sign in sign up
<<
Home , Alexander Kennedy, Cyrus McCormick, Franz Reuleaux, North River Steamboat, Pafnuty Chebyshev, Robert Fulton

A Biography of Cyrus McCormick February 15, 1809 - May 13, 1884

Cyrus Hall McCormick was born in Rockbridge County, and was the eldest son to Rober McCormick - a farmer, blacksmith, and inventor. His father worked on a horse-drawn reaping that would harvest grains. However, he failed at producing a working model. McCormick was known as an American industrialist and inventor. He was very talented at inventing and had invented a lightweight cradle for collecting harvested grains at a very young age.

In 1831, he took over his father’s abandoned project to build a mechanical . Within 6 weeks, he built, tested, refined, and demonstrated a working model of his machine. This machine features a vibrating cutting blade, a reel to bgrin the grains to it, and a platform to collect the harvest. In 1834, he filed a patent for his invention. Despite his success, farmers were not eager to adopt his invention and sales were virtually zero for a long time.

During the bank panic of 1837, the family’s iron foundry was on the verge of bankruptcy. McCormick turned to his invention and spent his time improving his designs. Starting in 1841, the sales of his machine grew exponentially. This growth drove him to move his manufacturing work from his father’s barn to where he, with the help of mayor William Ogden, opened a factory. He went on to sell 800 during the first year of operation.

McCormick faced a lot of challenges from many competing manufacturers who fought in court to block the renewal of his patent that was set to expire in 1848. McCormick lost this battle but tried to beat his competitors by outselling them. He deployed clever marketing strategies such as mass production, advertising, public demonstrations, warranty of product, and extension of credit for the farmers. His success was recognized internationally and his reaper won the Grand Medal of Honour at the International Exposition in 1855. By 1856, McCormick sold more than 4000 machines per year.

His factory was destroyed in the in 1871. However, with his accumulated wealth, he was able to rebuild. When he passed away in 1902, his business was still growing. The McCormick Harvesting Machine Company joined with other companies to form the Company with his son as its first president. References [1] https://www.britannica.com/biography/Cyrus-McCormick ​ [2] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrus_McCormick ​ [3] https://lemelson.mit.edu/resources/cyrus-mccormick ​

Franz Grashof 11 July 1826 - 26 October 1893 Franz Grashof was a German engineer born in Düsseldorf, Germany to Elisabeth Brüggemann and Karl Grashof. Grashof showed an interest in machines from an early age and left school at the age of 15 to work as a mechanic (or locksmith depending on the source). He then attended a trade school and finished secondary school in Düsseldorf. Grashof continued his education at Gewerbe-Institute (now the Technical University of ) from 1844 to 1847 studying mathematics, physics, and machine design. In 1847, Grashof interrupted his education and joined the military to pursue a career as a naval officer. He spent several years sailing around the world before realizing that his future laid in academics. Grashof returned to the Gewerbe-Institute in 1852. After completing his education in 1854, Grashof was hired on as a professor of mathematics and mechanics. Grashof had a distinguished career and was one of the twenty-three founding members of the Verein Deutscher Ingenieure (VDI) on May 12, 1856. The VDI, also known as the Association of German Engineers, named Grashof as the director because of his reputation in science and engineering. Grashof was then named as the professor of applied mechanics and the theory of machines at the Polytechnikum in Karlsruhe in 1863 following the death of Ferdinand Redtenbacher. He stayed in Karlsruhe where he became the first to present the fundamental equations of the theory of elasticity in his three volume text, Theoretische Maschinenlehre (1871-1886). In the field of kinematics, Grashof defined a condition to determine if a link in a four-bar chain can rotate completely relative to its neighboring links. The Grashof Condition states: “If the sum of the shortest and longest link of a planar quadrilateral is less than or equal to the sum of the remaining two links, then the shortest link can rotate fully with respect to a neighboring link”. A visual representation of this condition is shown below. Following his death in 1893, the VDI created the Grashof Commemorative Medal as the highest honor in engineering skills.

References Straub, Johannes, ”Grashof Franz 1826-1893”, Thermopedia, dated 2 Feb. 2011. http://thermopedia.com/content/823/ “Franz Grashof”, Prabook, World Biographical Encyclopedia, Inc, dated 2020. https://prabook.com/web/franz.grashof/2445687 “Grashof, Franz”, Encyclopedia.com, An Elite Cafemedia Publisher, dated 2020. https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press- releases/grashof-franz “Four-bar linkage”,Wikipedia,Wikimedia Foundation, 19 June 2020, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four- bar_linkage#:~:text=The%20Grashof%20condition%20for%20a,respect%20to%20a%20neighbo ring%20link.     !"#$%&'($)01"23$4$& 5#67"2892 @6!AA2 B8 C8@17DEC!28EB" B@F8 G932 DHC" A97@A92I2  F2971"@PCA2  93#Q"@ I77@"29B@R$S@7P$)#C! B@"82H32 B8TC 3# C @C97@"CUF72I732V@P9CP!397CCPRS@89!P2@P997@6C33@B@CU W!"2  P2 29233#812"@P9CH@3F#@"RX@P2 BYPAC PS33@#`8 HCCaC 3B@H"2 C192I8 P9a2 B @81@I233#2 9@"@892 B17#82I8 I388T7CF@V@"T12b!@P7282 9@"@892 A97@A92I8R c 32a@A #C97@"A97@A92I2 8CU72892A@T7@P2P C989!P# ! P@"C97@""@VC3!92C "#A97@A92I2 8 P8CF83"B@3#8@3UD 9!B79RS@1!H3287@P728U2"89FC"a2 A97@A92I82 $%dT9C 3#$4 #@"8C3PRW728FC"a@e1"@88@P82A23"292@8H@9F@@ 97@H2 CA2397@C"@A PP@"2V92V@8TH!9F8 CA89@"12@I@RS@A23@P97@8@ P33728U!9!"@"@8!3989CE@C 7"PY!3@"F7CF82 5@"32 R S@PC!H3@P728"@8@"I7@UUC"98 P2 97@UC33CF2 B9FC#@"87@AP@82B 2U2I 91"CB"@88 ! P@"ICV@"2 B PB@ @"32f2 B8CA@2A1C"9 981@I98CUACP@" I3I!3!8Rg!"2 B972892A@T7@ F811C2 9@P1"CU@88C"8721997@XC#30"9233@"#8I7CC32 W!"2 R$Y!3@"F82A1"@88@PH# EB" B@`8FC"a P2 $%'7@"@ICAA@ P@P72A9C5@"32 0IP@A#TF7@"@Y!3@"72A8@3UF8 "@8@"I72 BREB" B@II@19@P97281C8292C RW7@ @e9#@"7@7@31@PUC! P97@XC#30IP@A# CUhI2@ I@8CUW!"2 T8I2@ 92U2I8CI2@9#9791!H3287@P8I2@ 92U2IiC!" 3TpqrstuvwNyvN€‚ƒtR$ g!"2 B97@UC33CF2 B)#@"8EB" B@F8@e9"@A@3#1"CP!I92V@RS@AP@A@ 2 BU!3 IC 9"2H!92C 89CI3I!3!8T1"CHH2329# P !AH@"97@C"#TI@3@8923A@I7 2I8T PC97@" U! PA@ 938CUP# A2I8R$TS@1!H3287@P728AC89UAC!8IC 9"2H!92C TEB" B@`8@b!92C 8T 2 pqrstuvwNyvN€‚ƒt2 $%''REB" B@`8@b!92C 8CUAC92C I H@@e1"@88@P8„ ‡ˆ‰“” † ˆ‘’ ˆ‰ –—F7@"@˜–™”de–fghijgkeihilmne”eopjihjgqreihilmnRW7@8@@b!92C 8I H@ ˆ• !8@P9C8C3V@UC"97@P@IC!13@PAC92C CUCHi@I982 ICA13@eIC 8@"V92V@8#89@AREB" B@`8 @b!92C 8"@82A23"9Cs@F9C `8@b!92C 8CUAC92C tQuAv PI 8C3V@97@8A@1"CH3@A8T H!997@82A132I29# PI3@ 32 @88CUEB" B@`8@b!92C 8P!"2 B8C3V2 B8@9897@A1"9R&W7@ ICA13@e292@8CUs@F9C `8@b!92C 88I3@8F29797@ICA13@e29#CU97@8#89@AH@I!8@97@8#89@A 2882A132U2@PC 3#U9@"8C3V2 BUC" P@32A2 92 BIC 89"2 9UC"I@8TEB" B@`8@b!92C 8T 7CF@V@"T"@P!I@97@8#89@A9C298H"@HC @8U2"89UC"B"@93#82A132U2@P8C3V2 BTd97C!B797@ @b!92C 298@3U11@"8AC"@ICA13@eR EB" B@ACV@P9Cw"282 $%4%9C"@8@"I7997@"@b!@89CUEC!28xyG PF8H3@9C FC"aF297C!9288!@97"C!B7C!9AC89CU97@Q"@ I7X@VC3!92C RS@F8B" 9@P @eI@192C F7@  97@X@2B CUW@""C"2 8289@P97933UC"@2B @"8H@""@89@PR$Tz #CU7281@@"8T7CF@V@"F@"@ C9 8CUC"9! 9@ PF@"@B!233C92 @PREB" B@IC 92 !@P728FC"a2 A@I7 2I82 w"28 PF8 @89@@A@PH#s1C3@C  P2 $4)47@iC2 @P97@E@B2C CUSC C!" P6C! 9CU97@YA12"@RG  $4$&7@"@I@2V@P97@{" P6"C2eCU97@|"P"@GA1}"23P@3X}! 2C TC @CU97@72B7@897C C"8 2 97@Q"@ I7YA12"@TH!9P2@PF@@a39@"R$ t$v|`6C C"TRR~XCH@"98C TYRQRC8@17DEC!28EB" B@Rtvh9"!2aTgRRC8@17DEC!28 EB" B@T6CA9@P@3`YA12"@R‚ƒ€sttƒs~)$Rt&v|`X@233#T|RzR‚tuƒtvv‚ƒtuNƒ„ts ƒw~ )$)RtdvSCFTgREB" B@`8Yb!92C RzGWD0@"C81I@g# A2I8))&R Daniel Davis

