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as the Inchoate: The Early Chinese Aesthetic of Spontaneity

Brian Bruya

Can we conceive of disorder in a positive sense? We organize our desks, we clean up our houses, we cultivate good habits, we dis- cipline our children, we govern our polities - all with the aim of reducing disorder, of temporarily reversing the entropy that inevitably asserts itself in our lives. Going all the way back to Hesiod, we see chaos as a cosmogonic state of utter confusion inevitably reigned in by laws of regularity, in a transition from fearful unpredictability to calm stability. Even in modern Chaos Theory, what appears to be random is ultimately reducible to algorithmic constancy. There does not seem to be a place in nor- mal Western, or Westernized, life for chaos. Likewise in early , disorder () was the antithesis of everything civilized.' States without rulers and minds without cohesion were luan. Familial relationships were defined, honored, and codified in the rites, and extended metaphorically to the loyal bonds of the state. But against this overt imposition of order, a Rousseauian-type counter-current arose in the background. Though not exclusively Daoist, this revolutionary way of think- ing was best articulated by two philosophers we now know as the progenitors of Daoism, and . In the very first chapter of the Mawangdui Daodejing,2 we find the entire system of imposed order turned on its head:

When dao is lost, there comes . When de is lost, there comes yen. When yen is lost, there comes ; when yi is lost, there come the rites.' The rites exemplify the wearing thin of conscien- tiousness and trustworthiness and are the commencement of chaotic disorder. (luan)4

Human imposition, according to Daoists, leads to the creation of chaotic disorder rather than its rectification. In contrast, the Daoists posit a type of chaos that is replete with creative poten- tiality and through spontaneous action yields orderly processes that proceed from the concretion of things to their dissolution

115 Chaos as the Inchoate: The Early Chinese Aesthetic of Spontaneity

and back, in a complex web of relations. It is as if the early I reproduce Legge's _ Daoists had an inkling of not only the second law of the ther- entirety: modynamics that has all things tending to disorder and rest but also of our recent theories of emergent order, or self-organiza- Daodejing, 20 tion. For Daoists, is a matter of diverse processes, not nec- essarily tending toward disorder but each in a unique place on a When we renounce iea - ~. continuum running between concretion and dissolution and The (ready)'yes', back again in a different form. This processional activity, and (flattering) 'yea': although taken in one sense as cosmogonic akin to Hesiod's, in - Small is the diff a more important sense, is immanent at every moment of activ- But mark their issues, ity. Our task as humans is to find the place on the continuum in good and ill; all of our activities and work within the bounds of circumstance - What space the ~ by responding creatively with appropriate means, emulating the What all men fear i spontaneity of nature. but how wide ami ~~ The English word «spontaneity» is by no means completely is the range of quescs transparent in meaning, but I will save a treatment of its ambigu- The multitude of mea ity for after an analysis of chaos as the inchoate in early Chinese as if enjoying a full b:c:x:::=.. thought. First we will come to understand how early Daoists as if mounted on a understood spontaneity as a potent creativity inchoate in undif- I alone seem listless ferentiated form. After this survey, we will move on to the para- my desires having as _ dox of spontaneity in Western thought and then to an analysis of their presence. spontaneous action in aesthetic order. I am like an infanr I look dejected and ro-~ as if I had no home The multitude of rneri ""- I alone seem to hzve :i Chaos of the Inchoate: The Semantic Field My mind is that 0;: 2.~.>l I am in a state of . The predominant contemporary meaning of «chaos» as disor- der, as in «with the collapse of the economy, the country fell into Ordinary men 100'• chaos» derives from an earlier meaning of a primal disorder of while I alone seem. constructive matter that awaits ordering. This sense is hardly in They look full of ~ use anymore, but we are fortunate to have translations of the while I alone am drL. by the hand of a sinologist who lived in a time I seem to be carried drifting as if I had ~ when Greek was still a language of the literate and who therefore All men have their understood «chaos» in a way relevant to this study." While I alone seem - th In the middle to late 19 century, the Scottish missionary James like a rude borderer.. Legge undertook the monumental and pioneering endeavor of (Thus) I alone am tE::i:::::=,d translating many of the Chinese classics into English. If we scan but I value the ~ his work for use of the terms «chaos» or «chaotic», we find one use in his translation of the Daodejing ( Teh King) and eight uses in five passages of the Zhuangzi (Kwang-tsze / Chuang Tzu). Analyzing The «state of cha each of these passages will bring us to a better understanding of seems jarring until we ~. «chaos» in a Chinese sense and to a familiarity with related terms inchoate state akin to in its semantic field. ed manifestation. In the -~ Chinese term is dun d.

116 - ~ Spontaneity Brian Bruya

is as if the early I reproduce Legge's rendition of Daodejing, Chapter 20, in its ond law of the ther- entirety: .. order and rest but .er or self-organiza- Daodejing, 20 s: e processes, not nee- a unique place on a When we renounce learning we have no troubles. ~ and dissolution and The (ready) 'yes', -- _-'- cessional activity, and (flattering)'yea'; _ -..i akin to Hesiod's, in -Small is the difference they display. moment of activ- the continuum in But mark their issues, ds of circumstance good and ill; - What space the gulf between shall fill? ean.s, emulating the What all men fear is indeed to be feared; but how wide and without end o means completely is the range of questions (asking to be discussed)! ~ •..cu....•..•.ent of its ambigu- The multitude of men look satisfiedand pleased; ~~"'OC1re in early Chinese as if enjoying a full banquet, ow early Daoists as if mounted on a tower in spring. -',...,..inchoate in undif- I alone seem listless and still, ~ _ move on to the para- my desires having as yet given no indication of - en to an analysis of their presence. I am like an infant which has not yet smiled. I look dejected and forlorn, as if I had no home to go to. The multitude of men all have enough and to spare. I alone seem to have lost everything. My mind is that of a stupid man; I am in a state of chaos.

Ordinary men look bright and intelligent, while I alone seem to be benighted. They look full of discrimination, while I alone am dull and confused. I seem to be carried about as on the sea, drifting as if I had nowhere to rest. All men have their spheres of action, While I alone seem dull and incapable, like a rude borderer. (Thus) I alone am different from other men, but I value the nursing-mother (the Tao).

