data are available. 100 Table 2 displays average waterways O&M costs O&M Estimated Savings for 1995 to 1998, as well as estimates of 80 transportation savings, for 14 selected tributary waterways. The savings estimates were calculated by mul- 60 tiplying average waterway tons for each commodity by $ Million TVA’s transportation savings figures. Commodity- 40 2002 JULY–AUGUST 221 NEWS TR group tons were averaged for 1995 to 1999. 20 This estimate of transportation savings suggests that many tributary waterways may produce savings 0 i a a y d a y F e that are far greater than the O&M expenditures. The ur m it ki n e m k W C it o To ch as he R a uc A h ss n a k g ab t IW W i n u as lle l en / comparison of savings to O&M is particularly signif- M Te O K A A K W IW icant for the Green, Willamette, Snake, Missouri, and A the Tennessee Tombigbee Waterway (TennTom)—all FIGURE 6 Operations and maintenance (O&M) and estimated transportation savings of which produce estimated savings of 6 to 27 times on selected tributary waterways, 1995–1999. 15 16 TR NEWS 221 JULY–AUGUST 2002 Waterway. Tennessee Tow onthe Illinois. Rock Island, MississippiRiver, Dam 15, Aerial view ofLockand – Tombigbee miles and probably well more 25percent than of more 22percent than oftotal inland waterways ton- originates or generates terminates on 19tributaries and regions with the mainstem waterways. Traffic that waterways linking more system, remote communities Tributaries play an role important within the national “Paying Their Way” waterways. tributary investment offederalinvestment resources. waterwaysthe value areturn as on an oftributary origins and destinations. Butthe approach assesses formarginal savings actual and alternative by modes transportation should savings beevaluated interms of This macro approach isanalytical — ideally, ued federalued investment. support allcannot the waterways that contin- merit problem may bethat O&Mfundsare constrained and ing navigation inthe federal the Instead, interest. whether the waterways lower-use are serv- tributary expenditures. however, show marginal or negative returns on O&M return on the federal inO&M.Afew, investment waterways commodity group, all suggest that nearly tributary way, extrapolated from national averages by structed. Estimated transportation bywater- savings improvements were initially and con- authorized metric more for akin to which the purposes waterway which need more detailed study authorized. waterway facilities were never planned, designed, or demandingmay set traffic thresholds for which the waterways with tributary ton-miles associated system out the waterways. Even an approach that considers 2. a tributary funds. Thisapproach isproblematic, failing to capture rank waterways to priorities for set limited O&M tection, hydropower, water supply, and recreation. pro- other such publicmay serve flood as purposes, inland waterways fueltaxrevenues. Tributaries also . Corps ofEngineers: Civil Works. In 5. Complete Statement ofLieutenant General Robert B. 4. .System Ton-Miles for Major Waterways. U.S. ArmyCorps of 9. 8. House Report 107-258:Making Appropriations for Energy 7. U.S.ArmyCorps LockDelay ofEngineers, Estimates. Cost 6. 3. 1. References The problem for decision makers may notbe However, oftransportation estimates savings of Engineers, annual. Engineers, Feb. 27,2002. gram Budget, Year Fiscal 2003.U.S.ArmyCorps of ations, U.S.House on ofRepresentatives, Civil Works Pro- Energy and Water Development, Committee on Appropri- Flowers, Chief ofEngineers, Before the Subcommittee on Corps ofEngineers, Navigation Data Center, 2001. Dec. Metrics suchMetrics waterway as to ton-miles are used Engineers, Navigation Data Center. www.iwr.usace.army. of the Army,tant Secretary Civil Works, Feb. 2002. of Engineers. Fiscal Year 2003:CivilWorks BudgetfortheU.S.ArmyCorps Report. U.S.House Oct. 30, 2001. ofRepresentatives, tember 30,2002,and for Conference Other Purposes: and Water Development for Year the Fiscal Ending Sep- 2001. Board Meeting No.39,Davenport,ways Users Iowa, July 18, Institute for Water at Resources, Inland Water- presented pdf/budget.pdf/. ident, p.296.www.whitehouse.gov/omb/budget/fy2003/ The U.S.Waterway System: Transportation Facts ture, March 1998. Transportation ofU.S.Grain. Waterborne Commerce oftheUnitedStates. of theUnitedStatesGovernment ’ s contributions to traffic moving through- “ pay their way U.S. Department oftheU.S. Department Army, Office ofAssis- ” several times over several times a as U.S. Department ofAgricul-U.S. Department . Executive Office ofthe Pres- Fiscal Year 2003Budget — would provide a U.S. ArmyCorps . U.S.Army — TR NEWS 221 JULY–AUGUST 2002 17 ; Emission Carbon Nitrous Emissions (lbs.) Produced in Moving 1 Ton of Cargo 1 Ton in Moving Emissions (lbs.) Produced ModeTowboatRail HydrocarbonTruck 0.09 Monoxide 0.46 0.63 Oxide 0.20 0.64 1.90 0.53 10.17 1.83 Ton-miles Ton-miles 0.25 2.75 36* 15-barge tow 2-1/3-unit trains 900 large semitrailers Fuel Consumption Rates ModeBargeRailTruck per gallon 514 202 59 1,500 22,500 100 10,000 25 barge 15-barge tow hopper car jumbo 100-car unit train semitrailer large 52,500 787,500 3,500 350,000 875 453,600 6,804,000 30,240 3,024,000 7,500 Comparison of Inland Waterways and Surface Freight Modes Freight and Surface Waterways of Inland Comparison Cents per : Division, Planning and Research Division for Transportation River Department Iowa of Transportation; U.S. Corps of Engineers Army OURCES * Assuming 150 feet between vehicles. between * Assuming 150 feet S ModeBargeRailTruck ton-mile 0.97 2.53 5.35 Lab,Control Agency. Protection Environmental Shipping Rates Equivalent units Length in miles Equivalent Lengths 1 barge = 15 jumbo hoppers = 60 large semitrailers Equivalent Units Capacity in gallons Mode in tons weight Vehicle Capacity in bushels Cargo Capacity Cargo 1 15-barge tow = 2-1/4-unit trains = 900 large semitrailers 1 15-barge tow 18 TR NEWS 221 JULY–AUGUST 2002 cargo. significant modalshiftsof leadingto replacement, be closedfor Tennessee River butwill navigation ontheupper Dam isgateway to Chickamauga Lockand Environment, Knoxville. Operation andthe Authority, RiverSystems Tennessee Valley The authorsare withthe River Efficiency,FuelTaxes, AR .BA,CRSA .DGR OADL ER,ADM CAROLYN KOROA ANDM. HENRY, RONALD L. DAGER, CHRISMANA. BRAY, LARRY G. that would result from the lock nomic ofthe and costs social intermodal traffic shifts way network Tennessee. inEast volume ofbarge traffic to an already overcrowded high- upper Tennessee River and would asignificant divert lock for replacement would eliminate navigation on the Valley Authority (TVA). The closing ofthe strategic efficiencyriver become has afocus for the Tennessee Newstrand efficiencyriver and fueltaxcollections, on based its efforts, TVA developed amodel for estimating W TVA began studying ways to the measure eco- ’ s pioneering model for the estimating tanooga, measuring and increasing tanooga, measuring from milesseven upstream Chat- mauga Lockon the Tennessee River, ith the projected closing ofChicka- and ModalShifts ’ s closing. of Aspart Model Assists Policy Makers Policy Assists Model TennesseeValley Authority estimates. tent national ofindividual database efficiency river the provide fueltax.The REMcan the consis- first efficiency river transformation isalinear because of efficiencythe are also river accurate, estimates the U.S.Treasury 0.78percent. was forREM fueltaxestimates 1996to 1999 The absoluteREM estimates. difference between the acheck as forFund serve can the accuracy ofthe a result, payments into the Inland Waterways Trust fuel taxpayments for the tow traffic on river. each As to anational total environmental impacts ofamodal shift( of TVA navigation data contributed also to the development ments inthe quality ofU.S.ArmyCorps ofEngineers chamber, 60-by-360-foot concrete lock. crete structures (AAR) Chickamauga Dam. Alkali Statement for constructing anew, larger lock at pleted adraft Supplement Environmental Impact lock for TVA at Kentucky Dam and recently com- the navigation channels. ation and maintenance at the locks and for dredging responsibility forbut the oper- primary Corps takes TVA isresponsible for capital expenditures planning, currently owns 49dams, 10 with navigation locks. Created byan Act inMay 1933,TVA of Congress Problem atChickamauga If the REM fuel tax estimates are accurate,If the REMfueltaxestimates then An offshoot ofthe REMproduces of estimates The Corps isconstructing a110-by-1,200-foot — ’ s River Efficiency Model (REM). which causes aphysical expansionwhich incon- causes — — has damagedhas the current single- and Trust Fund data published by – aggregate reaction 1 — ). Improve- summed TR NEWS 221 JULY–AUGUST 2002 19 s lower ’ efficiency rating. Tow approaching small approaching Tow lock, Upper Mississippi River. Small locks and higher average tows horsepower contribute to river ’ s ’ The REM calculations The 2 which contains informa- contains which — file, or towboat file, which file, towboat or file, ” ). lite 3 “ file, which includes the towboat the includes which file, ” ). 