Leonhard Euler – born April 15, 1707 in Basel, Switzerland; died September 18, 1783 in St. Petersburg, Russ. For some, a master’s degree at the age of 16 and a Doctorate by 19 would be high on their list of life accomplishments. That is, unless that person had also published over 500 books and papers on topics ranging from calculus to geology, from to acoustics, many of which while blind no less. Considered to be one of the most influential mathematicians to have lived, ’s legacy is impossible to ignore, from Euler’s identity to today’s common function ( ( )) and summation (∑) notation. 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 Born in 1707 in Basel, Switzerland to Paul Euler III and Marguerite Brucker, Leonhard Euler was initially on a path to the ministry, encouraged by his pastor father. However, Sunday’s spent with Johann Bernoulli steered him toward mathematics and he would earn his master’s degree comparing the ideas of Newton and Descarte before his doctorate on acoustics in 1726. Seven years later as a professor of physics he became the senior mathematics chair at the St. Petersburg Academy, allowing him to marry. He would do so a year later and become almost equally prolific as a father as he was a mathematician, his wife Katharina Gsell giving birth to 13 children. Indeed, Euler is believed to have said that some of his greatest mathematical discoveries were achieved with a baby in his arms and children playing at his feet. In 1741, Euler moved to Berlin where he wrote and published, “Introductio in Analysin Infiitorum” (Introduction to Infinitesimal Analysis) and, “Instituiones Calculi Differientialis” (Institutions of Differential Calculus), two largely impactful books. These and many of his other works were accomplished as he was going blind beginning in 1738 following a fever. He would become fully blind later in life but would not be stopped, saying in regard to his blindness, “Now I’ll have less distractions.” Even his home burning down and his wife dying in 1771 and 1773, respectively, did not slow him down, publishing half of his entire works while blind and marrying his wife’s half- sister. Today’s, Euler’s influence can be seen across various fields. In mechanics, for example, the technique for describing three-dimensional angles is largely of his creation. He may be most famous for the use of the “imaginary number” i and Euler’s formula: = + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 Even in death, Euler was contemplating𝑒𝑒 mathematics.𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑖𝑖 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 In𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 his final day, he was reported to have taught math to his grandchildren, worked on the motion of balloons, then engaged in a heated discussion regarding the planet Uranus. He then had a brain hemorrhage and would die six hours later, but not without uttering his final words, “I am dying.”

Daniel Davis

References: [1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonhard_Euler#Contributions_to_mathematics_and_physics. [2] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kEYUDWf_UpQ. [3] Challis, JH (2021). Kinematics. In, Experimental Methods in Biomechanics (pp. 151-181). Springer Nature.

ME 581 H02 Sean Feick

Robert Fulton November 14, 1765 – February 25, 1815 Fulton was born on November 14, 1765, in rural Lancaster County, . As a teenager, he had an aptitude for artistic design and was apprenticed to a jeweler named Jeremiah Andrews. He had a special talent for painting and engraving at an incredibly small scale, making his name creating miniature portraits while working on collecting enough money to settle his family on a small farm in Washington County [1]. He later was advised by a family friend named to travel to to further his art career and moved to London in 1786. There, Fulton spent the next five years creating paintings and gaining renown as an artist, culminating in him being featured in the Royal Gallery in 1791 [2]. While he was working as an artist in London, Fulton was impressed by the many engineering feats that England was displaying during the peak of its . Fulton changed his career path from art to engineering, focusing primarily on the system and methods of transportation over inland waterways. In fact, his first patent was awarded in England in 1794 and described a double inclined plane system meant to help carry canal boats over difficult terrain [2]. Fulton later shifted his efforts into military weapons development, helping to create a prototype version of a , equipped with rudimentary torpedoes. This project was scrapped by both the French, and later the English, governments as it failed to produce any useful results with the technology of the time [2]. After being met with failure with his latest engineering efforts abroad, Fulton returned home to America in 1806 and began working on a method of transporting commercial goods along inland waterways. Though he did not invent the , he devised new ways to improve upon earlier designs and began to work on creating an initial prototype of a that could feasibly be used to transport people and goods up and down the . After importing a new engine design from in England and making his own modifications to it, Fulton released the first commercially available steamboat in America, called the Clermont. In late 1807, the ship famously made the trip from New to Albany upriver in 32 hours, about a third of the usual travel time. What was once called “Fulton’s Folly” became a symbol of success that many later inventors tried to replicate and set a new standard of travel across the country [3]. The next January, Fulton married Harriet Livingston and settled down. He died of complications from a respiratory illness just a few years later in early 1815, after building 20 more and creating a legacy of improved transportation that lasted for decades [1]. References [1] “.” Southern Lancaster Historical Society. 2014. http://www.southernlancasterhistory.org/robert-fulton-birthplace [2] Ricci, Tom. “Robert Fulton.” ASME.org, American Society of Mechanical Engineers. May 14, 2012. https://www.asme.org/topics-resources/content/robert-fulton [3] “Robert Fulton: Commercial Steamboat Transportation.” Lemelson-MIT, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. https://lemelson.mit.edu/resources/robert-fulton ME 581 – H02 Nick Harrison