The «state of chaos» line at the end of the second stanza seems jarring until we realize that this is a primal chaos, an inchoate state akin to the functioning of dao before differentiat- ed manifestation. In the text from which Legge was working, the Chinese term is dun dun, the fundamental meaning of which is

117 Chaos as the Inchoate: The Early Chinese Aesthetic of Spontaneity

to be stopped up. In a , the notion of flow or and a source of creac+i process is of primary ontological importance, and the halting of articulated in nega . that flow indicates either an infirmity (as in traditional medical of Daoists from the sci-::::::~ theory) or, as I propose here, a nascent state of disorganization Second, the nega . that will eventuate in a recommencement of differentiation and tion but instead n dynamic flow. The translation by Legge of dun dun is fortuitous of what is negated an [others translate it as «blank» (Lau") or «muddled and confused» Hall and Ames isola (Henricks'j] and acute because the entire puzzling passage is one using the negative of Laozi's most succinct descriptions of the psychological state examples they offer of chaos as the inchoate." knowledge, no-actio This passage has long given interpreters pause. Daoism is sup- these terms, they say: posed to provide an ideal for the good life, but Laozi, the icon of all Daoism, presents himself in depressingly negative terms, the unprincipled kn have this in co only positive note being the final line about obtaining nourish- enrich the wo ment from the mother. But this is to misread the passage.We can neously on its own boil the passage down to only the self-referential statements and themselves fuIh- - strip them of their relative negativity: Although Hall anc , I seem still, exclusively in terms my desires having as yet given no indication of without the use of II their presence. I am like an infant which has not yet smiled. uncontrived engagement as if I had no home to go to. ternegation, that n ~ . I [possessnothing]. kind of strident connozzzi My mind is [blank]; world in which experii I am .in a state of chaos. form and therefore m~ interaction. I have no special knowledge. I am [plain]. I [have no permanent home]. Zhuangzi,7 I [have no profitable skill], I value the nursing-mother (the Tao). In Legge's translari «chaotic») occurs eight From this perspective, we find a person who has managed to classicus for the famous reduce his desires to the most minimal level, resembling the utter simplicity of an infant. Having no sense of possession of anything material or conceptual, his mind is untroubled by desire, ambition, or habitual patterns of cognition and is there- fore in a state of nascent creativity, ready to respond sponta- neously to any circumstance. There are two important considerations to note in regard to this passage as it relates to chaos as the inchoate. First, the nega- tivity here is portrayed as dark, in contrast to the brightness of other people. This dark/bright contrast is one of the distinguish- ing characteristics separating and Daoism, even Unlike «dundu though we can find important references to the inchoate in early rendering of «hundu Confucianism as well." The inchoate as an ideal of spontaneity follow him, and Fe

118 Brian Bruya

e notion of flow or and a source of creativity is not unique to Daoism, only that it is t::~o.::J.cean. d the halting of articulated in negative terms that set off the non-purposive action traditional medical of Daoists from the striving ambition of the Confucians. e of disorganization Second, the negativity of Daoism does not involve total nega- - 0 differentiation and tion but instead negates only the contrivance and purposiveness .: dun dun is fortuitous of what is negated and so is in this sense a positive reformulation. ddled and confused» Hall and Ames isolate this trope in Daoism, when specifically puzzling passage is one using the negative «», and identify it as the wu-form.lO The e psychological state examples they offer are wu , wu , and wu yu, literally, no- knowledge, no-action, and no-desire, respectively. Interpreting ause. Daoism is sup- these terms, they say: ut Laozi, the icon of unprincipled knowing, nonassertive action, and objectless desire ~..,'7f .• negative terms, the have this in common: To the extent they are successful, they obtaining nourish- enrich the world by allowing the process to unfold sponta- p::ead the passage.We can neously on its own terms, while at the same time, contributing f---prf-TPntialstatements and themselves fully to it. (p. 57)

Although Hall and Ames refer to this unique use of negativity exclusively in terms of the wu-form, I find that it also occurs without the use of wu and still holds its particular connotation of uncontrived engagement. Henceforth, I will refer to it as coun- ternegation, that negativity that strips its positive opposite of any kind of strident connotations, yielding an engagement with the world in which experience is pared down to its most inchoate form and therefore maximizes the possibility of spontaneous interaction.

Zhuangzi,7

In Legge's translation of the Zhuangzi, the term «chaos» (or «chaotic») occurs eight times in five passages. The first is the locus . 0 has managed to classicusfor the famous of Chaos (): :en!L resembling the s :ISe of possession of The Ruler of the Southern Ocean was Shu, the Ruler of the Northern Ocean was Hu,and the Ruler of the Centre was Chaos. is untroubled by Shu and Hu were continually meeting in the land of Chaos, who .tion and is there- treated them very well. o respond sponta- They consulted together how they might repay his , and said,'Men allhave seven orificesfor the purpose of seeing,hearing, :IS 0 note in regard to eating, and breathing, while this (poor) Ruler alone has not one. ~ . oate. First, the nega- Let us try and make them for him'.Accordingly they dug one ori- F:2SI: to the brightness of fice in him every day; and at the end of seven days Chaos died. e of the distinguish- p~£:Il and Daoism, even Unlike «dundun» in the Daodejing, Legge is not alone in his - e inchoate in early rendering of «hundun» as «Chaos». Watson" and Palmer" both ideal of spontaneity follow him, and & English" use «Primal Chaos». Most oth-

119 Chaos as the Inchoate: The Early Chinese Aesthetic oj Spontaneity

ers echo the primal inchoateness: «Primitivity» (Fung Yu-lan"), «No-Form» (Merton"), and «Primal Darb (Hinton");" It is often suggested that «hundun» is a reduplicative term, such as the English «hodgepodge»,«rolypoly», or «Humpty-Dumpty». The «dun» of both «dundun» and «hundun» is the same and provides the basic meaning. «Hun» means whole or turbid, and together «hundun» means undifferentiated or obstructed. With the notion of undifferentiation, we can see how Legge can justify the use of «Chaos», and as I propose above, in a qi cosmology, an obstruc- tion indicates a nascent state of disorganization that will eventu- ate in a recommencement of differentiation and dynamic flow. Chaos in this story is the inchoate state of nascent creativity that is inevitably destroyed by good-intentioned meddling. The fact that Chaos has no sense organs is again an indication of the undesirability of excessive differentiation, another hint at the dark/bright metaphor separating Daoism and Confucianism. The do-gooders want Chaos to share in their sensate world, but Chaos, who is doing just fine in his own inchoateness, perishes at the sight. Of course, in this metaphor it is not a creature that dies but replete potentiality that passes away once determinative choices have been made. The story of Chaos/Hundun in Zhuangzi appears to be a metaphorical case of Daoist counternegation. As portrayed in other early sources, Chaos/Hundun is a rather hideous looking creature and viewed as vile or barbarous," The term hun also has a history of association with barbaric tribes." In Zhuangzi's hands, however, this featureless beast is potent for what it lacks. Using the negative as positive, Zhuangzi employes that strange and fearsome /creature as a symbol for nascent creativity, showing that the repleteness of dark inchoateness will function until we force our orderly constructions upon it. Throughout the Daodejing, we find the theme of the creative potential of the formless and the potent nature of darkness, in what are, again, instances of rhetorical counternegation. Chapter 4, for instance, reads:

The way is empty, yet when used there is something that does not make it full. Deep, it is like the ancestor of the myriad creatures. Blunt the sharpness; Untangle the knots; Soften the glare; Follow along old wheel tracks. Darkly visible,it only seems as if it were there." There is a conste. repeatedly in the DJ...~