4 ( ” loaded “ The WCSC on data The reports vessel which file, System Monitoring Lock Performance The The Waterborne Commerce Statistics Center Statistics Commerce Waterborne The WCSCThe the lock database lock the — Eastman had estimated that barges were the most the Eastman estimated had were barges that Although timely and innovative, Newstrand innovative, and timely Although Each time a barge is repositioned, the shipper must report shipper the is repositioned, a barge time Each converging contains the links traversed in each movement and links traversed the in each movement contains number; towboat the 2 Vessel Operation Reports. Operation Vessel How the Model Works the Model How ton-miles and fuel consumption REM traces the The Corps in the recorded each movement for traveled efficient inland transportation mode, crediting trucks crediting mode, transportation inland efficient with barges 204 tmpg, and with 60 tmpg, rail with an such support not do data recent 514 tmpg. More with compared barges for fuel advantage extreme efficiencies the study shows that one including rail, “ the movement to the Corps in Vessel Operation Reports. Operation in Vessel Corps the to movement the towboats operating in inland navigation, including navigation, in inland operating towboats draft; towboat and dimensions, horsepower, file (WCSC) tons; the and cargo, the number, require data from six Corps sources: sources: six Corps from data require model was limited by using national values for modal for values by using national was limited model (tmpg) of fuel per gallon ton-miles and efficiency not then were specific values or expended. Regional a 1980 from data on Newstrand relied available. study by Eastman ( tion about tows passing through locks, including locks, passing tows through about tion s envi- federal ’ “ s guidelines ’ s dam safety offi- s dam ’ by the Corps and TVA are TVA Corps and by the 1 national economic develop- economic national ) “ 1 s life span significantly. s life ’ s methodology estimated impacts the s methodology ’ ). Nonetheless, modal shifts caused modal ). Nonetheless, by 2 ( ” benefit. ” Infrastructure studies Infrastructure Newstrand navigation has been viewed as a major contribu- has as a major been viewed navigation water- of the degradation environmental to tor possible The study. the to as precondition ways a water- of not developing impacts environmental an improving or not maintaining or project ways envi- in the included never are operation existing ( analysis. ronmental Repairs and modifications to the hydropower units, hydropower the to modifications and Repairs Interior U.S. Department of the The Although TVA and the Corps continue to study to continue Corps the and TVA Although For example, the Missouri the Review. Manual Master River example, For closing a lock or by congestion at a lock have been con- have a lock at by congestion or a lock closing a as providing sidered ment do would by barge moving traffic whether examining if diverted to environment the harm to greater issue. is a principal Air pollution mode. another 1 The REM derives from the work of the late Bill late of the work the REM derivesThe from Minnesota the Newstrand at Department of Trans- com- that (DOT). Newstrand contended portation as viewed is often transportation barge mercial of navigable quality environmental the degrading proj- of water reviews rivers environmental that and shoreside and of barges impacts the out ects single In most studies, noted, he facilities. support Previous Research Previous of a modal shift in terms of fuel use, of fuel shift in terms of a modal exhaust emis- involv- accidents disposal, tire traffic and truck sions, trucks. ing spillway gates, and lock walls at Chickamauga Dam Chickamauga at walls lock and gates, spillway associated with problems alleviate to attempted have TVA However, growth. concrete the cer has concluded that the lock will have to close for close to have will lock the that cer has concluded also Corps has The 2010. deter- safety reasons around without open not be kept could lock the that mined not would still that repairs structural major expensive, facility the extend on navigation that realization the problem, AAR the cease lock would River without upper Tennessee the envi- study the to economists led TVA replacement shippers shifts. Some of modal impacts ronmental lock of the closure permanent or a long that TVA told oth- and rail, or truck cause shift to to would them cease to ers have said operations. would they objective of water and related land resources project resources land related and of water objective planning is to contribute to national economic devel- nation the protecting with consistent opment for evaluating water projects state that the the that state projects water evaluating for ronment Fuel Taxes The establishment of the Inland Waterway Trust Fund identified a 10,700-mile network of navigable river systems subject to fuel taxes (Figure 1). The network represents about 58 percent of the total inland river system, which comprises approximately 18,300 miles. The Trust Fund legislation also established a $26–$85,000 tax—currently 24.4 cents per gallon—on diesel fuel $100,000–$235,000 $314,000–$705,000 for the portion of any movement on the fuel-tax net- $1,000,000–$3,000,000 work in nonoceangoing vessels—vessels that do not $7,400,000–$8,200,000 draft more than 12 feet.3 Towing operators pay the tax $13,000,000–$16,700,000 to the U.S. Treasury, which maintains records only for $41,342,703 the national system—the Treasury does not maintain Nontaxable waterways regional data. Of that tax, 4.3 cents per gallon does not go to the Trust Fund but is marked for debt reduction. Therefore the REM uses the tax rate of FIGURE 1 Fuel tax average delay at the lock, average processing time, 20.1 cents per gallon to convert fuel consumption by waterways by 1999 tow size, and empty return rate; waterway into fuel tax receipts by river. revenue. Shallow-draft vessel costs; and This conversion accomplishes two purposes. First, The Mid-America Study, which provides the fuel tax estimates by river were not available before upbound and downbound towboat speeds for each TVA developed the REM, and policy makers—espe- river. cially in Midwestern states—maintained adamantly that the data were necessary for river system policy The WCSC loaded file, when combined with the development. TVA has provided these data to the Trust river miles from dock to dock, allows an estimate of Fund User Board members, the Midwest Area River ton-miles by trip. Other data are merged to estimate Coalition, and the Iowa State DOT. fuel consumption by trip segment. Second, the REM fuel tax estimates can be Only recently did the Corps begin to use link codes checked against the national fuel tax collection data. for route data throughout the inland river system. TVA assumes that if the REM efficiency ratings trans- Without the link codes data, the development of the late to a fuel tax amount close to the total tax receipts REM probably would not have been possible. Each published by the Treasury, then the estimates of river link within a route is extracted from the WCSC loaded efficiency are reliable. file, and the mileage is determined—or computed if it Table 1 relates the REM calendar-year estimates of is a first or last link. If the movement traverses a lock national fuel tax collections to data published by the within a link, the record includes a processing and Treasury for 1993 through 1999. For 1996 through delay time based on monthly averages. 1999, the average absolute annual difference between At this point, the REM has assembled the total estimates made by the REM and the data reported by miles and processing or delay times for each link within all movements. The REM also contains esti- TABLE 1 Fuel Taxes and Estimates, 1993–1999 mated upbound speeds, downbound speeds, and Year Treasury Data REM Estimate Difference average horsepower for each waterway. Average horsepower by link is used whenever the horsepower 1993 $ 82,975,700 $ 69,491,764 –16.3% is not available from the vessel file. The upbound 1994 91,039,600 80,774,426 –11.3% speed and downbound speed determine the amount 1995 106,172,030 100,980,228 –4.9% of time spent within the waterway link. 1996 100,982,400 100,977,143 0.0% From these computations, the REM determines 1997 100,293,948 100,141,573 –0.2% actual running, processing, and delay times for each 1998 97,159,316 99,219,614 2.1% link. The REM employs an algorithm, developed from 1999 106,082,016 106,901,160 0.8% the Fiscal Year (FY) 1997 and FY 2000 Planning Guid- ance Shallow-Draft Vessel Costs, to assign fuel consumption for running, processing, and delays within 3 On the Columbia–Snake River, the local district considers certain barges—classified as oceangoing elsewhere—to be individual waterways. All of the individual computa- providing inland service at depths up to 14 feet. The REM TR NEWS 221 JULY–AUGUST 2002 tions within the links are added together to determine classes these as inland barges and includes the towing com- 20 the total fuel consumption in gallons by waterway. panies as paying taxes into the Inland Waterway Trust Fund. TABLE 2 Ton-Miles and Fuel Tax Estimates for Selected Waterways, 1999 Miles Ton-miles Gallons Ton-miles Waterway (millions) (millions) (millions) per gallon Fuel Tax Black Warrior and Tombigbee Rivers, Ala. 3.024 4,637.661 9.891 468.9 $1,988,153 Kanawha River, W.V. 1.032 1,451.344 5.514 263.2 1,108,313 Tennessee River, Tenn.,Ala., and Ky. 4.864 7,692.819 14.430 533.1 2,900,403 Ohio River 36.202 57,840.376 83.085 696.2 16,700,138 Mississippi River, mouth of 77.951 126,216.97 205.685 613.6 41,342,703 Ohio River to Baton Rouge, La. Mississippi River, mouth of Missouri 12.853 20,825.903 40.761 510.9 8,192,907 River to Mouth of Ohio River Mississippi River, Minneapolis, 11.421 17,831.293 64.649 275.8 12,994,457 Minn., to mouth of Missouri River McClellan-Kerr, Ark., River 1.668 2,459.668 5.768 426.4 1,159,328 Navigation System GIWW,Mississippi River, La., 4.661 8,342.379 13.858 602.0 2,785,541 to Sabine River, Texas IWW,Sabine River to Galveston, Texas 1.535 3,747.436 5.021 746.3 1,009,265 GIWW,Galveston to Corpus Christi,Texas 1.507 3,452.724 5.657 610.4 1,136,962 Cumberland River, mouth, to Nashville, Tenn. 1.449 2,387.223 5.553 429.9 1,116,147 Illinois River (including the Illinois 5.338 8,454.391 36.849 229.4 7,406,709 Waterway Consolidated) Totals for all waterways 171.52 277,821.16 531.847 522.4 106,901,160