A Biography of James Watt Born on the 19th of January, 1736 in Greenock, Renfrewshire, Scotland, James Watt was the son of the town’s treasurer and magistrate and a successful owner of a ship and house building business. In 1755, Watt would move to London to find a master to train him in instrument making. After a year of not enjoying life in London, Watt would move to Glasgow where he had some relatives. Here in Glasgow, Watt would use his experience in instrument making and opened a shop making and repairing mathematical instruments (quadrants, compasses, and scales) at the University of Glasgow. It was at the University of Glasgow, where James Watt met and became lifelong friends with Adam Smith and Joseph Black who developed the concept of latent heat which would be crucial later in his life. In 1764, he married his first cousin, Margaret Miller and would have 6 children with her. One a Sunday stroll in central Glasgow in 1765, James Watt would come to the realization of how to drastically improve the efficiency of Newcomen’s engine. Thomas Newcomen’s engine which was an improvement of Thomas Savery’s water pump had an efficiency of 1 percent. An efficiency of a steam engine is defined as the conversion of the thermal energy of steam into mechanical work. James Watt designed a new steam engine that included a separate steam condenser and changed the inlet pies to allow for the injection of new steam into the upper rather than the lower part of the main cylinder. These two changes greatly improved the efficiency of the steam engine and would grant him financial success for the remainder of his life once he began manufacturing the engines. In 1766, Watt would become a land surveyor for the next 8 years in order to support his family in which he would mark routes for the in Scotland. This work would delay the development of his engine. In January 1769, he would be awarded patent number 913 which bore the title “A New Invented Method of Lessening the Consumption of Steam and Fuel in Fire- Engines”. This patent would become the blueprint of the central power source for almost all the factories, foundries, and transportation systems in Britain and the world for the next century and more. In 1774, after the death of his first wife, James Watt would move to Birmingham to manufacture the new steam engines with Mathew Boulton. In 1776, he married his second wife, Ann Macgregor in which they would have 2 children. In 1781 James Watt would develop a steam engine capable of rotary motion using sun and planet gears to allow for his steam engine to be used for corn, malt, and cotton mills. Watt would go on to improve his engine with parallel motion (double acting piston) in 1784, centrifugal governor to automatically control the speed of the engine in 1788 and a pressure gauge in 1790. To help the public relate to the power of his new steam engines, Watt developed the term and concept horsepower as a unit of power. It was a natural conversion for famers to understand how powerful these new engines were. James Watt passed away on August 25th, 1819 at his home Heathfield hall near Handsworth in Staffordshire at the age of 83. ME 581 – H02 Nick Harrison

References “James Watt - MagLab.” Maglab, nationalmaglab.org/education/magnet-academy/history-of- electricity-magnetism/pioneers/james-watt. Accessed 1 Feb. 2021. Kingsford, Peter. “James Watt | Biography, Inventions, Steam Engine, & Facts.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 15 Jan. 2021, www.britannica.com/biography/James-Watt. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Thomas Newcomen | Biography, Steam Engine, & Facts.” Encyclopedia Britannica, www.britannica.com/biography/Thomas-Newcomen. Accessed 1 Feb. 2021. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Thomas Savery | British Engineer and Inventor.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 1 Jan. 2021, www.britannica.com/biography/Thomas-Savery. Winchester, Simon. The Perfectionists: How Precision Engineers Created the Modern World. Harper, an Imprint of HarperCollinsPublishers, 2019. ME 581 – Homework 2 Evan Heatherington

A Biography on John Harrison March, 1693 – March 24, 1776

John Harrison (right) was born in Foulby Yorkshire in March of 1693. Harrison was the eldest son of a carpenter and joiner serving Sir Rowland Winn of Nostell Priory. Harrison was self-educated and interested in machinery from a young age. Him and his brother began work at an estate in Lincolnshire developing a series of very accurate clocks. In 1715 they developed an eight-day clock made using wooden wheels. Harrison later invented a grid-iron pendulum which helped avoid problems in time keeping attributed to temperature fluctuations.

Earlier in July of 1714, Parliament passed the “Longitude Act” which would award an inventor £20,000 for the creation of a device to determine the longitude in open ocean. More specifically, after a six week voyage into the West Indies this device must be accurate to 30 miles. This project became John Harrison’s life work. His design idea was a chronometer to compare the local time to Greenwich time and based upon the difference determine the longitude. In 1735 Harrison completed his first prototype piece which weighed approximately 75 pounds. This chronometer was taken aboard a ship to Lisbon to test its accuracy. While this first prototype did not win the full award, it was deemed a minor discovery and Harrison was awarded £500. A subsequent invention in 1739 was much lighter; his third prototype was awarded the Copley Medal of the Royal Society. Finally, in 1759 Harrison completed a pocket watch sized version of his chronometer. This model was the final prototype he intended to win the “Longitude Act” with. The device was taken on board the HMS Deptford and sailed between Portsmouth to Jamaica. The device was found to be accurate within 18 miles and thus satisfactory to the prize.

The Astronomer Royal Nevil Maskelyne did not accept that Harrison’s device worked and was able to persuade the board not to award the prize. By petitioning parliament, Harrison was able to acquire £5000 for his invention; however, he still wanted the entire prize. The board would provide Harrison another £10,000 if he was able to provide a replicable design for other craftsman to replicate to ensure his trials were not a fluke. Harrison, though feeling he was being treated unfairly, complied and in the meantime made a fifth prototype and gave it to George III. The King gratefully took his chronometer on a voyage to Richmond and was pleased with its functioning. He appealed directly to the prime minister and finally Harrison was awarded the rest of the prize money. However, it was noted that this money was not in fact the prize, it was merely “a bounty awarded by Parliament”. To this day the prize money was never claimed.

John Harrison died at the age of 83 on March 24, 1776. He died as what would have been a millionaire in today’s economics. His fifth prototype chronometer can be found in London.

References

“Biography – John Harrison” John Harrison and the Finding of Longitude, Royal Naval Museum, 2004, www.royalnavalmuseum.org

Robin Mckie, “Clockmaker John Harrison Vindicated 250 Years after ‘absurd’ claims”, The Guardian, April 2015. www.theguardian.com

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “John Harrison.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 20 Mar. 2019, www.britannica.com/biography/John- Harrison- British-horologist.

Kavya Katugam ME 581 H02 Spring 2021 René Descartes 31 March 1596 – 11 February 1650

Rene Descartes was a man of deep thinking. He is succeeded by his contributions in the fields of physiology, psychology, philosophy, religion, natural sciences, and mathematics. One of his most notable contributions to science was the development of Cartesian geometry. Descartes also established the importance of algebra as a fundamental method to solve for unknown quantities [1].

Along with his two older siblings, Descartes spent much of his young life raised by his grandmother and great uncle, after the death of his mother during childbirth [2]. After years of education, he is quoted from his autobiography, Discourse (1637), saying, “I found myself beset by so many doubts and errors that I came to think I had gained nothing from my attempts to become educated but increasing recognition of my ignorance” [2]. It was this drive to learn more than the knowledge that was simply fed to him through education that allowed Descartes to challenge common beliefs and further scientific thinking.

Descartes is credited for the development of many commonly used mathematical conventions, such as using variables x, y, and z to represent unknown values in an equation, while using variables a, b, and c to represent known values [3]. Descartes also receives credit for establishing the use of superscripts to denote exponents [4]. His work in the development of algebra served as a basis for the development of calculus [1].

Near the end of his life, Descartes was invited to Sweden to teach his ideas of love to a member of the royal family. In February 1650, at the age of 53, Descartes died of pneumonia while in Sweden [5]. He was buried in a graveyard used mainly for orphans, due to his incongruous beliefs of religion with those in Sweden [5].