120 Brian Bruya

I4 r.-"T~"t"'.-,~ (Fung Yu-Ian ), The suggestion is that there is an indistinct dynamo of cre- I6 (Hinton ).17 It is ativity that can be harnessed but not coerced. The way to do so e term, such as the is by removing complications rather than adding them, by flow- pry-Dumpty». The ing with natural movement rather than trying overtly. «Old e same and provides wheel tracks» can be interpreted as a reference to cultivated ~ rurbid, and together habit, which once cultivated guides one's actions along appro- _ ~ red. With the notion priate paths.Yet vagueness is to be valued, all this creative poten- ;:._ can justify the use of tial remains dark and inchoate, exploitable, but just out of sight. osmology, an obstruc- Chapters 56 and 52 reiterate this sentiment: ~:rizari'on that will eventu- - -=0 and dynamic flow. Block the openings, .:nascent creativity that Shut the doors,

~~1~<::U meddling. The fact At the heart of creative spontaneity, interaction with one's an indication of the environment is primary, but it requires an intuitive attunement another hint at the to the process rather than prior calculation. Perhaps the Asian and Confucianism. martial arts are the best example of this kind of spontaneity that err sensate world, but is energetic and immediate, accurate and appropriate, yielding - choateness, perishes and unforced. Chapter 56 calls the process the «dark identity» _ :- is not a creature that ixuan tong), a sure echo of Chapter 15's xuan tong21 (mysterious- once determinative ly comprehending), where we find a more descriptive account of the inchoate life:

Of old he [the sage] was well versed in the way Was minutely (wel) subtle (miao), mysteriously (xuan) compre- hending, and too profound to be known. It is because he couId not be known That he can only be given a makeshift description: Tentative, as if wading through water in winter, Hesitant, as if in fear of his neighbors; Formal like a guest; Falling apart like thawing ice; Thick like the uncarved block; Murky like muddy (hun) water, Immense like a valley,[...]

Not exactly the description of a confident, graceful martial artist, this negativity now reveals itself as counternegation, akin to Chapter 20 noted above, as the passage continues:

The muddy, being stilled,slowly becomes limpid, The settled, being stirred, slowly comes to life. He who treasures this way Desires not to be full. It is because he desires not to be full That he is able to be worn and incomplete.

There is a constellation of terms here and above that appear repeatedly in the Daodejing and that adumbrate the notion of the

121 Chaos as the Inchoate: The Early Chinese Aesthetic of Spontaneity

inchoate: xuan (dark, mysterious), miao (subtle/profound), wei (minute/Inchoate), (small/minute), (uncarved block), wu (nothingness), kong (emptiness). Although these terms are con- centrated in Daoist texts, some appear elsewhere also in the sense of inchoate creativity. In Sunzi's Art cifWar, as pointed out by Francois jullien," the notion of shi (propensity of things) is all brought into relief through some of these terms and shown to If rhey ~ be vital to a full description of spontaneous action. As men- be {consci tioned above, in the Zhang Yang, the term wei (minute/Inchoate) They do figures prominently, and Hall and Ames in their recent trans la- and rhus 1:;: ~ tion," boldly translate cheng (conventionally rendered «sinceri- ty») as «creativity». A salient difference, however, is that the Here we Zhang Yang, like other Confucian texts, exhorts the reader to causing disorder open the senses to discernment, to seek clarity and bring the Meng advocates dark to light. inchoateness state of inchoarem Zhuangzi, 11 eliminate one's d:iscr,' ,.: :;;" to blend with i:nch(V~ In Zhuangzi, Chapter 11, we find several interesting themes inchoate, such as ~ and terms surrounding Legge's next occurrences of «chaos». One tion to reduce 0:: e'F ,: of the two terms rendered «chaos» is «xingming», a reference to the defining characteri - formlessness and boundlessness of a cosmic inchoate potentiality; unfortunate ca and the second is «hunhun dundun» a reduplication of «hundun» strident emotio above, referring here not to a personage or to a cosmic state but elimination of desires L,_ to a nascent state of being. In the passage, an already highly and allows for a ~ec;r:.; achieved Daoist inquires of an even greater master regarding how as a liberating meldinz to act in order to «blend together the essential qualities of[the] six ly do. The specifi [elemental] influences in order to nourish all living things». The «zisheno», terms re;er~~ master, (Vast Obscurity), replies: tion and generation ~ achievable for the incTri Wandering listlesslyabout, I know not what I seek; carried on self-organization - by a wild impulse, I know not where I am going. neously produce 0 I wander about in the strange manner (which you have seen), and see that nothing proceeds without method and order; - accord in constan what more should I know? [...] webs across scales ~: ~:: What disturbs [luan] the regular method of , comes into intrinsicality. collision with the nature of things, prevents the accomplishment of the mysterious (operation of) Heaven, scatters the herds of Zhuangzi, 12 animals, makes the birds all sing at night, is calamitous to vege- tation, and disastrous to all insects;- all this is owing, I conceive, Legge's next oc to the error of governing men.[ ...] occurs in another des~ You will only injure them! [...] types of person are - Your mind (needs to be) nourished. (/potency/chzrisraa' Do you only take the position of doing nothing [wu wet], and mon). The first, things will of themselves become transformed [zihua]. Neglect your body; cast out from you your power of hearing and Confucian ladder 0: delegation, patient co--=--

122 Brian Bruya

subtle/profound), wei sight; forget what you have in common with things; cultivate a I (uncarved block), wu grand similarity with the chaos of the plastic ether [xingming]; ~!!:2;:h ese terms are con- unloose your mind; set your free; be still as if you had no . elsewhere also in the Of all the multitude of things everyone returns to its root. Every one returns to its root, and does not know (that it is doing so). oIl-Var, as pointed out They all are as in the state of chaos [h~mhun dundunl. and during ropensity of things) is all their they do not leave it. - _ese errns and shown to If they knew (that they were returning to their root), they would eous action.As men- be (consciously) leaving it. uei (minutelinchoate) They do not ask its name; they do not seek to spy out their nature; their recent transla- and thus it is that things come to life of themselves [zisheng]. ~~o!1alh,'rendered «sinceri- however, is that the Here we have an echo of Daodejing 20, in which humans are exhorts the reader to causing disorder (luan) by their very attempts to bring order. - larity and bring the Hong Meng advocates instead a return to a personal state of inchoateness that will in turn allow one to meld into a cosmic state of inchoateness. Just like the legendary Hundun, one must eliminate one's discriminatory sense of hearing and sight in order to blend with inchoate chaos. In the Daodejing, terms of the - several interesting themes inchoate, such as pu and wei occur consistently with the exhorta- cccnrrences of «chaos». One tion to reduce or eliminate desires. For the Daoists, one of the Iu:!:"l",,:zmillg , a reference to the defining characteristics of human beings is that we have the ~;:::I!'ic inchoate potentiality; unfortunate capacity to engender a supervenient self made up of lication of «hundun» strident emotions and, most disastrously, desires. In this sense, -_ or- -. 0 a cosmic state but .., elimination of desires is equivalent to elimination of the ego self - ze, an already highly ( and allows for a return to a natural, spontaneous state, described master regarding how as a liberating melding with the cosmos,just as all things natural- ~~";cL.' qualities of[the] six ly do. The specific terms of spontaneity here are «zihua» and . - au living things». The «zisheng», terms referring to the natural processes of transforma- es: tion and generation that are hidden and mysterious but still achievable for the individual. Similar to contemporary notions of self-organization in which conditions accumulate to sponta- neously produce order, things coalesce and dissolve of their own accord in constantly developing processes that interact in complex webs across scales of causality,with things possessing only transient intrinsicality.