NOTES: A complete set of data is available from the authors. GIWW = Gulf Intracoastal Waterway; IWW = Intracoastal Waterway. the Treasury is 0.78 percent. The difference for the The backhaul rates and towboat horsepower data earlier years is greater, because the REM calibrates supplied to the Corps by the towing companies pro- some operational data to be compatible with current vide two explanations for the rankings. High back- data.4 Making changes to increase compatibility with haul rates, low current speeds due to the lock and earlier data would be too expensive. dam network, and only minor delays at the locks are partly results of an aggressive modernization pro- Efficiency and Fuel Tax Data gram to make the Ohio River highly efficient. In con- River system data for 1999 are reported in Table 2 for trast, the Upper Mississippi River and Illinois selected rivers or segments of rivers and for all rivers. Waterways are relatively inefficient because of delays The 1999 total estimate of 522.4 tmpg approximates at the single-chamber and undersized locks and also Eastman’s value of 514 tmpg for barges (3). Several low- because of higher average horsepower per towboat. tonnage rivers registered high efficiencies in 1999 but The Lower Mississippi River is efficient because have varied from year to year, depending on whether of open-river navigation and a lower average horse- locks were traversed, as well as on other factors. power per towboat. Some of the tonnage moving on Efficiency rankings of the high-tonnage rivers the Lower Mississippi River is being towed down- may appear counterintuitive. For example, the stream with lower horsepower boats, which also Lower Mississippi River registers 613.6 ton-miles move the empty barges north via the Tennessee per gallon—17.5 percent higher than the national Tombigbee Waterway (TennTom). average. However, contrary to expectations, the effi- The empty return ratio on the TennTom during ciency of the Lower Mississippi River ranks behind the last five years has averaged about 113 percent— 2002 JULY–AUGUST 221 NEWS TR the Ohio River and the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway that is, for every downbound load of covered or (GIWW) for Sabine River to Galveston, Texas. The open-hopper barges, 1.13 empty barges return. TVA Upper Mississippi River—from Minneapolis, Min- research has determined that approximately 10 per- nesota, to the mouth of the Missouri River—and the cent of the towboats moving downbound with loaded Illinois River register low efficiencies of 275.8 and barges on the Lower Mississippi River are also mov- 229.4, respectively. ing empty barges upbound on the TennTom. 4 For example, data on backhaul rates for rivers or segments of Fuel tax collections concentrate on the main- rivers that have no locks are programmed into the REM. stem Mississippi and Ohio Rivers. In 1999, fuel 21 22 TR NEWS 221 JULY–AUGUST 2002 on theMississippiRiver. Aerial view ofnavigation and applied the REMto the database. River or the Mississippi IllinoisUpper Waterway data for all traffic that did notoriginate on the ple, for state aMidwestern DOT, TVA eliminated For rivers. ornates terminates exam- on tributary attributable to without ariver the traffic that origi- rivers. to closed determine as eled the impacts on the main tem. Similarly, bemod- can rivers locks on tributary shouldsystem to beexpanded the total inland sys- allows an oftotal estimate fueltaxcollections ifthe not only for the fuel-taxwaterway portions. This applymodel can to the entire system, inland river the inland waterways For system. example, the barge traffic or different geographic definitions of among discriminate The REMcan different of types Scenario Applications on other segments ofthe system. inland river trip,670 miles compared per with trip 170miles per River and the IllinoisMississippi Waterway averages Cargo ofthethe inland rest system. on the Upper that isalmost 300percent more the than average on also explainable average byamiles-per-trip inpart River and Illinois Mississippi WaterwayUpper are Illinois Waterways reached $20.4million in1999. collections River and on the Mississippi Upper River totaled $7.4million year. inthe same Total $16.7 million. Fuel collected taxes for the Illinois $62.5 million, and the Ohio River generated consumption on River generated the Mississippi The gauge model can also the level offueltaxes The relatively high fueltaxcollections on the pass from onepass segment to river another. mates involve substantial double counting tows as beadded together, cannot bers the esti- because million, $34million, and $7.8million. num- These Tennessee River accounted for, respectively, $53.7 River,the Lower Mississippi Ohio River, and the Fund, or about 50percent oftotal collections, and $52.5 million ofthe $106million into paid the Trust sissippi River and Illinois Waterway accounted for .Esmn .E. S. Eastman, 3. ated 50percent nearly oftotal fueltaxcollections. River and the IllinoisMississippi Waterway gener- tow traffic originating or terminating on the Upper roborates this roborates are vital infeeding mainstem traffic. The REMcor- navigationtributary point out that the tributaries on the However, mainstem rivers. the proponents of inefficiencies. horsepower to move cargo contributes also to these small locks. oftowboats The use with higher and relatively of29single-chamber because partly the Illinois Waterway are relatively inefficient, River and The Mississippi Upper Lower Mississippi. the efficient most closely followed rivers, bythe accuracy ofthe REMefficiency estimates. national waterway policy to and gauge serve also the river. The fueltaxdata are valuable indeveloping an offshoot efficiencies. ofriver database yielded The REMhas highwayincreased safety. portation, airpollution such decreased as and notconsiderdoes the benefits ofbarge trans- damage navigation that river to does and the stream review offeasibility concentrates studies on the correctlystrand pointed out that environmental allow ofthe comparisons efficiencies New- ofrivers. Data and modeling methodologies have improved to River EfficiencyDatabase .Nwtad .W Environmental ImpactsofaModalShift. W. M. Newstrand, 1. References 2. .Tolliver, D. 4. sadDsrc,2000. Island District, eore oni,U .Dprmn fteItro,1983. oftheInterior, Department S. U. Resources Council, The results showed that in1999the Mis- Upper and RelatedLandResourcesImplementationStudies. Economic andEnvironmental and Guidelinesfor Principles Water In Most of the fuel taxes are ofthe collectedMost fueltaxes from traffic The efficiency data rank the Ohio one River as of TVA developed the REMsoftware to produce a liosWtra Systems. Illinois Waterway of Alternative Improvements totheUpperMississippi Riverand eerhCucl ahntn .. 92 p 9 pp. 1992, D.C., Washington, Research Council, 1980. Transportation Record Research 1333 Analysis oftheEnergyEmissionsandSafety Impacts — a database offueltaxcollectionsa database by — Fuel Efficiencies inFreight Transportation according to the model, in1999 U.S.Army Corpsof Engineers,Rock U.S.Army R,National TRB, . – 12. Water June . TR NEWS 221 JULY–AUGUST 2002 23 provid- — the equivalent of 78,000 semitrailer — Since opening, 47 mil- the port has handled an impressive ing an enormous savings for shippers. for ing an enormous savings The safe, environment- transportation is a proven mode of waterways friendly the region. economic engine for The author is Port Director,Tulsa Port of Catoosa,The author is Port Director,Tulsa Oklahoma. lion tons of cargo trucks. The cost of barge transportation is approximately that of rail and one-fifth that of trucking one-third Barges carryBarges dry bulk materials fertilizer 1,000 miles via McClellan- for Port of Catoosa,Tulsa then are Louisiana to Arkansas System from Kerr delivery winter wheat for red cleaned to New and loaded with hard trip.Orleans on return Aerial view of Tulsa Port of Catoosa,an“slack port”with water Tulsa excavated Aerial of view right. River at lower no inlet,Verdigris with backwash from filled After Verdigris,joining the port vessels from 50 miles to connect with travel Arkansas River. ROBERT W.ROBERT PORTISS Bringing the Ocean to Oklahoma the Ocean Bringing Waterway Is Economic Engine for Region Engine for Region Is Economic Waterway