References: [1] Gaukroger, S., "The nature of abstract reasoning: philosophical aspects of Descartes' work in algebra", in J. Cottingham, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Descartes (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 91–114 [2] René Descartes (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/descartes/ [3] René Descartes, Discourse de la Méthode (Leiden, Netherlands): Jan Maire, 1637, appended book: La Géométrie, book one, p. 299. [4] Sorell, T., Descartes: A Very Short Introduction (2000). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 19. [5] Bruno, Leonard C. (2003) [1999]. Math and mathematicians: the history of math discoveries around the world. Baker, Lawrence W. Detroit, Mich.: U X L. p. 104

Yoonjae Lee - ME 581, HW 2 - 04 Feb 2021

Robert Fulton Birth:November 14, 1765, Lancaster county, Pennsylvania ​ ​ ​ Death: February 24, 1815, New York, New York ​ ​

Biography: Robert Fulton’s father was an immigrant of Irish and died in 1771 (Fulton was 6 year old). He grew up without his father and went to Quaker School at the age of eight. His first job was an apprentice in a jewelry shop at Philadelphia, where he gained miniature portraits painting skills. Later, Fulton decided to specialize in canal engineering after having admitted defeat as a painter. Throughout the engineering life, he did outstanding research pertaining to the ship and marine engineering, specifically for the ship steam engine.

In 1806, he came back from Paris to New York with skills of the construction of the steamboat and bridge. Fulton attempted to build a 150 foot long first submarine with the U.S. government [1]. This first prototype submarine produced two to three pounds per square inch of pressure with a subsumption of pine fuel and oak. It had a 150 mile trail run from Albany to New York which took 32 hours to travel. However, it was destroyed by an accidental explosion in 1829 during the trip to the Navy Yard. Regardless of its accident, this was the first U.S. submarine and Fulton gets the title of “The father submarine engineering”

To make this invention possible he had to develop the steam engine which powers a paddle wheel from the heat energy [2]. This paddle wheel causes the ship to move with a circular shape oar. Later he tries to implement this invention to his boats.

Three of Fulton’s boats served the Hudson and Raritan Rivers in New Jersey in 1810. He perfected his boat which runs the steam engine with more efficiency and made a patent [3]. This engineering work was outstanding so that the boat steam engine has been revolutionized after this event.

As he perfected the steam engine powered ship, more steamships were served. Sixty years after the first steamship service, 90 percent of immigrants arrived in America with a steamship. If Henry Ford invented the automobile and Sauel Morse invented the telegraph, Robbery Fulton invented the steamship and brought the era of steam boat transportation to our civilization.

Reference

1. " war, and submarine explosions", Internet Archive, 1914, New York, Reprinted, W. Abbatt

2. "", Wikipedia Over One Billion Edits, JSTOR (August 2016)

3. "Submarine design in cross section by Robert Fulton, 1806", United States 's Prints and Photographs division under the digital ID cph.3g05945 ME 581 – H02 Name: Meghan Lukac

Biography of Jean d’Alembert November 17, 1717 – October 29, 1783

Jean Le Rond d’Alembert was born November 17, 1717 as the illegitimate son of Claudine Guérin de Tencin and artillery officer Louis-Camus Destouches. Even though his mother abandoned him soon after birth at the door of Saint-Jean-le-Rond church, where he retreived his name, his father found him later in life and raised him with the help of Mme Rousseau, whom he lived with for a long period of his life. Before his father passed away in 1726, Destouches left him behind enough money to enter into adulthood. When Jean was only twelve years old, his family helped him enroll in the Jansenist Collège des Quatre Nations where he changed his last name to d’Alembert. Here he was encouraged to study theology, however, d’Alembert was not interested in the subject. During his time here, he instead became passionate about his mathematics course which was taught by Professor Carron. When he graduated in 1735, he studied law for two years and was named advocate in 1738. Again, he decided to change career paths because he was still not fully satisfied. For a year after that, he studied medicine before he decided he disliked this subject even more than theology. Finally, he pursued mathematics which was “the only occupation which really interested [him]”1. To begin his career in mathematics, d’Alembert’s first submitted paper in 1739 presented errors that he found in L’analyse démontrée which was published by Charles Reynaud thirty years earlier. One year later, he completed his second paper on fluid mechanics, and finally, after three failed applications, was accepted into the Paris Academy of Science in 1741. This was quite an achievement on his part because he almost completely studied mathematics on his own without much assistance after college. While d’Alembert was very passionate and intelligent, he also tended to argue and challenge every idea that was not his own. For example, although he revised Newton’s force definition in a paper he published in 1743 and helped settle the debate over the conservation of kinetic energy, he also disagreed with the experimental evidence that Newton used to develop the laws of motion. This paper was his Traité de dynamique, which included the fundamental “d’Alembert’s princle” which defined that the third law of motion also applies to rigid bodies. In 1744, d’Alembert published his treatise on the movement of fluids which presented a different idea than that of Daniel Bernoulli’s view. Due to his many disagreements at the Paris Academy, he decided to focus his attention on a different major project, the Encyclopédie. Before d’Alembert fully participated as a co-editor for the Encyclopédie with Denis Diderot in the 1740s-1750s, he published several other mathematical and scientifical works. He began the development of partial differential equations, but since his work was not based on substantial physical evidence, his work was soon taken over by Euler who further developed these ideas. This topic, however, led to his publication of the first paper that studied the wave equation in the matter of vibrating strings in 1747, which led to his election into the Berlin Academy a few years later. During this time, d’Alembert worked vigorously on the mathetmatical sections of the Encyclopédie. After his fallout with the Paris Academy and his declination of President of the Berlin Academy, he continued to write mathematical papers but published them collectively as the Opuscules mathématiques. He was later elected into the French Academy in 1754, which was around the time he began to study philosophy and promote rationalism in science. After becoming secretary of the French Academy in 1772, he fell ill for years which led to his death in 1783. ME 581 – H02 Name: Meghan Lukac

References

[1] Grimsley, Ronald. “Jean Le Rond d’Alembert”. Encyclopedia Britannica, 1998. [2] O’Connor, J.J., Robertson, E.F. “Jean d’Alembert – Biography”. Maths History, University of St Andrews, October 1998. [3] “Jean le Ron d’Alembert”. New World Encyclopedia, May 2018. ME 581 - H02 Axl Maberry

Siegfried Heinrich Aronhold

Born: 16 July 1819 Died: 13 March 1884 Born in Angerburg, East Prussia, Aronhold started his studies in Rastenburg (now Kętrzyn, Poland) at the elementary and later the Gymnasium until the death of his father. Aronhold and his mother then moved to Königsberg, (now Kaliningrad, ). There he attended the Altstädtischen Gymnasium where he graduated in 1841. Later that year, he enrolled to continue his studies in mathematics and natural sciences at the University of Königsberg. Some contemporaries and teachers of note include Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel, Friedrich Julius Richelot, Ludwig Otto Hesse and Franz Ernst Neumann, all famous mathematicians in their own right. However, he was mostly impressed and influenced by Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi, of whom the Jacobian is named. [1] While at the University, Aronhold joined the Mathematical Seminar and was twice awarded for presenting the best work. In 1845, Aronhold followed Jacobi to the University of Berlin where Jacobi had been appointed the year earlier. Berlin offered new opportunities for learning and allowed Aronhold to be taught by Lejeune Dirichlet and Jakob Steiner. Not one for being a school teacher, Aronhold never took the state examinations to teach high school. However, this time had let him work on his own research with published works such as Über die homogenen Funktionen dritter Ordnung von drei Veränderlichen (“On the homogeneous functions of the third order of three variables”) and Über ein neues algebraisches Prinzip (“On a new algebraic principle”). The impact of these papers influenced the University of Königsberg to award him Doctor honoris causa in 1851 [2]. That same year Aronhold became a teacher at the Royal Academy of Architecture in Berlin. In 1852 he also began teaching at the Artillery and Engineer's School in Berlin. He later was offered a permanent position to take the place of a professor who could no longer teach. This stability allowed him to marry Marie Julie Friederike Hayn with which he had three children [3]. Aronhold was so content with teaching at the Royal Academy of Architecture that he turned down various positions to teach at other Universities. He would continue to teach until a serious illness caused him to resign in 1880. He died four years later at age 64. In regards to mathematics, Aronhold focused on invariant theory and introduced the symbolic method. Among other publications Über eine fundamentale Begründung der Invariantentheorie (“On a fundamental justification of the theory of invariants”) was considered his most important work. Though he didn’t derive any specific equations, “His efforts to obtain equations independent of substitution coefficients led to linear partial differential equations of the first order, which have linear coefficients. These equations, which are characteristic of the theory of invariants, are known as 'Aronhold's differential equations'.” [3]