Zhuangzi, 12

Legge's next occurrence of «chaos» (this time «chaotic») , occurs in another description of ultimate achievement. Three types of person are described - men of sheng (sageliness), de (virtue/ potency / charisma), and (spirit/ ! dae- ~:hiuLg [WII well, and mon). The first, which happens to be the highest level on the ~:c:::ei'(ziJUla]. Confucian ladder of achievement, forms a government of fair ?O"= of hearing and delegation, patient consideration, and appropriate and effective

123 Chaos as the Inchoate: The Early Chinese Aesthetic oj Spontaneity

spontaneous action. The second moves beyond the human world to all within the Four Seas. He has transcended conventional dichotomies such as right/wrong and beautiful/ugly, and recall- ing Daodejing 20, he gives the appearance of being timid and hesitant." The third, supernatural, person goes a step further:

Men of the highest spirit-like qualities mount up on the light, and (the limitations of) the body vanish. This we call being bright and ethereal. They carry out to the utmost the powers with which they are endowed, and have not a single attribute unexhausted. Their joy is that of heaven and earth, and all embarrassments of affairsmelt away and disappear; all things return to their proper nature: - and this is what is called (the state of) chaotic obscuri- ty (hunming).

Chaos is the highest human achievement by which one para- doxically becomes inhuman by transcending all human limitations and coalescing with the natural realm in indistinct repletion. Spontaneity prevails in a self that has disappeared. This type of transcorporealliberation appears more than once in the Zhuangzi and indicates a level of achieved inchoate spontaneity on a per- sonallevel to match cosmic inchoate spontaneity on a grand scale. One may notice the references to light and brightness here and wonder ~hy this passage contradicts my earlier statement regard- ing a Daoist preference for the dark. The spontaneity of inchoate- ness can be represented as both bright and dark - bright in the sense of insubstantial evanescence and dark in the sense of myste- rious and subtle. In contrast with Confucian clarity, the darkness refers to a subtlety beyond sensate discrimination aimed at utili- tarian manipulation. When everything has returned to its proper nature, the state is one of hunming, chaotic obscurity. The «hun» of «hunming» is written differently as a Chinese character, but appears cognate with the «hun» of «hundun» both phonetically and semantically. Karlgren" gives them identical pronunciations and glosses them both as «chaos», one in reference to the Daodejing and one to the Zhuangzi. The «ming» of «hunming» is effectively identical to the «ming» of «xingming» above, meaning dark or obscure. Both the «hun» and «ming» of «hunming» harken back to the Daodejing. In Daodejing Chapter 14, «hun» appears with «wei (subtle /minute)», «wuwu (no things)», and «bujian (not see)» to describe the inchoateness of the potent dao.

Eluding sight eluding touch..

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ond the human world With these three qualities[Equable [bujian], Inaudible,Subtle [wet]], cended conventional it cannot be made the subject of description; utifullugly, and recall- and hence we blend them together and obtain The One. ce of being timid and Its upper part is not bright, zoes a step further: and its lower part is not obscure. - up on the light, Ceaseless in its action, it yet cannot be named, and then it again returns and becomes nothing [wuwu]. This is called the Form of the Formless, and the Semblance of the Invisible; this is called the Fleeting [hu] and Indeterminable.

In Chapter 15, quoted above, we find «hun» occurring with «wei»,«miao», and «xuan», in description of the inchoate life. In the r-emt':ll( by which one para- passage, «hun» describes the muddy condition of water. In Chapter ~e:mtg all human limitations 25, it is used as follows: indistinct repletion. - ppeared. This type of There was something undefined [hun]Z6 and complete, coming into existence before Heaven and Earth. - ~ once in the Zhuangzi How still it was and formless, _ontaneity on a per- standing alone, k-...~~~neity on a grand scale. and undergoing no change, _- and brightness here and reaching everywhere and in no danger (of being exhausted)! .er statement regard- It may be regarded as the Mother of ~ ntaneity of inchoate- all things. dark - bright in the the sense of myste- Here it occurs in a passage that goes on to describe the cyclic 1Ps::!C~clarity, the darkness concrescence and dissolution of things due to their own spon- ~:±::::!!Il.ation aimed at utili- taneity (). In all of these cases, «hun» describes an inchoate spontaneity that possesses enormous creative power. But this power is not forceful. It unfolds in successive stages according to I t1 of «hunming» is the cumulative circumstances that are so subtle as to give the

~f"7Fr:-_ U appears cognate appearance of an inner essence that is the source of impulsion. - _ and semantically. We find just such a description in the occurrence of the ming of ~.;:LL~-, OilS and glosses them hunming in Daodejing 21: ejina and one to the ,e:::;:ecrr·"elyidentical to the The grandest forms of active force From Tao come, - or obscure. Both the their only source. , 0 the Daodejing. In wei (subtle/minute)», Who can of Tao the nature tell? see). to describe the Our sight it flies, our touch as well.

Eluding sight, eluding touch,

125 Chaos as the Inchoate: The Early Chinese Aesthetic oj Spontaneity

The forms of things all in it crouch; Eluding touch, eluding sight, There are their semblances, all right.

Profound (hu) it is, dark and obscure [ming]; Things' essences all there endure.

It is not uncommon for the reader unfamiliar with Daoist thought to read the Daodejing and conclude that the dao is an external force controlling the natural transformations. Quite the opposite, Dao is nothing but a name given to the mysterious and spontaneous process of natural self-organization that people at their best may emulate.

Zhuangzi, 16

In Zhuangzi 16, Legge uses «chaotic» for the term «hunmang». «Hun» is the same term asjust above, and «mang» means expansive or muddled. The passage begins as follows:

The men of old, while the chaotic condition was yet undevel- oped [hunmang], shared the placid tranquillity which belonged to the whole world. At that time the were harmonious and still;their resting and movement proceeded without any disturbance; the four seasons had their definite times; not a single thing received any injury, and no living being carne to a premature end. Men might be possessed of (the faculty of) knowledge, but they had no occasion for its use. This was what is called the state of Perfect Unity. At this time, there was no action on the part of anyone, but a constant manifestation of spontaneity [ziran].