Rogers County Port Authority,hasRogers County Port than generated more – he ocean officially reached Tulsa, reached he ocean officially Oklahoma, December in Arkansas River McClellan-Kerr 1970 when the 445-mile

The McClellan-Kerr, and the Rivers Harbors authorized by exceeding has attracted industrial investments Navigation of Catoosa is the largest port Port and indus- The Tulsa port earned by activities,Money the City of by reinvested

Dry cargo dock bridge crane at Tulsa Port of Catoosa lowers 205-ton Tulsa Dry dock at cargo bridge crane shipping to for jumbo hopper barge Tulsa—onto quarry truck—built in Philippines. T Navigation System was completed.Navigation Beginning at the confluence Rivers,of the White and Mississippi north miles 600 river of Orleans,New Pine extends northwest through waterway the Bluff, Little Rock, and Fort Smith, Arkansas, into Okla- crosses homa,continues then to the head of nav- and Muskogee through of Catoosa, Port igation at the Tulsa near Tulsa. Act of 1946, system. than a navigation is more A multipurpose project, power,wildlife water,hydroelectric the system provides conservation, flood control, and transportation benefits to the central states region. In the process, the system generates and supports jobs. and the $1.3 billion to build the waterway. between The area of Catoosa Port and the Tulsa of Muskogee including the Port and $5 billion in industrial investments than has gained more opened. jobs since the waterway 5,000 new than $21 trial park combination on the McClellan-Kerr.More the to create million in general obligation bonds was required complex, the end of 2001, and by the total public investment $50 million. approximately had reached Tu l s a than 50 more by $226 million in private industrial investment located in the industrial park.businesses that have By 2001, with 3,000 workers approximately these businesses employed million. of $103 payroll an annual 24 TR NEWS 221 JULY–AUGUST 2002 Guard, Washington, D.C. Protection, U.S.Coast and Environmental Analysis, MarineSafety Investigations and Analyst, Office of Dickey isProgram Arlington, Virginia, and Waterways Operators, Analysis, TheAmerican Research andData Scheffler isManager, marine tankbargeatBolivar nrnet oso,Texas, Houston, entrance to Towboat safely maneuvers ship channel. That Make aDifference I shared goalshared of for 1994to 1999.The findings point the way to the covering crew fatalities, oil casualties spills, and vessel try initiative ( and nonregulatory solutions are the hallmarks ofthe mental protection. Sound analysis, open dialogue, cooperate to improve and marine safety environ- — Through the Safety Partnership, USCG and AWO tion for the tugboat, towboat, and barge indus- Operators (AWO) Guard (USCG) and Waterways The American n 2001,the Safety Partnership ofthe U.S.Coast produced areport on statistics, key safety U.S. Coast Guard, American WaterwaysAmerican Guard, Coast U.S. 2 ). “ result-oriented action — the national trade associa- Safety Statistics Operators Partner for Results for Partner Operators OGA .SHFLRADDVDH DICKEY DAVIDH. AND SCHEFFLER DOUGLAS W. ” ( 1 ). regional such levels, as tackling issues, safety critical more 20Quality than Action Teams at the national and and AWO member volunteers have participated on cooperative efforts. Since 1995,more 200USCG than consists ofmembers ofUSCG and AWO the guides and reliability ( tecting the environment, and efficiency increasing on the human element inreducing pro- casualties, Through People initiative. (PTP)safety PTPfocuses organization under the 1994USCG Prevention the between 1995,was first USCGber and amarine A national Quality Steering Committee (QSC)that The Safety Partnership, which began inSeptem- 3 ). TR NEWS 221 JULY–AUGUST 2002 25 — normal- “ about 30 ± about Waterborne — ). Table 1 shows the 1 shows ). Table 4 ). Table 2 displays the 2 displays ). Table 1999 total gallons spilled gallons total 4 – ( — 1999 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 – ). 4 ( the report noted. An analysis of all analysis An noted. report the ” s Polluting Incident Compendium, Incident s Polluting ’ ” Multiple fatality accidents should receive spe- receive should accidents fatality Multiple “ sufficiently small enough to lend itself to a itself to lend to enough small sufficiently series essentially an both indicate flat pattern “ ” The number of fatalities in the study period, in the number 179, of fatalities The The time series show a consistent range of 0.03 to series range time The a consistent show The QSC accepted the suggestion for an in-depth an for suggestion the QSC accepted The Gallons spilledMillions of 1,021,523gallons moved 1,223,066 1,245,393Gallons spilled per 193,815million moved 272,761 68,541 228,951 67,490 68,637 13.9 71,518 16.3 70,153 67,981 16.9 2.3 3.5 2.3 DeathsMissing fatalitiesTotal Estimated number (FTEs)of workers Deaths per 91,284 27 28100 workers 81,994 1 82,793 24 25 83,020 0.03 1 84,009 31 34 82,314 0.03 3 32 36 0.04 0.04 24 4 28 0.03 25 28 4 0.03 3 workweek required a conversion of the vessel of the crew a conversion required workweek number of full-time-equivalent the estimate into schedule. work 50-week a 40-hour, on (FTE) workers FTEs comparisons has to enabled This conversion industries other ( from data with was through the study period. the through study, 100 percent ized 6 fatalities per year. The raw counts and the the and raw counts The per year. 6 fatalities 0.04 fatalities per 100 workers per per year 100 workers 0.04 fatalities time series for the component data and the normalized the and data series component time the for per 100 workers. fatalities of crew statistic number of gallons spilled, the number of gallons the spilled, number of gallons TABLE 2 Oil Spills,TABLE 1994 Oil Spills number of gal- is the safety statistic pollution oil The gallons per barges by tank 1 million spilled of oil lons data numerator The moved. U.S. Army the from derive data denominator the and publication, of EngineersCorps annual derive from USCG FTE = full-time employee. TABLE 1 Crew Fatalities, 1 Crew TABLE 1994 Commerce of the United States Commerce study of the fatal incidents. Preliminary were incidents. results fatal study of the presented in January summarized are 2002 and later in this article. the accident reports was proposed to detect any pat- any detect to was proposed reports accident the terns: work of interest include factors Possible attention. cial and duty, on number of days of day, experience, time of training amount s ’ ). 5 ( ). ” 5 s Marine ( ’ ” s 24-hour, 7-day s 24-hour, ’ 1999 – ). 2 ). According to the 2001 the to ). According 5 the data to account for year-to- for account to data the deaths from natural causes natural deaths from are ). AWO and USCG staff then staff USCG and ). AWO ” 4 — 1999, identified the data sources, data the 1999, identified produce frequency data that allow that data frequency produce – “ and missingand persons. denominator The normalizes ). “ — 4 The report noted that the industry the that noted report The The partnership established two principles to guide to established two principles partnership The AWO and USCG presented first set the USCG and of safety sta- AWO In the interim, another year interim, became another avail- of data In the 1. use Present as The rates. statistics of rates the 2. both the for sources data available Use readily ). QSC decided to proceed with a formal report, and report, a formal with proceed to ). QSC decided use existing government data where possible where data use government existing 5 excluded data derive from Mercer Management Consulting Management Mercer from derive data which Model, Employment Industry Regional Towing number of vesselestimates total the employees. crew adjusts or adjusts or industry underlying year in the operations. changes would rates The interindustry and intermodal comparisons the development of the statistics: of the development the worked to identify and define the safety measures. the define and identify to worked Safety Information System database and represent database and System Information Safety deaths work-related report, the numerator data are from USCG from are data numerator the report, Crew Fatalities Crew fatalities crew for statistic the 2000 study defined The the as number following of deaths per 100 workers, and Safety Occupational by the applied standard ( Administration Health Safety Statistics,Safety 1994 presenting safety report, the 2001 safety statistics The 1994 for statistics described the methodology for constructing the time the constructing for described methodology the series, analyses data. included of the and Measures and Principles Measures safety statistics, national for need the Recognizing of Agree- a Memorandum signed AWO and USCG safety annual an 1999 mandating in October ment report to the QSC ( crew fatalities, tank barge spills, and safe operations in safe operations and spills, barge tank fatalities, crew ( conditions water dangerous tistics to QSC in July 2000. The data covered crew covered data 2000. The QSC in July to tistics gallons workers, per 100 full-time-equivalent fatalities gallons per 1 million spilled product of petroleum vessel and moved, miles trip casualties per 1 million ( able, extending the data set to 1999. These set data to the updated extending able, sources data the series detailing report a draft and QSC presented to were methodologies analysis and was distributed in report final the 2001, and in July August ( AWO and USCG analysts undertook an in-depth an undertook analysts USCG and AWO data. of the review numerator and the denominator of each measure and denominator the and numerator “ 26 TR NEWS 221 JULY–AUGUST 2002 TABLE 4Tugboat andTowboat 1994 Casualtiesper1MillionTrip Miles, TABLE 1994 3Vessel Casualties, FIGURE 1Tank 1994 bargespillvolumes andvolume oflargestspilleachyear,

xlso 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 6 1 1 1 1 2 0 1 1 0 6 1 1 1 14 1 2 0 1 1 0 7 10 1 19 1 17 1 1 1 1 1 10 7 22 1 19 1 1 2 Explosion 1 1 9 24 Capsize 20 6 Structural failure 2 1 0 9 28 Fire 56 18 8 Loss ofelectricalpower 1 Flooding 31 63 8 15 Sinking Breakaway 26 66 Equipment failure 5 2,939 Collision 3,405 72 Loss ofvessel control Allision 3,407 Grounding 70 52.137 3,764 52.430 3,641 61 51.263 2,986 51.423 52.244 1 milliontripmiles Vessel casualtiesper 48.443 Millions oftripmiles casualties Number ofvessel Gallons Spilled 1,000,000 1,200,000 1,400,000 200,000 400,000 600,000 800,000 0 955,582 = Largestspilloftheyear 9419 9619 981999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 750,000 1,101,938 9419 9619 981999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 9419 9619 981999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 840,000 may have contributed to the decline inspill volumes, uncertain. inspills ofthe recent are decrease causes specific largest incident. The data do notindicate atrend, and 1 shows the gallons and spilled the single year ineach accounted for the majority oftank barge spills. Figure one year majorThe data showed that every accident for 1994 moved, and the spillage 1million per gallons moved – 1999 The report, however, points out several factors that The next step to was examine tank barge spills. 1,163,258 – 1999. 828,000 165,649 46,200 248,089 154,713 – 1999 158,977 – 1999. 64,000 resurgence inspills? tors and regulators become complacent, leading to a areyears, they permanent or opera- will the industry account for ofthe most favorable results inrecent the question, investigated the dramatic reduction inoil spills. the focus on crew fatalities, nofollow-up have studies have reduced ofincidents. thevessels severity With ofdouble-hulled number practices and an increased for inspills the are decrease that improved operational unchanged during Possible the period. study reasons ings, collisions, and allisions remained essentially statistics, however,casualty show that towing ground- bygroundingswere and caused collisions. The vessel amount ofrandomness may beinvolved. enough to statistically identify atrend, acertain so Nonetheless, it noted that was 1990 and ofthe Responsible Program. Carrier such implementation as ofthe Oil Pollution Act of normalized assuming onenormalized assuming unit power 50.5 percent to 61.0percent. The data casualty were Across the the percentageperiod. years ranges from for 56.3percent ofthe total inthe study casualties show that towboat and tugboat accounted casualties The type. data the data were byvessel analyzed series, alty time series. casu- oftripnumber miles, and the normalized vessel tugboat and tugboat casualties per 1millionand tugboat per casualties trip miles. of the accident determines the type. casualty involved as listed inthe casualty. cause The primary another are towboat pushingthree barges, 10vessels example, ifatowboat five pushing barges collides with involvedtotal inaccidents. ofvessels number For Marine Safety Management System and the represent ofincidentsnumber 1million per miles traveled. isthe casualties The for measure ures. safety vessel control, ofvessel sinkings, and structural fail-losses groundings, power, ofelectrical floodings, losses ings, collisions, equipment failures, explosions, fires, allisions, as casualties breakaways, capsiz- classifies or damages to atowboat, tugboat, or barge. USCG The term Vessel Casualties by the Corps ( towboatscan on navigable waters ofthe United States traveled and distances represent byAmeri- databases are generated through ofthe NDC acustomized query Louisiana.Orleans, The data are notpublished but 4 ). Table the casualties, 3shows the ofvessel number The incident reports indicate major that most spills To investigate the fluctuations inthe normalized The denominator data The numerator data are extracted from USCG — “ per trip ( per vessel casualties vessel ’ Navigation Data Center (NDC)inNew “ If operational or technical factors 4 ” ). Table the towboat 4presents — ” refers to oflosses all types trip miles “ three isnotlong years — — ” are supplied Thisraised towboat or towboat ’ s The report identified three major concerns about the data:

The 1994 data are significantly lower than the 1995–1999 data, yet there are no reporting, database, or programming explanations. Because 1994 was the year after a flood had damaged the navigation system, the intuitive expectation would be for higher casualty rates. If 1994 is taken as representative of preceding years, then the 1995–1999 period shows a level shift—or “quantum leap”—in casualty rates. Inconsistency emerges across the series. Groundings and allisions show downward trends from respective peaks in 1995 and 1996, but loss of vessel control and—to a lesser extent—loss of elec- trical power show steady increases. This cautions against general statements about trends in the aggregate data. The magnitude of the changes in the individual casualty series for the 1995–1999 period reveals volatility and inconsistency. The absolute percentage change for groundings, allisions, loss of vessel con- Ensuring safety and trol, and collisions is 11.6 percent. (The data sets for random sample, sufficient to provide meaningful preventing spillage on other casualty types are so small that any change data, will be studied for groundings, collisions, alli- waterway, petroleum would generate large percentages.) sions, and loss of vessel control. service tankermen check The reports of each sampled incident and data barge wing tanks before The volatility of the individual casualty data sug- from other sources will be examined to detect any making transfer (right). gests that the casualty rate for towboats and tugboats patterns. Geography and localized weather inci- Liquid cargo is carefully for the 1994–1999 period may be viewed as a “trad- dents, such as droughts and floods, will be consid- controlled and monitored (left). ing range,” to use a Wall Street term for normally ered. The relatively stable collisions series can serve expected fluctuations. Casualties range from about as a point of comparison and may provide insights 34 to 41 per 1 million trip miles, or an average of into the volatility of the data even before the data about 37 casualties per 1 million trip miles, plus or gathered in the out-years can confirm or negate the minus about 10 percent. Since towboat and tugboat apparent trend in the aggregate series. casualties comprise 50 to 60 percent of all cases, the vessel type explains a significant amount of the vari- Building on the Report ability in the aggregate series. The QSC met in January 2002 to receive progress The aggregate series show a steady decline from reports and to conduct strategic planning (6). 72 casualties per 1 million trip miles in 1996 to 56 Progress reports included the crew fatality analysis, in 1999. However, the analyses have found that the updates on the numerator data for the safety statis- individual vessel casualty data series are marked by tics, and the strategic planning results. inconsistency and volatility. The data do not have sufficient duration or detail to determine the variation Crew Fatality Analysis to be expected within the series. As directed by the QSC in July 2001, USCG staff The observed changes could result from opera- analyzed the fatality data. Capt. Mike Karr, Chief of tional changes, such as improved training and enforce- the Investigations and Analysis Division, presented ment programs, or from normal volatility, or both. The a preliminary report on the findings. Data indicated 2002 JULY–AUGUST 221 NEWS TR variability and inconsistency in the casualty-type data, that falls overboard continue to be a major cause of the shortness of the time series, and the limited scope crew fatalities. of the study prevent a determination of the relative USCG records of towing industry fatalities count strengths of the causes. Because of the uncertainty crew member fatalities as well as fatalities involving within the data, the downturn in the aggregate series towing vessels (e.g., recreational boaters killed in an cannot be characterized as the start of a trend. accident involving a towing vessel). The report, To obtain more information, a detailed examina- however, included only crew member fatalities. The tion of the top four casualty types was proposed. A QSC has asked for an examination of both types of 27 28 TR NEWS 221 JULY–AUGUST 2002 AL Sft niet,1994 TABLE 5Safety Incidents, aaiis2 53 62 812 28 2,686 2,939 28 3,405 36 3,407 3,764 34 3,364 133,540 158,977 248,089 25 2,986 165,649 1,163,258 1,101,938 casualties 28 955,582 vessel of No. oil spilled Gallons of fatalities No. of crew of No. 9419 9619 9819 2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 nership. and refinements necessary; as nership and the AWO Safety Committee, and make national and regional QSCsand between the part- including the relationshipsprocesses, between the ship involving tugboats, towboats, and barges; crew fatalities, oil casualties spills, and vessel sented tosented the QSC. statisticssafety report will be updated and pre- Now that the Corps data have become available, the of steps that include:of steps perspective; the data analysis byproviding team an operational data and identifying trends; USCG staff, March 1,2002. 1 ( foundation for the future work ofthe partnership The strategic planning sought session to Strategic Planning the changes inthe context activity ofindustry “ numerator but according series, to the report, statistics, however, were notavailable until May 2002. the as denominatorare used for the normalized safety statisticssafety report (Table 5).The Corps data that quency or numerator data for the next edition ofthe USCG staff produced also Calendar Year 2000fre- Numerator DataUpdates improvements ( safety fatalities to identify any trends or necessary – 6 analysis of the normalized series isneeded toanalysis ofthe show normalized series Carpenter, J.K.,private communication to AWO and 2000 ). The QSCidentified four goals: .Review the partnership 3. .Improve communications to and from the part- 4. .Improve measurements to target the partner- 2. Promote and maintainadownward trend in 1. .Normalizing the 2000 1. .Establishing astatistics working group to assist 2. To achieve goals, these the QSCoutlined aseries The USCG data show decreases inallThe USCG three data show decreases ’ s efforts and to assess results; s efforts and to assess 1 6 ). – ’ 2001 safety statistics2001 safety s structure and work “ lay the ” ( 6 ). ” industry. over time, benefiting USCG, AWO, and the towing tistics allow the QSCto performance safety measure on agreed-to sources and methods, the sta- safety 6. Hill, L.H.USCG Marine Safety Data Workshop. Ameri- 5. success: success: improvements ( partnership ture ofthe partnership; and the national the struc- and regional QSCsto assess . Pluta, P. Commandant Assistant 7. . Dickey, D.H.,and D.W. Scheffler. Guard U.S.Coast 4. Guard. U.S.Coast www.uscg.mil/hq/g-m/nmc/ptp/ aboutptp. 3. Guard. U.S.Coast www.uscg.mil/hq/g-m/nmc/ptp/ptppart/ 2. tive ofthe USCG Environmental Protection, the PTP summarized Commandant forAssistant Marine Safety and AdmiralIn 2001,Rear Paul Pluta, Guard the Coast Safety Through Teamwork . Brandt, A.,and J.Kelly. Waterways American Opera- 1. References will updates. post The AWO website, www.americanwaterways.com, ments. The QSCwill meet again thissummer or fall. .Establishing an ad hoc group to look at the 4. Convening the USCG and AWO cochairs of 3. can Waterwayscan Operators, July 2000. Waterwaysican Operators, July 19,2001. Pollution, and Vessel Casualties. Unpublished report, Amer- Safety Statistics Collaboration: Trends inCrew Fatalities, torate, Guard, U.S.Coast July ings htm, 1999. awo.htm, 2000. July Environmental Protection Directorate, Guard, U.S.Coast ber oftheber maritime community. ( the highest level possible for ofsafety mem- each teamwork and afirmcommitment to achieving is[that] success tion and safety environmentaladdressing protec- [which] follow anonregulatory approach to vention Through People (PTP)partnerships, with ofits each nine success great enjoyed Pre- Waterways Operators, Guard the Coast has between Guard the Coast and the American [with] the formalBeginning first partnership W Letter AWO tors/PTP Partnership. In The statistics safety program isavaluable initia- USCG and AWO staff are working assign- on these , Marine Safety and Environmental Protection Direc- – … September 2001, p.6. .The greatest reason for partnerships reason .The these greatest ’ s communications and propose process . Feb. 8,2002, p.8. 6 ). … – AWO Safety Partnership. Based each partnership each isfounded on Proceedings – September 2001,p.2. ’ s Perspective. In 7 , Marine Safety and ) Proceed- – … AWO ’ ’ ’ s s Barge Impacts on Bridges Collision Test in Florida Will Affect Bridge Design Specifications