References: [1] Siegfried Heinrich Aronhold. https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Aronhold/. Accessed 2 Feb. 2021 [2] Siegfried Aronhold. https://prabook.com/web/siegfried.aronhold/1889817. Accessed 2 Feb. 2021 [3] Aronhold, Siegfried Heinrich. https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/dictionaries- thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/aronhold-siegfried-heinrich. Accessed 2 Feb. 2021 ME 581 – H02 Emanuel Magallon

William Rowan Hamilton: A Biography August 4, 1805 – September 2, 1865

Sir William Rowan Hamilton, was born in Dominick Street, Dublin, Ireland to the parents of Archibald Hamilton and Sarah [1]. The fourth child of nine, William grew up from the age of three with his uncle, Rev. James Hamilton, at the Church of Ireland diocesan school at Trim [2]. This was due to his father being a solicitor and not being at home most of the time and a struggling financial situation for the family [3]. Under the tutelage of his uncle, William showed learning abilities of a prodigy at the age of 5, by being able to master the languages of Latin, Greek, and Hebrew [3]. Picture Courtesy of [1] His venture into mathematics began at the age of 13, when he faced the American boy Zerah Colburn. A prodigy in his own right, Zerah could mentally calculate complex solutions at such a rapid pace that when William competed against him, William would consistently be second-best [2]. This motivated William to put his focus into mathematics, studying Euclid of Alexandria, Isaac Newton, and Pierre-Simon de Laplace, each in a different language [3]. He became so competent in mathematics that at the age of 17 he contacted the Royal Irish Academy in order to show that Laplace had made an error in his work Mechanique Celeste [1]. This lead to an astronomer named John Brinkley to name William the “first mathematician of his age”. At the age of 18 William enrolled into Trinity College in Dublin (TCD) and was consistently at the top of his class and received two seperate “Opitomes”, which were off-the- chart grades. This grade was considered to be extremely rare as an opitome had been given once in the twenty years prior to William enrolling [2]. Though highly studious, he still found time to enjoy his hobbies of swimming and gymnastics [1]. While studying at the University, William ended up meeting Catherine Disney, of the Walt Disney family, when he visited the family in Summerhill [2]. This would result in him falling in love with a woman that throughout his life he would try to pursue, but sadly would never become more then a fantasy [3]. Despite the failings in romance, William would go onto graduate from TCD, but prior to that he would become a Professor of Astronomy at the age of 21 [2]. In 1832, William would go onto to predict that when a ray of light would pass through a biaxial crystal, it would refract into a cone. After his prediction was confirmed experimentally by Humphrey Lloyd, a TCD physicist, William was knighted in 1835. Yet his greatest achievement was in the same year he was knighted, he presented to the world his general theory of dynamics [2]. By rewriting Isaac Newtons Laws of Motion and expressing energy of mechanical systems as special variables, Williams work was able to contribute to the development of quantam mechanics in the 20th century [1]. Lastly, in 1843, William invented quaternions. Which was a method to describe rotations in three dimensions, which lead to the introduction of vectors. After failing for a second time to pursue Catherine Disney, after trying to write poetry to her, Hamilton fell into depression and a battle with alcoholism. On September 2nd, 1865, Hamilton passed away from a severe case of gout, that was caused from excessive drinking and eating. He had 2 boys and a daughter with his wife of second-choice, Helen Bayley [2]. ME 581 – H02 Emanuel Magallon

Sources:

[1] Lewis, A. C. (n.d.). Hamilton, Sir William Rowan (1805–1865), MATHEMATICIAN. Retrieved February 03, 2021, from https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb- 9780198614128-e-12148;jsessionid=DAE16B2AD0744DC18861B4619DAFF9B8

[2] Reville, W. (2004, February 26). IRELAND'S GREATEST MATHEMATICIAN. The Irish Times.

[3] Bruno, L. C., & Baker, L. W. (1999). Math and mathematicians: The history of math discoveries around the world. Detroit, MI: U X L.

The Early Life of Gaspard-Gustave de Coriolis (1792- 1843) Compiled By: Fahim Usshihab Mobin

Figure 1 Photo Courtesy of StickyFacts.com French researcher Gaspard-Gustave de Coriolis is remembered for his canonization of what is now famously known as the Coriolis effect and his coinage of the term “work” (the French term being travail), but much is not spoken of his life before this study. Coriolis was born on May 21st, 1792 in Paris, , to a noble family. At the time of his birth, his father, Jean-Baptiste Elzéar, was captain of King Louis XVI’s guard. After the Insurrection of 1792, Elzéar took his family and fled to Nancy, North-Eastern France, to put distance his family from the revolutionaries. There, the family established several successful business including ownership tobacco factories and running hotels, which allowed Coriolis to attend a prestigious boarding school. When the family business began to fail, he considered removing his son from the school, but the Rector refused and allowed him to study on a full scholarship. This proved to enrich Coriolis, and allowed for him to study under Guéneau d’Aumont, a professor of advanced mathematics at Lycée de Nancy, at the age of 14, where he excelled as one of the top students. Due to his family being one of nobility, he surprised many of his relatives when he made the decision to begin his higher education at École Polytechnique, which was based in Paris. During his time at École Polytechnique, he researched friction and hydraulics. He was well recognized amongst his colleagues for his talents and became well known, which led for him to take several jobs in and out of the university. His experience was plagued with several instances of severe illness, yet despite the trials, in the year 1829, he completed his writing of his first famous text titled Calcul de l'Effet des Machines (Calculation of the Effect of Machines). Later, his focus shifted towards kinetics and he published several papers that implicitly spoke of the force that he is famous for canonizing, the Coriolis force, yet the use of this term and attribution to him did not happen until almost a decade after his passing. Sources: Moatti, Alexandre. Gaspard-Gustave de Coriolis (1792-1843): un mathématicien, théoricien de la mécanique appliquée. Diss. 2011. Moatti, Alexandre. "Coriolis, naissance d’une force." Bibnum. Textes fondateurs de la science (2011). Oliveira, Agamenon. (1980). Coriolis' Theory of Machines and Mechanisms. Greggory F. Murray