What if everyone were to attain the highest possible state of spontaneous creativity? According to this passage, that was the original condition, and rather than all things being cast in the bold relief of profit and loss or good and bad, the world seemed in a still inchoate state of chaos, a «Perfect Unity» in a complete diver- sity. Spontaneity was a way of life. This passage is sandwiched between two passages that describe the descent of the world into the current state of striving and contrivance, a world that requires the Confucian . In both cases, the result, as in Daodejing 1, is luan, the rank chaos of disorder. The contrast is delightful - chaos in both realms, but while one devolves to entropic disor- ~

126 _I Spontaneity Brian Bruya

ganization, the other proceeds harmoniously from rest to move- ment and back, the creative power inexhaustible.

Zhuangzi, 18

Legge's final use of «chaos» in translating Zhuangzi is in Chapter 18, the famous story of Zhuangzi celebrating after his wife's . Asked to explain, Zhuangzi replies that after an ini- tial pause, he realized that his wife's passing was just another stage unfamiliar with Daoist in the natural processes, which are worth celebrating. We have in ruac.noe that the dao is an this passage a clear indication of chaos' utility on the individual :::2~-:ormations. Quite the rather than the cosmic level: o the mysterious and =:::;mil' tarion that people at I reflected on the commencement of her being. She had not yet been born to life;not only had she no life, but she had no bodily form; not only had she no bodily form, but she had no breath [ql]. During the intermingling of the waste and dark chaos [manghu 1, there ensued a change, and there was breath [ql]; another change, me term «hunmang». and there was the bodily form; another change, and there came Ilg» means expansive birth and life.

While Chapter 16 may appear confusing in that we seem to have gone back to a time of primal chaos but where human life is already in full form, here we see clearly a Daoist chaos that refers to an eternal (that is, timeless) immanence of creative potentiality. The moment of the concrescence of qi is not a return to grand cosmic primality but a momentary example of the process of self-organization that occurs repeatedly. I believe the word «breath» above would be better left untranslated as «qi», It is hard to see, after all, how breath could precede corporeal form unless it were a Greek-like pneuma, which it clearly is not. What precedes bodily form is the inchoate qi, which coalesces as the body, only to someday dis- perse again. This is the process that Zhuangzi celebrates. The Chinese term for «chaos» here is «manohu», The «mang», we saw just above. «Hu» is a loan for one of two similarly written char- acters also pronounced hu, both of which belong to the large set of terms meaning muddled or mixed up. We saw these two used above in Daodejing 14 as the «fleeting» and 21 as the «profound». The semantic range for all of these «chaos» terms (dun, hun, hun, ming, mang, and hu) is like the meanings of the terms them- selves, immense, obscure, and with fuzzy boundaries. What we have found from our survey of Legge's translating them as «chaos», however, is that they can all possess the sense of a pow- erful creative spontaneity, like that of nature, that can be exploit-

127 Chaos as the Inchoate: The Early Chinese Aesthetic oj Spontaneity

ed by a human being, not through overt means but through a reduction of the self to a fundamentally natural level.

The Aesthetic of Spontaneity

Spontaneity problematizes any notion of agency and therefore all of our philosophy based on agency. Without an agent as a basis for conceptualizing a philosophical theory, it is difficult for a Western philosopher even to begin to approach issues that spon- taneity might raise. Our only options are autonomy or auto- maticity, human or robot. Spontaneity in the Daoist sense, how- ever, is choiceless and therefore, although implying a philosophy of action, appears to fall more under our aesthetic categories than our metaphysical or ethical categories. Around the turn of the 20th Century, a few philosophers, such as Whitehead, Heidegger, and Dewey, began to question these dichotomies that limit our con- ceptual options. Heidegger and Dewey were both led ultimately to , and it was Dewey who posited an intriguingly anthropological account of human experience as fundamentally aesthetic. But before we get to Dewey, we must first confront Rousseau's Paradox.

The Paradox of Spontaneity

For Daoists, spontaneity is the font of all creativity, but we have in the English term «spontaneity» a historically ambiguous notion. To say the «spontaneity of nature» may recall the writings of Mill, particularly his «On Nature»," in which he defines the «spontaneous order of nature» as «depend[ing] on the properties of the elementary forces, or of the elementary substances and their compounds». For Mill, «spontaneity» refers to the mechanistic movements of all things in nature, including human instinct, and is posited in direct contradistinction to the «voluntary action» of human beings. Mill identifies Rousseau as the founder of the line of thought that would have people following nature rather than reason, and yet when Rousseau refers to spontaneous movement (mouvement spontanC),28 he identifies it with voluntary action. We have, then, two philosophers dealing with the same philosophical issue who take spontaneity on the one hand to be synonymous with free will and on the other to be its opposite, to be mecha- nistic and descriptive of the laws of nature. This paradox of spontaneity still persists in ordinary language. To act spontaneously is to act without forethought or aim.And yet

128 Brian Bruva

we also say such things as the «the planets move spontaneously» or «the grass grows spontaneously», meaning that the processes occur in the natural course of things, without an extra impelling force. The source of the ambiguity seems natural in light of the Latin root of «spontaneity», «sponte», meaning without antecedent cause. In the case of human action, «no cause» reduces to free will, and in the case of nature, it reduces to law-like regularity. But what if we 0-- ency and therefore encounter a philosophical tradition with neither a conception of _ out an agent as a basis free will nor a clockwork view of the universe? How would a .~,~_.,-. it is difficult for a notion of spontaneity be elaborated? We get a hint in a Rousseau '~"""'v>ch issues that spon- constantly conflicted between human beings as close to the divine autonomy or auto- and therefore superior to animals and human beings as inseparable e Daoist sense, how- from the natural order. For Rousseau, the highest expression of ,ing a philosophy spontaneity is found in God's intelligence: . e .c categories than e turn of the 20th Man is intelligent when he reasons,but the Supreme intelligence --..-:= ead, Heidegger, and does not need to reason; there is neither premise nor conclusion ~- es that limit our con- for him there is not even a proposition. The Supreme Intelligence is wholly intuitive, it sees what is and what shall be, _ +ere both led ultimately all truths are one for it, as all places are but one point and all time .red an intriguingly but one moment. Man's power makes use of means, the divine e as fundamentally power is self-active." must first confront The sharp ambiguity at the heart of spontaneity, I call Rousseau's Paradox because he is the one who struggles with it most and ultimately resolves it (to his satisfaction), in the form of God's intelligence. «Self-active» is very nearly equivalent to the creativity, but we have Chinese term that I have been translating «spontaneity», namely hisro -cally ambiguous «ziran», composed of the characters «zi (self)»and «ran (so/such)». . recall the writings All natural processes are described by Daoists as ziran or self-so, -ch he defines the taking place of their own accord, spontaneous, self-active. on the properties Rousseau solves the paradox of spontaneity through self-activity, j:::;:o::::::;;:::-r substances and their dissolving the dichotomies of free will vs. determinism and reason o the mechanistic vs. , while the Daoists come to it without stumbling uman instinct, and through any such dichotomies. ~-volnntary action» of Is it helpful to posit an without the reason vs. zne ounder of the line intuition dichotomy or a without a free will vs. ~r',.....,'-;".nnature rather than determinism dichotomy? Aren't these, after all, clarifications that socnraneous movement mark philosophical progress? Rousseau notes that for the ~ voluntary action. We Supreme Intelligence, «all places are but one point and all time but _-_ - e same philosophical one moment»; in other words, a collapse of distinctions can yield o be synonymous positive results. As with Rousseau, for Daoists spontaneity is osite, to be mecha- inseparably bound up with the indistinct, with the inchoate. Nowhere is this inchoate creativity more apparent than in the complex field of immediate experience. For an analysis, we turn to John Dewey and Zhuangzi.