GARY CONSOLAZIO, RONALD A. COOK, HENRY T. BOLLMANN, AND J. DARRYLL DOCKSTADER

he design and evaluation of bridges that cross navigable water- Tways must consider the effect of impacts by ships or barges.The Arkansas River barge crash that collapsed a 600-foot section of an Interstate 40 bridge and killed 14 people near Webbers Falls,Okla- homa, in May has given new urgency to related bridge design guidelines. Bridge design documents—such as the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials’ (AASHTO) Guide Speci- fication and Commentary for Vessel Collision Design of Highway Bridges— address potential vessel impacts through code-based loading conditions. Few tests have produced data from actual impacts. The replacement of the SR 300–Saint George Island Causeway Before demolition in 2003, St. George causeway bridge near Apalachicola, bridge near Apalachicola,Florida,with a new bridge now under con- Florida, will absorb series of barge test-crashes, to generate new data for struction has provided the Florida Department of Transportation bridge design. (DOT) an opportunity to measure barge impact forces directly.After the new bridge opens to traffic in 2003, Florida DOT will test-crash Develop a schedule for the test and ensure that the test will a hopper barge at various speeds into the older structure, to obtain not conflict with the requirements of the contractor removing the direct measurements of the lateral forces imparted to the bridge old structure. piers. Develop finite element models for a hopper barge and selected Because a large number of bridges in the state cross navigable piers—including soil data—in the old bridge and conduct simulated waterways, Florida DOT has sought reliable and accurate barge impact scenarios. impact-load data for use in bridge design,retrofit,and evaluation.The Determine the barge size and cargo mass that will maximize department would like to ensure that the lateral impact loads used the variety of impact tests that can be conducted safely on the old for design are effective but do not result in unnecessarily expensive St. George Island bridge. bridge designs. Use the finite element model results to design and develop instrumentation systems for measuring the impact loads. Feasibility Study The first phase of the project determined the feasibility of the full- Preparing for the Test scale test on the bridge and established the test parameters. The first phase demonstrated the feasibility of the impact testing Researchers investigated environmental,geographical,and scheduling program and established the time window for the full-scale testing, issues. The scope of work for this phase included several tasks: the testing location,the barge acceleration path,and the preliminary test conditions.Florida DOT is now proceeding to the physical test Review the AASHTO barge-impact provisions. phase, set for summer 2003. Search the literature for barge-impact testing programs. The test is expected to yield information that will influence bridge Outline ways to maximize the usefulness of the data collected, design codes worldwide. Codes—and computer models—may be as well as the probability of success in obtaining permits, in schedul- modified to produce vessel collision force results that predict actual ing the test, and in managing project costs. impact forces more accurately. Review the environmental permitting issues—including regu- The research results also will assist engineers in other disciplines. lations about oyster beds, manatees, bird sanctuaries, noise restric- For example, geotechnical engineers will gain information about the tions, and water turbidity—as well as the environmental permitting stiffening effect of pore water when soil is rapidly loaded. Bridge documents filed by the new bridge’s contractor. designers will learn more about achieving the correct distribution of 2002 JULY–AUGUST 221 NEWS TR Select the most appropriate type and size of barge,obtain cost loads to an impacted pier and predicting the loads shed, or distrib- estimates,and determine the tug requirements to navigate the barge uted, to the superstructure and shared with the adjacent piers. for the impact test. Review water depth data, conduct an onsite bathymetric sur- Consolazio and Cook, principal investigators for the study, are on the vey, and determine the most appropriate barge acceleration paths, civil engineering faculty of the University of Florida, Gainesville. considering the new bridge and features such as oyster beds and Bollmann is Senior Bridge Designer and Dockstader is Technology power lines. Transfer Manager, Florida Department of Transportation,Tallahassee. 29 30 TR NEWS 221 JULY–AUGUST 2002 ytmi h et5t 0yas Possible initiatives include system inthenext5to10years. stepstointegrateIWTSintoanintermodal define thenecessary and government carrier, representatives hasbeenmeetingto port, informal studygroup of sorship oftheMaritimeAdministration,an underthespon- Inaddition, coastal bargingandinlandwaterways. cil hascalledfor two new studyteamstopresent thecasesfor already underway. Much ofthiscooperative activityis tutional organizationalmodels. andinterinsti- intermodal businesspractices, technologies, effect changesintransportation componentsmust to work inconcert tem,all well asthe cost ofdoingbusiness. as trafficfatalities, and house gasemissions, green- reducing road andrailcongestion, for IWTStocontribute opportunities safety pressures ofcongestionpresent and environmental, Thesocial, inland ports. quantities ofbulkmaterialstoandfrom andcheapest meansofmoving large safest, IWTS offers thecleanest, modal shipping. system (IWTS)totherequirements ofinter- adapting theinlandwaterways transportation levels andloadingthresholds. and information system data intoradarsystems; and toenterlocks; such as for advancednavigationwhich hasidentifiedopportunities projects, committee, advisory technology has organizedanindustrywide thePort ofPittsburghCommission the MaritimeAdministration, through the new MTSInlandWaterway Team. and intermodal partners; andlocalplanningorganizations,and logisticscompanies,state party (COB) business; W The MaritimeTransportation Coun- SystemNationalAdvisory To integrateIWTSintoanintermodalsys- With grants from the U.S. Department ofTransportation Department and With grantsfrom theU.S. Real-time depthinformation and systems topredict water The integrationofGlobalPositioning Systemandgeographic Operator-assisting sensorsandtechnologiestonavigate infog Integration intotheMarineTransportation System(MTS) Marketing dataresearch andeducationoutreach tothird- Practical businessplanningtoimplementcontainer-on-barge A centralclearinghouseorknowledge basefor IWTS; 20 years, ports andcarriers are ports 20 years, ith freight trafficdoublingevery Integrating Inland Waterways intoIntermodalSystems Initiatives Promote Cooperative Efforts Technologies, AE .McCARVILLE JAMES R. itbrh Pa. Pittsburgh, ofPittsburghCommission, Port The authorisExecutive Director, system. intermodal connectors the inlandwaterways are gainingconsideration asintegral, built, Althoughmore highways must be system thanbuildinghighways. freight case thatthere are easierways toadd capacity totheU.S. the inlandwaterways andcoastalbarge interests are makingthe to reauthorize theTransportation EquityActfor the21stCentury, the debate corridorsare ofnationalimportance.In transportation by theendofyear. Tennessee, Memphis andBrownsville, andmay in add services Lousiana, expanding toBatonRouge, is Louisiana, andNew Orleans, Texas, Houston, vice between hasoffered which COBser- Osprey Line, into theCOBmarket. improving theinlandsystem. Carnegie MellonUniversity toevaluate specifictechnologiesfor thePort ofPittsburghhasasked In asecondproject, port. project are preparing partners asimilartoolfor useby any inland the www.SmartBarge.com, launching andrefining thewebsite, After the costsofmoving acontainerto orfrom Pittsburgh. marketing tooltoprovide new shipperswithinformation about developing aweb-based theinitialproject, mission undertook environmental improvements. research intooperations,safety,and request shipment prices; and check barge availability. andcheck request shipmentprices; rail transportation; amongbarge,truck,and toolstocompare prices shippers ofPittsburgh Port The OhioandMississippiRivers andtheirnavigable tributaries carriers are expandingrapidly In otherrelated developments, Port ofPittsburghCom- With CarnegieMellonUniversity,the The committeeisalsolookingatotherindustry-sponsored ’ s SmartBarge webpage (www.SmartBarge.com) offers webpage (www.SmartBarge.com) s SmartBarge — vital parts ofthenation vital parts ’ s transportation TR NEWS 221 JULY–AUGUST 2002 31 2010 – s border with s border ’ REINHARD PFLIEGL 2010 represents a scenario of eco- – s inland waterways have unused have waterways s inland ’ s navigable inland waterways are not are waterways inland s navigable ’ EU wants to ensure that the available transportation available the that ensure to EU wants The increase in traffic to the EU eastern border is EU eastern the to border increaseThe in traffic from stemmed have may of waterways neglect The Balancing Modal Shifts study of a a recent from results the 1 shows Figure Austria of TEN along critical section Republic. Czech the and Slovenia, Slovakia, Hungary, is in this sector increaseThe in transport volume increase average the than twice be more expected to per year 3.5 10 percent versus 2.8 to (7 to in Europe per year). firstpercent 1998 bar The chart for 1 represents a scenario of eco- of Figure middle in the pro- to activities concerted without growth nomic second the and navigation, inland integrate and mote 1998 bar chart for capacities of 50 to 90 percent of their theoretical lim- theoretical of their 90 percent of 50 to capacities carries example, 15 percent for River, Danube The its. nomic growth with successful implementation of new successful implementation with growth nomic navigation. inland attract to concepts a balanced modal achieves efficiently infrastructure the second scenario. in the as shown Except for split, of available carries which 80 percent to up River, Rhine Europe capacity, expected to be more than twice the current average current the than twice be more expected to east-the in volumes traffic road and increase, rail but (TEN) Network west passage Trans-European of the Yet growth. substantial the handle to not be able will most of Europe devel- TEN strategic recently, until and used heavily, naviga- inland to priority assigned had a low opment tion. as a slow, navigation of inland image traditional the less bulk-oriented, integrable inflexible, unreliable, also has navigation Inland transportation. of mode advanced technologies, new in incorporating lagged concepts. economic innovative and practices, logistics to 5.9 — Danube Danube Corridor Offers 5.8 2010 – 7.3 1998 inland navigation With development of With development 5.5 the ARAports the — Rail Road Waterway Danube All 3 Modes Key to Economic Development 4.7 1.0 2010 – 8.9 he inland waterways of Europe have vast, have of Europe waterways inland he Commis- European The unused capacity. representatives recently national and sion Amster- from corridor the that declared of inland navigation Improving European Improving Without development Without development 5.0 s (EU) expansion in the next 5 to 10 years. 5 to next in the s (EU) expansion ’ Several national and international initiatives are international and national Several dam and Rotterdam, Netherlands, and Antwerp, and Netherlands, Rotterdam, and dam Sea North the Belgium, on Constanza and Sulina, Romania, and Izmail, Ukraine, Izmail, and Romania, Sulina, and Constanza con- Sea Black for the importance on is of strategic as part European growth of the tinued economic Union addressing technical, operational, legal, and com- and legal, operational, addressing technical, nav- inland of integrating issues goal the with mercial that ensure These will activities in Europe. igation modes all of can integrate management chain supply capac- waterways available In this way, transportation. canity be used investments maximize improve and to EU citizens. all for of life quality the T 13.2 Waterways Navigation 6.2 1998 1998 – 15.5 1994 17.8