The Father of Modern Kinematics

Literature from the field of mechanics—to include kinematics and dynamics—is filled with the names of people who have made extraordinary contributions to the field and whose work still affects people today. Franz Reuleaux is one of these people. During the course of his life, he not only contributed heavily to kinematics, but he also left his mark on engineering education, economic philosophy, and mechanical engineering itself. Reuleaux was born in 1829, in Eschweiler, Germany. Particularly relevant to his path in life was the fact that both his father and grandfather were machine-builders [1]. During Reuleaux’s time as a student, mechanical engineering as a separate branch of engineering science was only beginning to take shape. As a result, Reuleaux was technically trained as a Zivilingenieur, or Civil Engineer [1]. Reuleaux was trained at Karlsruhe Franz Reuleaux (1829-1905) Polytechnique by Ferdinand Redtenbacher [2]. He excelled at his studies under Redtenbacher, and after two years went to other universities in Berlin and Bonn [1]. When Reuleaux was 27 he was offered a position at the Swiss Federal Institute, and after a stint there he wound up at Polytechnique Berlin. Reuleaux had a view of mechanical engineering which put him at odds with some of his contemporaries. He believed that mechanical engineering as a field should be more holistic, saying of the ever increasing number of specializations in the field, “The endless isolation of efforts must be detrimental to the whole” [1]. He also viewed kinematics as a science largely independent of dynamic principles, which was not a widely held view at the time or today. During his life, Reuleaux made a staggering number of contributions to kinematics. He was a prolific researcher and author with a vast body of work, comprised of almost two hundred publications, including two major books. He also made fundamental contributions such as identifying the six basic elements of mechanisms, concisely stated as: the crank, wheel, cam, screw, ratchet and belt [3]. Equally notable was Reuleaux’s use of topology in the analysis of kinematic chains. He used topology to show that many of what he dubbed “inversions”, of the four-bar linkage, i.e. four-bars with differing ground links, had identical topologies in much the same way that a coffee cup and donut are topologically identical [2]. While a great deal of Reuleaux’s work can be described as purely academic, there is at least as much of it which can be, and has been, applied to real-world problems. Reuleaux’s use of topology proved especially relevant during his time with the Imperial Patent Office where he was able to harness it for determining the novelty of mechanisms contained in patent applications. One of Reuleaux’s mechanisms, the Rolling hyperboloid friction wheel, is used to straighten newly manufactured pipes and tubes in mills the world over. Lastly, one must not forget the bit of genius for which Franz Reuleaux is best known: The Reuleaux Triangle, which forms the basis upon which the rotary engine is built. [1] F. C. Moon, “Franz Reuleaux: Contributions to 19th century kinematics and theory of machines,” Appl. Mech. Rev., vol. 56, no. 2, pp. 261–284, 2003. [2] F. C. Moon, The machines of Leonardo da Vinci and Franz Reuleaux: kinematics of machines from the Renaissance to the 20th century, vol. 45, no. 05. 2008. [3] R. S. Hartenberg and J. Denavit, “Kinematic Synthesis of Linkages (Mechanical Engineering Series).” 1964. ME 581 – H02 Name - Colin Nitroy

The Father of Scientific Mechanical Engineering: Ferdinand Redtenbacher (July 25th, 1809- April 16th, 1863) Ferdinand Redtenbacher was born in Steyr, Upper Austria. As a child, his father wanted him to be a merchant and at the age of ten was placed into a retail apprenticeship at his uncle’s general store. While grudgingly working at the general store, Redtenbacher taught himself the basics of technical drawing and mathematics. These skills were put to use after his apprenticeship ended in January 1825 when he worked for the building authority of Linz, Austria.[1] Here, he helped draw construction plans and take geometrical measurements, and in all his free time continued to study engineering privately. When this job ended in fall of 1825, Redtenbacher’s father allowed him to go on to study at the Vienna Polytechnic Institute. At this time in history, Europe lagged behind England in their industrialization, primarily due to England’s superior capital standing from the colonial and slave trade. England’s industrial processes were also quite secretive at this time, thus the empirical and technical knowledge did not freely circulate throughout the rest of the world. To compete with England, Germany and Austria began developing it’s own industrialization, and with it institutions that were modeled after the Ecole Polytechnique in Paris. Vienna Polytechnic Institute (Austria, 1815) was one of the first polytechnic schools in Europe, followed the Polytechnic School of Karlsruhe (Germany, 1825)[1]. While enrolled at the Vienna Polytechnic Institute, Redtenbacher studied design and several other technical courses, but at this time there was no mechanical engineering curriculum that one would recognize today. After graduating in 1829, he worked as an assistant to an engineering professor named Johann Arzberger, working in mechanics and the theory of machines[2]. Following this, he was a professor of applied mathematics at the Obere Industrieschule of for seven years. Finally, the Polytechnic School of Karlsruhe invited him to occupy the chair of mechanical engineering, where he would work until his death. Redtenbacher’s most significant contribution was as an engineering professor at Karlsruhe. For the first time, engineering was taught while emphasizing both the theory and empirical practice of design. This was a unique blend of the empirical English style of instruction, and the purely theory approach taken by the French Ecole Polytechnique. This style of instruction was to prepare students for working in industry while also emphasizing the applications of science and mathematics in the field of engineering. This is shown in Redtenbacher’s quote: ‘‘I still hope to show people the proofthat mathematics is no luxury and that by applying it to mechanical engineering, progress will be achieved provided that one understands the practice and exactly knows what is necessary for its use in ones daily life”. [1] Redtenbacher’s contribution to the way mechanical engineering is taught has been attributed to the success of German Engineering for the following century after his death in 1863 at the age of 54[3]. Many of his students went on to become famous engineers such as Carl Benz and Franz Reuleaux. The successor to his position at Karlsruhe was another famous kinematician named Franz Grashof.

ME 581 – H02 Name - Colin Nitroy

References:

[1] Wauer, J., Moon, F. C., & Mauersberger, K. (2009). Ferdinand Redtenbacher (1809–1863): pioneer in scientific machine engineering. mechanism and machine theory, 44(9), 1607- 1626.

[2] Ferdinand Redtenbacher. (1970, January 01). Retrieved February 02, 2021, from https://prabook.com/web/ferdinand.redtenbacher/2433959

[3] "Redtenbacher, Ferdinand Jakob ." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. . Retrieved January 12, 2021 from Encyclopedia.com: https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/dictionaries- thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/redtenbacher-ferdinand-jakob

ME581, 2nd Assignment Shabnam Rahimnezhad, Spr5679 Thomas R. Kane (March 23, 1924 – February 16, 2019) was born in Vienna, Austria in 1924 and spent his early years tinkering with radios and other gadgets; he was an avid ice hockey player in winter and an Alpine hiker in summer. He and his family (parents and two siblings) immigrated to the United States in 1938 after the fall of Austria to the Nazis. Tom's father, musical composer Ernest Kanitz, had been a Professor of Music Theory at the New Vienna Conservatory; he later became Professor in the School of Music at the University of Southern . Tom’s mother was a pianist too. Tom and his two siblings had learned the music lessons as a child. Tom starts working from an early age. At first, he worked during summers doing German/English language interpreting at Mrs. Fisher's farm (one family friend), where he worked with refugee children. He starts his studies at Oakwood School, then Tom went on to Guilford College, a Quaker school in North Carolina, but during his first year there his mother passed away at the age of 49. Soon after that, Tom left college and enlisted in the Army, and he formally changed his name from Helmut Kanitz to Thomas Reif Kane. After Joining the army, due to having experience in photography, Army assigns Tom to serve as a combat photographer in the South Pacific from 1943-45. Thus, Tom Kane witnessed both the start of War: “in 1938 he and his family watched from their apartment windows as Hitler's troops marched into Austria”, and the end of World War II: “1945 Tom was among the photographers capturing the moment of Japan's formal surrender aboard the USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay.”

After the war, he attended Columbia University (1946-53, with B.S. degrees in both Mathematics and , an M.S. in Civil Engineering, and a Ph.D. in Applied Mechanics). He held many part- time jobs during his studies, including as a short-order cook, apartment manager for collecting rents, doing repairs. Tom spent 45 years teaching Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, first at the University of Pennsylvania (1953) and -- from 1961 through 1994 -- at Stanford University. Dr. Kane also taught in England, Brazil, and China, the Soviet Union. He could speak multiple languages. In the 1960s, Kane devised a method for formulating equations of motion for complex mechanical systems that requires less labor and leads to simpler equations than the classical approaches, while avoiding the vagueness of virtual quantities. He was a fellow of the American Astronautical Society and an Honorary Member of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME). He won the American Astronautical Society’s Dirk Brouwer Award in 1983. Dr. Kane was also the inaugural recipient in 2005 of the ASME D’Alembert Award, recognizing lifetime achievement and contribution to the field of multibody systems dynamics. He had published 10 books and more than 170 technical papers.

One memory from his students: “I knew I would like being in Prof. Kane's courses from the very first lecture. As he was explaining his expectations for the course, he shared a comment that made me chuckle. He said that he did not like it when students brought food or drinks to lecture, since he had had students spill their food and drinks and disrupt his lectures. Then he shared his famous quote, "I won't lecture in your dining hall if you don't eat in my lecture room." Seemed like a fair agreement to me.