129 Chaos as the Inchoate: The Early Chinese Aesthetic oj Spontaneity

Spontaneity and Aesthetic Experience that experience is emoc as an integrated movere Dewey's notion of aesthetic experience is paradigmatic of his person into unity ~:h ~ notion of experience in general. Dewey speaks of experience in While emotion mi.t: terms of particularized experience, of interaction of a live being according to Dewey. ci:::e- with its environment, of a beginning and an ending, of organized a kind of inner harmoro .. ~_I processes, or conflict and resolution, of culmination and fulfill- subsided, when confli ment. An experience, he says, is an intensified interaction of the ment gives way to a fee person with the environment. Life involves a fluctuating adaptation order. It is a feeling of rl,,,, to the environment, now in step with it, now falling behind. In an happiness or delight. D experience there is a spontaneous organization of perception and es the depth of our being- intention that involve reworking the material of the environment being with the conditio-- until a particular goal is achieved and equilibrium is restored. I that this feeling of inner don't believe Dewey ever explicitly uses the term «spontaneous» to experience for Dewey, describe the process of action, but it seems implicit in his descrip- driven forward by forces. tions in works such as Art as Experience." from which I will be This .is the. spont:ar:ei~: drawing below. In other books and essays, Dewey dispenses with experience rs coczro free will altogether in favor of habit, for instance: - 0: me :e1--=•.•..•.•. marion 0: . ... all habits are affections, that all have projectile power, and that should note [ ... J a predisposition formed by a number of specific acts is an between the ~~- immensely more intimate and fundamental part of ourselves than are vague, general, conscious choices. All habits are demands from experience for certain kinds of activity; and they constitute the self. In any with world a- .: intelligible sense of the word will, they are will." ing of vitaliry; of well-being . The conscious reworking of the material of the environment aesthetics, Dewev is, for Dewey, the germ of artistic experience. Dewey notes that in heightened vi English terminology we divide our experience into artistic and imbue aesthe . aesthetic but that conceptually they are a unity. The artist reworks enjoyment afierwzrc the materials of the environment in a meaningful way based on Zhuangzi also interpretations and feelings that guide him from all past involve- interaction. one t; ments. The perceiver, likewise, recreates the work of art in the act ly, one that finds ~ of perceiving, interpreting it based on the psychological contri- ronment, and one dJ2t reo butions of total personal history and predilections. The artist must ence. For Zhuangzi il~ take the position of aesthetic perceiver in the process of creating being paramount ?~~ an art work, and the perceiver is an artist in the re-creation of the most important. meaning of the work. An experience is the re-creation of unity, For Zhuangzi the restoration of balance, and when it is moved by its own urge being is a temporary to fulfillment, when it is expressed only as experience, without and in constant ~ being dominantly practical or intellectual, it is aesthetic. that is, the entire en: . o.;:::::::j Dewey tells us that emotion, which for him is emotional are understood in D thinking, is what brings unity to an experience, what orders it, ing that events elicir ~ what brings the things of into consciousness and fil- ence between this ~ ters out the rest, what integrates things of consciousness into a that arousal-and-resoocse whole. It is not that there are separate emotions in experience but law-like on the ~ce..

130 Brian Bruya

that experience is emotional. All experience, according to Dewey, as an integrated movement toward a culmination, can bring the paradigmatic of his person into unity with the environment. _ ~ of experience in While emotion drives experience during an experience, :=L:e!:ltCtl-,on of a live being according to Dewey, the fmal culmination of experience results in ending, of organized a kind of inner harmony, or serenity, a moment when tension has = culmination and fulfill- subsided, when conflict has been resolved, and intense involve- -":":::'00 interaction of the ment gives way to a feeling of being at one with the developed ctuating adaptation order. It is a feeling of the restoration of unity, a feeling we call falling behind. In an happiness or delight. Dewey says that it is «a fulfillment that reach- ~~il- on of perception and es the depth of our being - one that is an adjustment of our whole P;;;~:J.a1of the environment being with the conditions of existence»." It is interesting to note ecnilibrium is restored. I that this feeling of inner harmony is not the final cause of an term «spontaneous» to experience for Dewey. Each experience has an inherent telos, is licit in his descrip- driven forward by forces, energies, desire, and needs peculiar to it. Zorn which I will be This is the spontaneity; experiences are self-active. Aesthetic Dewey dispenses with experience is controlled by a heightened sensitivity to the order- ce: ing of the relations of qualities, and it is the bringing to consum- mation of the ordering that is the end in view of experience. We should note the difference, in Dewey's philosophy of experience, between the supervenient feeling of inner harmony that ensues from experience and the intense feeling of interpenetration of self with world at the height of experience. The former is a slacken- ing of vitality, an emotion felt deeply but not intensely, a feeling of well-being in restored order but not of immediate union. In his r~~==;:::0_ the environment aesthetics, Dewey emphasizes the tension, the interaction, and the ~~ce.. Dewey notes that in heightened vitality that give rise to artistic expression and that .,...... "..~F'T"1rntoei artistic and imbue aesthetic experience. The pause for reflection and quiet - .The artist reworks enjoyment afterward is significant but not primary. ::::::!::2!I~;tul way based on Zhuangzi also has a philosophy of creature/environment _- _ :::om all past involve- interaction, one that lends itself to being interpreted aesthetical- ~ work of art in the act ly, one that finds importance in personal union with the envi- . chological contri- ronment, and one that recognizes emotion as crucial to experi-