8.0 6.0 4.0 2.0 0.0

20.0 18.0 16.0 14.0 12.0 10.0 Percent Increase Percent FIGURE 1 Growth and projected growth of transport volume in Danube Corridor. of transport in Danube volume growth and projected FIGURE 1 Growth The author is with Donau Transport Entwicklungsgesellschaft, Austria. Vienna, transportation, for technological and political reasons. Public owners dominate the inland waterways, slowing competition and investment. The opening of the Main-Danube channel in 1992 created a new trans-European waterway linking Ams- terdam-Rotterdam-Antwerp and the Black Sea ports. The channel has attracted significant transport flow, but development has been modest. The recent war in Yugoslavia severely affected inland navigation, cutting off Romania, Bulgaria, and Ukraine from Euro- pean markets previously reached through inland waterways. In addition, the Danube waterway has limitations in terms of year-round reliability for navigation because of shifting seasonal water levels.

Studies and Forecasts Although inland navigation on the Danube has proved successful in low-cost, bulk cargo markets, it has failed to capture high-value cargoes. Con- tainer transport comprises less than 1 percent of FIGURE 2 Waterway total cargo on the Danube, in contrast with 10 per- from North Sea (Atlantic of capacity on average, but only 10 percent of capacity cent of the total on the Rhine system, but several Ocean) to Black Sea, 3800 in Eastern European countries. feasibility studies confirm the potential for con- kilometers long. (SOURCE: As the Central Eastern European countries are tainer shipping on the Danube. Oesterreichisches Institut integrated into EU, transport volumes in the next Further integration of the Central and Eastern fuer Raumplanung.) 10 years are expected to grow rapidly. Transport European countries will increase west-east traffic modes will become a key policy issue. Already the flows in the Danube Corridor. For example, forecasts pattern of transportation flows has changed and is are that international transport volume in the Austrian hampered by quantitative and qualitative bottlenecks. section of the Danube Corridor will increase from 39 Efforts at improvements through investment are hin- million tons to 83 million tons within the next 15 dered by low national budgets and—until recently— years on all modes.2 a low priority in EU traffic policy. Since the overwhelming portion of this growth consists of medium- and high-value commodities, Danube Waterway inland navigation will have to strive to retain market The hydrographic area of the Danube River encom- shares. To respond to the increasing demand, Danube passes a land mass of more than 800 000 km2. About navigation will need to develop effective solutions, 155 million people—approximately 27 percent of the probably involving container transport and the trans- total European population1—live in the Danube’s port of stackable swap bodies.3 riparian regions from Bavaria, Germany, to the Black The upgrading of rail and road systems in the Sea. The number of people with direct or indirect Danube Corridor of Austria has begun, with funding access to the Danube waterway—the Rhine-Main- secured into the next decade. The situation in the Danube area—is approximately 320 million, nearly Central and Eastern European countries is not as pos- 57 percent of the total European population. Since itive—financial resources have not kept pace with economic development in the eastern parts of the traffic demand.4 New construction and upgrades of Danube region lags behind the European core regions, the infrastructure have proved costly and time con- the map in Figure 2 illustrates the economic impor- suming because of the legal processes associated with tance of the transportation infrastructure. the requirements for ecological sustainability. For centuries, the Danube waterway was the Transportation forecasts and the increase in most important transportation system in the region, international transportation flows over already high

contributing significantly to economic develop- 2 Evaluation of the Danube Waterway as a Key European ment. But in the last 150 years inland waterway Transport Resource, research and development project in transportation on the Danube has not kept pace the 4th Framework program of the EU. with the dynamic development of rail and road 3 Interchangeable containers for intermodal shipping.

TR NEWS 221 JULY–AUGUST 2002 1 Figures for 1995, including Ukraine, but not the Russian 4 Transport Infrastructure Needs Assessment (TINA), a 32 Federation. European project to assess transportation infrastructure. volumes of regional traffic—especially in Austria 50.0 and Hungary—indicate that the infrastructure for Crude and land-based modes will not match up with the vol- manufactured 45.0 minerals, building umes expected in the next 10 to 15 years. Parts of materials the Danube Corridor may become bottlenecks Ores and metal within the European infrastructure, like the bottle- 40.0 waste necks in the Alpine Corridors (the north-south link Metal products in the network). 35.0 Solid mineral fuels But even at bottlenecks such as Vilshofen-Straubing Petroleum products in Bavaria, Germany, waterway capacity use does not 5 30.0 Machinery, transport exceed 50 percent, and the rate downstream falls equipment, well below 15 percent. The transportation capacity of manufactured and the Danube waterway therefore must be exploited. miscellaneous articles 25.0 Agricultural products Percent Policy Considerations and livestock EU transport policy regards inland navigation as a 20.0 Fertilizers low-cost, environmentally friendly, and energy-saving Food and animal fodder mode that could absorb increasing traffic flows and 15.0 contribute to the European market. The TEN Outline Chemicals Plan for Inland Waterways6 highlights the importance of the Danube. The advantages of inland navigation in 10.0 reducing environmental damage are also clearly stated in the 1999 Green Paper on the Impact of Transport 5.0 on Environment: A Community Strategy for Sustain- able Mobility, which endorsed European Commission plans to increase the market share of inland water- 0.0 ways. 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 Goods from overseas, as well as from EU member countries, are delivered to European seaports for trans- FIGURE 3 Products transported on the Danube. (SOURCE: Danube Commission.) port to destinations within Europe. The link from the ARA ports to Central Europe is a key lifeline that can be Quality of Service supported by inland navigation (Figure 2). Sustainable Goods transportation on the Danube is usually asso- and ecologically friendly, waterways transportation ciated with bulk material and low-quality feed (Fig- offers a short-term solution for congested road infra- ure 3). Shippers do not consider the waterway for structure and provides efficient transport opportunities container transportation or for deploying modern sup- for Central and Southeastern Europe. ply-chain management practices. Many have found the provision for high-quality goods movement inad- Key Questions equate. Moreover, compared with deep-sea vessel Reliability and Accessibility ports, inland waterway transport lacks the innovative Inland waterways transportation on the Danube is services and approaches that enable partnerships and considered unreliable because of traffic limitations services in supply chain management structures— based on water levels. However, analyses have shown especially in terms of new transport opportunities, that water-level changes should not be a hindrance. cargo handling, link ability, and information net- Multiyear averages indicate that the Rhine-Main- working. Danube waterway is unreliable for only 1 percent of Most of the information flow between vessels and each year due to high water—that is, the waterway is logistics providers is by voice, not by electronic trans- impassable 3.5 days per year, although high-water mission. Modernization will improve the quality of 2002 JULY–AUGUST 221 NEWS TR phases of more than 2 days are rare. Moreover, statis- the service. tics show the same level of unreliability for railways and motorways parallel to the Danube. Addressing the Issues What are the steps necessary to exploit waterway 5 Shifting Cargo to Inland Waterways. European Community 5th Framework Program for Research, Technological navigation as an innovative, reliable, and cost- Development, and Demonstration Activities, 1998–2002. effective mode for medium and long distances? First, 6 Trans-European Network Outline Plan for Inland Waterways. work must be carried out to develop the strategic Strategy Paper of the European Commission, 1999. advantages of inland navigation—such as loading 33 34 TR NEWS 221 JULY–AUGUST 2002 supply chains because ofseveral majorsupply problems: chains because tion beintegrated cannot efficiently into multimodal achieves reliability, transparency, and efficiency. the mainhaulage will occur only ifthe system intermodal logistics chains with inland shipping as mentally oftransportation. friendly modes Ashiftto an emphasis onreflecting shiftsto more environ- ontransport the Danube isone ofthe priorities, and theport, corresponding connections. Intermodal development ofinland waterways, intermodal trans- revision ofthe priority TENguidelines, giving to the for development ofthe transportation networks. corridor bysigning amemorandum ofunderstanding acknowledge must countries the importance ofthe be available within the corridor. Moreover, the Danube developing economies, an efficient infrastructure must Danube Corridor. To the transportation satisfy needs of volume, intransport increase along especially the Europeeastern under the Stability Pact will generate an ing oftrade inSouth- and lowering barriers oftariff operations. ket Rotterdam, September 2001. time intransshipments. of loss atarrival an which inland cause port, can inland vessels and ofdangerousinland vessels and cargoes; trol procedures along the route; and apositive ecological ratio capacity, security, relatively low infrastructure costs, 7 tration and operations. projects These to led the pre- investigated the governmental ofadminis- aspects nological foundations ofan RIS.Several projects have worked has on the tech- EU five years, In the past Pan-European RIS the standards. Rhine and Danube commissions river will drawup Nations Economic Commission for Europe, and the cient inland waterways EU,the transport. United RIS by2005.RISscontribute to and more safer effi- (RIS)and plan toservices apan-European establish acknowledged the information importance ofriver All nations along the Danube and the Rhine have River Information Services tion and operation country. ofRISsinevery coordinatingsecond, and harmonizing the installa- preparing for apan-European RISinstallation, and Pan-European Conference on Inland Waterway Transport, In the Danube Corridor inland countries, naviga- In 2001,the European Commission proposed a The expansion ofEUand the envisioned liberaliz- Lack ofinformationLack about avessel No reliable information about the position of ofborder oftransport time con- because Loss 7 Two first, are initiatives necessary: — into mar- successful ’ s time of architecture, and applications. dardization and harmonization ofthe RISconcept, from64 partners to 13countries work on the stan- COMPRIS entails acooperative approach involving precede implementation ofRISsacross Europe. COMPRIS project isthe significant most action to Technological Development, and Demonstration. The Display and Information System. Information System and the Inland Electronic Chart standardizationliminary ofthe Inland Automatic under EU form for River Information (COMPRIS), Services Consortium for the Operational Management Plat- several demonstration scenarios. developed and proved the concept basic ofthe RISin stration for River Information (INDRIS) Services inland waterways. The Inland Navigation Demon- to traffic improve management vessel on systems Union technology have pursued projects specifically waterways inEurope transport and to integrating traffic and transportation information; and national laws; ininland navigation;ties navigable waterways; tions; bility with other RISs; fic; conditions and ofcurrent and future waterborne traf- implement the service; 1998 8 inestablishing anational RIS: aresteps necessary country. ineach to the mixofservices The following governmentalport and commercial geared partners, in all European RISswill Harmonized countries. sup- The goal ofCOMPRIS isto create astandard for RISs Steps toImplementation 4th Framework, 1994 The Joint Programs Research The success of INDRIS led to ofINDRISled The afollow-up success project, Telematics are key to improving services inland – 2002. Operating RISs in every country.Operating RISsinevery Creating linksfor the international exchange of Incorporating related EUdirectives into Creating alegal framework; allLinking governmental and commercial par- Developing an electronic for chart nautical all Contracting for installation; Designing applications specifica- and system Standardizing and harmonizing for compati- the requirements; Assessing ofwaterway assessments Making preliminary Assigning an organization to develop and ’ s 5thFramework Program for Research, – 1998, and 5thFramework, 8 of the European intermodal supply chains efficiently. An RIS will reduce risks for safety and the environment and also will increase the efficiency of intermodal transport operations by integrating electronic information from all participants in the intermodal chain. The first operating installation will be in Vienna, Austria, this year and will extend to 350 km in 2003. A test center will be constructed between the locks of Greifenstein and Freudenau near Vienna, to verify system functions.