Above sentence make me sad, sometimes I am starving while thinking and learning new materials! ☹ ME581, 2nd Assignment Shabnam Rahimnezhad, Spr5679 References http://www.motiongenesis.com/MGWebSite/MGConsultants/MGConsultantKane.html http://www.mkpsd.com/msnd/dlPast.html https://almanac.upenn.edu/articles/thomas-kane-seas https://www.reddit.com/r/dragonutopia/comments/dahint/professor_thomas_r_kane_demonstrating_a_formula/ http://www.motiongenesis.com/MGWebSite/MGConsultants/ThomasKaneSharedMemories.html

Jon Rhone - ME 581 H02

Thomas Newcomen (1663 - 1729)

Thomas Newcomen was born in Dartmouth, Devon, England in 1663. He was an ironmonger, a vendor of hardware and tools, by trade. A common problem of the day was the need to remove water from mines. At the time the most practical means of mine water removal was either by hand under human power or via equine-powered pumps, both of which were costly and ineffective at displacing water over appreciable heights.

Newcomen invented the first atmospheric steam engine, which powered a pump capable of removing water from mines. The steam engine operated by heating process water to steam in a boiler. The steam was contained in a cylinder underneath a piston. The top of the piston was open to atmospheric pressure. As the steam was generated the piston was displaced until it reached the top of its stroke, at which point the steam supply valve was closed and the steam was condensed by allowing cooling water to enter the cylinder. The condensing steam produced a vacuum that retracted the piston to the bottom of its stroke, at which point the steam supply valve was reopened and the cycle was repeated. The piston was connected to a balanced lever arm, with the other end of the lever connected to a pump that reciprocated with the piston. This is the first working example of a piston and cylinder.

The first working engine was used in a mine in Staffordshire, England in 1712. The bore and stroke was twenty-one (21) inches and eight (8) feet, respectively. The pump was capable of operating at twelve (12) strokes per minute, and could displace ten (10) gallons of water per stroke at a head of one hundred fifty-six (156) feet. The steam engine was extremely inefficient, with a reported efficiency of approximately 1%. This was due to a large portion of the steam energy lost to heat the cylinder each stroke after the cylinder cooled during the condensing stage. Irregardless, the engines were an improvement over the other means of water removal of the day; also, the engines were durable, with one operating for one hundred twenty-seven (127) years.

Newcomen is a largely forgotten figure in the history of machine development, overshadowed by the likes of James Watt. Newcomen’s inventions, a steam engine converting thermal energy to useful mechanical energy and the now ubiquitous piston-cylinder, are both still widely used in mechanical applications today. References Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Thomas Newcomen". Encyclopedia Britannica, 1 Aug. 2020, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Thomas-Newcomen. Accessed 23 January 2021. Butterman, Eric. “Thomas Newcomen.” ASME, AMSE, 8 June 2012, www.asme.org/topics-resources/ content/thomas-newcomen. “Devon - Discover Devon - Newcomen's Steam Revolution.” BBC, BBC, 30 Jan. 2008, www..co.uk/devon/discovering/famous/thomas_newcomen.shtml. “Newcomen Atmospheric Engine.” National Museums Scotland, www.nms.ac.uk/explore-our- collections/stories/science-and-technology/newcomen-engine/. ME 581 – H02 Smith, Tyler

A Brief Biography of Sir Isaac Newton December 25th, 1642 – March 20th, 1727

Sir Isaac Newton was born prematurely to a recently widowed mother in the small farming village of Woolsthorpe in Lincolnshire, England on Christmas Day 1642; the very same day Galileo died. Newton attended two small schools within walking distance of his home until the age of 12, where he learned , writing, and reading. He then attended the King’s School in Grantham until the age of 16, when his stepfather tragically passed away leaving his mother in need of help at the farm. After roughly a year at the farm, it became quite clear that Newton had no interest in farming, but an inclination for books and mechanical toys. Recognizing there was little hope in making a farmer out of the boy, his mother took the advice of the Headmaster of Grantham School, Henry Stokes, and reenrolled him in preparation for university.

Rev. William Ayscough, Newton’s uncle, advised Isaac’s mother that he be enrolled in Trinity College, Cambridge for higher education. At Trinity College, Newton began studying the Aristotelian natural philosophy, then diverted from the prescribed curriculum and began studying the works of Rene Descartes, Galileo, Thomas Hobbes, Robert Boyle, and other profound natural philosophers. Studying the works of these men, Newton became more and more intrigued with natural phenomenon; including, but not limited to, motion, gravity, color, gas expansion, and surface tension.

In 1664, Newton had spent an entire year digesting the mathematical literature of Rene Descartes, Franz van Schooten, William Oughtred, Francois Viete, and John Wallis until he was proficient enough to set out on his own exploration of mathematics and its relationship with the natural world. Between 1665 and 1666 the Bubonic Plague ravaged the countryside of England, closing the university doors and sending Newton back to his homestead in Woolsthorpe. During this time Newton had an immense amount of alone time, which he used wisely. A famous story from this time is that Isaac was sitting in an apple orchard when he witnessed an apple fall from a tree. At this moment, Newton had a ‘eureka’ moment and developed his thoughts on gravitational theory. Throughout the course of the two plague years, Newton defined gravity as the force which kept the moon and the planets in orbit, as well as the mathematics behind his theory. This later became known as calculus. After Newton had developed his major mathematical theories, he began focusing his attention on other studies, namely, optics and mechanics, and returned to math at intervals for further analyis.

In 1667 Newton returned to Cambridge, where he finished his curriculum and was brought on indefinitely as a major fellow, then as a Lucasian professor. Newton remained at Trinity for 28 years and was free to study anything that piqued his interest. Newton was a very introverted and secluded man, never marrying, and often working in secrecy. Today, Sir Isaac Newton is known as, perhaps, the greatest scientist ever known, to which the world is forever indebted. ME 581 – H02 Smith, Tyler

Gleick, J. (2003). Isaac Newton. New York: Pantheon Books.

More, L. Trenchard. (19621934). Isaac Newton: a biography. New York: Dover Publications.

Westfall, R. S. (2006). Isaac newton. ProQuest Ebook Central https://ebookcentral.proquest.com

ME 581-H02 Ryan Stebbins

Pafnuty Chebyshev Born May16, 1821 Died December 8, 1894

Born in Okatovo, a small town in Russia, Chebyshev was one of nine children. His father was a retired Russian army officer, who had fought against and his invading forces. Chebyshev was born with one leg longer than the other, causing a limp and preventing him from being able to participate in activities normal children his age. He learnt French at a young age and was homeschooled by his mother and cousin. When he was nine years old, him and his family moved to . There he had a math tutor, P N Pogorelski, a very prominent tutor in Moscow at the time.

In 1837 Chebyshev attended the University of Moscow for [1] mathematics. There he was heavily influenced by Nikolai Dmetrievich Brashman, a professor in applied mathematics with particular interest in mechanics. In 1841 he graduated from his undergraduate studies and went back to the University of Moscow for a Master’s, under Brashmans’s supervision, writing his thesis on the theory of probability.

After defending his Master’s thesis he became an assistant professor in 1847 at St. Petersburg, and by 1850 he was promoted to extradentary professor. In 1852 he traveled Western Europe, going to France, London, and Germany, where he got the opportunity to investigate steam engines and their mechanics. It was this trip that his interests in mechanics and approximation took off. In 1854 he wrote his first paper on the topic of polynomials. He became famous for his work with . Most of his work involving mechanics was focused on converting rotatory motion into rectilinear motion. He invented what is now known as the Chebyshev linkage, which approximates straight line motion from rotary motion.