~'~iO~cC.~U.-, ons. The artist must ence. For Zhuangzi, however, rather than a heightened vitality =-.. he process of creating being paramount philosophically, it is inner harmony that is -- e re-creation of the most important. e re-creation of unity, For Zhuangzi, as for all early Chinese thinkers, the human - moved by its own urge being is a temporary concrescence of qi, functionally organized experience, without and in constant mutual interaction with all other qi concrescences, ~ - aesthetic. that is, the entire environment. The processes of this interaction z;:: ~ him is emotional are understood in terms of «arousal and response» (), mean- ience, what orders it, ing that events elicit responses in a quasi-causal way.The differ- onsciousness and fil- ence between this arousal-and-response and efficient causality is - 0= onsciousness into a that arousal-and-response allows for much more free play. It is less rio in experience but law-like on the surface, similar to the way in which contemporary

131 Chaos as the Inchoate: The Early Chinese Aesthetic oj Spontaneity

complexity theory speaks of the disjointedness of causality across The union 0: ~....-, scales and leaves room for self-organization. The episode in Zhuangzi. bv :nOlO' -:: Zhuangzi, Chapter 2, of the piping of nature is an excellent illus- the stream of namzal ~--?'III tration of this arousal-and-response. In a meditative description, the wind is said to create a variety of sounds in the hollows of the natural world. The way it accomplishes this is not by successively blowing through each hole but by eliciting sound from them all at once. A phrase that occurs, for instance, is «causing each to [sound] from itself» (shi qi ziji). For Zhuangzi, in the natural state all things are in accord with each other as the natural processes proceed in successive trans- formations. There is no human being in an individualistic sense, as a separate voluntaristic entity with maximum decision power and minimum influence from external forces. As in Dewey, the person is an entity in process, constantly shaping and being shaped by the environment. For Zhuangzi, however, intentional, calculative interaction with the environment, marks a straying from the ideally natural ways of acting. There is a subtle but sig- nificant difference between Dewey and Zhuangzi on this point and it speaks to their overall axiologies. Although Dewey writes as if in purely descriptive terms of experience, his terminology (heightened vitality»,«fulfillment», «recovering unison», etc.), reveal a tipping of the scales toward a valuing of the emotions of active participation as opposed to the more distant emotions of inner harmony. The height of experience for Dewey, which would also be the height of the emotion ordering experience, is a complete interpenetration of self and the world of objects and events. Although Zhuangzi stresses a similar interpenetration, the emotions are muted, there is a psychological distance. For Dewey, emotion is the sign of a break. For Zhuangzi, the break is a lessening of emotion. Zhuangzi stresses not only a notion of interaction among things but of dependence relations among things. The dependence relations are noted in terms such as «dai» and «yi», which both connote a sense of dependence or reliance in regard to the abili- The aesthetic of s:l();f::;r-'ll ty to act. In the human realm, dependence relations are positive or that arises out of COn:E!e.:: negative depending on whether the particular relation is natural is conceptualized . - or contrived. In Chapter 1, for instance, is elevated as a free mal disorder that is spirit who can roam where he will, but his clay feet are revealed desirable and thro in the fact that there is still something on which he is reliant" (you with two Western suo dai zhe), namely, the wind. In contrast, Chapter 2 speaks of Dewey, we have seer: . Cook , who carves up an with such consummate skill that Chinese and Wesre::;:. his actions are taken by a viewer as the secret of nurturing life. When asked about his secret, the cook replies that he merely relies on the patternings of nature (yi hu It).

132 :: Spontaneity Brian Bruya

=--...... ess of causality across The union of person and environment IS achieved, in = - zion. The episode in Zhuangzi, by moving away from contrivances and re-entering ::-- rre is an excellent illus- the stream of natural processes, attaining a natural spontaneity. A editative description, concomitant movement is one away from common emotions of SO!:nC-lS- in the hollows of the joy, anger, grief, etc., to a distant equanimity, a sort of ataraxia. - ;-; not by successively From one perspective, the height of (aesthetic) experience can be ~-=-...... ;::,~sOUfldfrom them all seen in both Dewey and Zhuangzi as the resolution of the self pso.ncoe. is «causing each to with the environment, of merging with the chaos of the inchoate and taking advantage of potent and creative spontaneity therein. There is a significant difference, however, in the extent of emo- tional investment as postulated by Dewey on the one hand and Zhuangzi on the other. For Dewey, complete investment of the self is complete emotional investment, emotion being integral, and integrating, to the experience. For Zhuangzi, however, pow- erful, disturbing emotions are the result of contrived dependen- cies arising from unnecessary personal and psychic investments in activity. Whereas Dewey turns to society, we see, in the ideal characters depicted in Zhuangzi's Inner Chapters, sages and wor- thies who move beyond the dusty world. The contrived dependencies are described in Zhuangzi as shackles (zhigao),34 and those who can free themselves of the shackles also free themselves of the disturbances of emotions. See for instance, Chapter 3, where by «loosing the bonds», sadness and joy cannot find a way in. Similar language is used in Section Five of Chapter 6, and in Chapters 5 and 7 the mirror metaphor illustrates the same ideal of emotions existing on the surface but not entering deeply enough to disturb equanimity. Throughout the Inner Chapters, there are statements of equanimity as an ideal in which the self is dissolved and with it the transient emotions. The emotion that remains is a kind of equanimity, a calm delight in the constant processes of nature. This equanimity does not pre- clude interaction, but practically speaking, it does reduce it, since so much human interaction is contrived.

The aesthetic of spontaneity relies on a notion of experience that arises out of complex interaction with our environment that is conceptualized by Daoists as the chaos of the inchoate, a pri- mal disorder that is the seat of potent creativity. Disorder can be desirable and through the Daoists Laozi and Zhuangzi, along with two Western Daoists, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and John Dewey, we have seen how this can be explained in terms both Chinese and Western.