Container Services Another key element is the introduction of standardized containers in logistics chains. Standardized containers are easily loaded from one transport mode to another—a roll-on, roll-off procedure. With container-liner services, transport efficiency on the inland waterways can reach high levels, not only for bulk commodities, but also for technical cargoes. Newly developed 45-ft. containers are now in use for intercontinental traffic in Europe. Available as a Containers stacked at inland navigation port in Europe. box or with a curtained side, the containers consoli- date 33 europalettes and offer 82 m3 of loading capac- A Common-Source Logistics Database acts as an ity. The service is integrated into current logistics information broker for all supply-chain participants. solutions and offers significant cost advantages. The database offers automated data processing, com- The container-liner service now operating as a munications tools, web-based services, and an inte- pilot project on the Danube River connects the grated transport management data system. Four important economic areas of Bavaria in Southern demonstration projects are under way to evaluate the Germany, Upper Austria, and Hungary. Regular potential of information communication technology weekly service is provided to the ports of Deggen- to provide transparent and innovative services that dorf, Germany; Enns, Austria; and Budapest, Hun- improve reliability and flexibility and meet the gary, in both directions. requirements of supply-chain management.

Logistics Solutions Resolving Issues To Move Goods Accurate inland waterways traffic information data— Mobility of goods is important not only for the linked interactively to logistics planning and man- economic growth of the European market, but also agement data—will optimize resource use, provide for the integration of the Central and Eastern high-quality services, and facilitate flexible reaction to European countries into the economies of Western changes in demand. This will benefit consignors, ship- Europe. Cheap, efficient, and environment-friendly ping companies, logistics service providers, and mul- transportation will support economic and social timodal transport operators, as well as transshipment development, particularly in the more remote ports and national authorities. regions of Eastern Europe. In 2000, EU initiated a research program— Several operational, organizational, and techno- Advanced Logistics Solutions for the Danube Water- logical activities are contributing to the development way—to improve logistics chain management of intermodal transport chains on the Danube River. services with inland navigation as the main haulage. The challenge is to transfer research results into a

An integrated logistics system for inland waterways general operating concept to meet specific regional 2002 JULY–AUGUST 221 NEWS TR would create an interactive network of all parties, and company-oriented requirements. enabling the planning, management, handling, and Because 14 nations form an inland waterways cor- monitoring of supply chains. This type of system ridor from the Atlantic Ocean to the Black Sea, legal, also addresses the faster processing of trans- administrative, and commercial issues must be shipments, improves administrative procedures at resolved to facilitate the movement of goods along ship locks, provides real-time information on vessel the corridor. Commercial success depends on high positions, and estimates future waterways performance, high quality of service, and an environ- shipments. ment-friendly system. 35 36 TR NEWS 221 JULY–AUGUST 2002 ido,Otro Canada. Ontario, Windsor, U.S.-bound trucksin 25-kilometer backupsfor September 11produced at theborder after Increased securitymeasures operating. automotive plants tokeep Michigan, Detroit, and Ontario, Windsor, marine linkbetween in-time trucksshiftedtoa many just- September 11, impassable after crossings nearly landborder With U.S. Inc., Detroit, Michigan. Windsor Truck Ferry, President, Detroit- The authorisVice WaterwaysIndustry Savesan Option VIEW POINT OF T in the automotive industry. mental 11plant inaverting post-September closings Detroit-Windsor Truck alternative Ferry instru- was freightcal across the border. ofthe The success low-risk but criti- relied tonies on carry the ferry September 12, automotive manufacturing compa- and large, oversize or overweight loads. Beginning tractor-trailersport laden with hazardous materials Detroit-Windsor used has try Truck to Ferry trans- For more adecade, than the manufacturing indus- Viable Alternative tion inthe waterways option. requirements.just-in-time Some found solu- aready and implement alternative transportation plans to meet many facilities began closing down within 24hours. effect on manufacturersa cascading nations inboth industry border, many industries shipmentsand departure ofjust-in-time across the gan, to Point Edward, Ontario. Without the arrival Bridge over the St.ClairRiver, from Port Huron, Michi- Michigan, to Windsor, Ontario, and at the Blue Water sador Bridge over the Detroit River, from Detroit, and vehicleperson attempting entry. ofeach risk der guards the to security scrutinize tional attacks on homeland the American forced bor- the United States movement ofinternational trade byland routes across diately after the attacks created ablockade to the free border imme-border security marine links.Increased RG .WARD GREGG M. Good fortheUnitedStates Marine Links Are GoodforGeneral Motors, Logistics managersLogistics worked overtime to identify Backups were more 14hours than at the Ambas- — particular, the ofestablishing merit cross- transportationcross-border options demonstrated the value ofredundancy in he aftermath 11,2001, ofSeptember can becrippled.can blockade The security had – Canada border. The ofaddi- fear — such the as automotive — — in that includes all modes. importance ofaredundant transportation network of dollars. providers Logistics the have witnessed 11haveSeptember runinto the hundreds ofmillions Plant. Assembly to continue operation ofthe Detroit-Hamtramck our only alternative that would enable General Motors September 11, spokesman for General Motors noted that after to the front ofthe line. close without ashipment. That shipment then moved duction line would behalted or which plant would impromptu ranking determined was bywhich pro- priorities for on shipments need. The based suppliers, transporters, managers and truck set ferry another terrorist event suddenly strikes. lish redundant transportation options isnow, before the United States and its neighbors. The time to estab- nomically feasible and advantageous to the welfare of decisions.prearrival andadvance to manifests make data critical on vessel also allows enforcement authorities time to analyze Theline round-trip isnotan issue. cycling ofvessels shipments with advance reservations to the front ofthe cessfully. With prebooked deck space, moving vital manage can suc-the task thiscritical marine industry the truckers snaked for miles along the highway. to the front ofthe line without inciting ariot among emergencies, there isnoway to low-risk spirit goods or suspicious suspect possibly During cargoes. border tive when benign shipments remain lined up behind Advanced become customs systems ineffec- clearance low- from high-risk freight logistically impractical. border points crossing the makes segregation of explore and develop options. service providersmarine service should to meet with industry alternative for aportion ofhighway traffic. Ports and tions isaviable during The marine industry acrisis. borders at options crossing Diverse are essential Diversifying Options The economic losses fromThe economic the border losses backups after In aletter to the a U.S.Customs Service, Working cooperatively, automotive companies, Sustainable cross-border marine initiatives areSustainable eco- cross-border As Detroit-Windsor Truck demonstrated, has Ferry The volume ofvehicles funneled to major land- — if manufacturers are to continue opera- “ Detroit-Windsor Truck became Ferry ”

— particularly