Chebyshev retired from his position at St. Petersburg in 1882. Never marrying, Chebyshev had one daughter who he had refused to officially acknowledge, although supported financially. He was very wealthy and had a passion for buying property. Considered a prominent Russian mathematician, he made contributions in the areas of fundamental limit theorems in probability theory, theory of interpolation, the theory of moments and the approximate calculus of definite integrals. However, he is best known for his work on the theory of prime numbers and the approximation of functions, as well as the founding the St. Petersburg mathematical school. [2]

References:

[1] The History of Computers. (n.d.). Retrieved February 01, 2021, from https://history- computer.com/pafnuty-chebyshev-biography-history-and-inventions/

[2] Pafnuty Chebyshev - Biography. (n.d.). Retrieved February 01, 2021, from https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Chebyshev/

[3] Pafnuty Chebyshev. (2020, December 04). Retrieved February 01, 2021, from https://www.britannica.com/biography/Pafnuty-Lvovich-Chebyshev

[4] Chebyshev Parallel Motion. (n.d.). Retrieved February 01, 2021, from https://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Chebyshev+Parallel+Motion

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Pafnuty-Lvovich-Chebyshev -Born May 4, 1821 in Okatovo Russia -Founded the St. Petersburg mathematical school (sometimes called Chebyshev school) -Primarily remembered for his work on the theory of prime numbers and the approximation of functions -1847 assistant professor of mathematics at the university of St. Petersburg i -Studied theoretical mechanics -Focused on the problem of obtaining rectilinear motion from rotary motion by mechanical linkage -Chebyshev parallel motion is a here-bar linkage that gives very close approximation to exact rectilinear motion https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Chebyshev/ -Okatovo small town in western Russia -Father was retired from the army but had fought as an officer against Napeleon’s onvading armies -Had eight siblings and was born in an upper class family -learnt French at a young age -Had a limp due to one leg being longer than the other, preventing him from being able to do normal children activities -Moved to Moscow when he was 11, continued to be himeschooled but had a math tutor, P N Pogorelski -very prominate elementary math tutor in Moscow -Attended Moscow University 1837 -Influenced by Nikolai Dmetrievich Brashman, who was particularly interested in mechanics -Graduated undergrad in 1841 going on to get a masters under Brashman -Looked for international recognition -Master’s thesis was on the theory of probability -Promoted to extraordinary professor at St Petersburg in 1850 -1852 visited Paris, London and Germany where he got the ability to investigate steam engines and their mechanics. His interests in the theory of mechanisms and in the theory of approximation resulted from this trip. -1854 published a paper that first appeared his work with polynomials -Famous for his general theory of orthogonal polynomials -In mechanics He mostly studied converting rotary motion into rectilinear motion by mechanical coupling -Chebyshev parallel motion is three linked bars approximating rectilinear motion -Retired from his professorship at St Petersburg University in 1882 -Died December 8, 1894 St Petersburg, Russia https://history-computer.com/pafnuty-chebyshev-biography-history-and-inventions/

-Prominent Russian mathematician, professor on algebra, number theory and probability at ST. Petersburg University -Contibutions to science include distribution of theory, prove of fundamental limit theorems in probability theory, theory of polynomial approximations to functions, theory of interpolation, the theory of moments and the approximate calculus of definite integrals and others -Also spent much of his time working on mechanical engineering questions -1870’s designed and manufactured calculating machines -1876 created “An adding machine of continuous motion -It was a ten decimal places adding machine with a continuous tens carry -later improved the machine to perform all arithmetical operations, called the arithmometre

ME 581 – H02 Name ______Erica Winegardner

Karl Kutzbach Born: March 19th, 1875 Died: April 25th, 1942

Karl Kutzbach was born in Trier, Germany on March 19th 1875. He graduated high school in 1893 and began his college career studying Mechanical Engineering at the Technical University of Aachen until 1895. He then attended the Technical University of Berlin- Charlottenburg until 1897.

Once Kutzbach graduated, he began working at the Technical University of Berlin as an assistant professor working on the field theory and design of piston machines. In 1900, he started working for MAN, an automotive and engineering group in Nuremberg, as a combustion engine specialist. On October 1st, 1913, he was appointed at the Chair of Machine Elements in the mechanical department at the Technical University of Dresden.

Kutzbach was drafted in 1917 for the First World War and worked in aircraft maintenance facility in Adlershof. While working on aircrafts, he learned a significant amount about their engines which he later published in 1921. Once he finished his term of service in 1918, he rejoined the Technical University of Dresden in 1919 as the director of the Experimental and Materials Testing Office and continued research on toothed gears started at the University by Richard Stribeck.

Kutzbach’s main research was on gears and V-belts. His main achievement was in the Kutzbach Plan. The Kutzbach plan is a graphic process that helps determine the speed and direction of rotations of all wheels in a gear transmission. The method can be used to determine the dimensions of a wheel for a given gear ratio. He also worked on improving variable transmissions, clutches and universal joints as well as standardization of springs and gears. For example, the DIN standards 870 and 867 go primarily back to him. Towards the end of his career, he also worked with early rocket technology and fluid mechanics. However, this want not discovered until after his death in 1942.

In 1928 the technical University of Hanover awarded Kutzbach an honorary doctorate. In addition, the Kutzbach-Bau, a building housing the fluid technology, machine tools and control technology, at the Technical University of Dresden, was named after him in 1961.

[1] Duwe, Jacqueline, The Faculty’s History. TU Dresden, 6 April 2018. https://tu- dresden.de/ing/maschinenwesen/die-fakultaet/profil/geschichte-der-fakultaet?set_language=en [2] Kutzbach, Karl https://peoplepill.com/people/karl-kutzbach/ [3] Karl Kutzbach (1875 -1942) https://www.dmg- lib.org/dmglib/main/biogrViewer_content.jsp?id=57004&skipSearchBar=1 [4] https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Kutzbach ME 581 – H02 Nick Yaple

Sir Alexander Blackie William Kennedy 17 March 1847 – 1 November 1928 Remembered for his work as an engineer and in academia, as well as mountaineering and photography, Sir Alexander Blackie William Kennedy began the foundation of his academic knowledge at the and the School of Mines in Jermyn Street. He progressed to an apprenticeship in 1864 under J. & W. Dudgeon of Millwall, which began his maturation into a draftsman who had an understanding of marine vessels and the newly implemented steam engines. After 4 years of work, he moved on to become the lead draftsman of Palmers’ Engine Works where he developed cylinder sizes, crank positions, and expansion ratios [1] for the developed engines. Three years later, he moved on to T.M. Tennant and Company of Leith and in 1871, moved further into engine work by partnering with the Consulting Marine Engineer of (H. O. Bennett). In 1874, Alexander Kennedy shifted from the industry to become a professor at University College in London within the engineering field. Within his 15 years as a professor, he achieved several actions influencing the education of engineering. He advocated a stronger foundation of mathematics, chemistry, and other sciences in addition to the core of engineering principles. Furthermore, he advocated for more practical application of theoretical knowledge prior to graduation and conducted his own laboratory while in the college, developing important work on the strength and elasticity of materials. This laboratory influenced other engineering laboratories to be developed in light of Kennedy’s achievements. Engineering teaching methods were also influenced by Reuleaux’s “Kinematics of Machinery” which Professor Kennedy translated to English and later published his own book “Mechanics of Machinery” which influenced English learning of the subject. Instantaneous Centers owe part of their foundation to Kennedy’s law of three centers which was developed in his academic career. Kennedy discontinued his work as a professor in 1889 and transitioned to consulting as an electrical engineer, settling with Westminster Electric Supply Corporation for the remainder of his professional career. One of his last accomplishments began in 1922 where he was granted the opportunity to travel to the country now known as Jordan to see the ruins of Petra. He enjoyed it so much he visited twice more, photographed the area, and published “Petra: its History and Monuments”. [1] Gibb, A. (1938). "Sir Alexander Blackie William Kennedy. 1847-1928". Obituary Notices of Fellows of the Royal Society. 2 (6): 212–223. doi:10.1098/rsbm.1938.0001. [2] https://prabook.com/web/alexander.kennedy/3757125 [3] https://archives.imeche.org/archive/institution-history/president-gallery/593863-1894-1895- sir-alexander-blackie-william-kennedy