133 Chaos as the Inchoate: The Early Chinese Aesthetic oj Spontaneity

Notes

1. There is an exception in which «luan» paradoxically means order, but this is rare. 2. In 1973, two complete versions of the Daodejing were found in a tomb dating to the Second Century BCE in Mawangdui,China, predating our earliest received version by some nine centuries. The internal chapter order of these two excavated versions differs slightly from the received versions, with the received Chapter 38 appearing first. 3. The central vocabulary of Chinese moral philosophy, dao (tao), de (te), (jen), and yi (I) are technical terms that defy translation. Provisionally, they may be rendered «way», «virtue», «benevolence», and «appropriateness», respectively, but in English these hollow forms do not do justice to the subtle and profound philosophical backgrounds of the Chinese concepts. To retain a sense of their unparalleled significance, I leave them transliterated, with the confidence that the sincere reader would prefer to investigate their full semantic range in works such as Hall and Ames' Thinking Through , Albany, NY: State University of New York Press 1987 or A.C. Graham's Disputers of the Tao, La Salle, Ill: Open Court 1991 rather than be mislead by anemic approximations. 4. My translation. All other translations will be from Legge, unless otherwise noted. The version used is an electronic version of Legge, Texts of found at Shuhai l#nyuan (www.shuhai.hawaii.edu). 5. It may appear random or haphazard to approach chaos in China through the serendipity of translations from over a century ago, but I do so as a convenient heuris- tic that allows easy access to the heart of the matter. I will consider closely the Chinese terms rendered «chaos» and other instances of the same terms when not so translated. 6. , Hong Kong: Chinese University Press 1989. 7. Lao-TZH Te Tao Ching: A New Translation Based on the Recently Discovered Ma-iuang-tui Texts, New York: Ballantine 1989. 8. Paul J. Lin, in his translation of Daodejing (A Translation of Lao Tzu's Tao Te Ching and Wang Pi's Commentary, MMCS 30 Ann Arbor, Mich: University of Michigan Center for Chinese Studies 1977, pp. 35-36), following the commentary of China's most influen- tial interpreter Wang Bi, translates dun dun, «How chaotic! Chaoticb He records Wang Bi's commentary on this term: «Undifferentiated or unrecognized, it cannot be named». Chang Chung-yuan (Tao:A New Way of Thinking, New York: Perennial Library 1977, p. 52) notes that c.G.Jung refers to this passage in his Integration of the Personality, «identi- fying the 'lavishing mother' with the region of darkness into which one falls when one follows the process of wu-wei, or not-doing, expounded by Lao Tzu.This region of dark- ness is not empty but is the place where all potentialities are stored». 9. The Zhong Yong, for instance, expounds on wei (minute/inchoate). 10. See Thinkingfrom the Han,Albany, NY: State University of New York Press 1998, pp. 45 ff. 11. The Complete Works of Chuang Tzu, New York: Columbia University Press 1968. 12. The Book of Chuang Tzu, New York: Arkana 1996. 13. Chuang Tzu: Inner Chapters, NewYork:A1fred A. Knopf 1974. 14. Chuang Tzu: A New Selected Translation with an Exposition of the Philosophy of Kuo Hsiang, Beijing: Foreign Languages Press 1991. 15. The Way of Chuang Tzu, New York: New Directions 1969. 16. Chuang Tzu: Inner Chapters, Washington, DC: Counterpoint 1997. 17. In a bit ofwhirnsy, Mair (Wandering on the Way: Early Taoist Tales and Parables of Chuang Tzu, Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press 1994) transliterates «hunduns in the more familiar «Wontom. Hamill & Seaton (The Essential Teachings of Chuang Tzu, Boston: Shambhala 1998) manage to find an English term, «muddle», that straddles the meanings of «dun» as both mixture and mental confusion. Graham (Chuang-Tzu: The Inner Chapters, London: Mandala/Unwin 1989) transliterates, «Hun-tun», 18. Birrell, :An Introduction, Baltirnore:Johns Hopkins University Press 1999,pp.95,98-99.

134 - _r Spontaneity Brian Bruva

19. Girardot, Myth and Meaning in Early Taoism: The Theme oj Chaos (hun-tun), Berkeley: University of California Press 1983, p. 122. = order, but this is rare. 20. Lau, p. 271. d in a tomb dating to the 21. Here following the received version. The Mawangdui version has xuari da, which is r:::::== (J[Ir earliest received version by nearly identical in meaning. rwo excavated versions differs ter 38 appearing first. 22. The Propensity oj Things: Toward a History oj Efficacy in China, New York: Zone Books 1995. UlO). de (te), ren lJen), and yi ~i:::r:::2!h.: rhev may be rendered «way», 23. Focusing the Familiar: A Translation and Philosophical Interpretation oj the Zhongyong, ~:e::;:;:"I1ek:. but in English these hollow Honolulu:University of Hawaii Press 2001. phical backgrounds of the 24. Following Mair (p. 113) here rather than Legge, who renders the difficult Chinese significance, I leave them terrns «griefs and «perplexity», as opposed to Mair's «timidity» and «apprehensiveness». would prefer to investigate 25. Grammata Serica Recensa, Goteborg: Elanders Boktryckeri Actiebolag 1964 . . Thinking Through Confucius. _\..c. Graham's Disputers oj the 26. Henricks translates this as «chaos»(p.236). by anemic approximations. 27. Nature, the Utility oj and (city not cited:Watts & Co. 1904.Internet ,..•_..-~e'- unless otherwise noted. The version, Lancaster, UK: Lancaster University, Dept. of Philosophy, 1996 _-- JlSl7I found at Shuhai Wenyuan http://www.lancs.ac.uk/users/philosophy/texts/milLon.htm). 28. Emile, ou de l'education Paris: publisher not cited 1762. Internet version, New York: Columbia University Teachers College Institute for Learning Technologies, accessed May, 2001 http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/projects/emile/emile.html. Allan Bloom (trans.), Emile or On Education, New York: Basic Books 1979. Barbara FoxIey (trans.), Emile, 1911. Internet version, Lancaster, UK: Lancaster University, Dept. of Philosophy, 1996 http://www.lancs.ac.uk/users/philosophy/texts/miILon.htm. 29. FoxIey, 0p. cit., paragraph 1022. 30. ArtAs Experience, New York: Capricorn/G.P. Putnam's Sons 1934.

p::ri=:1'! _-LAo Tzu's Tao Te Ching and 31. Dewey, «The Place of Habit in Conduct», The Essential Dewey,Voi. I,Bloomington, -~~. of Michigan Center for Indiana: Indiana University Press 1998, pp. 27-28. a:J=::leIIIZ~" of China's most influen- 32. Ibid., p. 17. ••••.~:2"tn·r-~·Chaotic!» He records Wang 33. The contrivance here is not explicit, since the wind, after all, is natural. Liezi brought ~;CE:~=eoJglli·z.ed,it cannot be named». attention to himself by roaming freely, roaming as if to be noticed, rather than roaming .•..~-.- '\,-;""'-Perennial Library 1977, p. as a natural event. Hence the contrivance. Compare the worthies that Confucius prais- 1:"15 ,I&;;~;;xm oj the Personality, «identi- es in Section 6 (section numbering according to Mair, Wandering on the Way) of Chapter which one falls when one 6, who do not «watch for the inquisitive eyes and ears of groups of people» (yi guan •••••.....:"-•.,. Lao Tzu. This region of dark- zhongren zhi er mu). F::%95 zre Stored•. 34. Zhuangzi, Chapter 5, Section 3. oare). E:;::m~iIyof:--!ewYork Press 1998,

F= 'Ccc::::;:;;'Qi'i2 Universiry Press 1968.

p'::I..."".3..J!~•.•-19. - -to 2z::~;wn oj the Philosophy oj Kuo

969. tC:ue=rpomr 1997. - -:W Tales and Parables oj Chuang =:::S!re[atJe5 «hunduru in the more Essocial Teachings oj Chuang Tzu, cmuddle», that straddles the a:JI=5IO::t. Graham (Chuang-Tzu: The 1==!E;J=res. «Hun-tun», Hopkins University Press

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